CHAPTER 8.

HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

OVERVIEW:

This chapter discusses the harvesting and storage of forage crops. This chapter specifically includes basic
forage harvest (hay, silage, and baleage), machineries used in harvesting of forages, and consideration in storing
forages. Assessment questions and activities were given to facilitate learnings to students.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, students are able to:

 Discuss and differentiate the basic forage harvest

 Identify and familiarize the machineries used in harvesting forage
 Explain the importance of proper storage of forage

LESSON 1. HARVESTING AND STORAGE OF FORAGES

Harvesting of forage crops

Producers mechanically harvest forages and use them as stored feed. The 3 most basic forage harvest
systems are dry hay, silage, and wet hay or baleage. Whichever system you use, there are principles or guidelines
you should consider and follow if you want to minimize losses and keep forage quality as high as possible.

BASIC FORAGE HARVEST

DRY HAY

The basic principle of hay making is to reduce the moisture concentration in the green forages sufficiently
as to permit their storage without spoilage or further nutrient losses. The moisture concentration in hay must be less
than 15% at storage time. Hence, crops with thin stems and many leaves are better suited for hay making as they dry
faster than those having thick and pithy stems and small leaves.

Harvesting, curing and baling of hay Leguminous fodder crops should be harvested at their flower initiation
stage or when crown buds start to grow, while grasses should be harvested at their pre-flowering or flower initiation
stage. Harvesting should be done preferably when air humidity is low. The harvested forage should be spread in the
field and raked a few times for quick drying. The dried forage should be collected and baled when the moisture
concentration becomes lower than 15 percent. Baling the hay helps in storage and requires less space.

Artificial drying

Field curing is mostly done during bright sunny days, which causes bleaching of the forage and loss of
leaves due to shattering. Nutrients may also be leached out if the forage is exposed to rain. To avoid these losses,
forages can be dried in barn by flowing hot air though the forage. Its main benefits are that nutrient losses due to leaf
shattering and bleaching can be avoided, and that the forage can be harvested irrespective of the prevailing weather
conditions. Although artificial drying results in hay quality approaching that of the fresh forage, it is expensive and
beyond the reach of small and marginal farmers.

Losses in hay making

Monsoon grasses and fodder crops come in flowering during August and September. Fast lignification and
translocation of sugars in these crops occurs after this due to high temperatures, resulting
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

in a rapid decrease of the digestibility. Considerable losses occur with the monsoon grasses, because they are not
harvested and preserved at the stage when their digestibility is fairly high. This may be due to the prevailing weather
conditions and the lack of interest and skills for proper preservation and storage. Preservation of any surplus fodder
can be beneficial during a scarcity period.

Respiration by living plant cells after harvesting occurs at the cost of carbohydrates. However, this loss is nominal
as compared to losses due to shattering, leaching and bleaching.

During the process of drying and curing, there are losses due to shattering and dropping of leaves, which are
the most nutritious part of the plant. Legumes are particularly sensitive to leaf shattering.

Leaching is caused by rain during the drying period of hay, through which the soluble nutrients are lost.
Continuous and excessive rainfall may result in large losses due to decomposition and mould growth.

Bleaching of hay, due to its excessive exposure to sunshine during the drying and curing process causes losses of
nutrients, particularly carotene.

High moisture content at the time of storing may lead to fermentation and moulding of hay. If the hay is moist
at the time of storing, fermentation sets in with a rise in temperature. The overall loss of dry matter and nutrients
may range from 15 to 50 per cent, and may lead to development of mould, fungi and undesirable bacteria. A high
moisture content at stacking time results in fermentation of forage and a rise in temperature, resulting in overall dry
matter and nutrient losses ranging from 15 to 50 per cent. A moisture content above 15% may also lead to the
development of mould, fungi and undesirable bacteria, which make the hay unsuitable for animal consumption.

SILAGE

Silage is the end product of fermenting a high moisture crop (40-80% water) and storing the product is
called ensiling. Ensiling fodder has been around a long time and now contributes over 50% of the nutrients for beef
and dairy cattle production. The process requires consideration of a wide variety of factors including plant growth,
harvest, storage and feeding practices.

