SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 – SCI1301

1
1.0 Structural system

Structural system or structural frame in structural engineering refers to load-resisting sub-

system of a structure. The structural system transfers loads through interconnected structural
components or members.

Tensile structures: Members of tensile structures are subjects to pure tension under the action of
external loads.

Compressive structures: Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the
action of axial loads. Because compressive structures are susceptible to buckling or instability.

Trusses: Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connections
to form a stable configuration.

Shear structures: These are structures such as reinforced concrete or wooden shear walls, which
are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake
excitations.

Bending structures: Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of
external loads.

Truss

2D Frame
3D Frame

Simply Supported Beam

Fig 1.0 Determinate structure

2
Equilibrium Equations

Equilibrium equations: The static equilibrium of a particle is an important concept in statics. A

particle is in equilibrium only if the resultant of all forces acting on the particle is equal to zero.

ΣFx = 0; ΣFy = 0 ; ΣFz = 0 ;ΣMx = 0 ;ΣMy = 0 ; ΣMz = 0

Static Indeterminacy

Number of unknown reactions (NR) = 6

Number of Equilibrium Equations (NE) = 3
Static Indeterminacy = NR – NE = 6-3 =3 (3rd Degree of Indeterminacy)

Number of unknown reactions (NR) = 4

Number of Equilibrium Equations (NE) = 3
Static Indeterminacy = NR – NE = 4-3 =1 (1st Degree of Indeterminacy) Statically Indeterminate

3
 Number of Equilibrium Equations (NE) = 3;
Number of Reactions (NR) = 3
Static Indeterminacy= NR-NE = 3-3 =0,
Statically Determinate

Number of Unknown Reactions = 3

Number of Equilibrium Equation= 3
Determinacy= NR- NE = 0 Statically
Determinate

Number of Unknown Forces (Internal) = 13

Number of Unknown Forces (External) = 3
Number of Equilibrium Equations (NE) = 2j = 2 x7
Indeterminacy = N.U.F (Int) + N.U.F (Ext) – NE =
16-14 = 2 (2nd Degree of Static Indeterminacy)
Statically Indeterminate.

Number of Unknown Forces (Internal) = 18

Number of Unknown Forces (External) = 3
Number of Equilibrium Equations (NE) = 2j = 2 x10 =
20
Indeterminacy = N.U.F (Int) + N.U.F (Ext) – NE = 18+3-
20= 1 (Internally Indeterminate)

4
 Number of Unknown Forces (Internal) = 17
Number of Unknown Forces (External) = 4
Number of Equilibrium Equations (NE) = 2j = 2 x10
= 20
Indeterminacy = N.U.F (Int) + N.U.F (Ext) – NE =
18+3- 20= 1 (Externally Indeterminate)

Free Body Diagram

The free body diagram of a body (or its part, or a connected system of bodies) is obtained by
isolating it from the all other surrounding bodies. The diagram detaches the system in
consideration from all mechanical contacts with other bodies and sets it free.

Whole Structure

Free Body Diagram

5
2.0 Fixed beam

6
3.0 Continuous beam with supports at different levels

A beam is generally supported on a hinge at one end and a roller bearing at the other end. The
reactions are determined by using static equilibrium equations. Such as beam is a statically determinate
structure. If the ends of the beam are restrained/clamped/encastre/fixed then the moments are included at
the ends by these restraints and this moments make the structural element to be a statically indeterminate
structure or a redundant structure. These restraints make the slopes at the ends zero and hence in a fixed
beam, the deflection and slopes are zero at the supports.

7
EXAMPLE .1: A continuous beam ABC is simply supported at A and C and continuous over support B with AB =
4m and BC = 5m. A uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m is acting over the beam. The moment of inertia is I
throughout the span. Analyse the continuous beam and draw SFD and BMD

8
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II – STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 – SCI1301

1
 UNIT 2 - Moment Distribution Method

1.0 Introduction
As pointed out earlier, there are two distinct methods of analysis for statically indeterminate
structures depending on how equations of equilibrium, load displacement and compatibility
conditions are satisfied: 1) force method of analysis and (2) displacement method of analysis.
In the last module, force method of analysis was discussed. In this module, the displacement
method of analysis will be discussed. In the force method of analysis, primary unknowns are
forces and compatibility of displacements is written in terms of pre-selected redundant reactions
and flexibility coefficients using force displacement relations. Solving these equations, the
unknown redundant reactions are evaluated. The remaining reactions are obtained from
equations of equilibrium.
As the name itself suggests, in the displacement method of analysis, the primary unknowns are
displacements. Once the structural model is defined for the problem, the unknowns are
automatically chosen unlike the force method. Hence this method is more suitable for computer
implementation. In the displacement method of analysis, first equilibrium equations are
satisfied. The equilibrium of forces is written by expressing the unknown joint displacements in
terms of load by using load displacement relations. These equilibrium equations are solved for
unknown joint displacements. In the next step, the unknown reactions are computed from
compatibility equations using force displacement relations. In displacement method, three
methods which are closely related to each other will be discussed.
1) Slope-Deflection Method
2) Moment Distribution Method
3) Direct Stiffness Method
The Slope-deflection and moment distribution methods were extensively used for many years
before the compute era. After the revolution occurred in the field of computing only direct
stiffness method is preferred.

