1. Climate is an important factor in sustaining human life and civilisations.

How far
do you agree that climatic change played a role in both the emergence and fall
of the Harappan civilisation?

Introduce – Indus Valley Civilisation

Body – Role of climate especially monsoon in the rise and fall of IVC as well as other factors which
contributed in the growth of IVC and its downfall.

Conclusion – That fall of such an extensive civilisation is always multicausal.

Introduction

Climate, especially the monsoonal climate played a crucial role in the rise of Harappan civilisation
which is its transformation from subsistence-based agrarian community into large urban centres.
Harappan urbanism was dependant on the surplus agriculture producing food to sustain the cities
that acted as spaces of manufacturing, nodes of exchange, seats of administration and patron of
culture.

Role of climate in the rise of Harappan civilisation:

Early (i.e. 3500 to 2600 BC) and Matured phase (i.e. around 2600 to 1700 BC) of Harappan
civilisation coincided with wet, warm and climatically stable period. Mature phase coincided with the
intensification of monsoon. Thus good monsoon led to rising in food production which led to surplus
food grains and thus helping in transforming agro-based Sothi culture (as suggested by archaeologist
AN Ghosh) into proto Harappan phase (a term coined by Dr Rafiq Mughal) found at Amri and Kotdiji
along banks of river Indus. Various water management techniques were utilised by the Harappans
but to the root of all lay the predictable monsoon that made the climate wetter and more suitable
for the crops like wheat and barley. Surplus food production resulted in revolutionary changes
promoting art, craft, trade and commerce.

Role of climate in the fall of Harappan civilisation:

There was a change in intensity of Monsoon due to falling in temperature in Northern hemisphere
weakening Indian monsoon. The decline in monsoon rainfall affected the agriculture of Harappan
people and resulted in fall in rural, urban trade and linkages as the flow of Agri products from rural
tourban areas declined to result in a decline in secondary economic activities like manufacturing of
artefacts. This resulted in a decline in urban areas beginning with centres of exchange like Harappa
declining first.

Conclusion:

To sum up, the climate was certainly one of the most important factors in both the rise and fall of
Harappan. But its extent is an uncertain proposition in the context of the present evidence as well as
the technology of analysing those evidence. Rise and fall of civilisation have always been a complex
process, as is observed in other Bronze Age collapses in the other regions of the world.
 2. In early Indian history, the sixth century BCE is frequently seen as a crucial
turning point. It is a time period known for its early states, cities, expanding
usage of iron, creation of coins, and the emergence of new faiths, among other
things. Elaborate

Introduction

Sixth century BC is regarded as turning point for Indian history as it was the age that Iron Age started
in India. This increased economic prosperity and technological development. It was the time when
religious and spiritualism thoughts grew in the form of Shramana tradition.

Developments during 6th century BCE:

• It witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. Early
Buddhist and Jain texts mention sixteen states known as mahajanapadas.
• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. Maintaining these fortified
cities as well as providing for incipient armies and bureaucracies required resources.
• From sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmans began composing Sanskrit texts known as the
Dharmasutras. These laid down norms for rulers as well as for other social categories, who were
ideally expected to be Kshatriyas.
• Emergence of literary sources: Many religious texts like Mahabharata, Ramayana, Darmashastra
and many other sacred texts emerged during this period.
• Some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued
to depend on militia, and recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry.
• Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive. Besides, iron mines (in
present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
• Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.The Ganga
and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
• Growing empires led to introduction of coinage which further increased trade and commerce.

Thus, all these factors combined with development of better weapons led to establishment of
empires like Nandas of Patliputra.