The basic principle of silage making is to convert the sugars in the ensiled fodder into lactic acid, this
reduces the pH of the silage to about 4.0 or lower, depending on the type of process. In this way, the biological
activities responsible for spoilage are inhibited. To attain this, the early establishment and maintenance of an oxygen
free, i.e. anaerobic, micro-environment is essential.

The term 'silage' refers to any wet and/or green fodder, preserved by organic acids, chiefly lactic acid, that
is produced naturally by bacterial fermentation of sugars in the plants under anaerobic conditions. Stored material is
highly acidic and has a lower feeding value compared to the original green fodder in the field. Silage making is
commonly recommended in most parts of India, but it has not been established for a number of reasons:

- a lack of surplus forage during the rainy season;

- an unreliable rainfall pattern, making farmers reluctant to ensile a forage surplus during the rainy season,
since the actual feed shortage during the dry season will then also vary considerably. Often it is possible to
bridge the scarcity period in other ways and without great complication.
- the requirement for labour (cutting, raking, collecting, chopping, pit construction and cleaning, ensiling)
and materials (polythene, molasses) may be a problem in some areas;
- the organizational aspects (punctual and sometimes fast action is required) may be felt as a complication.

Some of these problems may be overcome if larger quantities of silage are prepared by the cooperative milk
unions from the surplus green fodder during the flush season and supplied to its members
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

during scarcity periods. There is also scope to prepare silage near the reserve forest areas by harvesting the forest
grasses at a proper stage and ensiling them rather than allowing them to dry and burn.

Advantages

Silage has several advantages over hay as a mechanically harvested product. Silage has more nutrients
preserved per acre because there is less field loss. Silage is also less affected by weather damage because the forage
does not lie in the field drying. The ensiling process has become more mechanized and is therefore less labor
intensive than haymaking. More crops can be used for silage and silage is better suited as an ingredient in mixed
rations for livestock.

- when harvested at or before the flowering stage, more nutrients (per area unit, time unit and kg feed) can be
available for animal feeding;
- losses due to shattering, leaching and bleaching during hay making are avoided;
- the silage making is less affected by adverse weather conditions (or fire), as compared to hay making

Disadvantages

There can be extensive losses in storage if the silage is mismanaged. Spoilage losses also can be substantial
if the silage is not fed out quickly enough. The storage facilities for silage are distinct and not as multi-purposeful as
barns so initial investment in equipment can be high. And, hay is very transportable, silage is full of water, making it
heavy and difficult to move from place to place.

- it requires labour for filling of the silo;

- the construction of a silo requires an investment; - handling and transportation requires more effort as
compared to hay, due to the lower dry matter concentration;
- nutrient losses are generally 10% over losses with green fodder, which may be more with smaller
quantities;
- slight carelessness at the time of ensiling may result in heavy losses due to aeration;
- the marketability of silage is very low.

Losses in silage making

The losses resulting from silage making are the sum of respiration losses, fermentation losses, effluent losses, and
losses due to prolonged fermentation and moulding.

The respiration losses occur because the plant is normally still active at the time of ensiling. Respiration continues as
long as air is available. During this stage, oxygen and sugars are converted into water, carbon dioxide and heat.
Therefore, sound compaction and air-tight closure of the silage pit are major factors that inhibit and stop this process
as soon as possible.

Fermentation losses occur during the fermentation process, because bacteria convert sugars into - mainly
- lactic acid. Gradually, this end products create a micro-environment which is increasingly hostile to those bacteria,
eventually stopping their activity. Throughout an average fermentation in a silage pit, bacteria use 4-5% of the
energy present in the ensiled mass. If the water concentration at the time of ensiling exceeds 75 %, juices will
accumulate on the pit floor, and may flow out of the pit, causing effluent losses. If air is able to penetrate the silage,
a prolonged fermentation may lead to an additional loss of organic material in the silage pit. This results in the
production of butyric acid and moulding, and spoilage may take place.
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

SILAGES FROM DIFFERENT FORAGE

Silage from cereals like maize, oats and sorghum

Maize, oats and sorghum are important fodder crops, that are rich in carbohydrates. During periods of abundant
green fodder availability, they can be chopped and ensiled to produce silage for feeding during scarcity periods.
Sorghum and oats should be harvested at flowering stage when 50% ears have emerged, while maize should be
harvested at its milk stage.