2
1.1 Degrees of freedom

In the displacement method of analysis, primary unknowns are joint displacements which are
commonly referred to as the degrees of freedom of the structure. It is necessary to consider all
the independent degrees of freedom while writing the equilibrium equations.These degrees of
freedom are specified at supports, joints and at the free ends. For example, a propped cantilever
beam (see Fig.14.01a) under the action of load P will undergo only rotation at B if axial
deformation is neglected. In this case kinematic degree of freedom of the beam
is only one i.e. B as shown in the figure.
In Fig.14.01b, we have nodes at A,B,C and D. Under the action of lateral loads and , this
continuous beam deform as shown in the figure. Here axial deformations are neglected. For this
beam we have five degrees of freedom 21,P P3 P θC θB θ A,, , and as indicated in the figure. In
Fig.14.02a, a symmetrical plane frame is loaded symmetrically. In this case we have only two
degrees of freedom Dθ D ΔB θ and C θ. Now consider a frame as shown in Fig.14.02b. It has
three degrees of freedom viz. Bθ,Cθ and DΔ as shown. Under the action of horizontal and vertical
load, the frame will be displaced as shown in the figure. It is observed that nodes at B and C
undergo rotation and also get displaced horizontally by an equal amount. Hence

Fig 1. Slope deflection method

3
Objectives
After reading this chapter the student will be able to
1. Calculate kinematic degrees of freedom of continuous beam.
2. Derive slope-deflection equations for the case beam with unyielding supports.
3. Differentiate between force method and displacement method of analyses.
4. State advantages of displacement method of analysis as compared to force method of
analysis.
5. Analyse continuous beam using slope-deflection method.

In this lesson the slope-deflection equations are derived for the case of a beam with
unyielding supports .In this method, the unknown slopes and deflections at nodes are related to
the applied loading on the structure. As introduced earlier, the slope-deflection method can be
used to analyze statically determinate and indeterminate beams and frames. In this method it is
assumed that all deformations are due to bending only. In other words deformations due to axial
forces are neglected. As discussed earlier in the force method of analysis compatibility equations
are written in terms of unknown reactions. It must be noted that all the unknown reactions appear
in each of the compatibility equations making it difficult to solve resulting equations. The slope-
deflection equations are not that lengthy in comparison.
The slope-deflection method was originally developed by Heinrich Manderla and Otto Mohr
for computing secondary stresses in trusses. The method as used today was presented by
G.A.Maney in 1915 for analyzing rigid jointed structures.

Slope-Deflection Equations

Consider a typical span of a continuous beam AB as shown in Fig.14.1.The beam has constant
flexural rigidity EI and is subjected to uniformly distributed loading and concentrated loads as
shown in the figure. The beam is kinematically indeterminate to second degree. In this lesson,
the slope-deflection equations are derived for the simplest case i.e. for the case of continuous
beams with unyielding supports. In the next lesson, the support settlements are included in the
slope-deflection equations.

4
 Fig 2. Slope deflection method

For this problem, it is required to derive relation between the joint end
moments M AB and M BA in terms of joint rotations and B and loads acting on the
A

beam .Two subscripts are used to denote end moments. For example, end
moments denote moment acting at joint A of the member AB. Rotations of

the tangent to the elastic curve are denoted by one subscript. Thus, A denotes

the rotation of the tangent to the elastic curve at A. The following sign conventions are (3)
used in the slope-deflection equations (1) Moments acting at the ends of the member
in counterclockwise direction are taken to be positive. (2) The rotation of the tangent
to the elastic curve is taken to be positive when the tangent to the elastic curve has
rotated in the counterclockwise direction from its original direction. The slope-
deflection equations are derived by superimposing the end moments developed due
to (1) applied loads (2) rotation A

5
rotation B . This is shown in Fig.14.2 (a)-(c). In Fig. 14.2(b) a kinematically determinate
structure is obtained. This condition is obtained by modifying the support conditions to fixed so
that the unknown joint rotations become zero. The structure shown in Fig.14.2 (b) is known as
kinematically determinate structure or restrained structure. For this case, the end moments are

denoted by M F and M F .AB BA The fixed end moments are evaluated by force–method
of analysis as discussed in the previous module. For example for fixed- fixed beam subjected to
uniformly distributed load, the fixed-end moments are shown in Fig.14.3.

The fixed end moments are required for various load cases. For ease of calculations, fixed end
forces for various load cases are given at the end of this lesson. In the actual structure end A
rotates by A and end B rotates by B . Now
it is required to derive a relation relating A and B with the end moments Ma and

6
Application of Slope-Deflection Equations to Statically Indeterminate Beams.
The procedure is the same whether it is applied to beams or frames. It may be summarized as
follows:
1. Identify all kinematic degrees of freedom for the given problem. This can be done by
drawing the deflection shape of the structure. All degrees of freedom are treated as
unknowns in slope-deflection method.
2. Determine the fixed end moments at each end of the span to applied load. The table
given at the end of this lesson may be used for this purpose.
3. Express all internal end moments in terms of fixed end moments and near end, and far
end joint rotations by slope-deflection equations.
4. Write down one equilibrium equation for each unknown joint rotation. For example, at
a support in a continuous beam, the sum of all moments corresponding to an unknown
joint rotation at that support must be zero. Write down as many equilibrium equations
as there are unknown joint rotations.
5. Solve the above set of equilibrium equations for joint rotations.
6. Now substituting these joint rotations in the slope-deflection equations evaluate the end
moments.
7. Determine all rotations.

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 Example 1
A continuous beam ABC is carrying uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m in

addition to a concentrated load of 20 kN as shown in Fig.14.5a. Draw bending moment and

shear force diagrams. Assume EI to be constant.

(a). Degrees of freedom

It is observed that the continuous beam is kinematically indeterminate to first
degree as only one joint rotation B is unknown. The deflected shape /elastic

8
curve of the beam is drawn in Fig.14.5b in order to identify degrees of freedom.
By fixing the support or restraining the support beams B against rotation, the fixed-fixed
area obtained as shown in Fig.14.5c.

