Measurement Of Flow Rate Through Pipe

Flow rate through a pipe is usually measured by providing a coaxial area contraction within the pipe
and by recording the pressure drop across the contraction. Therefore the determination of the flow
rate from the measurement of pressure drop depends on the straight forward application of
Bernoulli’s equation (principle of general mechanical energy balance.
 Venturimeter
 Orificemeter
 Pitot tube
 Flow nozzle
 Rotameter*
1. Venturimeter
A venturimeter is essentially a short pipe consisting of two conical parts with a short portion of
uniform cross-section in between. This short portion has the minimum area and is known as the
throat. The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is having a shorter length
with a larger cone angle while the other is having a larger length with a smaller cone angle.

Fig1 Venturimeter
The venturimeter is always used in a way that the upstream part of the flow takes place through the
short conical portion while the downstream part of the flow through the long one. This ensures a
rapid converging passage and a gradual diverging passage in the direction of flow to avoid the loss of
energy due to separation. In course of a flow through the converging part, the velocity increases in
the direction of flow according to the principle of continuity, while the pressure decreases according
to Bernoulli’s theorem. The velocity reaches its maximum value and pressure reaches its minimum
value at the throat. Subsequently, a decrease in the velocity and an increase in the pressure take
place in course of flow through the divergent part. This typical variation of fluid velocity and pressure
by allowing it to flow through such a constricted convergent-divergent passage was first
demonstrated by an Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi in 1797.
Figure 2 shows that a venturimeter is inserted in an inclined pipe line in a vertical plane to measure
the flow rate through the pipe. Let us consider a steady, ideal and one dimensional (along the axis of
the venturi meter) flow of fluid. Under this situation, the velocity and pressure at any section will be
uniform. Let the velocity and pressure at the inlet (Sec. 1) are V1 and p1 respectively, while those at
the throat (Sec. 2) are V2 and p2. Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation between Secs 1 and 2, we get

where ρ is the density of fluid flowing through the venturimeter. From continuity,

where and are the piezometric pressure heads respectively, and are defined as

Hence, the volume flow rate through the pipe is given by

For Venturimeters, or actual flowrate is calculated as, where is

called the discharge coefficient and accounts for minor–loss or viscous–loss, because of non-
uniform flow– patterns in the converging–diverging sections and at throat. The supplier of the
instrument provides a plot to calculate :
 2. Orifice meter
An orifice meter is essentially a cylindrical tube that contains a plate with a thin hole in the middle of
it. The thin hole essentially forces the fluid to flow faster through the hole in order to maintain flow
rate. The point of maximum convergence (vena contracta) usually occurs slightly downstream from
the actual physical orifice. This is the reason why orifice meters are less accurate than venturi
meters, as we cannot use the exact location and diameter of the point of maximum convergence in
calculations. Beyond the vena contracta point, the fluid expands again and velocity decreases as
pressure increases.

In such a device, the flow from the upstream–section accelerates as the flow-area decreases from
the section 1 to 2 at the orifice. The flow continues to accelerate, or the main flow area continues
to decrease till the section 2 and further downstream of the orifice at C, before it starts increasing
downstream. The section at C contains the minimum flow area, known as vena–contracta. One of
the pressure tapings is usually provided at a distance of 1-2 diameter upstream the orifice plate
where the flow is almost uniform (Sec. 1) and the other at a distance of half a diameter
downstream the orifice plate.
Similar to the analysis carried out for venturimeter, one can calculate the ideal or theoretical flow
rate:

To account for viscous-losses, a parameter is defined, so that

and

C is known as the discharge coefficient and is the velocity-of-approach factor.

A single factor, flow coefficient is used to express

K is reported in a graph supplied by the manufactures.

Correction in Velocity
 Recalling the fact that the measured value of the piezometric pressure drop for a real fluid is
always more due to friction than that assumed in case of an inviscid flow, a coefficient of
velocity Cv (always less than 1) has to be introduced to determine the actual velocity Vc when

the pressure drop is substituted by its measured value in terms of the

manometer deflection '∆h'
Hence,

where '∆h' is the difference in liquid levels in the manometer and ρ m is the density of the
manometric liquid. Volumetric flow rate
If a coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as, Cc = Ac /A0, where A0 is the area of the orifice.