Silage from cultivated and forest grass

During the monsoon season, cultivated as well as forest grass grow luxuriantly, and there is abundant availability of
green fodder. These grasses can be harvested at their pre-flowering or flowering stage when growth has levelled off
while their feeding value is still high. If the weather is too humid for hay making, these grasses might be conserved
in the form of silage for feeding during scarcity periods.

Large quantities of sugarcane tops are available in sugarcane growing areas during the crushing season. They are
rich in soluble carbohydrates but poor in protein. Out of about 80 million tonnes of sugarcane tops, only 30% is used
for animal feeding as fresh feed. The rest is partly used as fuel by the sugar industry. The silage is usually offered to
the animals as wet fodder during the scarcity period in the summer months.

USE OF ADDITIVES IN SILAGE MAKING

For grasses, fodders or crop residues that are rich in sugars, sufficiently dried (i.e. above 25% DM) and with a CP-
level under 20%, there is no need to use additives. In all other cases, additives do not only upgrade the silage quality,
but they also reduce the risk of failure to preserve the forage. The benefits of using additives should be seen in
comparison to the costs of applying them. The most common ones are organic acids, molasses and preservatives.
Most of the undesirable bacterial activity can be prevented by adding an organic acid to the crop. By adding
molasses to the silage, the pH of the silage can be quickly reduced to a level below 4.0. A standard rule is to dissolve
15 litres of molasses in 15 litres of water, before adding it to one tonne of silage. Preservatives, such as salt and
sodium metabisulphite are sometimes used for ensiling forages. Salt adds flavour, and it mainly reduces water
activity

STORAGE STRUCTURES FOR SILAGE

A silo is a structure designed to store and preserve high moisture fodder such as silage. The selection of a silo is
made on the basis of required capacity, climatic conditions and economic considerations. Different silo types are
used to conserve and store fodder: a) horizontal silos, such as trench silos and bunker silos;
b) vertical silos, such as pit silos and tower silos.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING AND USING A SILAGE PIT

Harvesting

High (or medium) quality silage is obtained from high (or medium) quality grasses and fodders containing between
15-35 % dry matter. This is found at the dough stage in maize, at flowering in sorghum, ear emergence in pearl
millet, milk stage in oats and at flowering stage in most of the grasses. Partial wilting of legumes is necessary to
reduce the water concentration to about 70%. For proper filling and compaction, grasses, particularly those having
thick and pithy stems, should be chaffed to 2-3 cm size.
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

Silo preparation

The structure must be thoroughly cleaned and if the bottom and sides of the silo are kachcha, a 10 cm layer of straw
or waste fodder is spread on them. In all cases, such layer is advisable in cemented pits. Chopped fodder should be
filled layer by layer of about 50 an each within a day or two end compacted properly to remove trapped air. If fodder
contains little soluble sugars which is the case in legumes, liquid or dried molasses should be sprinkled on top of
each layer to increase the fermentation. The entire pit should be filled in the same manner up to a height of about 1.5
to 2 metres above the ground, to ensure that after complete setting the silage mass is well above the ground level, in
order to avoid water collection in the pit. Trampling must be more thorough near the sides and edges of a trench silo.

Closing the silo

After properly shaping-up the mass on the top layer (dome shape), the silage pit should be covered as soon as
possible with a layer of straw or waste fodder, and subsequently with a plastic sheet of 250 to 275 micron thickness
to prevent oxygen from coming in. In trench silos, plastic sheets should overlap each other to avoid the entry of air.
Sufficient weight should be put on plastic sheets to keep them intact. A layer of mud can also be put over plastic
sheets. During the setting period cracks etc. must be properly closed to avoid the entry of water and air into the pit.
The fermentation process will be complete in 4 to 5 weeks and after that the mass becomes stable.