(c) Slope-deflection equations

Since ends A and C are fixed, the rotation at the fixed supports is zero,
Only one non-zero rotation is to be evaluated for this problem. Now, write slope-deflection
equations for span AB and BC.

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(d) Equilibrium equations
In the above four equations (2-5), the member end moments are expressed in terms of unknown
rotation B . Now, the required equation to solve for the rotation
B is the moment equilibrium equation at support B . The free body diagram of support B along
with the support moments acting on it is shown in Fig. 14.5d. For, moment equilibrium at

support B , one must have,

(e) Reactions
Now, reactions at supports are
evaluated using equilibrium
equations (vide Fig. 14.5e)

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 (9)

The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 14.5f.

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12
Example 14.2
Draw shear force and bending moment diagram for the continuous beam

ABCD loaded as shown in Fig.14.6a.The relative stiffness of each span of the beam is also shown in the
figure.

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III – STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 – SCI1301

1
 UNIT 3 - Moment Distribution Method

1.0 Introduction

 Moment Distribution is an iterative method of solving an indeterminate Structure.

 Moment distribution method was first introduced by Hardy Cross in 1932.
 Moment distribution is suitable for analysis of all types of indeterminate beams
and rigid frames.
 It is also called a ‘relaxation method’ and it consists of successive approximations using
a series of cycles, each converging towards final result.
It is comparatively easier than slope deflection method. It involves solving number of
simultaneous equations with several unknowns, but in this method does not involve any
simultaneous equations.
It is very easily remembered and extremely useful for checking computer output of
highly indeterminate structures.
It is widely used in the analysis of all types of indeterminate beams and rigid frames.
The moment-distribution method was very popular among engineers.
It is very simple and is being used even today for preliminary analysis of small structures.
The primary concept used in this methods are,
 Fixed End Moments
 Relative or Beam Stiffness or Stiffness factor
 Distribution factor
 Carry over moment or Carry over factor

Basic Concepts
In moment-distribution method, counterclockwise beam end moments are taken as positive.
The counterclockwise beam end moments produce clockwise moments on the joint.
Note the sign convention:
Anti-clockwise is positive
Clockwise is negative

2
2.0 Assumptions in moment distribution method
 All the members of the structures are assumed to be fixed and fixed end moments due to
external loads are obtained.
 All the hinged joints are released by applying an equal and opposite moment.
 The joints are allowed to deflect (rotate) one after the other by releasing them successively.
 The unbalanced moment at the joint is shared by the members connected at the joint when
it is released.
 The unbalanced moment at a joint is distributed in to the two spans with their distribution
factor.

 Hardy cross method makes use of the ability of various structural members at a joint to
sustain moments in proportional to their relative stiffness.
Fixed End Moments
 All members of a given frame are initially assumed fixed at both ends.
 The loads acting on these fixed beams produce fixed end moments at the ends.
 FEM are the moments exerted by the supports on the beam ends.
 These (non-existent) moments keep the rotations at the ends of each member zero.

Table .1: Fixed End moment

3
 Fig 1: Fixed end moment
Relative or Beam Stiffness or Stiffness factor
 When a structural member of uniform section is subjected to a moment at one end, then the
moment required so as to rotate that end to produce unit slope is called the stiffness of the
member.
 Stiffness is the member of force required to produce unit deflection.
 It is also the moment required to produce unit rotation at a specified joint in a beam or a
structure. It can be extended to denote the torque needed to produce unit twist.
 It is the moment required to rotate the end while acting on it through a unit rotation,
without translation of the far end being
 Beam is hinged or simply supported at both ends
k = 3 EI / L
 Beam is hinged or simply supported at one end and fixed at other end
k = 4 EI / L
 Stiffness of members in continuous beams and rigid frames
 Stiffness of all intermediate members k = 4 EI / L
 Stiffness of edge members,
 If edge support is fixed k = 4 EI / L
 If edge support is hinged or roller k = 3 EI / L

4
  Where, E = Young‟s modulus of the beam material
I = Moment of inertia of the beam
L = Beam‟s span length

Distribution factor
 When several members meet at a joint and a moment is applied at the joint to
produce rotation without translation of the members, the moment is distributed
among all the members meeting at that joint proportionate to their stiffness.
 Distribution factor = Relative stiffness / Sum of relative stiffness at the joint
 If there is 3 members,
Distribution factors = k1 / (k1+k2+k3), k2/ (k1+k2+k3), k3/ (k1+k2+k3)
Carry over moment
 Carry over moment: It is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of the beam by
the action of a moment applied at the other end, which is hinged.
 Carry over moment is the same nature of the applied moment.
Carry over factor (C.O):
 A moment applied at the hinged end B “carries over” to the fixed end „ A‟,
a moment equal to half the amount of applied moment and of the same rotational
sense. C.O =0.5
Problem:
1. Find the distribution factor for the given beam.

