Botany sem 2 paper 202 solulu

Unit 1 fruits and seeds

1.fruits:introduction, classification, and types with
examples
Ans. Certainly! Here’s a brief definition of fruits:

Fruits are the seed-bearing structures in

flowering plants that develop from the ovary after
flowering. They can be either fleshy (like apricots
and grapes) or dry (like bean pods and almonds).
Fruits play a crucial role in plant reproduction
and are rich in nutrients, including vitamins and
antioxidants. 🍎🍌🍇.

Classification-
Certainly! Let’s delve into the
fascinating world of fruits and
explore their classification in detail.
Fruits are not only delicious but also
play a crucial role in protecting seeds
and aiding in plant reproduction. Here
are the different types of fruits based
on their characteristics and
formation:

1. **True Fruits**:
 - **Definition**: True fruits develop
solely from the ovary of a flower.
- **Examples**: Mango, Coconut,
Zizyphus, etc.

2. **False Fruits or Pseudocarps**:

- **Definition**: In some fruits, it is
not the ovary that forms the fruit.
Instead, other parts of the flower
(such as the thalamus, inflorescence,
or calyx) get modified and become
part of the fruit.
- **Examples**: Apple, Strawberry,
etc.

3. **Classification Criteria for

Fruits**:
 - **Based on Ovary Structure**:
- **Simple Fruits**: These develop
from either a monocarpellary ovary or
a multicarpellary syncarpous ovary.
Only one fruit forms from the
gynoecium.
- **Fleshy Fruits**: The fruit wall
differentiates into epicarp, mesocarp,
and endocarp. Examples include
peaches, plums, and mangoes.
- **Dry Fruits**: The pericarp of
simple dry fruits is usually dry and
hard. It is not differentiated into
distinct layers. Some dry fruits
dehisce (split open) to release seeds,
while others remain indehiscent.
Examples include nuts (like almonds
and walnuts) and capsules (like
poppy pods).
- **Aggregate Fruits**: These
develop from a multicarpellary
apocarpous ovary. Each carpel
becomes a fruitlet, and they cluster
together.
- **Examples**: Blackberries,
Strawberries.
- **Composite Fruits**: Composite
fruits form from separate but closely
clustered flowers. Each flower
contributes to the overall fruit
structure.
- **Examples**: Pineapples, Figs,
Mulberries.

- **Based on Flower Participation**:

 - **Simple Fruits**: Develop from a
single flower’s ovary.
- **Aggregate Fruits**: Form from
multiple separate flowers on a
common receptacle.
- **Multiple Fruits**: Arise from
separate but closely clustered
flowers.

Remember, fruits are not just about

taste; they serve a vital purpose in the
plant life cycle! 🍎🍇🍓🌰¹²³⁵.
Seeds- structure and types (dicot and monocot),
albuminous and Exalbuminous seeds
1.monocot seeds
Certainly! Let’s delve into the **structure of monocot seeds**.
Monocot seeds exhibit some distinct features that set them apart
from dicot seeds. Here are the key components of a typical
monocot seed:

1. **Seed Coat**: The outer covering of the seed is called the

**seed coat**. In monocots, the seed coat is
**membranous** and **fused with the fruit wall**.

2. **Endosperm**: Monocot seeds are **predominantly

endospermic**. The **endosperm** is bulky and serves as a
storage tissue for food. It contains a large amount of
**starch** to support the embryo during germination.

3. **Embryo**: The embryo is the most crucial part of the seed. It

is protected by the seed coat and supplied with nutrients by the
endosperm. The embryo consists of several components:
- **Scutellum**: This is the **single cotyledon** in monocot
seeds. It plays a role in nutrient absorption during germination.
- **Shoot Axis**: The shoot axis includes the **plumule**
(located at the upper part) and the **epicotyl** (which connects
the plumule to the cotyledon).
- **Radicle**: The radicle is the **embryonic root** located at
the bottom of the axis. It is protected by a sheath called
**coleorhiza**.
In summary, monocot seeds have a single cotyledon (scutellum),
a bulky endosperm, and specific protective structures for the
embryo. Their seed coat is soft and fuses with the pericarp¹²³.

Dicot seeds

Certainly! Let's explore the **structure of dicot seeds**. Dicot

seeds, also known as **dicotyledon seeds**, exhibit some
distinct features. Here's a breakdown of their structure:

1. **Seed Coat**:

- The outermost layer of the seed is called the **seed coat**.

 - It provides protection to the seeds from mechanical injury
and unfavorable climate conditions.

- The seed coat is **bitegmic**, meaning it consists of **two

coats**.

- The inner membrane is called the **tegmen**, which is

thinner¹².

2. **Cotyledons**:

- Dicot seeds have **two cotyledons** (also known as **seed

leaves**).

- These cotyledons store nutrients and serve as the initial food

source for the developing embryo.

- Cotyledons play a crucial role during germination by providing

energy to the growing seedling.

