Lecture 1

POWER SYSTEMS 325
Dr. Kameswara, Musti

Associate Professor,
Namibia University of Science and Technology
August 2022
Expected Student Interaction
Active Class Room Interaction
Attending Regularly
Encouraged to refer to any book, material
Spot, Face 2 Face Questions
Group Working is Encouraged
Assisting others in class room

Class 2
General Introduction Power Systems
Generation – Types
Power Plants
Schematics of Steam and Gas Turbines
Hydroelectric Power Plants
-Conversion from potential energy of
water to electric energy is at 80 – 90%
efficiency
-Hydroelectric projects in the United

States have rated capacities from
950 – 6480 MW
-The use of Water Power is much

greater in some other countries.
Norway obtains 99% of its electricity
from water power. Nepal, Brazil, and
Water generated - Hydroelectric
New Zealand are close seconds. Shasta Dam In California
Power Plants fueled by Fossil Fuels
Oil Refinery
Pasadena - Texas
Standard Large Power Plants Provide 1 Giga-watt of electric power

and releases 2 Giga-watts of thermal power as waste heat. An
efficiency averaging around 30%.
9000 tons of coal a day 40,000 barrels a day or one tanker

a week of oil
-generates about 5.3 x 10^9 kwh/year -powers a city of a million people
-total world production in 1996 of
petroleum is 62,239e3 barrels / day
-an average well in the US produces

only 11 barrels / day
-In Saudi Arabia an average well Oil Drilling Platform

produces 9600 barrels /day Cook Inlet, Alaska
-There are 109 power reactors in the United States
-Produce 22% of nation’s electricity
- In France 79% of electricity comes from nuclear reactors
Nuclear Power station in

Diablo Canyon – California
Construction cost: USD 13B
1985 – 2025 (planned)

1800 GW-h (2017)
2200 MW (2 units x 1100)
900 acres
Nuclear power plant in Diablo Canyon, -
California, USA
Nuclear power plant in Diablo Canyon, -
California, USA
Outline of a Power Plant / some components
Representational Picture of a power plant
Representational Picture of an Atomic
Power Plant
Representational Picture of an Atomic Power
Plant
Schematic Diagram showing Steam Boiler,
Turbine and Generator
Schematic diagram of a Hydro Power Plant
with Turbine and Generator
Why High Voltages are used?
Prove that the use of high voltages can save
energy, with the help of a mathematical derivation.
A load of 100MW at a PF of 0.98 needs to be

supplied over a transmission line that has 9ohm
resistance. Determine the power loss for the
voltage levels 11kV and 220kV.
Electric Power Generaton, Transformation and
Distribution
Resistance losses are low at high voltages and low currents

Components of a General Power System
• Every large-scale power system has three
major components:
generation: source of power, ideally with a specified
voltage and frequency
load or demand: consumes power; ideally with a
constant resistive value
transmission system: transmits power; ideally as a
perfect conductor
Additional components include:
distribution system: local reticulation of power (may be in
place of transmission system in case of microgrid),
control equipment: coordinate supply with load.
Real-life Power Systems
Real-life power systems have several components
with generating stations in different locations;
and loads connected in different places.
All components are connected by transmission

lines – what is known as a Power grid
Electrical Power flows in different directions

based on the system loading.
Thus, Power networks need to be carefully

analyzed using appropriate network analysis
methods
Component modeling
Components in Power networks need to be
properly modeled for the purpose of
analysis
Generator model
Transformer model
Transmission line model
Load model
Generator Models
⚫Engineering models depend on the application.
⚫Generators are usually synchronous machines:
– important exception is case of wind generators,
⚫For generators we will use two different models:
– a steady-state model, treating the generator as a
constant power source operating at a fixed voltage;
this model will be used for power flow and economic
analysis.
21
Load Tap Changing Transformers
⚫LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be
varied to regulate bus voltages.
⚫The typical range of variation is 10% from the
nominal values, usually in 33 discrete steps
(0.0625% per step).
⚫Because tap changing is a mechanical process, LTC
transformers usually have a 30 second deadband
to avoid repeated changes to minimize wear and
tear.
⚫Unbalanced tap positions can cause “circulating
VArs;” that is, reactive power flowing from one
winding to the next in a three phase transformer.
22
Phase Shifting Transformers
⚫Phase shifting transformers are used to
control the phase angle across the
transformer.
⚫Since power flow through the transformer
depends upon phase angle, this allows the
transformer to regulate the power flow
through the transformer.
⚫Phase shifters can be used to prevent
inadvertent "loop flow" and to prevent line
overloads by controlling power flow on lines. 23
Phase Shifting Transformer Picture
Costs about $7 million,
weighs about 1.2
million pounds
230 kV 800 MVA Phase Shifting