A L B L C L D

Joint Member Relative stiffness Sum of Relative stiffness Distribution factor

(4EI / L) / (4EI / L) = 1
A AB 4EI / L 4EI / L

BA 3EI /L (3EI / L) / (7EI / L )= 3/7

B 3EI /L + 4EI / L = 7EI / L
BC 4EI / L (4EI / L) / (7EI / L) = 4/7
CB 4EI / L (4EI / L) / (8EI / L) =4/8
C 4EI / L + 4EI / L =8EI / L
CD 4EI / L (4EI / L) / (8EI / L)= 4/8
D DC 4EI / L 4EI / L (4EI / L)/ (4EI / L) = 1

2. Find the distribution factor for the given beam.

(3I) (I)
A L B5 L
 C

Joint Member Relative stiffness Sum of Relative stiffness Distribution factor

A AB 4E (3I ) / L 12EI / L (12EI / L) / (12EI / L) = 1
BA 4E( 3I) /L (12EI / L) / (16EI / L )= 3/4
B 12EI /L + 4EI / L = 16EI / L
BC 4EI / L (4EI / L) / (16EI / L) = 1/4
C CB 4EI / L 4EI / L (4EI / L) / (4EI / L) =1

3. Find the distribution factor for the given beam.

B C
L

Joint Member Relative stiffness Sum of Relative Distribution factor

BA 0 (no support) 0
B 3EI / L
BC 3EI / L (3EI / L ) / ( 3EI / L) =1

CB 3EI / L 3EI /L + 4EI / L (3EI / L) / (7EI / L )= 3 / 7

C
CD 4EI / L = 7EI / L (4EI / L) / (7EI / L) = 4 / 7
D DC 4EI / L 4EI / L (4EI / L) / (4EI / L) =1

Flexural Rigidity of Beams:

The product of young‟s modulus (E) and moment of inertia (I) is called Flexural
Rigidity (EI) of Beams. The unit is N.mm2.
Constant strength beam:
If the flexural Rigidity (EI) is constant over the uniform section, it is called
Constant strength beam.
Sway:
Sway is the lateral movement of joints in a portal frame due to the unsymmetrical
dimensions, loads, moments of inertia, end conditions, etc.
What are the situations where in sway will occur in portal frames?
Eccentric or unsymmetrical loading
Unsymmetrical geometry
Different end conditions of the columns
Non-uniform section of the members
Unsymmetrical settlement of supports
A combination of the above
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What are symmetric and antisymmetric quantities in structural behaviour?
When a symmetrical structure is loaded with symmetrical loading, the bending moment and
deflected shape will be symmetrical about the same axis.
Bending moment and deflection are symmetrical quantities
Steps involved in Moment Distribution Method:
1. Calculate fixed end moments due to applied loads following the same sign convention and
procedure, which was adopted in the slope-deflection method.
2. Calculate relative stiffness.
3. Determine the distribution factors for various members framing into a particular joint.
4. Distribute the net fixed end moments at the joints to various members by multiplying the
net moment by their respective distribution factors in the first cycle.
5. In the second and subsequent cycles, carry-over moments from the far ends of the same
member (carry-over moment will be half of the distributed moment).
6. Consider this carry-over moment as a fixed end moment and determine the balancing
moment. This procedure is repeated from second cycle onwards till convergence
Advantages of Fixed Ends or Fixed Supports
1. Slope at the ends is zero.
2. Fixed beams are stiffer, stronger and more stable than SSB.
3. In case of fixed beams, fixed end moments will reduce the BM in each section.
4. The maximum defection is reduced.
Problem:
1. Analyse the frame given in figure by moment distribution method and draw the B.M.D &
S.F.D

Step: 1 - Fixed end moment

MFAB = -WL2/12 = - 10×42/12 = -13.33 KNM

F = WL2/12 = 10×42/12 = -13.33 KNM
M BA
= - Wab2/L2 = -50×2×32/52 = -36 KNM
F
M BC = Wa2b/L2 = 50×22×3/52 = 24 KNM
F
M CB

Step: 2 - Stiffness

KAB = KBA = 4EI/L = EI

KBC = KCB = 3EI/L = 0.6EI

7
Step: 3 - Distribution factor
Joint B
DF = K /(K +K ) = 0.63
BA BA BA BC
DF = K /(K +K ) = 0.37
BC BC BA BC
Step: 4 - Moment distribution
B
MEMBER AB CB
BA BC
DF 0 0.67 0.33 0
FEM -13.33 +13.33 -36 +24
BALANCING 0 0 0 -24
CF 0 0 -12 0
M -13.33 +13.33 -48 0
BALANCING 0 21.84 12.83 0
CF 10.92 0 0 0
M-FINAL -2.4 35.17 -35.17 0

8
Step: 5 - Reactions
Span AB:
RA = 11.81 KN
RB1 = 28.19 KN
Span BC:

RB2 = 37.03 KN
RC = 12.97 KN

2. Analyse the frame given in figure by moment distribution method and draw the
B.M.D&S.F.D

Step: 1 - Fixed end moment

MFAB = -WL2/12 = - 10×42/12 = -13.33 KNM
MF = WL2/12 = 10×42/12 = -13.33 KNM
BA
F
M = - WL/8 = -25×4/8 = -12.5 KNM
BC
F
M = WL/8 = 25×4/8 = 12.5 KNM
CB
F
M = 0
BD
MFDB = 0
Step: 2 - Stiffness

KAB = KBA = 4EI/L = EI

KBC = KCB = 3EI/L = 0.75EI
KBD = KDB = 4EI/L = EI

Step: 3 - Distribution factor Joint B

D F BA = KBA/ (KBA+KBC+KBD) = 0.36

9
D F BC = KBC/ (KBA+KBC+KBD) = 0.28

D F BD = KBD/ (KBA+KBC+KBD) = 0.36

Step: 4 - Moment distribution

B
MEMBER AB DB CB
BA BC BD
DF 0 0.36 0.28 0.36 0
FEM -13.33 +13.33 -12.5 0 0 +12.5
CF 0 0 -6.25 0 0 -12.5
M(initial) -13.33 +13.33 -18.75 0 0 0
BALANCING 0 +1.95 1.52 1.95 0 0
MF 0.98 0 0 0 0.98 0
M-FINAL -12.35 15.28 -17.23 1.95 0.98 0

Step: 5 - Find reactions:

Span AB:
RA = 19.27 KN
RB1 = 20.73 KN
Span BC:
RB2 = 16.32 KN
RC = 8.68 KN
Span BD:
RB3 = -0.73 KN
RD = 0.73 KN