3. **Embryo**:

- The central part of the dicot seed is the **embryo**.

- It consists of the following components:

- **Plumule**: The embryonic shoot that will develop into the

stem and leaves.

- **Radicle**: The embryonic root that will grow into the root
system.
 - The embryo is protected by the seed coat and supplied with
nutrients by the endosperm.

4. **Endosperm**:

- The **endosperm** is a tissue that stores a large amount of

food to support the embryo.

- In dicot seeds, the endosperm is usually **reduced** or even

**absent**.

- The cotyledons take over the role of nutrient storage during

germination.

5. **Shape and Size**:

- Dicot seeds can vary in shape and size.

- Common shapes include **triangular**, **elliptic**,

**ovate**, and **egg-shaped**.

- The final shape of the seed is influenced by the shape of the

ovule from which it develops.

6. **Monophyletic Group**:

- Dicots are a **monophyletic group**, meaning their

evolutionary history can be traced back to a single common
ancestor.
 - However, this group is not as symmetrical as monocots due
to the presence of a single cotyledon.

Remember that dicot seeds represent a diverse group of

flowering plants, ranging from shrubs and herbs to woody trees.
Their structure reflects their adaptation to various ecological
niches and reproductive strategies¹³.

Albuminous seeds - Certainly! Let's delve into the structure of

**albuminous seeds**. These seeds are fascinating because
they retain some part of the **endosperm** during embryonic
development. Here's a breakdown of their structure:

1. **Seed Coat (Testa and Tegmen)**:

- The outermost covering of a seed is called the **seed coat**.

It consists of two layers:

- **Testa**: The outer layer.

 - **Tegmen**: The inner layer.

- The seed coat provides protection to the seed.

2. **Hilum**:

- The **hilum** is a scar on the seed coat where the developing

seed was attached to the fruit during its growth.

- It serves as the point of attachment for the seed.

3. **Micropyle**:

- The **micropyle** is a small pore located above the hilum.

- It allows water to enter the seed during germination.

4. **Endosperm**:

- In albuminous seeds, the endosperm is still present.

- The endosperm serves as a storage tissue for nutrients and

nourishes the developing seedling during its early stages.

- Cotyledons (embryonic leaves) are thin and membranous in

albuminous seeds.

5. **Embryo**:

- The embryo is the small fleshy body within the seed.

 - It lies in a groove at the end of the endosperm.

- The growth of the seed into a plant begins from the embryo.

Remember, albuminous seeds are unique because they maintain

the endosperm, ensuring a source of energy for the developing
seedling. Examples of albuminous seeds include castor, cotton,
maize, wheat, and rice¹²³. 🌱
Exalbuminous seeds –

Certainly! Let's explore the **structure of exalbuminous seeds**.

Exalbuminous seeds are a fascinating category of seeds found in

flowering plants. Unlike albuminous seeds, which retain
endosperm even after maturation, exalbuminous seeds have a
different strategy for storing nutrients. Here are the key features
of exalbuminous seeds:

1. **Definition**:

- Exalbuminous seeds are seeds in which the endosperm is

**absent** in mature seeds.

- Instead of relying on endosperm for nourishment,

exalbuminous seeds store food in their **cotyledons**
(embryonic leaves).

2. **Cotyledons**:

- Cotyledons in exalbuminous seeds become **thick and

fleshy** due to the accumulation of stored nutrients.

- These cotyledons serve as the primary source of energy for

the developing embryo.
3. **Endosperm Absence**:

- During seed development, the embryo **completely

consumes** the endosperm and nucellus.

- As a result, the endosperm is no longer visible in mature

exalbuminous seeds.

4. **Examples**:

- Some common examples of exalbuminous seeds include:

- **Pea**

- **Bean**

- **Gram (chickpea)**

- And many more!

In summary, exalbuminous seeds have thick, nutrient-rich

cotyledons that take over the role of endosperm, allowing the
embryo to develop without relying on external nutrient sources.
These seeds showcase the remarkable adaptability and diversity
of plant reproductive strategies¹²³⁴. 🌱

Unit 2 introductory plant systematics

Binomial nomenclature- Binomial
Nomenclature:
Binomial nomenclature is the system used to
name plants (and other organisms). It consists
of two names:
Genus name: The first part of the name,
capitalized.
Specific epithet (species name): The second
part, usually descriptive and commonly of Latin
or Greek origin.
For example, within the group known as pines
(genus = Pinus), there is only one species
named Pinus contorta (where “contorta”
means twisted)2.
The entire binomial name is either underlined
or written in italics.
The hierarchical order of taxonomic categories
(from broad to specific) is as follows:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
As we move from species to the kingdom, the
number of common characteristics decreases,
with species having fundamental similarities
and organisms in the same kingdom having the
least common features1.
Remember, binomial nomenclature provides a
standardized way to name and classify plants,
allowing scientists and enthusiasts to
communicate effectively about the vast
diversity of plant life! 🌿🌼🌱
2.Types of classification (artificial, natural, and
phylogenetic)
Certainly! Let’s delve into the fascinating world
of **plant systematics** and explore the
different approaches to classifying plants.
1. **Artificial System of Classification**:
- The **artificial system** was one of the
earliest attempts to classify organisms. It
relies on a few **superficial characters** to
group plants. These characters may not
necessarily reflect evolutionary relationships.
- Artificial systems were useful for **quick
identification** but lacked a deeper
understanding of plant relationships.
- Examples of artificial systems include
**Linnaean classification** based on the
number of stamens and petals, and **Bentham
and Hooker’s system** based on vegetative
characters like habit and leaf arrangement¹.