The value of C depends upon the ratio of orifice to duct area, and the Reynolds number of flow.
 The main job in measuring the flow rate with the help of an orificemeter, is to find out
accurately the value of C at the operating condition.
 The downstream manometer connection should strictly be made to the section where the
vena contracta occurs, but this is not feasible as the vena contracta is somewhat variable in
position and is difficult to realize.
 In practice, various positions are used for the manometer connections and C is thereby
affected. Determination of accurate values of C of an orificemeter at different operating
conditions is known as calibration of the orifice meter.
 Stagnation Pressure
 The stagnation pressure at a point in a fluid flow is the pressure which could result if the fluid
were brought to rest isentropically.
 The word isentropically implies the sense that the entire kinetic energy of a fluid particle is
utilized to increase its pressure only. This is possible only in a reversible adiabatic process
known as isentropic process.

Fig Measurement of Stagnation Pressure

 Let us consider the flow of fluid through a closed passage. At Sec. l-l let the velocity and
static pressure of the fluid be uniform. Consider a point A on that section just in front of
which a right angled tube with one end facing the flow and the other end closed is placed.
 When equilibrium is attained, the fluid in the tube will be at rest, and the pressure at any
point in the tube including the point B will be more than that at A where the flow velocity
exists.
 By the application of Bernoulli’s equation between the points B and A, in consideration of
the flow to be inviscid and incompressible, we have,

where p and V are the pressure and velocity respectively at the point A at Sec. I-I, and p0 is
the pressure at B which, according to the definition, refers to the stagnation pressure at
point A.
 It is found from Eq. that the stagnation pressure p0 consists of two terms, the static
pressure, p and the term ρV2/2 which is known as dynamic pressure. Therefore Eq. can be
written for a better understanding as

 Therefore, it appears from Eq., that from a measurement of both static and stagnation
pressure in a flowing fluid, the velocity of flow can be determined.
  But it is difficult to measure the stagnation pressure in practice for a real fluid due to friction.

The pressure in the stagnation tube indicated by any pressure measuring device will
always be less than p0, since a part of the kinetic energy will be converted into
intermolecular energy due to fluid friction). This is taken care of by an empirical factor C in
determining the velocity as

3. Pitot tube:
Construction: The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was adopted first by a French
Scientist Henri Pitot in 1732 for measuring velocities in the river. A right angled glass tube, large
enough for capillary effects to be negligible, is used for the purpose. One end of the tube faces the
flow while the other end is open to the atmosphere.

Working:

 The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the liquid reaches a height
above the free surface of the water stream.

 Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the hydrostatic pressure due to its
depth below the free surface, the difference in level between the liquid in the glass tube and
the free surface becomes the measure of dynamic pressure. Therefore, we can write,
neglecting friction,

where p0, p and V are the stagnation pressure, static pressure and velocity respectively at point A.

 Such a tube is known as a Pitot tube and provides one of the most accurate means of
measuring the fluid velocity.

Fig. Simple Pitot Tube (a) tube for measuring the Stagnation Pressure
(b) Static and Stagnation tubes together
  For an open stream of liquid with a free surface, this single tube is suffcient to determine the
velocity. But for a fluid flowing through a closed duct, the Pitot tube measures only the
stagnation pressure and so the static pressure must be measured separately.

 Measurement of static pressure in this case is made at the boundary of the wall. The axis of
the tube measuring the static pressure must be perpendicular to the boundary and free from
burrs, so that the boundary is smooth and hence the streamlines adjacent to it are not
curved. This is done to sense the static pressure only without any part of the dynamic
pressure.

 A Pitot tube is also inserted as shown to sense the stagnation pressure. The ends of the Pitot
tube, measuring the stagnation pressure, and the piezometric tube, measuring the static
pressure, may be connected to a suitable differential manometer for the determination of
flow velocity and hence the flow rate.

Pitot Static Tube

 The tubes recording static pressure and the stagnation pressure are usually combined into
one instrument known as Pitot static tube.