10
3. The continuous beam ABCD, subjected to the given loads, as shown in Figure below. Assume
that only rotation of joints occurs at B, C and D, and that no support displacements occur at B,
C and D. Due to the applied loads in spans AB, BC and CD, rotations occur at B, C and D
using moment distribution method.
150KN

11
Step: 4 - Moment Distribution

Joint A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC
DF 0 0.4284 0.5716 0.64 0.36 1
FEM -80 80 -112.50 112.50 -53.33 53.33

Ist Distribution 13.923 18.577 -37.87 -21.3 -53.33

Carry over Moment 6.962 -18.93 9.289 -26.67 -10.65

2nd Distribution 8.111 10.823 11.122 6.256 10.65

Carry over Moment 4.056 5.561 5.412 5.325 3.128

3rd Distribution -2.382 -3.179 -6.872 -3.865 -3.128

Carry over Moment -1.191 -3.436 -1.59 -1.564 -1.933

4th Distribution 1.472 1.964 2.019 1.135 1.933

Carry over Moment 0.736 1.01 0.982 0.967 0.568

5th Distribution -0.433 -0.577 -1.247 -0.702 -0.568

Carry over Moment
M-FINAL -69.44 100.69 -100.7 -93.748 93.75 0

Step: 5 - Computation of Shear Forces

12
5. Analyse the beam as shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw the BMD.
Assume EI is constant

Step: 1 - Fixed end moments

MFAB = 0
MF = 0
BA
MFBC = -WL2/12 = - 20×122/12 = -240 KNM
MFCB = WL2/12 = - 20×122/12 = 240 KNM
MFCD = - WL/8 = -250×8/8 = -250 KNM
MFDC = WL/8 = 250×8/8 = 250 KNM
Step:2 - Distribution factor

Joint Member Relative Stiffness (K) ΣK D.F = (K / ΣK)

BA I / L = (I /12) 0.50
B I/6
BC I / L = (I /12) 0.50
CB I / L = (I /12) 0.40
C 5I / 24
CD I / L = (I /8) 0.60
Step:3 – Moment Distribution

13
5. Analyze the continuous beam as shown in fig by moment distribution method and
draw BMD & SFD

Step: 1 - Fixed end moments

Step:2 - Distribution factor

14
Step: 3 - Moment Distribution

Step: 4 – BMD & SFD

15
16
6. Analyze the continues beam as shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw the
B.M. diagrams

Support B sinks by 10mm, and take E = 2 x 105 N/mm², I = 1.2 x 10-4 m4

Step: 1 - Fixed end moments

Step:2 - Distribution factor

17
Step: 3 - Moment Distribution

18
Step: 4 – BMD

6. Analysis the frame shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw BMD.
Assume EI is constant

Step: 1 - Fixed end moments

Step:2 - Distribution factor

19
Step: 3 - Moment Distribution

Step: 4 – BMD

20
8. Analyze the frame shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw BMD and SFD

Step: 1 - Fixed end moments

Step:2 - Distribution factor

Step: 3 - Moment Distribution

21
22
Moment distribution method for frames with side sway:
 Frames that are non symmetrical with reference to material property or geometry (different
lengths and I values of column) or support condition or subjected to non symmetrical
loading have a tendency to side sway.

9. Analyze the frame shown in figure by moment distribution method. Assume EI is constant.

Non Sway Analysis:

 First consider the frame held from side sway as shown in figure.
Step: 1 - Fixed end moments

Step:2 - Distribution factor

23
Step: 3 - Moment Distribution

FBD of columns:

By seeing of the FBD of columns

R = 1.73 – 0.82
(Using ΣFx = 0 for entire frame) = 0.91 KN (←)
Now apply
R = 0.91 kN acting opposite as shown in figure
for the sway analysis.

ii) Sway analysis:

For this we will assume a force R is applied at C causing the frame to deflect ‟ as
shown in figure

24
Moment distribution table for sway analysis:

FBD of columns:

25
 Hence R‟ = 56KN creates the sway moments shown in above moment distribution table.
Corresponding moments caused by R = 0.91KN can be determined by proportion.
Thus final moments are calculated by adding non sway moments and sway moments
calculated for R = 0.91KN, as shown below

BMD:

26
Moment distribution method for frames with side sway:
1. Analysis the rigid frame shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw BMD

i) Non Sway Analysis:

First consider the frame held from side sway as shown in figure 2
FEM calculation:

Distribution Factor:

27
Moment distribution for non sway analysis:

FBD of columns:
FBD of columns AB & CD for non-sway analysis is shown in figure

Now apply R = 5.34KN acting opposite as shown in figure for sway analysis

28
ii) Sway analysis:
For this we will assume a force R is applied at C causing the frame to deflect as
shown in figure.

Moment distribution table for sway analysis:

29
FBD of columns AB & CD for sway analysis moments is shown in fig.

30
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV– STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 – SCI1301

 UNIT – IV - ARCHES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
An arch could be defined in simple terms as a two-dimensional structure element which is
curved in elevation and is supported at ends by rigid or hinged supports which are capable of
developing the desired thrust to resist the loads. It could also be defined as a two-dimensional
element which resists external loads through its profile. This is achieved by its characteristic
horizontal reaction developed at the supports. The horizontal thrust causes hogging bending
moment which tend to reduce the sagging moment due to loading and thus, the net bending
moment is much smaller. However, at the same time
0bjectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
1. conceptualise the structural behaviour of an arch,
2. determine the internal stress resultants namely, normal thrust, radial shear and
bending moment for three-hinged arches,
3. obtain influence lines for horizontal thrust and vertical reactions, bending moment,
radial shear and normal thrust for a three-hingcd arch, and
4. determine absolute maximum values of these internal stress resultants, or external
reactions.
Arch Introduction