2. **Natural or Phenetic System of

Classification**:
- The **natural system** considers **overall
similarities** among organisms. It groups
plants based on their **morphological,
anatomical, and physiological features**.
 - Unlike artificial systems, the natural system
aims to reflect **evolutionary relationships**.
It identifies common ancestry and shared
characteristics.
- **Phenetics** is a subset of the natural
system that focuses on **quantitative data**
(such as measurements) to determine
similarities and differences between species³.

3. **Phylogenetic System of Classification**:

- The **phylogenetic system** is the most
advanced and scientifically rigorous approach.
It considers **evolutionary history** and
genetic relationships.
- It organizes organisms based on their
**common ancestry** and the **branching
patterns** of their evolutionary tree.
- **Phylogenetic trees** show the
relationships between different plant groups,
revealing their **lineage** and **evolutionary
pathways**.
 - This system uses **molecular data**, such
as DNA sequences, to construct accurate
phylogenies.
- **Cladistics** is a specific method within
phylogenetics that focuses on **shared
derived characteristics** (synapomorphies) to
create cladograms³.

In summary, while artificial systems provide

quick categorization, natural systems consider
overall similarities, and phylogenetic systems
delve into evolutionary relationships. Each
system contributes to our understanding of
plant diversity and evolution.
2.bentham and hooker system of
cclassifications-
The **Bentham and Hooker System of
Classification** is a natural system that
divides seed-producing plants into **202
families**. It was proposed by **George
Bentham** and **Joseph Dalton Hooker**, two
British botanists associated with the **Royal
Botanic Gardens of Kew, England**. Let’s
explore the key features of this classification
system:

1. **Background**:

- Taxonomy is the science of classifying both living and extinct

plants and animals. Since the 17th century, various proposals for
plant and animal classification have emerged.

- The **Linnaean system**, introduced by **Carl Linnaeus**,

was the first to use **binomial nomenclature** and a hierarchical
classification system. However, it did not consider natural
affinities or evolution.

2. **Bentham and Hooker’s Work**:

- Their system was published in three volumes between **1862

and 1883** in Latin under the title **”Genera Plantarum.”**

- They classified **97,205 species of flowering plants**

(phanerogams) into **202 families** and **7,569 genera**.

- The phanerogams were divided into three classes:

- **Dicotyledonae**

- **Gymnospermae**

- **Monocotyledonae**
 - Within Dicotyledonae, they further categorized plants into
three subclasses:

- **Polypetalae**

- **Gamopetalae**

- **Monochlamydeae**

3. **Basis of Classification**:

- Bentham and Hooker focused on several characteristics for

their classification:

- **Type of perianth**

- **Number of whorls**

- **Whether the whorls are fused or free**

- They placed the **primitive family Ranunculaceae** at the

beginning and the **advanced family Poaceae** (grasses) at the
end.

4. **Merits of the System**:

- Practical to use due to clear distinguishing characteristics for

each category.

- Placing dicots after monocots was an advancement.

- Larger genera were divided into smaller sub-genera for easy

identification.
 - Justified placement of Gamopetalae after Polypetalae based
on petal fusion.

5. **Demerits of the System**:

- Controversial placement of Gymnospermae between dicots

and monocots.

- Ignored many other floral characters.

- Did not incorporate the concept of evolution¹.

In summary, the Bentham and Hooker System of Classification is

a valuable historical contribution to plant taxonomy, even though
it predates the understanding of evolution. It provides insights
into the diversity of flowering plants and their relationships⁴.
🌿🌼

Herbarium technique-
A **herbarium** is a collection of
preserved plant specimens. These
specimens are dried, pressed, and
mounted on sheets, which are then
sequentially arranged according to a
universally accepted system of
classification. The purpose of a herbarium
is to provide a permanent record of plant
diversity, aid in taxonomic research, and
serve as a valuable resource for teaching
and scientific study³.

Here are the key steps involved in the

herbarium technique or specimen
preparation:

1. **Collection**: The first step is to

carefully collect plant specimens from
the field. Proper documentation,
including details about the location,
habitat, and date of collection, is
essential.

2. **Drying**: After collection, the plant

specimens are dried. This process
involves pressing the plants between
 absorbent sheets (such as blotting
paper) to remove moisture. Drying
ensures that the specimens can be
stored without decay.