Opening the silo

During the shortage of green fodder, silage may be fed to animals. While opening the silo, the cover should be
removed properly and a plastic sheet is taken out in a section of the pit, taking care that the minimum possible
surface is exposed to the atmosphere. Some mouldy material may be found on top and also on the side, which
should be removed before taking the silage for feeding. A well-preserved silage will be of yellowish green colour,
having a pleasant acidic smell, is not sticky, and is free from mould growth. Milch animals should be fed with silage
after milking as feeding of silage just before milking may give some silage smell in the milk.

WET HAY OR BALEAGE

Baleage is partially dried forage, preferably 45-55 percent moisture, which is baled and wrapped with at least 6
layers of 1 mil plastic. Monitoring the moisture content is critical in reducing the risk of spoilage once baled. The
moisture content is critical in reducing the risk of spoilage once baled. The process of fermentation in baleage is
slower and less complete compared to haylage or silage sue to more loosely packed forage (more oxygen), larger
particle size (less available sugars), and lower moisture, typically. The slower fermentation results in pH higher than
that haylage. A pH of around 5.0 is present in the bales, which results in more challenging preservation during the
fermentation process.

Baleage can create high quality forage if done properly. Some advantages over dry hay include less loss during
storage, fewer weather delays at harvest, and faster turnaround from when the forage is down in both regrowth and
time on the ground. The equipment changes are not significant but need to be considered. Warpping equipment is
cheaper than the silage chopper, but handling the bales requires different equipment than the basic bale spear or
grapple. Disadvantages include getting forage baled at the best moisture content, wrapping within the first 12-24
hours to minimize damage and quality loss, plastic maintenance ability to transport without proper equipment.

MACHINERIES USED IN FORAGE HARVESTING

CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

The following are examples of machineries used in forage harvesting:

Power Take-Off Cutter Bar

Crimping and Crushing Rolls

Conditioners and mower-conditioners use crimping or crushing rolls to condition hay so it dries more quickly.

Gathering Reels

Reels and tines are an additional hazard on some conditioners and mower-conditioners. The reels help deliver
the crop to the crimping rolls.

Raking Hazards

Depending on the type of machine, the crop may or may not be left in a windrow. If the crop is not in a
windrow, then it will need to be raked.

Forage Chopping Machines

Forage chopping machines have numerous mechanical hazards, such as rotating shafts, gears, chains, and
belts. Perhaps the most important thing for forage harvester operators to remember is that their machine is
designed to gather in the crop and chop it into fine pieces so that it can be blown into a trailing wagon or
dump truck. Therefore this machine uses sharp knives operating at high speeds. If your arm or leg is drawn
into the machine, it will be treated exactly as if it were a stock of corn or a swath of hay.
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

Most forage harvesters have a built-in knife sharpener. However, some sharpeners require shields to be
removed in order to operate. When completing this task, always wear eye protection and keep your hands,
arms, and head away from the opening. If you must repair or replace knives, block the cylinder cutter head so it does
not move unexpectedly. Because the knives are freewheeling and continue to rotate after the power has been shut
off, it is very important to wait until all rotating parts have come to a complete stop. Never insert anything
(e.g., sticks, broom handles, etc.) into the knives to bring them to a quick stop. If you try to stop a
freewheeling part from rotating, not only can your hands be jerked into the knives by this practice, but debris
can be thrown back at you.

Transporting Your Crop

If you have safely harvested your crop from the field, transporting it back to the farmstead is no time to let
your guard down. Make sure that the tractor or dump truck you are using is large enough to handle the
weight of the load on hills, that the tractor or dump truck brakes are in good condition and properly adjusted, and
the tractor or dump truck operator has enough experience to operate a tractor or dump truck with a heavy load
on public roadways. Remember to double check to make sure you are using the proper sized safety drawbar
pins.

