CHAPTER-2

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS-NOTES

Important Definitions

1. Holozoic Nutrition- The mode of nutrition in which food is taken into the body and
then broken down into simpler absorbable substances is called holozoic nutrition.

2. Ingestion- The process by which food is taken into the body of an animal is called
Ingestion.

3. Digestion- The process by which complex food components (carbohydrates, fats &
proteins) are broken down into simpler substances that can be easily absorbed by the
body.

4. Absorption- The process by which soluble substances obtained by the digestion of

food (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids) are absorbed into the blood for transportation
to the cells of the body.

5. Assimilation- The process `by which absorbed simple substances are utilised by the
body to produce energy and to make complex substances (proteins) required by the
body.

6. Egestion- The process of removal of undigested food or waste from the body.

7. Alimentary Canal- The digestive system consists of a long continuous tube or the
digestive tract that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus is called alimentary canal.

8. Mastication- The ingested food is chewed by the teeth. The chewing of food is called
mastication.

9. Peristaltic Movements/Peristalsis- The walls of the oesophagus have muscles that

contract and relax alternatively in a wave-like manner to push the bolus down the tube
into the stomach. These wave-like movements are called peristaltic
movements/peristalsis.

10. Defecation- The discharge of faeces (undigested matter) through the bowel by the
anus is called defecation.

11. Cud- The food that cows and similar animals bring back from the stomach into the
mouth to eat again.

12. Rumination- The process by which animals rechew cud to breakdown plant matter
further for proper digestion.
INGESTION OF FOOD IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

Name of the animal Kinds of food Modes of feeding

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larval fish, fleas of water & other

finger-like projections called tentacles
Hydra invertebrates

Algae Scraping from rocks

Snail

Bite, chew, tear, pierce, grind using special

Plant material & other animals
Ant paired jaws

Flesh of prey Tearing

Eagle

Humming Bird
Nectar from flower Sucking

Blood from the skin of scalp Sucking

Lice

Blood from animals Sucking

Mosquito

insects Long, sticky tongue

Frogs

Syphoning by long tubular mouthpart called

Nectar from flower
proboscis
Butterfly

Filth and waste Sucking by mouthparts that act like sponge

Housefly

Tiny aquatic animals Capturing and Swallowing

Amoeba

Animal as a whole Swallowing

Python

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA
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Amoeba is a unicellular organism found in freshwater. It does not have a well-developed

body. It has a cell membrane & many small vacuoles in its cytoplasm.
1. Amoeba moves & captures food by pushing out finger-like projections called
pseudopodia (false feet) from the outer parts of its body.
2. Upon sensing food, Amoeba extends its pseudopodia around the food particle &
engulfs it which is then taken into the cell in a small cavity called food vacuole.
3. Digestive juices are released into the food vacuole which break down the complex
food particles into simpler substances.
4. These simpler substances are absorbed by the cell for its growth, maintenance &
multiplication. The undigested food is expelled out of the cell by the vacuole.

NUTRITION IN HUMANS
Nutrition in human beings is a complex process. The digestive system involves mouth
(buccal activity), food pipe or oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small & large intestine &
anus.

INGESTION- Food is ingested though the mouth also called as buccal activity which
includes teeth, tongue & salivary glands.

1. Teeth
Types of Teeth Features Number of Teeth Functions
In upper jaw In lower jaw
Incisors Chisel-shaped sharp 4 4 Cut & bite
teeth
Canines (on either Sharp, pointed 2 2 Tear the food
side of incisors)
Premolars Broad with flattened 4 4 Grind the food
tops
Molars Similar but larger 6 6 Chewing & grinding
than premolars food

* The first set of 20 teeth is called temporary or milk teeth which begin to fall
around 6 years of age.
* Milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth. They are 32 in adults.
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2. Tongue- fleshy, muscular organ located in the buccal activity. It helps mix food with
saliva, secreted by salivary glands & swallow food

DIGESTION- The food gets digested as it travels through the alimentary canal.

1. Mouth or Buccal Cavity-

The chewing of food by the teeth in buccal cavity for easier digestion is called
mastication. Saliva is a digestive juice which convert complex carbohydrates
such as starch into simple sugar molecules. Chewed food is rolled by the tongue
into a ball called bolus to be pushed to the back of the mouth to be swallowed.

2. Oesophagus-
It is a muscular tube-like passage from the mouth to the stomach. The walls of the
oesophagus have muscles that contract & relax in a wave-like manner to push the
bolus down the tube into the stomach. These movements are called peristaltic
movements or peristalsis. Wind pipe & food pipe have a common flap like
passage at the pharynx called as epiglottis.
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3. Stomach-
It is a J-shaped, thick-walled, bag like muscular organ on the side of abdomen.
The cells lining the stomach secrete digestive juices which help in the digestion
of proteins, Hydrochloric acid (HCl) which kills the microbes that enter the
body with food and mucus acts as a protective layer against the secreted
enzymes and acids. The partially digested food is called chyme.
4. Small Intestine-
It is a highly coiled muscular tube, which is about 7.5 m long. It is the longest part
of the alimentary canal. It receives secretions from two glands-liver & pancreas. It
contains certain digestive juices that help convert carbohydrates into simple
sugars, fats into fatty acids & glycerol and proteins are converted into amino
acids.
 Liver- largest gland which secretes a yellowish-green fluid called bile. Bile is
stored in a sac-like structure called the gall bladder.