3. **Poisoning**: To prevent insect

infestations and fungal growth, the
dried specimens are treated with a
preservative. Commonly used
preservatives include naphthalene or
paradichlorobenzene crystals.

4. **Mounting and Stitching**: The dried

and preserved plant specimens are
then mounted on herbarium sheets.
The mounting board or sheet is
typically 42 x 28 cm in size. The
specimen is pasted in the middle of
 the sheet, with a label containing
essential information (such as
species name, collector, date, and
location) pasted in the bottom right
corner. Stitching may be used to
secure delicate parts of the plant.

5. **Labeling and Deposition**: Each

herbarium sheet is labeled with
relevant information. The label
includes details about the plant, its
collection, and other relevant data.
The specimens are then deposited in
the herbarium for long-term storage
and reference.

**Functions of Herbarium**:
- **Conservatory of Material and
Data**: Herbaria store valuable data
on their labels, including information
about plant species, distribution,
and ecology. Large herbaria collect
specimens from various regions,
making them essential for studying
flora and vegetation.

- **Taxonomic Research**:
Herbarium specimens provide the
basic material for taxonomic
studies. They allow researchers to
compare and identify plant species,
describe new taxa, and prepare
monographs and floras.
- **Historic Preservation**: Herbaria
preserve specimens of historic
importance, including rare or
endangered plants. These
specimens serve as a record of
biodiversity over time.

- **Ecological Studies**: Herbarium

collections help researchers study
plant ranges, ecological distribution,
and adaptations.

- **Scientific Research**: Herbarium

specimens are used in various
scientific studies, such as plant
anatomy, palynology (study of
pollen), ethnobotany (study of plant
 use by humans), and molecular
research.

In summary, herbarium techniques play a

crucial role in documenting and preserving
plant diversity, aiding taxonomic research,
and advancing our understanding of plant
biology and ecology¹²⁴⁵.
3.botanical Garden –
A **botanical garden** is a controlled and staffed
institution for the maintenance of a living collection
of plants under scientific management. These
gardens serve several purposes, including
**education**, **research**, and **conservation**.
Let me provide you with more details:

1. **Purpose and Functions**:

- **Scientific Research**: Botanical gardens
maintain documented collections of living plants for
scientific research. They play a crucial role in
studying plant diversity, taxonomy, ecology, and
genetics.
- **Conservation**: These gardens contribute to
the conservation of rare and endangered plant
species. By cultivating and preserving diverse plant
species, they help prevent extinction.
- **Education**: Botanical gardens are
educational institutions where visitors can learn
about different plant species, their habitats, and
ecological importance. They often offer guided
tours, workshops, and educational displays.
- **Display**: Many botanical gardens showcase
ornamental plants, emphasizing natural
relationships within plant groups. Visitors can
appreciate the beauty and diversity of plant life.
- **Herbaria and Libraries**: Botanical gardens
often have associated herbaria (collections of dried
plant specimens) and libraries, which aid in
research and education.

2. **History**:
 - The origin of modern botanical gardens can be
traced back to the appointment of botany
professors in 16th-century Renaissance Italy. These
professors curated medicinal gardens, which
gradually evolved into botanical gardens.
- In the 18th century, systems of nomenclature and
classification were devised by botanists associated
with these gardens. Educational “order beds”
displayed these systems.
- As European colonies expanded globally, botanic
gardens were established in tropical regions,
focusing on economic botany and plant exploration.

3. **Staff and Resources**:

- Botanical gardens are often run by universities,
scientific research organizations, or government
bodies.
- Staff includes botanists, gardeners, and
educators.
- Some botanical gardens offer
diploma/certificate programs in horticulture,
botany, and taxonomy.
4. **Examples**:
- The **Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew** near
London is a renowned botanical garden with
extensive collections and research programs.
- **Nandankanan Botanical Garden** in Odisha,
India, covers 75 hectares and houses various
specialized gardens, including a glasshouse, cacti
house, bonsai house, and more⁴.

In summary, botanical gardens play a vital role in

plant conservation, education, and scientific
research, contributing to our understanding of the
natural world and its biodiversity¹²³. 🌿
3. Botanical survey of India –

The **Botanical Survey of India (BSI)** is the apex

taxonomic research organization in India. It
operates under the **Ministry of Environment,
Forest & Climate Change, Government of India**
and was established on **February 13, 1890**
under the direction of **Sir George King**¹⁵. Here
are some key points about the BSI:

Unit 3 -families .

Tiliaceae: Characters, Distribution and

Types
A. Vegetative characters:

Habit:
Shrubs or trees rarely herbs (Corchorus) with mucilagenous juice.

Root:
Tap and branched.

Stem:
Erect, cylindrical or angular, woody, solid and branched.

Leaves:
Alternate rarely opposite, simple, margin entire, dentate or lobed-,
stipulate, stipule caducous (Tilia).