The Sixth Century B.C: The Rise of New Religious Thoughts

• The sixth century B.C. is regarded as an important epoch of world history. The time before that
century is described as the pre-historic age. From sixth century B.C., however historical
evidences came to exist.
• It was in the sixth century B.C. that there lived in India the founders of two great religions of
mankind. They were Mahavira Jina and Gautama Buddha, the founders of Jainism and
Buddhism.
• Enough of literature came to be written about Jina and Buddha and about their religions.
Though the Jaina and the Buddhist literature were religious in character, yet they contained
much information about political and social conditions of that time. History could be written
from those literary sources.
• It was the rise of Jainism and Buddhism which made the sixth century B.C. great and glorious. It
was from that century that the political condition of ancient India began to take a clear shape.
 Several kingdoms came to exist at that time. Attempts were also made to build bigger kingdoms
by uniting larger areas of the country. That added importance to sixth century B.C.

3. Explain the social aspects of Jainism and assess the importance and relevance
of Jain tenets to humanity.
Introduction
Numerous religious sects arouse in the middle of Gangetic plains in the second half of the sixth century
B.C. Of these sects, Jainism was one of the most important and it emerged as the most potent religious
reform movement.
Social Aspects of Jainism
Many social aspects are ingrained in the tenets of Jainism. These are:
• It taught moral and peaceful ideas like not to commit violence, not to speak a lie not to steal, not
to acquire property with greed or observance of Brahmacharya.
• Jainism attached the utmost importance to non-injury or ahimsa to living beings.
• Jainism believed that through pure and meritorious life members of lower caste can attain
salvation.
• It aims mainly at the attainment of freedom from worldly bonds. No ritual is required for such
liberation. It can be obtained through right knowledge, right faith and right action. These three
are considered to be the three jewels or triratna of Jainism.
Such ideas influenced the trading class and eventually the Jainas mainly confined themselves to trade
and mercantile activities.
Importance and Relevance of Jain Tenets to Humanity
These ideas have tremendous impact on humanity.
• Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the Varna order.
• Jainism prohibited war because it involves the killing of living beings.
• They adopted local language not the elite language so that common people could benefit from
the progressive ideas.
• In the age of terrorism, greedy capitalism, cut throat competition in almost all spheres of life, the
tenets of Jainism helps in maintaining peaceful and equitable and just global order.
Conclusion
Thus, Jainism has many social aspects along with religious aspects and these 6th BC tenets and ideas
are relevant for the humanity even in 21st Century AD.

4. The Maurayan dynasty greatly influenced the visual culture of India. Elaborate.
Introduction

The Mauryan kings were great patrons of art due to which this period saw remarkable progress
made in the art and architecture. The influence of Buddhism and Jainism can be easily seen in the art
and architecture of the Mauryan period. On the other hand, the individual initiatives also
contributed to the development of art and architecture in this period. Thus, we can see that
Mauryan art was the summation of court art and popular art.
Contributions During Mauryan Period

• Court Art:
o Palaces: Some of the magnificent structures of Mauryan times are the palaces. The palace of
Chandragupta Maurya was inspired from the Achaemenid palaces. The three-storied palace
of Ashoka at Kumhrar is another magnificent example. Mauryans used wood as principle
building material due to which the remains of these building are in deteriorating condition.
o Pillars: Mauryans introduced stone masonry to a large scale, the engineering in the erection
of monolithic stone pillars is remarkable. Only the capitals in form of beautiful sculptures
were joined atop of a pillar. These pillars are erected throughout the country. The Sarnath
Lion Capitol pillar is a remarkable masterpiece among them.
o Stupas: The art of making stupa reached a high during the time of Ashoka. These structures,
which were used to keep holy relics of Buddha, display remarkable sculptures and
architectural designs. For e.g. most famous of them, the Sanchi Stupa is a world heritage
site.
• Popular Art:
o Caves: The Mauryan artisans started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for the
monks to live in.They were marked by highly polished finish and decorated gateways. The
Barabar Caves are the prime examples of cave architecture form. Later on, this inspired the
development of cave architecture in western and southern India.
o Pottery: Black paint and lustrous finish were features of pottery in Mauryan times, they are
generally referred as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
o Sculptures: The sculptures in Mauryan times were widely used for religious expression. They
were used in stupas and making stone figurines of Yaksha and Yakshini. Also, terracotta
figures were made by the general public at large scale.