In case of beams supporting uniformly distributed load, the maximum bending moment
increases with the square of the span and hence they become uneconomical for long span
structures. In such situation’s arches could be advantageously employed, as they would
develop horizontal reactions, which in turn reduce the design bending moment.
 For example, in the case of a simply supported beam shown in Fig. 32.1, the bending
3PL/ 16
moment below the load is . Now consider a two hinged symmetrical arch of the
same span and subjected to similar loading as that of simply supported beam. The vertical
reaction could be calculated by equations of statics. The horizontal reaction is determined
3PL/ 16-
by the method of least work. Now the bending moment below the load is Hy . It
is clear that the bending moment below the load is reduced in the case of an arch as compared
to a simply supported beam. It is observed in the last lesson that, the cable takes the shape
of the loading and this shape is termed as funicular shape. If an arch were constructed in an
inverted funicular shape then it would be subjected to only compression for those loadings
for which its shape is inverted funicular.

Fig 2. Cable in tension

Since in practice, the actual shape of the arch differs from the inverted funicular shape or
the loading differs from the one for which the arch is an inverted funicular, arches are also
subjected to bending moment in addition to compression. As arches are subjected to
compression, it must be designed to resist buckling.

Until the beginning of the 20th century, arches and vaults were commonly used to span
between walls, piers or other supports. Now, arches are mainly used in bridge construction
and doorways. In earlier days arches were constructed using stones and bricks. In modern
times they are being constructed of reinforced concrete and steel.
 Fig 3. Cable in tension

A structure is classified as an arch not based on its shape but the way it supports the lateral
load. Arches support load primarily in compression. For example in Fig 32.3b, no horizontal
reaction is developed. Consequently bending moment is not reduced. It is important to
appreciate the point that the definition of an arch is a structural one, not geometrical.

Fig 4. Types of arch

There are mainly three types of arches that are commonly used in practice: three hinged
arch, two-hinged arch and fixed-fixed arch. Three-hinged arch is statically determinate
structure and its reactions / internal forces are evaluated by static equations of equilibrium.
Two-hinged arch and fixed-fixed arch are statically indeterminate structures. The
indeterminate reactions are determined by the method of least work or by the flexibility
matrix method. In this lesson three- hinged arch is discussed.

Terminology

Following are some commonly used terms relating to arches :

Springing : This is the point where the arch axis meets the supporting structure (column,
pier, wall or abutment). In a simple arch, there are two springings. The springings may or
may not be at the same level.

Crown : This is the highest point on the curved axis of the arch. In the case of a
symmetrical arch with springings at same level, they will be above the midpoint of the
arch-span [Figure 3.2 (a)]. In an unsymmetrical arch, the crown is at unequal distances
from each support

Soffit: This is the lower surface of the arch which is normally curved in shape. In case of
trussed arches, the line joining the nodes form the soffit.
Rise : The vertical height of the crown above the springing is the rise of the arch

Span : The horizontal distance between the springings is called span

Types of Arch

There are various ways in which arches can be classified. Following are some of the
classifications of arches :

(a) Arches can be (i) simple, or (ii) multiple.

In the former case of simple arch, the arch consists of a single span structure, whereas in
the latter case of multiple arch, it is a multi-span structure

(b) Arches can be classified according to the materials used in their construction in
following way :
(i) Brick or Stone masonry arches.

(ii) Reinforced Concrete arches.

(iii) Steel arches.

(iv) Timber arches etc.

(c) Their classification according to structural behaviour can be as follows :

(i) Fixed arches: The arch springings are fixed or clamped (in both position and direction).
Here the arch is statically indeterminate to the third degree, as there are six reaction
components (three at each support) and only three equations of static equilibrium are
available. These arches are also called hingeless arches.
Analysis of three-hinged arch
In the case of three-hinged arch, we have three hinges: two at the support and one at the crown
thus making it statically determinate structure. Consider a three hinged arch subjected to a
concentrated force P as shown in fig.

There are four reaction components in the three-hinged arch. One more equation is required
in addition to three equations of static equilibrium for evaluating the four reaction
components. Taking moment about the hinge of all the forces acting on either side of the
hinge can set up the required equation. Taking moment of all the forces about hinge A,
yields.
 Example .1
A three-hinged parabolic arch of uniform cross section has a span of 60 m and a rise of 10
m. It is subjected to uniformly distributed load of intensity 10 kN/m as shown in Fig. 32.6
Show that the bending moment is zero at any cross section of the arch.

Reactions:
Example .2
A three-hinged semicircular arch of uniform cross section is loaded as shown in Fig 32.7.
Calculate the location and magnitude of maximum bending moment in the arch.

Reactions:

Taking moment of all the forces about hinge B leads to,

Bending Mooment
Now making use of the condition that the moment at hinge C of all the forces left of hinge is
zero gives,
Example .3

A three-hinged parabolic arch is loaded as shown in Fig 32.8a. Calculate the location and
magnitude of maximum bending moment in the arch. Draw bending moment diagram.
 Shear force at D just left of 40 kN load

Shear force (Sd )

 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 – SCI1301

1
1. Introduction

Cables and arches are closely related to each other and hence they are grouped in this course
in the same module. For long span structures (for e.g. in case bridges) engineers commonly
use cable or arch construction due to their efficiency. In the first lesson of this module,
cables subjected to uniform and concentrated loads are discussed. In the second lesson,
arches in general and three hinged arches in particular along with illustrative examples are
explained. In the last two lessons of this module, two hinged arch and hingeless arches are
considered.
Structure may be classified into rigid and deformable structures depending on change in
geometry of the structure while supporting the load. Rigid structures support externally
applied loads without appreciable change in their shape (geometry). Beams trusses and
frames are examples of rigid structures. Unlike rigid structures, deformable structures
undergo changes in their shape according to externally applied loads. However, it should
be noted that deformations are still small. Cables and fabric structures are deformable
structures. Cables are mainly used to support suspension roofs, bridges and cable car
system. They are also used in electrical transmission lines and for structures supporting
radio antennas. In the following sections, cables subjected to concentrated load and cables
subjected to uniform loads are considered.