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:
Cymose and often very complex (Tilia, Triumfetta).

Flower:
Pedicellate, actinomorphic, hypogynous, hermaphrodite, rarely
unisexual (Carpodiptera), tetra or pentamerous, sometimes with
epicalyx.
Calyx:
Sepals 5 or 4 rarely 3, polysepalous or basally connate, valvate
aestivation, inferior.

Corolla:
Petals 5 or 4 rarely absent (Prockia), polypetalous, often glandular,
imbricate aestivation, usually coloured but sometimes sepaloid,
inferior.

Androecium:
Stamens 10 to indefinite, free or united in groups (Grewia), inserted at
the base of petals or on androphore (Grewia), anthers dithecous,
extrorse, dehiscence by apical pores or longitudinal slits.

Gynoecium:
Carpels 2 to 10 or many (Apeiba), syncarpous; ovary superior, 2 to
many locular with 1 to many anatropous ovules in each loculus; axile
placentation; style simple; stigma capitate or lobed.

Fruit:
Capsule or schizocarpic or drupaceous.

Seed:
Endospermic, embryo curved with leafy cotyledon.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Pollination:
Entomophilous.

Floral formula:
Distribution of Tiliaceae:
It is commonly called Jute family. It comprises 50 genera and 450
species. The members are mostly tropical and some inhabitants of
temperate climate. It is abundant in South East Asia and Brazil.

Economic Importance of Tiliaceae:

1. Fibre:

Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius are cultivated for their tenacious

blast fibres, which yield jute of commerce. It is used in making gunny
bags.

2. Medicinal:
The fruits of Grewia asiatica are astringent, cooling and digestive. The
root bark is used in rheumatism.

The flowers, leaves and fruits of Triumfetta bartramia are used in

gonorrhoea. Bark and fresh leaves of this plant are used in diarrhoea
and dysentery.

3. Wood:
The species of Tilia yield useful timber. Tilia americana is one of the
best timber plant of America.

4. Ornamental:
Some of the plants viz. Sparmannia, Microcos are grown in gardens.

Primitive characters:
1. Plant are generally shrubs or trees.

2. Leaves alternate, simple, stipulate.

3. Flowers hermaphrodite, hypogynous and actinomorphic.

4. Corolla polypetalous.

5. Gynoecium polycarpellary (Apeiba).

6. Seeds endospermic.

Advanced characters:
1. Inflorescence cymose or complex (Tilia).

2. Flowers unisexual (Carpodipetera).

3. Corolla rarely absent (Prockia).

4. Gynoecium syncarpous with axile placentation.

5. Presence of curved embryo in the seeds.

Convolvulaceae family
Convolvulaceae: Characters,
Distribution and Types
Characters of Convolvulaceae:

Herbs or shrubs, climbing; leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate, rarely

stipulate; inflorescence cymose; flowers actinomorphic,
hermaphrodite, hypogynous; calyx 5, polysepalous; colrolla
gamopetalous, campanulate; stamens 5, epipetalous, alternipetalous,
disc present; ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, axile
placentation, generally two ovules per loculus; fruit capsule or nut.

A. Vegetative characters:

Habit:
Herbs (Convolvulus, Evolvulus), shrubs and climbing {Ipomoea,
Argyeria), the plants may be xerophytic, hydrophytic (Ipomoea
aquatica) or parasitic (Cuscuta).

Root:
Tap, branched, fleshy (Ipomoea batatus; H. Sakarkand). Cuscuta
without ordinary roots but adventitious haustoria are present.

Stem:
Erect, or prostrate, herbaceous, twiner (Ipomoea and Cuscuta),
cylindrical, branched, solid or fistular, tuberous rhozomatous
(Convolvulus).

Leaves:
Alternate, simple, exstipulate, petiolate, entire or palmately lobed, or
pinnately divided (Quamoclit pinnata), unicostate or multicostate
reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:
Solitary axillary (Convolvulus, Evolvulus) or cymes.

Flower:
Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete hermaphrodite,
actinomorphic, pentamerous, (in Hildebrandita the flowers are
tetramerous, unisexual) and hypogynous.

Calyx:
Sepals 5, polysepalous rarely gamosepalous, persistent, imbricate,
inferior.

Corolla:
Petals 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, or infundibuliform, imbricate,
or valvate (induplicate valvate in Ipomoea), inferior.

Androecium:
Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, length of the filaments variable
in the same flower; dorsifixed or basifixed, inserted deep in the corolla
tube, dithecous and introrse.

Gynoecium:
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, situated on a disc, sometimes
tetralocular, axile placentation, two or rarely one ovule per loculus;
style simple, or two (Cuscuta), filiform, stigma capitate or bifid
(Convolvulus, Ipomoea palmata).

Fruit:
Capsule (Convolvulus, Evolvulus, Cuscuta) or berry.

Seed:
Endospermic.

Pollination:
Entomophilous.