Transformer During factory testing
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power 24
Autotransformers
⚫Autotransformers are transformers in which the
primary and secondary windings are coupled
magnetically and electrically.
⚫This results in lower cost, and smaller size and
weight.
⚫The key disadvantage is loss of electrical
isolation between the voltage levels. This can be
an important safety consideration when a is
large
25
Load Models
⚫Ultimate goal is to supply loads with electricity
at constant frequency and voltage.
⚫Electrical characteristics of individual loads
matter, but usually they can only be estimated
– actual loads are constantly changing, consisting of a
large number of individual devices,
– only limited network observability of load
characteristics
⚫Aggregate models are typically used for analysis
⚫Two common models
– constant power: Si = Pi + jQi
– constant impedance: Si = |V|2 / Zi 26
Transmission line Models
• Work on your own
27
Power flow (or load flow) analysis - revisit
⚫The most common power system analysis tool is

the power flow (also known sometimes as the load
flow):
– Solution of Power Flow is the network voltage profile
– From power flow results, one can determine how the
power flows in a network
– also used to determine all bus voltages and all currents,
– because of constant power models, power flow is a
nonlinear analysis technique,
– power flow is a steady-state analysis tool.
28
Energy consumption – simple problem
Ex 1
How much energy is required to keep a
100W bulb switched on for 10 hours?
How much energy is required annually to

use this bulb?
Energy supply side requirements
Ex 2 (with losses)
How much energy needs to be supplied by

a generating station to keep a 100W bulb
switched on for 10 hours?
Consider 10% transmission losses, 1%

transformation losses and 15% distribution
losses.
Energy requirement of a community
Ex 3 (fuel requirements)
It is required to supply electricity to a small

community that has an overall load of 2.5MW.
You are an engineer in a thermal power station that

is located far from this community. Your plant
requires about 400 grams of coal to produce a unit
of electricity.
Consider 10% transmission losses, 1%

transformation losses and 15% distribution losses.
How much coal you need to buy annually to
supply electricity to this community?
Energy requirement of a community
Ex 4 (with fuel costs and impact on
environment)
Cost of the coal is US$ 350 / tonne. If the

community pays N$ 2.15 per unit, then
determine the annual revenue and profit of
your plant.
How much Carbon Dioxide is released into

the atmosphere over the year for providing
electricity to this community?
Power flow (or load flow) analysis - revisit
⚫The most common power system analysis tool

is the power flow (also known sometimes as
the load flow):
– Solution of Power Flow is the network voltage
profile
– From power flow results, one can determine how
the power flows in a network
– also used to determine all bus voltages and all
currents,
– because of constant power models, power flow is a
nonlinear analysis technique,
33
Energy Economics
Electric generating technologies involve a
tradeoff between fixed costs (primarily capital
costs to build them) and operating costs:
Nuclear, wind, and solar high fixed costs, but low
operating costs.
Natural gas has low fixed costs but relatively high

operating costs (dependent upon fuel prices)
Coal in between (although recent low natural gas prices
has meant that some coal plants have higher operating
costs than some natural gas).
Total average costs depend on fixed costs,
operating costs, and capacity factor (ratio of
average power production to capacity).
Approximate operating Costs
Nuclear: $10/MWh
Coal: $40/MWh (some coal considerably lower)
Wind: couple $/MWh (maintenance and operating)
Hydro: few $/MWh (maintenance and operating)
Solar: $0/MWh
Natural Gas: cost in $/MWh is 7 to 20 times fuel cost in

$/MBtu;
for example, with $8/MBtu gas, cost is $56/MWh to

$160/MWh; with $5/Mbtu gas, cost is $35/MWh to
$100/MWh.
Note, to get price in cents/kWh take price in $/MWh and

35divide by 10.
Goals of Power System Operation
Supply load (users) with electricity

at specified voltage (100 ac volts in
case of Japan), at a specified
frequency,
at minimum cost; while meeting all the
essential operating constraints, safety
and other regulatory requirements etc.
Power System Operation and Control is always
a complex process
a complex process
a complex process
a complex process
a complex process
a complex process
Thanks for your attention
End – of – the class

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POWER SYSTEMS 325

Dr. Kameswara, Musti

Encouraged to refer to any book, material

Spot, Face 2 Face Questions

Group Working is Encouraged

Assisting others in class room

-Hydroelectric projects in the United

-The use of Water Power is much

Standard Large Power Plants Provide 1 Giga-watt of electric power

9000 tons of coal a day 40,000 barrels a day or one tanker

-an average well in the US produces

-In Saudi Arabia an average well Oil Drilling Platform

Nuclear Power station in

Construction cost: USD 13B

1985 – 2025 (planned)

A load of 100MW at a PF of 0.98 needs to be

Resistance losses are low at high voltages and low currents

All components are connected by transmission

Electrical Power flows in different directions

Thus, Power networks need to be carefully

Transmission line model

230 kV 800 MVA Phase Shifting

• Work on your own

⚫The most common power system analysis tool is

How much energy is required annually to

How much energy needs to be supplied by

Consider 10% transmission losses, 1%

It is required to supply electricity to a small

You are an engineer in a thermal power station that

Consider 10% transmission losses, 1%

Cost of the coal is US$ 350 / tonne. If the

How much Carbon Dioxide is released into

⚫The most common power system analysis tool

Natural gas has low fixed costs but relatively high

Natural Gas: cost in $/MWh is 7 to 20 times fuel cost in

for example, with $8/MBtu gas, cost is $56/MWh to

Note, to get price in cents/kWh take price in $/MWh and

Supply load (users) with electricity

End – of – the class

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