If you must haul a heavy load on public roadways, attach a safety chain between the tractor and the wagon. A slow-
moving-vehicle (SMV) emblem is required, by Pennsylvania law, to be placed on the back of the trailing
equipment. Replace any SMV emblems that are faded or damaged. Additional reflective marking is recommended
on the back of the wagon to alert approaching motorists of your presence. Red retroreflective and red-orange
fluorescent tape strategically located on the rear of your wagon and yellow retroreflective tape on the front of
your wagon can increase the visibility to motorists. If your tractor has flashing lights, use them, and also use
hand signals as appropriate. In many cases, it may be necessary to arrange for another vehicle to follow the
tractor operator while on a public roadway. This type of escort is a particularly good idea during times of
poor visibility, with less experienced tractor operators, or when you are hauling two wagons. Plan your day so
that you can stay off roadways after dusk.

FORAGE HARVESTING: BEST PRACTICES

During harvest planning, think about the following areas to help ensure a successful harvest and prepare the crop for
ideal storage conditions.

 Proper equipment operation and maintenance: This includes keeping fields clear of debris,
cleaning and prepping equipment and sharpening machinery blades. Don’t use re-cutters or screens unless
moisture levels drop below recommended levels.
 Stage of maturity and stubble height: The goal of your harvest is to cut down the forage to reap the
final product while not compromising the plants’ health. The timing can be adjusted if needed, or the depth
of the cut, just as long as the plant stand and vigor remains strong.
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

 Moisture content: Forage harvested at too high of a moisture level can suffer heat damage, dry- matter
loss and moisture spoilage. Forage harvested with too low of a moisture level loses valuable nutrients.
 Length of cut: Adjust the machinery's settings so it cuts the plants based on the type of storage it will be
subject to.

STORAGE OF FORAGE CROPS

The storage of hay and silage is a significant point for quality, time and effort after planting, growing, and
harvesting since the goal of mechanically harvesting forage is to have a high-quality feed available for winter when
pastures are not producing lush forages. Hay is an important commodity in the agriculture world and can hold
substantial value, especially in dryer years. Storing hay basically entails preventing deterioration of the hay which
can come from mold, rot, or fungi.

STORAGE TIPS FOR FORAGE

Following a few guidelines will help keep your forage storage losses low.

 Avoid lightning: Keep objects that attract lightning away from hay, and have more than one bale location
in case lightning does strike.
 Pack correctly: Keep the flat ends of the bales butted tightly together, while the rounded sides should
remain separated by at least three feet.
 Placement: Bale rows should run north to south on a well-drained slope. Place them in bright and sunny
spots away from shade.
 Protection: Pack bales as tightly and as densely as possible. Cover the tops and sides of bales. Keep bales
on wooden pallets or rocks to avoid soil contact.

ACTIVITY 7

HARVESTING FORAGE GRASS

1. Provide the procedure/ steps performed in basic forage harvest system (hay making, silage making,
baleage). Choose at least one. (Pictures can be provided also)

2. List the factors to be considered in achieving the good quality harvest.

SUMMARY:

Important points for hay making

- The crop is harvested for hay making at its pre-flowering or flowering stage, when its growth is levelling
off and its feeding value is still high;
- hay is best made during rain free days;
- crops with thick and juicy stems should be dried after chaffing and conditioning, which will speed up the
drying process and slow down the loss of nutrients;
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

- hay should be raked only a few times during the drying process in order to avoid the shattering of leaves
and the bleaching of the hay;
- legumes should be raked in the morning hours to avoid leaf shattering;
- after drying and curing, baling and/or stacking should be done as early as possible. Storage under a roof is
preferred;
- for hay baling, the maximum permissible water concentration is 15%. Storage of hay before
sufficient drying may cause fire due to spontaneous combustion;
- storage of hay with higher moisture concentration may result in mould growth, making the hay unfit for
feeding;