Floral formula:

Distribution of Convolvulaceae:
It is commonly known as “Sweet-potato family”. It includes 55 genera
and 1650 species which are found in tropical region of the world. In
India the family is represented by 177 species belonging to 20 genera.

Economic Importance of Convolvulaceae:

1. Food:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Tuberous roots of Ipomoea batatus (Sweet potato) are rich in starch

and edible. Root stock of Calystegia sepium are cooked and eaten. The
leaves of Ipomoea aquatica are used as vegetable.

2. Medicinal:
Due to the purgative property of latex, several species are used as
medicine (Exogynum purga). Ipomoea hederacea yields Kaladana.
Leaves of Ipomoea pescarpae are boiled and applied externally in case
of colic while decoction in used as a blood purifier and in bilious
disorders. Ipomoea paniculata is considered good for rejuvenation,
Merremia tridentata is used in rheumatism, piles and urinary
disorders.

3. Weed:
Convolvulus arvensis, Evolvulus alsinoides, are the common weeds.
Cuscuta is a parasite and ruins many types of plants.

4. Ornamental:
Ipomoea biloba, Convolvulus, Porana, Calystegia apd Quamoclit are
cultivated as ornamentals.

Primitive characters:
1. Presence of shrubs and woody climbers.

2. Leaves simple and alternate.

3. Solitary axillary inflorescence.

4. Flowers actinomorphic, hermaphrodite and hypogynous.

5. Calyx mostly free.

6. Stamens polyandrous and dithecous.

7. Seeds endospermic.

Advanced characters:
1. Plants mostly herbs annual or perennial.

2. Leaves reduced and scale-like in Cuscuta.

3. Parasitic habit.
4. Leaves exstipulate.

5. Corolla gamopetalous.

6. Number of stamens five; epipetalous.

7. Gynoecium with two fused carpels.

8. Fruit simple.

Euphorbiaceae family
introduction to Euphorbiales:
According to Hutchinson this is the thirty fifth order of the phylum
Angiospermae, sub phylum Dicotyledones and division Lignosae. The
order consists of a single family, i.e., the Euphorbiaceae which has
been described in the present text in detail.

Bentham and Hooker have included the Euphorbiaceae along with

other eight families including Urticaceae and Casuarinaceae in their
seventh series—the Unisexuales of class Dicotyledones, and division
Monochlamydeae or Incomplete.

Engler and Prantl have included the family Euphorbiaceae along with
other nineteen families including Linaceae, Rutaceae and Meliaceae in
their twenty third order—the Geraniales of class Dicotyledoneae and
sub-class Archichlamydeae.

Hypogynous; actinomorphic; unisexual; petals usually absent, if

present sometimes quite sympetalous (Jatropha)-, syncarpous with 1-
2 ovules pendulous from the inner angle; stamens various; seeds often
with a conspicuous caruncle; endosperms mostly copious; stipules
mostly present.

Family—Euphorbiaceae:
There are about 283 genera and 7,300 species in this family.
Distribution:

The plants of this family are found throughout the world. However,
they are not found in arctic regions. In our country the family is
represented by several genera such as, Euphorbia, Ricinus,
Phyllanthus, Croton, Pedilanthus, etc. In the desert regions of Africa
and elsewhere the family is represented by cactus-like plants of
different species of Euphorbia.

Heath like Euphorbias are quite common in Australia. In Britain only

two genera, i.e., Euphorbia and Mercurialis are found, which are
represented by sixteen and two species respectively.

Habit:
The plants exhibit great variation in their habit. The plants may be
herbs, shrubs or trees. Euphorbia hirta, E. thymifolia, E. helioscopica,
E. peplus; E. heterophylla, E. cristata, E. elegans; Phyllanthus niruri,
Croton sp., Acalypha indica, etc., are annual or prennial herbs.
Euphorbia pulcherrima, E. splendens, are beautiful shrubs.
Pedilanthus sp., and Jatropha sp., are shrubby plants.

Euphorbia royleana, E. tirucalli are cactus like shrubs. Ricinus

communis (Arand) is a tall annual and becomes small tree-like in
habit. The tree habit of the family is represented by Phyllanthus
emblica (Amla), Bischofia javanica, Putranjiva roxburghii, etc.

Havea brasiliensist (rubber tree) is a large tree 60 to 100 feet in height

and 8-12 feet in girth. Species of the genus Tragia are tropical
climbers. Majority of the members of the family possess large
laticiferous vessels which contain latex.

Root:
Tap and branched. The roots of Manihot utilissima and M .palmata
are tuberous and rich in starch.

Stem:
Herbaceous or woody, erect, very rarely climbing as in a tropical genus
Tragia. The species of Xylophylla possess flat phylloclades. The stem is
branched. It may be cylindrical, angular or flat. Usually solid but
sometimes hollow as in Ricinus communis. Many stems possess
spines. In many Euphorbia sp., the stems become fleshy, green and
cactus like in appearance.