The shape assumed by a rope or a chain (with no stiffness) under the action of external
loads when hung from two supports is known as a funicular shape. Cable is a funicular
structure. It is easy to visualize that a cable hung from two supports subjected to external
load must be in tension (vide Fig. 31.2a and 31.2b). Now let us modify our definition of
cable. A cable may be defined as the structure in pure tension having the funicular shape
of the load.

2
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In many engineering structures, such as suspension bridges, transmission lines, aerial
tramway, guy-wires for high towers etc, cables are suspsded between supports and subjected
to vertical loads. The load of the bridge floor is transferred to a cable which is stretched over
a span to be bridged. The cable is flexible and can adopt any curvature as required by the
load. Bridges are of two types (a) unstiffened, and (b) stiffened. In unstiffened bridges the
curve of the cable undergoes changes with passage of loads over the
bridge and decking also gets disturbed. The decking of stiffened bridge is stiffened by .girders
or trusses which distribute the loads evenly over the entire cable. Various components of the
suspension bridge are as follows :
(1) the cable, (6) vertical suspenders,
(2) decking, (7) supporting towers,
(3) main span, (8) side span,
(4) back stay, (9) anchorage, and
(5) saddle or pulley, (10) Stiffening girdet.
The unstiffened bridges subjected to concentrated and uniformly distributed load, shape of
cable, tension, length of cable
General
Since flexible cable offers no resistance to bending, the resultant internal force on any cross-
section of cable must act along the tangent to the cable at that section. The resist'ulce to
bending offered by actual cables is usually relatively smll and can be neglected without
serious error. Thus, cable structures carry their load through tension which is most efficient
way of re9isting loads.

A cable suspended between two supports at its ends may be subjected to different types of
loading and the shape assumed by the cable, therefore, will depend upon the type of loading.
Various types of loads are as follows :

(a) Vertically downward concentrated load(s)

(b) Distributed load
(i) The weight of a suspension bridge roadway is an example of this type of load, which is
uniformly 'distributed along the horizontal span. Cables loaded uniformly along the span
3
remains in the shape of a parabola.
Miscellaneous Topics
(ii) The weight of homogeneous cable of constant cross-secti'on is an example of load
distributed uniformly doing the cable. A cable loaded uniformly along the cable assumes the
shape of a catenary.
Assumptions
(a) The cable is perfectly flexible. The wire ropes and parallel wire cables are obviously quite
flexible and have little flexural stiffness. Eye bar chains cannot carry any moments because
of the freedom of rotation at the hinges.
(b) The stiffening girder is straight, its moment of inertia is constant and it is tied to the cable
throughout its length. This assumption takes into account the deformation of only the chord
members of the truss and neglects the deformation of the web members. Also since
suspenders are closely spaced, their loads may be assumed to be uniformly distributed
without the introduction of serious error.
(c) The dead load of the truss (stiffening girder), cable and suspenders is uniform per unit
horizontal length; therefore the initial curve of the cable becomes parabolah This is achieved
in practice by attaching the girder, after the dead loads have been transferred to the cable, by
adjusting the suspender forces during erection by meals of turn-buckles provided in them for
this purpose.
(d) The form and magnitude of ordinates of the cable curve remain unchanged even after the
application of the live loads. By this assumption, the cable always remains parabolic with the
same central sag. Obviously, the stiffening girder must deflect under live loads, pulling the
cable downwards along with it. These deflections and resulting errors will increase with larger
span and shallower trusses. It is found that with small spans and deep trusses, the errors are
small. The errors, however, are found to be always on the safe side.

Concept
To understand the structural behavior of the cable, consider a simply supported beam as
shown in Figure 14.1 (a). Beam is subjected to a point load P at mid point. As the cable has
zero moment carrying capacity, insert an internal hinge under load so that moment carrying
capacity of beam at that point reduces to zero and beam assumes shape as shown in Figure
14.1 (b). Considering the equilibrium point B as shown in Figure 14.1 (c) tension in beam.
4
T = p/2 sin θ,

and both horizontal components are T cos θ which are equal and opposite at B.

Cable subjected to Concentrated Forces

Consider cable supported on horizontal span of 8 m and length of cable on application of
load is 10 m as shown in Figure 14.2 (a). The freebody at B is shown in Figure

Fig: 1 suspension of cables

Tension in cable at point B

Horizontal component of T

Now the moment which is product of horizontal component at B and sag at point B, is

Assuming rigid beam as shown in Figure 14.2 (b). Bending moment at B is calculated as

5
6
Cable subjected to Concentrated Loads

As stated earlier, the cables are considered to be perfectly flexible (no flexural stiffness)
and inextensible. As they are flexible they do not resist shear force and bending moment.
It is subjected to axial tension only and it is always acting tangential to the cable at any
point along the length. If the weight of the cable is negligible as compared with the
externally applied loads then its self weight is neglected in the analysis. In the present
analysis self weight is not considered.