Important points for silage making

- crops and plant material rich in soluble sugars such as maize, sorghum, oats, sugarcane tops, hybrid napier
grass and other grasses are highly suitable for ensiling;
- the dry matter concentration of the forage at the time of ensiling should be around 15-30 %, but higher is
possible;
- chaffing of the material for ensiling increases its compactness, thus eliminating the air space to the
maximum extent; - green to semi-green forage, which may use the oxygen present for respiration, results in
high quality silage;
- the silo should be air-tight after filling;
- fermentation starts within hours after closing the silo, and accelerates over the next 2 to 3 days. It
terminates after about three weeks. Organic acids, primarily lactic and acetic acid, ethanol and gases such
as CO2, CH4, NO2 and NH3, are produced during the fermentation process;
- due to the production of acid, the pH of the biomass is reduced to a level below 4, resulting in the
termination of all biological activities, after which the material remains conserved under anaerobic
conditions.

ASSESSMENT:

1. This refers to the partially dried forage, preferably 45-55 percent moisture.
a. Haylage
b. Baleage
c. Silage
d. Soilage
2. It is the end product of fermenting a high moisture crop (40-80% water).
a. Haylage
b. Baleage
c. Silage
d. Soilage
3. The following are disadvantages of silage, except one.
a. The marketability of silage is low
b. It requires labor for filling of the silo
c. the silage making is less affected by adverse weather conditions
d. the construction of a silo requires an investment
4. The following describes silage, except one:
a. Silage refers to any wet and/or green fodder, preserved by organic acids, that is produced naturally
by bacterial fermentation of sugars in the plants under aerobic conditions.
b. crops and plant material rich in soluble sugars such as maize, sorghum, oats, sugarcane tops,
hybrid napier grass and other grasses are highly suitable for ensiling
c. Silage has several advantages over hay as a mechanically harvested product
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS

d. All are correct

5. The basic principle of hay making is to:
a. Convert sugars in the ensiled fodder to lactic acid
b. Create a quality forage when regrowth occurs
c. Prevent the forage from drying
d. Reduce the moisture concentration in the green forages sufficiently as to permit their storage without
spoilage or further nutrient losses.
6. Which of the following is true about the moisture concentration in hay?
a. Hay must be more than 15% at storage time
b. Crops with thick stems and many leaves are better suited for hay making.
c. Hay must be 15% at storage time and thin stems and many leaves are suited for hay making.
d. None of the above
7. Which of the following fodder crop is rich in carbohydrates?
a. Maize
b. Oats
c. Sorghum
d. All of the above
8. This is due to excessive exposure to sunlight during the drying and curing process which causes losses of
nutrient, particularly carotene.
a. Bleaching of hay
b. Leaching of hay
c. Wilting of hay
d. Drying of hay
9. Which of the following statement is true about harvesting of forage?
a. Leguminous fodder crops and grasses can be harvested anytime.
b. Leguminous should be harvested at their pre-flowering stage
c. Grasses should be harvested at their pre-flowering or flower initiation stage
d. All of the above
10. Which among the following forage harvesting practices is true?
a. Forage harvested with too low of a moisture level loses valuable nutrients.
b. Length of cut is important to be considered.
c. Use of proper equipment in harvesting is recommended.
d. All of the above

REFERENCES:

https://extension.psu.edu/forage-and-food-crops/forages/production-and-harvesting

Kiran Singh and J.B. Schiere (eds.), 1995 Handbook for Straw Feeding Systems ICAR, New Delhi, India Oregon State

University. Forage Information System

WSU Extension Walla Walla County Bulletin #150

Barnes R.F., Nelson C.J., Collins M., and Moore K.J. 2003. Forages. Volume I. An Introduction to
Grassland Agriculture. 6th Ed.
Shewmaker G.E and Bohle, M.G. 2010. Pasture and Grazing Management. A Pacific Northwest
Extension Publication.
Batello,C.et.al. Plant Genetic Resources of Forage Crops, Pasture and Rangelands.
CHAPTER 8. HARVESTING FORAGE CROPS