Course: US01CPHY01

UNIT – 2 ELASTICITY – II

Introduction:
We discussed fundamental concept of properties of matter in first unit. This concept
will be more use full for calculating various properties of mechanics of solid material. In this
unit, we shall study the detail theory and its related experimental methods for determination
of elastic constants and other related properties.

Twisting couple on a cylinder or wire:

Consider a cylindrical rod of length l radius r and coefficient of rigidity . Its upper end
is fixed and a couple is applied in a plane perpendicular to its length at lower end as shown in
fig.(a)

consider a one hollow cylinder of radius x and radial thickness dx as shown in fig.(b). Let  is
Consider a cylinder is consisting a large number of co-axial hollow cylinder. Now,

the twisting angle. The displacement is greatest at the rim and decreases as the center is
approached where it becomes zero.
As shown in fig.(a), Let AB be the line parallel to the axis OO’ before twist produced and
on twisted B shifts to B’, then line AB become AB’.
Before twisting if hollow cylinder cut along AB and flatted out, it will form the
rectangular ABCD as shown in fig.(c). But if it will be cut after twisting it takes the shape of a

The angle of shear ∠ ′ = ∅

parallelogram AB’C’D.

From fig.(c)  = ∅
From fig.(b) BB = xθ
∴ ∅ = 

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∴ ∅= … … … … … … (1)

ℎ  !
= =
The modules of rigidity is

   ℎ "


∴ ! = ∙∅=

The surface area of this hollow cylinder = 2%&

∴ Total shearing force on this area


= 2%& ∙


= 2%  ' &


= 2%  ' & ∙ 
The moment of this force

2%
=  ( ∙ &
Now, integrating between the limits x = 0 and x = r,
*
2%
We have, total twisting couple on the cylinder

= )  ( &
+

*
2%
= )  ( &
+

2%  -
*
= , /
4 +
∴ Total twisting couple
% -
= … … … … … … (3)
2

Then, the twisting couple per unit twist ( = 1) is

% -
1= … … … … … … (4)
2

This twisting couple per unit twist is also called the torsional rigidity of the cylinder or wire.

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Torsional Pendulum :
A heavy cylindrical rod or disc, suspended
from the end of a fine wire, whose upper end is
fixed, is called torsional pendulum.
The rod or disc is turned, the wire will twist
and when released, it execute torsional vibrations

Let  be the twisting angle. Then the

about the axis.

restoring couple set up in it is.

πηθr -
Cθ = … … … … … … (1)
2l

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This produces an angular acceleration in the rod or the disc

dω
∴I = −Cθ (∵ τ = Iα)
dt

dω C
∴ = −B Cθ … … … … … … (2)
dt I
(- sign indicates the restoring couple)
Where, I is the moment of inertia of the rod or disc.
The motion of the rod or disc is simple harmonic. Its time period is given by

displacement
t = 2π D
angular acceleration

θ
= 2π P
C
Q Rθ
I

I
t = 2π D … … … … … … (3)
C

This is called the equation of time period for torsional pendulum.

Determination of the coefficient of rigidity (S) for a write :

(1) Statical Method :

This method is based on the direct application of the expression for the twisting couple

πηr -
c=
2l

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 Horizontal twisting apparatus for a rod :

The arrangement of the apparatus is

shown in fig. A rod of 50 cm in length and
about 0.25 cm in radius is fixed at one end
with block B1. A large pulley B2 attached to
the other end of the rod. A cord is wound
round the pulley and mass M suspended at
the other end. Hence couple acts on the rod
and twisting produced in it. The Pointer P1
and P2 are clamped on the rod a known
distance ‘l’. The twisting produced can be
measured with the help of scale S1 and S2.

If R is the radius of the pulley, than couple acting on the rod is MgR, where M is mass
suspended. This couple is balanced by the torsional couple due to rod and is equal to
=
πηr- θ' > θT 
2

Where, r is the radius of rod, and T and ' are the angles of twist produced at the two
pointers.
Equating the two couples, we have
πηr - θ' > θT 
 UV
2

2UV
∴ 
πr - θ' > θT 

the twist (' − T ). The slope of the straight line gives the mean of Q X Z R which is used in the
W YW
The experiment is repeated with different masses and a graph is plotted between M and
[
above expressions to find out .

 Draw backs of the statical method :

(a) There being a pointer moving over the circular scale, an error is caused due to the
eccentricity of the axis of the rod with respect to it.
(b) Since the force is applied through the pulley, a side pull is produced on the rod. This
results in friction in the bearings which opposes the rod from twisting freely.

(2) Dynamical Method:

In this method, a disc or rod, which is suspended from the wire and performing
torsional vibrations about the wire and the time period of a body is determined.

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 Maxwell derived a method using which we can easily determined the moment of inertia
of a body without knowing the couple per unit twist.