Leaves:
The form and position of leaves are variable. The arrangement is
usually alternate but sometimes they are opposite, e.g., Euphorbia
hirta. In Pedilanthus the leaves are arranged alternately in the lower
region of the plant whereas opposite in the floral region.

Usually the leaves are simple but in some they are deeply incised, e.g.,
Ricinus, Manihot, etc. In many Euphorbias the leaves are scaly and
caducous. In many cases the leaves are reduced to spines. In few cases
the leaves are replaced by cladodes. Usually the leaves are stipulate. In
Jatropha sp., the stipules become branched and hair-like. In many
Euphorbia sp., they are represented by glands or spines.
Inflorescence:
The inflorescence varies greatly. It may be racemose or cymose or
sometimes complex. In Euphorbia, the inflorescence is peculiar but
very characteristic and known as cyathium. This is the modification of
a cyme. In cyathium inflorescence a large number of male flowers each
represented by a stalked stamen are found arranged around a central
stalked female flower. The female flower consists of gynoecium only.
The complete inflorescence looks like a single flower. The bracts are
being arranged like a perianth. The bracts are so united that they form
a cup-like structure. In Acalypha the inflorescence is catkin type. In
Croton and Ricinus the flowers are arranged in terminal racemes. In
Jatropha the inflorescence is of cymose type and the flowers are
arranged in terminal cymes. In Manihot the flowers are being
arranged in racemes.

Flowers:

The flowers are always unisexual. They are much reduced and may be
monoecious or dioecious. In Euphorbia sp., each male flower is
represented by a single stalked stamen. The flowers are incomplete,
regular, actinomorphic and hypogynous.

Perianth:
Occasionally, both calyx and corolla are present, e.g., Croton. In
majority of cases either calyx or corolla or both are absent. In Ricinus
communis the calyx is present and the corolla absent. In Euphorbia
hirta both the whorls of calyx and corolla are absent. In Jatropha sp.,
both calyx and corolla are present.

The perianth consists of 4 to 5 petals. The calyx and corolla consists of

4 or 5 sepals or petals. The aestivation is valvate or imbricate.

Androecium:
The number of stamens varies from one to many. Usually as many
stamens are present as many perianth leaves. In Euphorbia a single
stalked stamen represents a single male flower. In Ricinus sp., usually
five stamens are present, each stamen is profusely branched. In
Jatropha they are arranged in two whorls each of five stamens.
In many the stamens are indefinite, e.g., Croton. The filaments may be
free or united. The anthers are dithecous. They dehisce either by apical
pores or by transverse or longitudinal slits.

Gynoecium:
Three carpels (tricarpellary), syncarpous; the ovary is trilocular,
superior. Each locule contains one or two pendulous, anatropous
ovules. The placenation is axile.

Fruit:
The fruits are schizocarpic. The fruits break violently and dehisce into
one seeded cocci. Such type of fruit is termed regma which is
characteristic of Ricinus sp. The sp., of Trewia and Bridelia bear drupe
fruit. Phyllanthus emblica also bears drupe.

Seeds:
The seed is endospermic. In Ricinus caruncle develops from the
micropyle. The cotyledons either lie flat or are folded within the
endosperm.

Pollination:
Usually entomophilous, i.e., through the agency of insects. Only cross-
pollination takes place. In many species the leaves and bracts become
coloured and showy to attract the insects. Sometimes anemophily is
also found.

Floral Formulae:
The floral formulae of different genera are as follows:
Economic Importance
1. Food source: The tuberous roots provide starchy food.

2. Many plants produce oils that are used to make paint. Several species of plants produce
these oils.

3. Castor oil (IAF) and conon oil (JLIF) are used as lubricants and purgatives.

4. Manillal, for example, contains a milky juice that can be poisonous. Mercurialis produces
poisons that can kill. Its poisons can be extremely harmful to the stomach. Due to the
possibility of blindness, some of these poisons are used in murders and suicides. Insects can
also be killed by these poisons.

5. Phyllanthus emblica’s fruit has many medicinal benefits.

6. Man/hot gives common rubber in latex in several species of Hevea.

7. For engraving, boxwood is the best. Box wood is obtained from the Buxus species.

8. Colourful ornamental plants: Plants in this family have vibrant colours. This makes them ideal
for ornamental plants. A good example is Euphorbia splenclens. Also known as castor bean
or Euphorbia pulcherrima.

9. Dye is produced by Chrozophora.

Palmaceae-family
Characters of Palmaceae:
Mainly trees with stout unbranched stem ending in crown of leaves;
leaves large, compound, alternate, young leaves are plicate, exstipulate
with long petioles; inflorescence enclosed in a persistent spathe;
flowers unisexual; perianth 6 in two whorls of 3 each; in male flower 6
stamens in two whorls, anthers versatile; in female flowers carpels
three; apocarpous or syncarpous, superior, trilocular or rarely
unilocular; fruit berry or drupe; seed endospermic.