Consider a cable ACDEB as loaded in Fig. 31.2. Let us assume that the cable
lengths L1 , L2 , L3 , and sag at C, D, E ( hc , hd , he ) are known. The four reaction

components at A and B , cable tensions in each of the four segments and three sag values:
a total of eleven unknown quantities are to be determined. From the geometry, one could
write two force equilibrium equations ( Fx 0, Fy 0 ) at
each of the point A, B, C, D and E i.e. a total of ten equations and the required

one more equation may be written from the geometry of the cable. For example, if one of
the sag is given then the problem can be solved easily. Otherwise if the total length of the
cable S is given then the required equation may be written as

S 1 c  d c  d e  (.1)

Cable subjected to uniform load.

Cables are used to support the dead weight and live loads of the bridge decks having long
spans. The bridge decks are suspended from the cable using the hangers. The stiffened deck
prevents the supporting cable from changing its shape by distributing the live load moving
over it, for a longer length of cable. In such cases cable is assumed to be uniformly loaded.

7
Consider a cable which is uniformly loaded as shown in Fig 31.3a. Let the slope of the
cable be zero at A . Let us determine the shape of the cable subjected to

8
uniformly distributed load q0 . Consider a free body diagram of the cable as shown in Fig
31.3b. As the cable is uniformly loaded, the tension in the cable changes continuously
along the cable length. Let the tension in the cable at m end of the free body diagram be
T and tension at the n end of the cable be T ΔT . The slopes of the cable at m and
n are denoted by and Δ respectively.
Applying equations of equilibrium, we get

T sin  (T  T ) sin(   )  q0 (x) 0

 Fy  0 (31.2a)

T cos  (T  T ) cos(   )  0
 Fx  0 (31.2b)
x
 (T cos )y  (T sin  )x  (q x) 0
 Mn  0 (31.2c)

0
2

Example 31.1

Determine reaction components at A and B, tension in the cable and the sag
yB , and of the cable shown in Fig. 31.4a. Neglect the self weight of the cable yE

in the analysis.

9
Since there are no horizontal loads, horizontal reactions at A and B should be the same.
Taking moment about E, yields

Ray 14  17  20  10  7  10  4  0

10
 280 Rey  37  20  17kN.
  20 kN;
Ray
14

Now horizontal reaction H may be evaluated taking moment about point C of all
forces left ofC .

Ray  7  H  2  17  3  0

H  44.5 kN

Taking moment about B of all the forces left of B and setting M B 0 , we get

80
Ray  4  H  yB  0; yB   1.798 m
44.50

68
Similarly, yD   1.528 m
44.50

To determine the tension in the cable in the segment AB , consider the equilibrium of
joint A (vide Fig.31.4b).

F x  0  Tab cosab  H
44.5
Tab     48.789 kN
 3 2 2
3  0.298 

 


The tension Tab may also be obtained as

Tab  Ray2  H 2  202  44.52  48.789 kN

Now considering equilibrium of joint B, C, and D one could calculate tension in

different segments of the cable.

Segment bc

Applying equations of equilibrium,

11
 F  0  T
x ab cos ab  Tbc cos bc

Segment de

The tension Tde may also be obtained as

Tde  Rey2  H 2  172  44.52  47.636 kN

Example .2

A cable of uniform cross section is used to span a distance of 40m as shown in Fig 31.5.
The cable is subjected to uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m. run. The left support is
below the right support by 2 m and the lowest point on the cable C is located below
left support by 1 m. Evaluate the reactions and the maximum and minimum values of
tension in the cable.

12
13
Assume the lowest point C to be at distance of x m from B . Let us place our origin of the
co-ordinate system xy at C . Using equation 31.5, one could write,

q (40  x) 2 10(40  x) 2
ya  1 0
 (1)
2H 2H

10x 2
yb  3  (2)
2H

ya and yb be the y co-ordinates of supports A and B respectively. From

where

equations 1 and 2, one could evaluate the value of x . Thus,

10x 2 
10(40  x)2   x  25.359 m
3

From equation 2, the horizontal reaction can be determined.

10  25.3592
H  1071.80 kN
6

Now taking moment about A of all the forces acting on the cable, yields

10  40  20 1071.80 2
Rby   253.59 kN
40

Writing equation of moment equilibrium at point B , yields

40  20 10 1071.80  2
Ray   146.41 kN
40

Tension in the cable at supports A and B are

TA   1081.76 kN

TB   1101.40 kN

14
The tension in the cable is maximum where the slope is maximum as T cos H . The
maximum cable tension occurs at B and the minimum cable tension occurs
at C where

15
Example .3

A cable of uniform cross section is used to support the loading shown in Fig 31.6.
Determine the reactions at two supports and the unknown sag yC .

Taking moment of all the forces about support B ,

Ray 
1
350  300  100 y c  (1)
10

Ray  65  10 yc

Taking moment about B of all the forces left of B and setting M B 0 , we get,

Ray  3  Ha  2  0
 Ha  1.5Ray (2)

Taking moment about C of all the forces left of C and setting M C 0 , we get

M C 0 Ray  7  Ha  yC  50  4  0

Substituting the value of Ha in terms of Ray in the above equation,

7Ray  1.5Ray yC  200  0 (3)

Using equation (1), the above equation may be written as,

y C2  1.833 yC  17  0 (4)

Solving the above quadratic equation, yC can be evaluated. Hence,

yC  3.307m.

Substituting the value of yC in equation (1),

16
 Ray  98.07 kN

From equation (2),

Ha  1.5Ray  147.05 kN

Now the vertical reaction a D , Rdy is calculated by taking moment of all the forces
about A ,

Rdy 10  100  7  100  3.307  50  3  0

Rdy  51.93 kN.

Taking moment of all the forces right of C about C, and noting that M C  0 ,

Rdy  3  Hd  yC

H d  47.109

17