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    Reproduction Notes

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    mukuyu2008

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    Reproduction Notes

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    Reproduction notes

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    Types of Reproduction

    Asexual Reproduction

     Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilisation


     Only one parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of
    genetic information
     As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each
    other (clones)
     Asexual reproduction is defined as a process resulting in genetically identical
    offspring from one parent

    Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called
    binary fission:

    Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction


    called binary fission
    Plants can reproduce asexually using bulbs and tubers; these are food storage organs from
    which budding can occur, producing new plants which are genetically identical to the parent
    plant:

    Some plants develop underground food storage organs that will develop into next year’s
    plants – they can take different forms, such as bulbs or tubers
    Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them (a good
    example of this are strawberry plants. These will grow roots and develop into separate plants,
    again being genetically identical to the parent plant:

    Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them. These will
    grow roots and develop into separate plants

    Advantages & Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction


     Specifically in crop plants, asexual reproduction can be advantageous as it means
    that a plant that has good characteristics (high yield, disease-resistant, hardy) can be
    made to reproduce asexually and the entire crop will show the same characteristics

    Sexual Reproduction

     Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes
    (sex cells) to form a zygote (fertilised egg cell) and the production of offspring
    that are genetically different from each other
     Fertilisation is defined as the fusion of gamete nuclei, and as each gamete comes
    from a different parent, there is variation in the offspring

    Gametes & Zygotes

     A gamete is a sex cell (in animals: sperm and ovum; in plants pollen nucleus and
    ovum)
     Gametes differ from normal cells as they contain half the number of chromosomes
    found in other body cells – we say they have a haploid nucleus
     This is because they only contain one copy of each chromosome, rather than the two
    copies found in other body cells
     In human beings, a normal body cell contains 46 chromosomes but each gamete
    contains 23 chromosomes
     When the male and female gametes fuse, they become a zygote (fertilised egg cell)
     This contains the full 46 chromosomes, half of which came from the father and half
    from the mother – we say the zygote has a diploid nucleus

    Advantages & Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

     Most crop plants reproduce sexually and this is an advantage as it means variation is
    increased and a genetic variant may be produced which is better able to cope with
    weather changes, or produces significantly higher yield
     The disadvantage is that the variation may lead to offspring that are less successful
    than the parent plant at growing well or producing a good harvest
    Sexual Reproduction in Plants
    Flowers & Pollination

     Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant


     They usually contain both male and female reproductive parts
     Plants produce pollen which contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete
     Unlike the male gamete in humans (sperm), pollen is not capable of
    locomotion (moving from one place to another)
     This means plants have to have mechanisms in place to transfer pollen from the
    anther to the stigma
     This process is known as pollination and there are two main mechanisms by which it
    occurs: transferred by insects (or other animals like birds) or transferred by wind
     The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different as each is
    adapted for their specific function

    Parts of the flower

    General flower structure

    Structure of a flower
    Adaptations for Pollination

    Features of an insect-pollinated flower


    Features of a wind-pollinated flower
     The pollen produced by insect and wind-pollinated flowers is also different:
    o Insect pollinated flowers produce smaller amounts of larger, heavier pollen
    grains that often contain spikes or hooks on the outside so they are better able
    to stick to insects
    o Wind pollinated flowers produce large amounts of small, lightweight pollen
    grains that are usually smooth

    Self & Cross-Pollination

     Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma
    of another plant of the same species
     This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it improves genetic variation
     Occasionally, the pollen from a flower can land on its own stigma or on the stigma
    of another flower on the same plant – this is known as self-pollination
     Self-pollination reduces genetic variety of the offspring as all the gametes come
    from the same parent (and are therefore genetically identical)
     Lack of variation in the offspring is a disadvantage if environmental conditions
    change, as it is less likely that any offspring will have adaptations that suit the
    new conditions well
     On the other hand, cross-pollination relies completely on the presence
    of pollinatorsand this can be a problem if those pollinators are missing (eg the
    reduction in beenumbers is of great importance to humans as bees pollinate a large
    number of food crops) – this doesn’t apply to wind-pollinated plants

    Fertilisation: Basics

     Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with an ovum nucleus in the ovule

    Fertilisation

     As the pollen has no ‘tail’ to swim to the ovary of a plant, in order to reach the
    ‘female’ nucleus in the ovary it has to grow a pollen tube
     This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the right kind of stigma (i.e. of the
    same species as the flower the pollen came from)
     The nucleus inside the pollen grain slips down the tube as it grows down the style
    towards the ovary
     The ovary contains one or more ovules which each contain an ovum with a female
    nucleus that a male pollen nucleus can fuse with
     Once the nuclei (pl) have joined together, that ovule has been fertilised and
    a zygotehas been formed
     The zygote will start to divide and eventually form a seed within the ovule
     As different plants have different numbers of ovules, this explains why different fruits
    (which develop from the ovary) have different numbers of seeds (which develop from
    the ovules)
    Growth of a pollen tube

    Fertilisation in a flowering plant

    Exam Tip

    Students often get confused between pollination and fertilisation in plants, but they are not
    the same thing.

    Think of pollination as the plant’s equivalent to human sexual intercourse – after sex, the
    male sex cells (sperm) have been deposited into the female. But, for fertilisation to occur, the
    nucleus from a male sperm cell has to fuse with the nucleus of a female sex cell (egg) and the
    sperm has to travel to find the egg before this happens. It’s exactly the same in plants!
    Germination
    Factors Affecting Germination

     Germination is the start of growth in the seed


     Three factors are required for successful germination:
    o Water – allows the seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start
    working so that growth can occur
    o Oxygen – so that energy can be released for germination
    o Warmth – germination improves as temperature rises (up to a maximum) as
    the reactions which take place are controlled by enzymes
     As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, it
    makes no difference whether it is present or not

    Investigating Germination

     Set up 4 boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool


     Set each test tube as shown in diagram below
     Leave tubes in set environment for a period of time: A, B and C incubated at 20°C; D
    placed in a fridge at 4°C
     Compare results and see which tube has the greatest number of germinated seeds

    Conditions required for germination

    Conditions required for germination – results:

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