Pitot Static Tube

 The tube for sensing the static pressure is known as static tube which surrounds the pitot
tube that measures the stagnation pressure.

 Two or more holes are drilled radially through the outer wall of the static tube into annular
space. The position of these static holes is important. Downstream of the nose N, the flow is
accelerated somewhat with consequent reduction in static pressure. But in front of the
supporting stem, there is a reduction in velocity and increase in pressure.

 The static holes should therefore be at the position where the two opposing effects are
counterbalanced and the reading corresponds to the undisturbed static pressure. Finally the
flow velocity is given by

where ∆p is the difference between stagnation and static pressures.

  The factor C takes care of the non-idealities, due to friction, in converting the dynamic
head into pressure head and depends, to a large extent, on the geometry of the pitot tube.
The value of C is usually determined from calibration test of the pitot tube.

4. flow Nozzle
 The flow nozzle as shown in Fig. is essentially a venturi meter with the divergent part
omitted. Therefore the basic equations for calculation of flow rate are the same as those for
a venturimeter.
 The dissipation of energy downstream of the throat due to flow separation is greater than
that for a venturimeter. But this disadvantage is often offset by the lower cost of the nozzle.
 The downstream connection of the manometer may not necessarily be at the throat of the
nozzle or at a point sufficiently far from the nozzle.
 The deviations are taken care of in the values of Cd, The coefficient Cd depends on the shape
of the nozzle, the ratio of pipe to nozzle diameter and the Reynolds number of flow.

 A comparative picture of the typical values of Cd, accuracy, and the cost of three flow meters
(venturimeter, orificemeter and flow nozzle) is given below:
Loss of Typical Values
Type of Flowmeter Accuracy Cost
Total Head of Cd

Venturimeter High High Low 0.95 to 0.98

Orificemeter Low Low High 0.60 to 0.65

Intermediate between
Flow Nozzle a venturimeter and an 0.70 to 0.80
orificemeter
5. Rotameter
The orificemeter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant area
variable pressure drop. Here the area of obstruction is constant, and the pressure drop
changes with flow rate. On the other hand Rotameter works as a constant pressure drop
variable area meter. It can be only be used in a vertical pipeline. Its accuracy is also less (2%)
compared to other types of flow meters. But the major advantages of rotameter are, it is
simple in construction, ready to install and the flow rate can be directly seen on a calibrated
scale, without the help of any other device, e.g. differential pressure sensor etc. Moreover, it
is useful for a wide range of variation of flow rates (10:1). The basic construction of a
rotameter is shown in fig. It consists of a vertical pipe, tapered downward. The flow passes
from the bottom to the top. There is cylindrical type metallic float inside the tube. The fluid
flows upward through the gap between the tube and the float. As the float moves up or
down there is a change in the gap, as a result changing the area of the orifice. In fact, the
float settles down at a position, where the pressure drop across the orifice will create an
upward thrust that will balance the downward force due to the gravity. The position of the
float is calibrated with the flow rate.

Let us consider,
ᵞ1= Specific weight of the float
ᵞ2= specific weight of the fluid
vf = volume of the float
Af = Area of the float.
At = Area of the tube at equilibrium (corresponding to the dotted line)
for incompressible fluid, we have, for the orifice,
Cd A2 2 g (p1  p2 )
Q
A 2
1  ( 2 )2
A1
Now consider the free body diagram of the float
Fd = Downward thrust on the float
Fd W Fu = Upward thrust on the float
W = Apparent weight of the float

FU
At balance,
W = Fu – Fd

V f ( 1   2 )= p1 A f  p2 Af
V f ( 1   2 )
p1  p2 
Af
Cd ( At  A f ) 2 gV f ( 1   2 )
Q
At  A f A f 2
1 ( )2
A1

At  A f
The term within the third bracket in the above expression is constant. If ( )2 << 1 ,
A1
then, we can have, Q= K(At-Af)
If the tube is made in such a way that At varies linearly with the displacement, one have a linear
relationship in the form
Q= k1+k2x
That is, the scale of the tube can be graduated linearly in terms of flow rate. Otherwise, the
displacement of the float can be converted to electrical signal by using a LVDT or similar type of
displacement sensor. For large flow rate measurement, the rotameter is normally place in a
bypass line. The major source of error in rotameter is due to the variation of density of the fluid.
Besides, the presence of viscous force may also provide an additional force to the float.

