Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 17

Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent

Hafiz Muhammad Azhar Usama
Lecturer, Department of Islamic Studies, the University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
[email protected]
Muhammad Asif Haroon
Lecturer Islamic Studies Govt.waris Shah Associate College Sheikhupura,Punjab,Pakistan
[email protected]

Abstract

This research paper aims to provide an overview of the

evolution of Sufism in Indian subcontinent and to present its
effects and results in the various disciplines that have arisen as a
result in a research manner. It turns out that the history of
spirituality is as old as the history of religion. Spirituality is very
difficult to define, but it usually means attachment to sacred
beings or concepts, spiritual experiences and observations based
on reason and feeling, meditation, compassion and self-control.
Similarly in Indian subcontinent. Sufism has a history of over a
thousand years. . Sunni personalities and legends have brought
peace and encouragement to most Hindu caste communities in
rural India. The Sufi teachings of divine spirituality, cosmic
harmony, love and humanity resonate with ordinary people and
continue to do so today. The following content will take a
thematic approach to discuss the thousands of influences that
helped spread Sufism and a mystical understanding of Islam,
making India a contemporary center of Sufi culture today. The
key points of this research are that it will enable readers to
understand the reality of Sufism with a concept of spirituality

Keywords: Evolution, Sufism, Indian subcontinent, Ideologies,

Scriptures.
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 18

The history of Islam witnessed the success of Sufis in the

promotion of love, peace, harmony, and brotherhood. Sufi
masters strengthened interfaith relations, mended the broken
hearts, and sung the songs of divine love without disturbing the
peace of society. Farid al-Din Masʿud Ganj-i-Shakar, better
known as simply Baba Farid, was also one of those greatest
saints of India who spent their lives for the betterment of the
community. He belongs to Chishti order of Sufis which earns its
fame for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness. In order
to understand him, it is necessary to first understand Sufi
ideology, its transmission, and the context in which it was
developed and evolved especially in the Indian Subcontinent. It
should be taken into consideration that regarding the
authenticity of Sufism, scholars are divided into at least three
groups. The first group considers Sufism as an inevitable part of
Islam whereas the second group presents Sufism as an entirely
separate system that is far away from the teachings of Islam.
The third group considers some of its teachings as a part of
Islam and others as heresies. Each of them provides substantial
evidence to prove their arguments. The aim of this work is not to
discuss the lengthy debates on the authenticity of Sufism but to
present an introduction to Sufi thought as elaborated by the Sufi
masters. To achieve this goal, preference is given to the classical
works on Sufism. Though this introduction is not exhaustive, it
adequately explains the beginning of Sufism, its history, and
transmission.

Origin of Sufism:
It is not clear when, why, and in which meanings the term
Sufi was first used.1 Many in the East and West think Sufism as
a phenomenon which, for them, is somewhat separate from
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 19

Islam. Some even from the Muslims conclude that Sufism

presents a distorted picture of Islam.2 Though this word earns its
fame near the end of second century Hijri, advocates of Sufism
argue that it does not necessarily mean that Sufism is something
different from Islam. A discussion of Abū al-Qāsim al-
Qushayrī3 (986-1072) on this issue reveals that the case of word
"Sufi" is much similar to the terms such as faqih, mufassir, or
muhadith in the Islamic thought. During the time of Prophet
Muhammad (SAW), his followers, no matter how skillful they
were in Fiqh, Tafsir or Hadith, were not recognized by such
terms. They earned the title of sahabi for, besides prophet,
sahabi was and is the highest degree of nobility among Muslims.
However, later, when Islam spread to the various parts of the
world, an era of heresies and insurgencies erupted among the
Muslim. It was the time when a group of people dedicated
themselves to follow the commandments of Almighty Allah.
That group started using the term Sufism for it. Consequently,
the term Sufi emerged and became famous before the start of
second century Hijri.4

Defining Sufism:
In general, the term Sufi is used for a person who
articulates the ways of and to God. Junayd Baghdadi (835-910),
the famous Persian Sufi saint, explains Sufism as the eradication
of veils between God and man. Another Sufi master, Abu
Sulayman al-Darani (758-830), thinks that Sufism is the training
of bearing of sufferings as a part of God's plan. Additionally, it
trains to renounce everything but Allah. Al-Tusi writes that
according to Muhammad bin Ali al-Qassab (died 970),
Tasawwuf is the name of all those noble actions and practices
that were performed by the Prophet Muhammad in a noble era in
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 20

front of the noble people.5 Regarding Sufism, Baba Farid adds

that Suf (wool) is the dress of prophets and saints. This dress is
not permissible for those whose inner and outer self is polluted
because Sufi is a person who is purified from the contaminations
of the world.