 Pancreas-It is the largest gland just below the stomach which produces
pancreatic juice, which acts on carbohydrates, proteins & fats to convert them
into simpler substances.

ABSORPTION
1. Small Intestine-
 The blood vessels in the walls of the intestine absorb the digested and water-
soluble substance to produce energy for growth and development.
 The inner walls of small intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths
called villi.
 Villi increase the surface area of small intestine for the absorption of digested
food.
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 Each villus has a network of thin and small blood vessels close to its surface.

2. Large Intestine
 It is a 1.5-meter long tube. It is wider and shorter than the small intestine. The
undigested semi-solid food is passed from small intestine to large intestine.
 The upper part called colon, absorbs water & salts that remain in chyme.

LARGE INTESTINE SMALL INTESTINE

5. The large intestine absorbs water and salt from the undigested food. The remaining
waste material then passes to the rectum and remains there for some time in the form
of semi-solid faeces. This waste faecal matter is then removed through the anus from
the body by the defecation. This process is called egestion.

ASSIMILATION
 The glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water and releases huge
amount of energy with the help of oxygen inside the cell through a process called
Cellular Respiration.
 Fatty acid and glycerol help in building the component of cells and form fats
which is stored in the body as food reserve while amino acid is used in growth
and repair of the body.

Diarrhoea
It is a condition in which a person passes out watery stools frequently. It is a disease which is
caused by an infection, food poisoning or indigestion. It usually occurs In children and may
be fatal. In this condition, there is a loss of water and salts from the body of a person through
frequent watery stools. This loss of water from the body of a person through watery stool is
called dehydration and it may be fatal under severe conditions. Diarrhoea should never be
neglected. In order to prevent dehydration, the person suffering from diarrhoea should be
given a solution of sugar and salt in the clean water for several times in a day.

This solution is called Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS). The ORS makes up the loss of
water and salt in the body and sugar provides energy which helps in the recovery of disease.
The dehydration of body can be prevented during diarrhoea by giving ORS solution regularly
to the patients. In the mean time, the doctors should be called for medicines to cure of
diarrhoea.
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DIGESTION IN GRASS-EATING ANIMALS

The herbivorous animals such as cow, buffaloes, etc eat grass. These animals quickly
swallow the grass and store it in a part of stomach called rumen. The food is not chewed
completely. Rumens possess cellulose digesting bacteria which breakdown the food by
fermentation. This partially digested food or grass present in the rumen of cow is called cud.

This cud is brought back into the mouth of the cow from the rumen into small lumps and
animal chews it again. This process is called rumination and animals are called ruminants.

When this cud is thoroughly chewed in the mouth of the cow, it is swallowed again. This
time the chewed cud does not go back to rumen but enter into the other compartments of
cow’s stomach and then into the small intestine for complete digestion and absorption of
food. The cellulose digesting bacteria are not present in the body of human being, therefore
human beings and other carnivore cannot digest cellulose present in plant food items.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

Q1. Why protein is made during the process of assimilation?

A1. The protein ingested though food is too large to be readily absorbed. Therefore, proteins
are broken down into amino acids by the help of pepsin and protease enzymes. These amino
acids are used to create the proteins in the form that our body can utilise for everyday
activities.

Q2. Why proteins cannot be absorbed until digested?

A2. Macromolecules such as Proteins are too large to be readily absorbed. The small intestine
can only absorb the monomers, or building blocks, of these large molecules. Therefore,
proteins must be digested and converted into amino acids.

Q3. Why do we sometimes cough, choke or hiccup while eating food?

A3. If we talk or laugh while eating or swallow food too quickly, the epiglottis may not close
completely, this may cause the food to enter the windpipe, which makes us cough, choke, or
hiccup.

Q4. What is the role of Bile?

A4. Bile from the gall bladder is secreted into the small intestine & helps reduce the acidity
of chyme. It also plays an important role in the digestion of fats by breaking down large fat
molecules into smaller particles.

Q5. Explain tooth decay.

A5. The tooth is covered by white, hard outer covering of tooth called enamel below which
dentine is present. Bacteria are present in our mouth but they are not harmful to us. However,
if we do not clean our teeth and mouth after eating, many harmful bacteria also begin to live
and grow in it. These bacteria breakdown the sugars present from the leftover food and
release acids. The acids gradually damage the teeth. Therefore, tooth decay is defined as the
process of rotting of tooth and formation of cavity or holes in it which leads to the toothache.
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Q6. How can we prevent tooth decay?

A6. Tooth decay can be prevented by adopting the following measures.

 One should rinse and clean its teeth thoroughly after every meal.
 We should clean our teeth with the help of brush and toothpaste, twice a day.
 We should use dental floss which is a special strong thread. It is moved
between two teeth to take out trapped food particles.
 Dirty fingers or unwashed objects must be avoided to put in the
 We should avoid the use of sweets, chocolates, toffees, ice-cream, be avoided.

Q7. Why do we vomit sometimes while travelling after eating food?

A7. Sometimes, food is not accepted by our stomach and is vomited out because the food
moves in the opposite direction, i.e. from stomach to mouth by anti-peristaltic movement in
oesophagus.

Q8. How does starfish obtain its food?

A8. Starfish feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate. After opening the
shell, the starfish pops out its stomach through its mouth to eat the soft animal inside the
shell. The stomach then goes back into the body and the food is slowly digested.

Q9. What happens to the undigested matter in the large intestine?

A9. The undigested matter is converted into a semi-solid mass called faeces that passes to the
end of the large intestine called the rectum.