Construction of the float

The construction of the float decides heavily, the performance of the rotameter. In general, a
float should be designed such that: (a) it must be held vertical (b) it should create uniform
turbulence so as to make it insensitive to viscosity (c) it should make the rotameter least
sensitive to the variation of the fluid density. A typical construction of the float is shown in fig.
The top section of the float has a sharp edge and several angular grooves. The fluid passing
through these grooves, causes the rotation of the float. The turbulence created in this process
reduces the viscous force considerably.

6. Flow Through Orifices And Mouthpieces

 An orifice is a small aperture through which the fluid passes. The thickness of an orifice in
the direction of flow is very small in comparison to its other dimensions.
 If a tank containing a liquid has a hole made on the side or base through which liquid flows,
then such a hole may be termed as an orifice.The rate of flow of the liquid through such an
orifice at a given time will depend partly on the shape, size and form of the orifice.
 An orifice usually has a sharp edge so that there is minimum contact with the fluid and
consequently minimum frictional resistance at the sides of the orifice. If a sharp edge is not
provided, the flow depends on the thickness of the orifice and the roughness of its boundary
surface too.

Flow from an Orifice at the Side of a Tank under a Constant Head

 Let us consider a tank containing a liquid and with an orifice at its side wall as shown in Fig.
The orifice has a sharp edge with the bevelled side facing downstream. Let the height of the
free surface of liquid above the centre line of the orifice be kept fixed by some adjustable
arrangements of inflow to the tank.
 The liquid issues from the orifice as a free jet under the influence of gravity only. The
streamlines approaching the orifice converges towards it. Since an instantaneous change of
direction is not possible, the streamlines continue to converge beyond the orifice until they
become parallel at the Sec. c-c
 For an ideal fluid, streamlines will strictly be parallel at an infinite distance, but however fluid
friction in practice produce parallel flow at only a short distance from the orifice. The area of
the jet at the Sec. c-c is lower than the area of the orifice. The Sec. c-c is known as the vena
contracta.

Fig Flow from a Sharp edged Orifice

 The contraction of the jet can be attributed to the action of a lateral force on the jet due to a
change in the direction of flow velocity when the fluid approaches the orifice. Since the
streamlines become parallel at vena contracta, the pressure at this section is assumed to be
uniform.
 If the pressure difference due to surface tension is neglected, the pressure in the jet at vena
contracta becomes equal to that of the ambience surrounding the jet.
 Considering the flow to be steady and frictional effects to be negligible, we can write by the
application of Bernoulli’s equation between two points 1 and 2 on a particular stream-line
with point 2 being at vena contracta.

 The horizontal plane through the centre of the orifice has been taken as datum level for
determining the potential head.
 If the area of the tank is large enough as compared to that of the orifice, the velocity at point
1 becomes negligibly small and pressure p1 equals to the hydrostatic pressure p 1 equals to
the hydrostatic pressure at that point as p1=patm +ρg(h-z1).

 If the orifice is small in comparison to h, the velocity of the jet is constant across the vena
contracta. The Eq. states that the velocity with which a jet of liquid escapes from a small
orifice is proportional to the square root of the head above the orifice, and is known
as Torricelli’s formula.
 The velocity V2 represents the ideal velocity since the frictional effects were neglected in the
derivation. Therefore, a multiplying factor C v known as coefficient of velocity is introduced to
determine the actual velocity as

 Since the role of friction is to reduce the velocity, C v is always less than unity. The rate of
discharge through the orifice can then be written as,

where ac is the cross-sectional area of the jet at vena contracta.

 Defining a coefficient of contraction Cc as the ratio of the area of vena contracta to the area
of orifiice,

where, a0 is the cross-sectional area of the orifice. The product of Cc and Cv is written as
Cd and is termed as coefficient of discharge. Therefore,