Mission of Sufis:
Al-Tusi writes that the ultimate purpose of a Sufi is to be
one with Allah (SWT).6 Many Sufi masters think that the
beginning of Sufism is knowledge. Its midpoint is practice and
end is the blessings of God. Moreover, it is also added that
vision and closeness of God is the wish of Sufis for which they
are willing to sacrifice everything. Hujwiri notes that a Sufi sees
no one other than Allah and thus, s/he relates none with Him.7
Rabia al-Adawiyya (718-801) (Rabia of Basra), a famous Sufi
saint and poet of the eighth century, once said that she wants
people to worship their Lord, not for the sake of paradise or not
because of the fear of hell but only to achieve His love.
Therefore, Sufi is also known as a lover and being a lover, there
is a sheer force of love behind her/his every deed.

Islam and Sufism in India:

Although trade and commerce between Arabs and Hindus
made it possible for Muslims to enter in the Indian subcontinent
during the era of Prophet Muhammad, Muslim soldiers also
played an important role in the spread of Islam as well. They
were not direct agents of conversion, but their presence provided
an opportunity for Muslim merchants to travel freely in the
Indian subcontinent. Lewis Ray Rambo thinks that"[t]hrough
intermarriage and the establishment of Muslim institutions, the
conversion process was initiated." It argued that Sindh provided
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 21

the route to both Sufis and soldiers to enter in the Indian

subcontinent. Meetings of Sufis such as "Abu Ali Sindhi and
Abu Yazid Bustami during ninth century and work of Hussain
al-Hallaj in the tenth century strengthen the bases of Indian
Sufism"8 that later developed into various Sufi salāsil (singular
silsila means chain).

Major Sufi Orders in the Indian Subcontinent:

The institutional form of Tasawwuf is called silsila,
ṭarīqah (method or guide), or Sufi order which is regarded as the
third stage of the development of Sufism.9 It is called a silsila
because of the chain that began from a specific Sufi master and
linked back to the Prophet Muhammad. It is called a ṭarīqah
because of the specific method that one adopts to fulfill his/her
spiritual journey. There is an abundance of Sufi order in the
Indian subcontinent which is generally categorized into two
main types:
1. Salāsil such as Mdariyaa, Shatariyya, and Mujaddiya that
emerged and evolved in India and spread to the rest of
the world.
2. Salāsil such as Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya, Chishtiyya,
and Suhrawardiyya that emerged elsewhere and later
came to in the Indian subcontinent.10
Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) noted that during his time,
Qadiriyya order was famous in Arabia and India.
Naqshbandiyya in Mecca, Madinah, India, and Transoxiana.
Chishtiyya and Shatariyya in India and Suhrawardiyya in
Khurasan, Kashmir, and around Sindh. All these orders trace
their spiritual genealogy back to the Prophet Muhammad
through Sahaba. In this connection, Naqshbandi order traces its
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 22

spiritual genealogy to the Prophet through the first caliph of

Muslims, Abu Bakar, and rest of the orders through Ali Ibn
Talib, the fourth caliph of Muslims.
Silsila Qadiriyya:

Silsila Qadriyya is regarded as one of the oldest order of

Sufism. It is attributed towards Abdul Qadir Gilani. His vast
knowledge earned him an unparallel fame that inspired millions
of people to follow his path. He emerged at a time when a big
part of Muslim Ummah, due to their internal conflicts and
materialistic policies, involved itself in the worldly affairs. He
spent 25 years wandering in the deserts of Iraq thinking to
resolve the disputes of his fellow Muslims. He was such an
effective preacher who not only converted a large number of
people including Christians, Jews, and Magians but also taught a
number of Muslims to follow the teachings of Islam. His
speeches mostly consisted upon the topics such as love of God,
following of the Holy Quran and Sunnah, and Tawakkul (faith
in God's plan). This order earned its fame mainly because of its
balanced approach and its emphasis on tolerance.11
Suborders:

Followers of Qadiriyya order claim that this order reached

to Indian Subcontinent during the life of Gilani. According to
some traditions, Abdul Razzaq, the elder son of Gilani, visited
India and stayed there for a while. Later, the Sufis of India kept
inviting the descendants of Gilani to the Indian subcontinent.
Twarikh Aina-e-Tasawuf, first published in 1891, provides
names of Qadriyya suborders in India which include Mustafiyya
Jaddiyaa, Azeemiyya, Nizamiyaa Razzaiqyaa, Muhammadiyya,
Rasulnumaiyya, Masudiyya, Anaitiyya Qudussiyaa
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 23

Durvashiyya, Mujaddidiyah Qudussiyaa Chishtiyya

Suhrawardiyya Kbiri, Suhrawardiyya Kabrviyya, Sadiqiyya
Mahbubiyya, Badriyya Asghari, Jaddiyaa Mujaddidyaa
Hasniyya, Nizamiyaa Hasniyya, Nizamiyaa A'bdiyya Hasniyya,
Hasni Asghari, and Hasniyya A'mliyya Awradiyya.12
Teachings:

Most of the practices of this order are taken from Futuh

al-ghaib and Ghunyat-ut-Talibeen which are credited to Gilani.
Both of these works largely teach about the manners of the love
of God, His innovations, travel, dressing, and meeting with
others, basic rules of Islam, ethical morality, and Tawakkul.
This order stresses to learn the basics of Islam. It makes
obligatory to understand important fiqhi matters regarding the
daily life and recitation of the Holy Quran. According to Abul
Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi (1914-1999), Gilani's teachings are
away from rahbaniyah (monasticism). He allows his mureeden
to be benefited from worldly pleasures according to the needs
and wants of an individual. However, along with that he also
forbids to get absorbed in the worldly affairs and becoming the
slave of the world. It is argued that there is a vast difference
between the teachings of Silsila Qadriyya in the various parts of
the world. However, generally, it focuses on Dhikr in which
sometimes specific phrases such as names of God are repeatedly
recited either loudly or silently. However, it is also written by
Sufi masters of this Silsila that conception of Shaikh is better
than Dhikr. Because through it, mureed will get connected to
God. Strengthening relation with Shaikh will result in the
intensification of love with God. Therefore, it is necessary for
mureed to get annihilated in Shaikh for it will lead her/him
towards God.13
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 24

Silsila Naqshbandiyya:

Silsila Naqshbandiyya is one of the oldest and

influential salāsil of the Indian subcontinent. It is often argued
that teachings of the prominent Sufis masters including Abu
Yazid Bustami and Junayd Baghdadi manifest in the traditions
of Naqshbandiyya order. The Efforts of Abdul Khaliq
Ghijduvani (died 1179) played an essential role in its
systemization and spread. He introduced silent forms of dhikr
and constituted its principles. Central Asia was its main center
from where it flourished to the rest of the world. It earned its
fame because of its "characteristic combination of strict
adherence to the divine law and active involvement in social and
political affairs." Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (1318-1389) was the
seventh Khawaja of this order. The impact of his work was so
enormous that only because of his name, this order started
identifying itself as Naqshbandiyya. Similar to Gilani, he also
spent a part of his life as a wandering ascetic. The difference
was that Gilani opted for the deserts of Iraq to quench his
spiritual thirst whereas Naqshband preferred shrines and
khanaqahs of Bukhara to find his spiritual destiny. Though he
learned the ceremonies of Tasawwuf from Amir Kulal (died
1371), he is said to be spiritually trained by Ghijduvani himself.
In the seventh century, Ahmad al-Sirhindi (1564-1624), the
founder of Mujaddidiyya branch, provided the intellectual basis
for this order. Mujaddidiyya offshoot received enormous
success in India. The charismatic personality of Al-Sirhindi
proved vital in the spread of this order. His mission was to lead
his followers to adopt the path of the Prophet. Therefore, it is
claimed that "[f]or Mujaddidis the path outlined by Sirhind; is
nothing more and nothing less than the path of the Prophet."14
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 25

Suborders:

Historically, the naming process of Naqshbandiyya

offshoot of Sufism seems more complex in comparison to other
Sufi orders. Some scholars reported that due to its strong link
with Abu Bakr Siddique, in its very beginning, this order was
known as Siddiqiyya. From Bustami to Ghijduvani, it adopted
the title of Tyfuriyya. The leadership of Baha-ud-Din
Naqshband earned it the title of Naqshbandiyya and finally, it
was started known as Naqshbandiyya Mujaddidiyya due to the
vast impact of Sirhind. According to another tradition, in earlier
times this order was identified as Silsila Khawajgān or the chain
of the masters mainly because of the impact first six Khawajas
of this order. It is also divided into two types on the bases of its
spiritual lineage: From the Prophet to the founder and from the
founder to the Shaikh. The former is called Dahbiyya (golden)
and the later, is known as Tarbiyyah (training/upbringing).15
Twarikh Aina-e-Tasawuf tells about its 14 suborders that
include Sudniyya Mujadidiyya, Quddusiyya, Quddusiyya
Ismailiyaa, Azeemiyya, Dariyya, Abdiyya, Siddiqiyya
Mujaddidiyya, Junaydiyya, Barkhurdariyya Mujaddidiyya,
Abdiyya Karimiyaa, Dargaiyya Abu al-Ulaiyya, Azeemiyya
Abu al-Ulaiyya, Hasniyaa Jananiyaa, and Hasniyaa
Mujaddidiyya.
Teachings:

This silsila has specified a curriculum that includes

various sorts of dhikrs, mujahidias, and muraqabahs.
Naqshbandi Sufis emphasize that mureed should go through
these practices under the supervision of the Shaikh. However, it
is also written by some Sufi master that if somehow
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 26

companionship of Shaikh is not possible than mureed must

recite 8 pages from the treaties of Sufis daily. Unlike Qadiriyya
order, Naqshbandi Sufis favor the silent form of dhikr. Shah
Waliullah reports that prior to Naqshband when this order was
known as Silsila Khawajgān, loud dhikr was common. However,
Naqshband preferred silent form of dhikr whereas Amir Kulal
focused on both salient and loud form of dhikr. In this
connection, Shaikh Ikram (1908-1973) writes that Naqshbandi
Sufis are against loud dhikr. They are against Sima' and music
as well. They mainly focus on following the commandments of
Sharia. Shaikh prefers to sit among the mureeden rather than in
isolation.
Silsila Suhrawardiyya:

Suhrawardiyya is attributed to Abu 'n-Najib as-

Suhrawardi (1097-1168 CE) and his nephew Shahab al-Din
Suhrawardi whose Awarif ul-Maarif is regarded as the leading
work on Sufism among Suhrawardi Sufis in specific and other
Sufi orders in general. It is written in Fawaid-ul-Fawad that
Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) learned 5 chapters of Awarif
ul-Maarif from Baba Farid. He adds that Baba Farid used to
teach this book with so accuracy and beauty that people wish to
die while learning it from him. Baba Farid also named one of his
sons after Shahab al-Din. Shahab al-Din got his education as
well as Khilafat from his uncle Abu 'n-Najib as-Suhrawardi.
Furthermore, he also got the opportunity to be spiritually trained
by Gilani, Ghazali, and Khidr as well. Apart from Awarif ul-
Maarif, he authored 23 books on Sufism. Regarding him, once
Gilani said that he would be the last among the famous
personalities of Iraq.16His message was spread in the Indian
subcontinent through his famous Khalifa, Baha-ud-Din Zakariya
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 27

Multani, who learned the mysteries of Sufism in just 17 days

from him and became the founder of Suhrawardiyya order in the
Indian subcontinent. He was appointed in Multan by
Suhrawardi. Millions of people became his followers and as a
result, Silsila Suhrawardiyya spread to every nook and corner of
the country.
Suborders:

Twarikh Aina-e-Tasawuf discusses the offshoots of

Suhrawardiyya and Kubrawiya orders in a separate chapter. The
author explains that similar to Kubrawiya, there are 9 offshoots
of Suhrawardiyya order as well. However, he is providing
information about 10 suborders from which 6 belongs to
Suhrawardiyya and 4 belongs to Kubrawiya. These orders
include Dariyya Karimiyya, Azeemiyya Karimiyya, Kubrawiyya
Karimiyya, Quddusiyya Durvashiyya, Kubrawiyya
Suhrawardiyya, Kubrawiyya Quddusiyya Durvashiyya,
Ahmadiyya Karimiyya, Uluwiyya Duriyya Karimiyya, Hasniyya
Asghariyya, and Siddiqiyya Hasniyya.17
Teachings:

Similar to the other orders of Indian Subcontinent,

Silsila Suhrawardiyya also focuses on dhikr. They prefer a silent
form of dhikr. Similar to Naqshbandi Sufis, Suhrawardi masters
also developed a curriculum for their muredeen.Moreover,
promotion of the Khanaqahi culture is also one of the important
features of this order. Although Khanaqah was introduced to
Sufism since the 3rd century Hijri, it was only the efforts of
Shahab al-Din Suharwardi that Khanaqah emerged as an
organized system in Sufism. Five complete chapters (13 to 18)
of his Awarif ul-Maarif thoroughly deals with the principles of
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 28

Khanaqah.18 His own Khanaqah was divided into various

sections in which he used to share both introvertive and
extrovertive knowledge with the followers. It is said that along
with many other Sufi saints, famous Chishti Sufis such as Baba
Farid and his predecessor Khawaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
(1173-1235) also acquired their spiritual training from the
Khanaqah of Shahab al-Din Suharwardi. Though there are
various similarities between Chishtis and Suharwardi Sufis,
differences between both orders are also noted by the scholars.
Shaikh Ikram writes that unlike Chishtis, "Suharwardi were
more careful in following the rules of Sharia. They gave very
little value to Sima'. They were not much tolerating to other
religions. They were more involved in Dawah and more fond of
traveling in compare to Chishtis."19
Silsila Chishtiyya:

Historically, Chishtiyya order is considered as the

oldest Sufi order of in comparison to Qadiri, Naqshbandi, and
Suhrawardi salāsil. Abu Ishaq Shami (died 940) is regarded as
the first master of Chishti Sufis. This order earned its name from
a place Chisht where Shami was appointed by his Shaikh
Mumshadh al-Dinawari (d. 299/911-12). Abu Muhammad is
said to be the first Chishti Sufi to visit the Indian subcontinent.
However, Moinuddin Ahmad Chishti (1142-1236) is regarded as
the founder of Chishti order in the country. Although, he was
mureed of Khawaja Usman Harooni, his habit of traveling
allowed him to learn the treaties of Sufism from the hundreds of
Sufi masters of his time including Abdul Qadir Gilani and
Shahab al-Din Suharwardi. A large number of people converted
to Islam at his hand. His strict adherence to Sharia, love for both
Hindus and Muslim, and enormous success earned him the titles
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 29

of "The Messenger of Hind" and "The King of Hind". His

successor, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, followed the path of his
Shaikh. He was so famous among the people of Delhi that when
once, on the order of Moinuddin Chishti, he was leaving the
city, men and women gathered around wailing and requesting
his Shaikh not to take him away from them. It was Kaki's
brilliance that searched out Baba Farid who further strengthen
the basis of Chishti order and trained Sufi masters such as
Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) and Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari
(1196-1291).
Suborders:

Chishti order of Sufis is mainly divided into two larger

offshoots among them one is attributed towards Nizamuddin
Auliya and other is towards Sabir Kaliyari. Twarikh Aina-e-
Tasawuf provides information about 11 suborders of Silsila
Nizamiyya that includes Quddusiyya Durvashiyya, Chishtiyya
Azeemiyya, Quddusiyya Chishtiyya, Quddusiyya Chishtiyya
Saeed, Quddusiyya Chishtiyya Ulul'azm Abdaliyya, Quddusiyya
Jyuniyya Chishtiyya, Saluniyya Chishtiyya, Dariyya Chishtiyya,
Safuriyya Munawariyya, Chishtiyya, Chishtiyya Fathiyya, and
Chishtiyya Hasniyya.
Teachings:

Among Chsihtis, it is necessary for mureed to get a

sound knowledge of Islamic sciences before Bait. Baba Farid
himself first asked by Kaki to acquire extrovertive education
before joining the order. Similar to other Sufi orders such as
Suhrawardiyya and Qadiriyya, Chishtis focuses more on the
louder form of dhikr. During their chants, they add special
emphasis to the word "Allah".20 Unlike Qadiri and Naqshabandi
 Research Journal Al-Meezan, Volume: 3, Issue: 1 ( June 2021) 30