A. Vegetative characters:

Habit:
Large unbranched trees (Phoenix, Areca catechu), shrubs or garden
palms, trailing (Calamus), herbs (Reinhardtia).

Root:
Adventitious roots arising from the base of bulbous stem. Thick aerial
roots are also found in some species of Manicaria.

Stem:
Aerial, woody, erect, unbranched, very rarely branched, (Hyphaene),
in some short rhizome (Nipa), cylindrical, hairy, old stem protected by
woody leaf bases, climbing (Calamus).

Leaves:
Alternate crowded at the apex of stem giving palmlike appearance to
the plant; petiolate, leaf-base sheathing, broad and persistent;
exstipulate, compound pinnately (Phoenix, Areca), palmately
(Borassus), acute, thick, leathery, parallel venation. In some palms
(Copernica) the petiole is prolonged into a ligule like structure called
histula.
B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:
It is simple or compound, spike or branched panicle, usually a spadix
with a woody spathe which opens by two valves; spadix may have
sessile or pedicellate flowers, simple racemose (Borassus), or
compound racemose (Cocos) or even profusely branched panicle
(Daemonorops).

Flower:
Sessile or shortly pedicellate, bracteate, mostly unisexual (Phoenix) or
hermaphrodite (Livingstonia), actinomorphic, incomplete or
complete, hypogynous trimerous, flowers are of small size and
produced in large numbers. Plant may be monoecious or dioecious.

In monoecious flower the position of male and female flowers is

variable i.e. male flowers at the base or at the apex and the female
flowers at the upper part (Ruffia, Rap his) or male and female flowers
are inter-mingled or female flowers in the centre, made on the either
side as the Cocos, Caryota.

Perianth:
Tepals 6, in two whorls of 3 each, polyphyllous or slightly connate at
the base; perianth lobes tough, persistent, coriaceous, leathery or
fleshy, valvate or imbricate aestivation, white or petaloid.

Androecium:

In male or hermaphrodite flowers, stamens are 6 in number, two

whorls of 3 each, polyandrous, staminodes may be present in the
female flowers; anthers versatile, dithecous, basifixed or dorsifixed,
introrse, filament short and distinct.

Gynoecium:
In female or hermaphrodite flower-carpels 3 in number, apocarpous
or syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular, axile placentation, single
ovule in each loculus; style short, stigma small or broad or 3 lobed.

Fruit:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Usually a berry, fleshy or fibrous waxy coating on the fruit; the mature
fruit contains a single seed (Phoenix); drupe (Cocos nucifera).

Seed:
Endospermic.

Pollination:
Anemophilous or entomophilous.
Distribution of Palmaceae:
The family is commonly known as “Palm family”. It includes 217
genera and 2500 species. The members are confined to tropics in both
the hemispheres and extending in the warmer regions of the world. In
India it is represented by 225 species belonging to 25 genera.

Economic Importance of Palmaceae:

1. Food:
Pith of Metroxylon rumphii and M. leave (Sago palm) yield sago of
commerce. The sap of Borassus yields a sugar, which on fermentation
gives alcoholic drink “Toddy”. Fruits of Phoenix dactylifera are very
delicious and eaten throughout the Arab world. The nuts of Areca
catechu serve as a asteringent and used with betel leaves. The milk of
Cocos nucifera makes a refreshing drink, endosperm is eaten raw and
stored when dry.

2. Medicinal:
Tender leaves of Calamus travancoricus are given in bilousness,
worms and dyspepsia.

3. Fibres:
Mesocarps of the drupes of Coconut are extensively used for stuffing
pillows and sofa sets. The cane of commerce is obtained from Calamus
tenuis and C. rotang and are used for making mats, baskets and other
furniture.

Borassus flabellifer – yields palmyra fibres which are used to prepare

brushes and brooms. The leaves are used in the manufacture of hand
fans, umbrellas, baskets and mats.

4. Wax and oil:

Wax is obtained from the leaves of Copernicia cerifera and Ceroxylon

andicola. The wax is used in making gramophone records, candles and
models.

Coconut oil is obtained from the Cocos nucifera and is used as hair oil,
in soap industry and also for cooking.

5. Ornamentals:
Roystonea regia (Royal palm), Corypha elata (Talipot palm).

Primitive characters:
1. Mostly plants are trees.

2. Leaves are spirally arranged.

3. Flowers are actinomorphic, hypogynous and hermaphrodite.

4. Gynoecium is apocarpous (Phoenix, Rhapis).

5. Ovary superior.

Advanced characters:
1. Small herbaceous forms are also present.

2. Leaves are compound and exstipulate.

3. Inflorescence is a spadix.

4. Perianth is present.

5. Flowers are usually unisexual (Phoenix, Cocos).

6. Flowers trimerous.

7. Stamens epiphyllous.

8. Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous rarely unilocular.

9. Style very short or absent.

10. Axile placentation.