Conclusion

It is befitting to say that the Mauryans gave a great contribution to the art and architecture as it also
contributed significantly to the evolution of the Indian art and architecture. The contributions of
Maurayans were duly recognised by Indian government as the national emblem and the chakra in
the national flag are taken from Mauryan art forms.

5. What do you mean by the terms ‘Golden Age’ and ‘Classic Period’? These terms
are associated with which dynasty of ancient India? Elaborate on the
developments of that dynasty in various dimensions.
Meaning of the terms ‘Golden Age’ and ‘Classic Period’

‘Golden Age’ refers to that phase of human history during which progress of very high order was
witnessed in various spheres of human life. During Gupta age, such progress was witnessed in the field
of architecture, sculpture, judicial-legal system, economy, science and technology, literature and
paintings.

The term ‘Classical Period’ refers to that phase of human history during which progress of highest
order was witnessed. This progress becomes a model for future generations. It inspires the people in
future to attain the same level. The Classicism of Gupta age reflected itself in the form of progress of
literature, architecture, paintings and Science and technology.

Developments in various Dimensions

• Architecture: Nagara style of temple architecture witnessed progress.

• Sculpture: The images of Gupta period were simple, sober and graceful. The images were an
example of both court art and popular art. The Mathura, Gandhara and Amaravati Schools of
art continued to flourish. The images belong to various faiths. Life size images are the most
wonderful pieces of sculpture of this age – Buddha sitting in dharmachakraparivartana mudra
from Sarnath and the copper statue of Buddha found at Sultanganj.

• Judicial-legal system: For the first time there was codification of laws into civil and criminal.

• Economy: Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins. The condition of trade and
commerce was taken care of effectively by Gupta kings.

• Science and technology: refer to table.

• Literature: Immense progress was witnessed. A large number of works were composed by
various scholars. King Chandragupta-II had 9 luminaries in his court.

• Paintings: Cave number 10, 16 and 17 of Ajanta contain paintings of Gupta period. Bagha
caves also contain paintings of Gupta age.

Conclusion

Thus, after elaborating on all dimensions it is apt to say that Gupta age is referred to as ‘Golden Age’
and ‘Classic Period’.

6. Sangam literature throws light on the life of Tamils in the beginning of

historical period. Comment on the political, economic and social conditions of
South India on the basis of Sangam texts.

Introduction

The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying
to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period. It has been named after
the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the
Pandya kings of Madurai.

• The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai.

• The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
• The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large
number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.

Some Important Sangam Literature are:

• Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work.
Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio-
economic conditions of the time.
• Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
• The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important among
these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
• The two epics Silappathikaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar.
They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.

Sangam Polity and Administration

• South India, during the Sangam Age, was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras, Cholas and
Pandyas. The main source of information about these kingdoms is traced from the literary
references of Sangam Period.
• During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government.
• Each of the dynasties of Sangam age had a royal emblem – tiger for the Cholas, carp/Fish for the
Pandyas, and bow for the Cheras.
• The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorised into five councils.
o They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders
(senapathi), and spies (orrar).
• The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each
ruler.

Economy of the Sangam Age

• Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most common crop.
• The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of
ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
o These were in great demand in the internal and external trade that was at its peak during the
Sangam period.
o A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes. These were
in great demand in the western world especially for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
o The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this
port containing precious goods.
• Other significant ports of commercial activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam.
• Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and
Nero have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade.
• Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom,
cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
• Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.

Sangam Society

• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral),
Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for
worship.
o Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
o Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with
dairy products.
o Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
o Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
o Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.

• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar.

o The ruling class was called arasar.

o Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
o Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
o The vellalas were agriculturists.
• Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also
found in the Sangam society.
• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• Position of Women during Sangam Age: Women had respect and were allowed intellectual
pursuits.There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who
flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
• Religion: The primary deity of the Sangam period was Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
o The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God
Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature.

Conclusion
These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.