Sufis, Sima' earned more fame in their circles that also played an
essential role in the rapid spread of this silsila. Shaik Ikram
argued that because of its practices such as Sima' and poetry, the
environment of India proved more accommodating for Chishti
Silsila. Moreover, similar to Suhrawardiyya, this order also finds
it necessary to train their muredeen in their Khanaqahs. Chsihtis
are more open in their approach and therefore, not only welcome
non-Muslims in their circles but also make them their muredeen.
Variations are evident in the method of teaching, training,
and practice of these orders. However, fewer differences and
more commonalties are observed among them. The basic
teachings, for example, following the Holy Quran, Sunnah, and
Shaikh along with practices and states such as Mujahida,
Muraqaba (meditation), Jazb (unintentional love of God), and
Sluk (quest for the closeness of God) are their common
characteristics whereas when, how, with whom, and where
different Sufi practices should be performed can be marked as
general differences among the Sufi orders.

References:

1
Abū al-Qāsim Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risāla al-Qushayriyyah (Cairo: Dār al-Sh'ab,
1989),P: 464; Abū Nasr as-Sarrāj Al-Tusi, Kitāb al-luma' fi'l-Taṣawwuf (London:
Brill, 1914),P 5; Muhammad bin Usman Hujwiri, Kashf al-Maḥjūb, trans.
Muhammad Ahmad (Lahore: Maktabah Shams wa Qamar, 2012),P: 117; Abū
Bakr Al-Klabadhi, Kitāb al-Ta'arruf li-Madhab Ahl-e-Taṣwwuf (Cairo: Maktabah
al-Khānijī, 1994),P: 5-10.
2
William C. Chittick, Sufism: A Beginner's Guide (Oxford: Oneworld
Publications, 2008), P:27; Ihsaan Ilahi Zaheer, Taṣwwuf Tarīkh wa Taḥqīq, trans.
Masuud Muhammad (Lahore: Idārah Tarjumān-ul-Sunnah, 2010),P: 10-11.
 Evolution of '' Sufism'' in the Indian Subcontinent 31

3
Al-Qushayrī was a Muslim scholar, Sufi, historian, and mufassir. His Al-Risāla
al-Qushayriyya is recognized as one of the early texts on Sufism.
4
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risāla al-Qushayriyyah,P: 42.
5
Al-Tusi, Kitāb al-luma' fi'l-Taṣawwuf,P: 25.
6
Al-Tusi, Kitāb al-luma' fi'l-Taṣawwuf,P: 40.
7
Hujwiri, Kashf al-Maḥjūb, P:130.
8
Shammas Al-Rehman and Saeed Al-Rehman, "Junūbi Asia kī Muslim Tadhīb
(712-1072) Aur Khānqāhi Niẓām," Al-Ayyām 6, no. 2: 103.
9
The first two stages were taifa (nation/tribe/group) and khanqah (monastery)
respectively. For more details, see J. Spencer Triningham, The Sufi Orders in
Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971),P: 103.
10
Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Tadhkiyya wa Iḥsān yā Taṣwwuf wa Sulūk (Lakhnu:
Majlis Taḥqīqāt wa Nashriyāt-e-Islam, 1979), P:93.
11
D. S. Margoliouth, "Qādiriyyah," in Urdu Dāirah Mu'arif Islamiyyah (Lahore:
Dānish Gah Punjab, 1978),P: 14.
12
Muhammad Farooq Hasan, Twārīkh-e-Āa'īnah Taṣwwuf (Rampur: Hasnī
Press, 1891),P: 59-113.
13
Alaudeen, Tadhkirah-e-Qādiriyaah,P: 280.
14
Arthur F. Buehler, "The Naqshbandiyya in Timurid India: The Central Asian
Legacy " Journal of Islamic Studies 7, no. 2 (1996): P:228.
15
Lillahi, Tarīkh Mshā'ikh Naqshbandiyya, P:27.
16
'Abdur Rehmān Jāmī, Nufḥāt al-Uns (Lahore: Idārah Pēghām al-Quran,
2002),P: 496.
17
Hasan, Twārīkh-e-Āa'īnah Taṣwwuf, P:181.
18
Al-Suhrawardi, 'Awārif al-Mu'ārif, P:111.
19
Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, Āab-e-Kothar (Lahore: Idārah Thqāfat-e-
Islāmiyyah, 2006), P:254.
20
Ikram, Āab-e-Kothar, P:253.