Maxwell’s Vibrating needle method :

A hollow tube, open at both ends is suspended at the middle with the torsion wire
whose modulus of rigidity is to be measured.
It is suspended vertically from a support and a small piece of mirror attached to it, as
shown in figures.

As shown in fig.(a), two hollow and two solid cylinder of equal length fitted into tube
end to end. The solid cylinders are first into the inner position and hollow cylinders in the

IT
outer position as shown in fig.(a). The time period of a given system is given by

t T = 2π D … … … … … … (1)
C
Where I1 is the moment of inertia of the loaded tube and C is couple per unit twist of the
wire.
Now, the position of hollow and solid cylinder are interchanged as shown in fig.(b),

I'
Then ,time period t2 of second adjustment is given by

t ' = 2π D … … … … … … (2)
C
Where, I2 is the moment of inertia of the tube in new position.

Squaring equation (1) and (2) , we set

4π' IT
tT' = … … … … … … (3)
C

4π' I'
And t '' = … … … … … … (4)
C

4π'
Subtracting (3) from (4), we have
t ' − tT =
' ' (I' − IT ) … … … … … … (5)
C

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 Now, let m1 be the mass of each hollow cylinder and m2 be the mass of each solid

Let the length of tube be 2a. Hence, the length of each solid or hollow cylinder is ^2.
cylinder.

Then the centers of mass of the inner and outer cylinders lie at distance ^4 and 3^4.

from a distance ^4 to 3^4. Then using the principal of parallel axes, we have
Hence, in changing from first to second position an extra mass (m2 – m1) transferred

3a ' a '
I' = IT + 2(m' − mT ) ,B C − Q R /
4 4

9a' a'
= IT + 2(m' − mT ) , − /
16 16

a'
= IT + 2(m' − mT )
2

I' − IT = (m' − mT )a' … … … … … … (6)

Substituting this value of I2 – I1 in equation (5) we get

4π'
t '' − tT' = (m' − mT )a'
C

4π'
= (m' − mT )a'
πηr-^
2l
8lπ' a'
= (m' − mT )
πηr-

8πla' (m' − mT )
η= … … … … … … (7)
r - (t '' − t T' )

Thus, if we know l, a, m1, m2, t1, t2, and r, the modulus of rigidity (η) of the wire can be
determined.

 Advantage :
1. The total suspended mass from the wire remains same, hence value of C remains
unchanged.
2. There is no need to find the moment of inertia of the system, hence the question of
uncertainty does not arise.

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Determination of moment of inertia with the help of a torsional pendulum :

The apparatus used here is called the inertia

table. As shown in figure. It consists of a horizontal
aluminum disc D about 15 cm in diameter, which is
fitted with pair of small vertical pillars P with cross
bar B. The whole assembly is suspended by a thin
wire W from torsion head T inside frame F. The
frame is mounted on a heavy iron base. A small
piece of mirror M fixed on the cross bar B. The entire
apparatus is enclosed in a glass cover.
The disc D is set into torsional vibrations and
its time period to is measured. If I0 is the moment of
inertia of the inertial table and C is the twisting
couple per unit twist of the wire then,

Id
t d = 2π D … … … … … … (1)
C
The object whose moment of inertia I is to be determined is now placed centrally on the

(Id + I)
inertia table and its time period t1 is measured.

tT = 2π D … … … … … … (2)
C
The given body is replaced by an object of a known moment of inertia (I1) and the time

(Id + IT )
period t2 is measured

∴ t ' = 2π D … … … … … … (3)
C
Now squaring equation (1) and (2) we get

4π' Id
t 'd = … … … … … … (4)
C

4π' (Id + I)
tT' = … … … … … … (5)
C

Dividing equation (5) by (4)

tT' Id + I I
' = Id
=1+
Id
td

I tT'
∴ = '−1
Id td

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 I tT' − t 'd
∴ = … … … … … … (6)
Id t 'd
Now squaring equation (3) we have

4π' (Id + IT )
t ''
= … … … … … … (7)
C
Dividing equation (7) by (4), we set

t '' Id + IT IT
' = Id
=1+
Id
td

IT t ''
∴ = '−1
Id td

IT t '' − t 'd
∴ = … … … … … … (8)
Id t 'd
Now, dividing equation (6) by (8), we have

I^
Id tT' − t 'd t 'd tT' − t 'd
= X =
IT t 'd t '' − t 'd t '' − t 'd
^I
d
I tT' − t 'd
∴ = '
IT t ' − t 'd

tT' − t 'd
∴ I = IT x … … … … … … (9)
t '' − t 'd

Using above equation, we can determine the moment of inertia of unknown object.

Bending of Beams :
A beam is a rod or a bar of uniform cross-section of a homogeneous, isotropic elastic
material whose length is very large compared to its thickness.
When a beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the other end as shown in figure (a)
within the elastic limit, it will bend and couple produced inside it. The upper surface of the
beam gets stretched and becomes a convex shape and lower surface gets compressed and
becomes a concave form.

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