Bicol University Chem 100.

1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)

College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2023-2024

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS

Across a period and within a group of the periodic table, trends in atomic size, ionization energy and electron
affinity can be observed. In understanding these trends in atomic properties, knowledge of effective nuclear charge and
electron configuration is essential.

The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is defined by the following equation:

Zeff = Z – σ where Z = nuclear charge

σ = shielding constant

The greater the Zeff, the greater is the attraction between the nucleus and the electrons being drawn closer to the
nucleus. Consequently, atomic size is reduced.

Electron shielding greatly affects Zeff. The greater the shielding constant, the lower is the Zeff resulting in lesser
attraction between the nucleus and the electrons.

Electrons in the inner shell (lower n values) effectively shield the electrons in the outer shell (higher n values).
However, electrons in the same shell do not effectively shield one another. For example, let us consider the electrons
in third main energy level (n = 3). The electrons in the third main energy level do not effectively shield each other but
the electrons in the first and second main energy level levels (n = 1, 2) effectively shield the electrons in the third main
energy level from the nucleus.

ATOMIC SIZE

It is difficult to define the size of an atom. However, its atomic radius can be estimated. In metals like sodium,
their atomic radius is assumed to be half of the internuclear distance between adjacent atoms. Similarly, for diatomic
molecules like chlorine, their atomic radius is assumed as half of the distance between the two nuclei of the molecule.

The atomic radius of the elements in the second period is given below. Try to recognize the trend in atomic
radius across the second and third periods.

Table 1. Atomic Radius of the Elements in the Second Period

Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
Atomic Radius (picometer, ppm) 155 112 98 91 92 73 72 71

Table 2. Atomic Radius of the Elements in the Third Period

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Atomic Radius (picometer, ppm) 190 160 143 132 128 127 99 98

What is the general trend in the atomic radius across the period? How can you account for this trend?

Now let us see the trend in the atomic size within the group. The atomic radius of groups 1, 2, and 7 are given
below.

Group 1 or IA Group 2 or IIA Group 7 or VIIA

Atomic Radius Atomic Radius Atomic Radius
Element Element Element
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Li 155 Be 112 F 72
Na 190 Mg 160 Cl 99
K 235 Ca 197 Br 114
Rb 248 Sr 215 I 133
Cs 267 Ba 222 At 142

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS |1

 Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2023-2024

Did you notice the trend in atomic size down the group?
How can you account for the observed trend?

[Q1] Fill in the blanks with “increases” or “decreases”

1. In going from left to right across a period, atomic radius generally __________.
2. Down a group, atomic radius generally __________.

Using the general trend in atomic size observed across a period and down a group, one can predict the relative
size of the atom just by looking at the periodic table. For example in the series:

K, Ca, Rb, Cs, Ar

Their atomic size occurs in the following increasing order:

Ar < Ca < K < Rb < Cs

(smallest) (largest)

[Q2] Arrange the species in each group in order of increasing atomic radius.

1. N, Bi, P __________ 3. Cs, Al, Na __________

2. As, K, Br __________ 4. Ba, Rn, Xe __________

IONIZATION ENERGY

Ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from gaseous atom or
ion. If the electron removed is the first (outermost) electron from the atom in its ground state, the energy required is
referred to as the FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY (IE1)

X (g) + energy → X+ + e– First Ionization

For subsequent removal of electrons as shown by the following equations, the energy involved is referred to
as the SECOND IONIZATION ENERGY (IE2), THIRD IONIZATION ENERGY (IE3) AN SO ON.

X+ + energy → X 2+ + e– Second Ionization

X 2+ + energy → X 3+ + e– Third Ionization

Study the subsequent ionization of sodium. What can you say regarding the subsequent ionization energies?

First ionization: Na (g) → Na + (g) + e– IE1 = 495.9 kJ/mol

Second ionization: Na + (g) → Na 2+(g) + e– IE2 = 4560 kJ/mol

Third ionization: Na2+(g) → Na 3+(g) + e– IE3 = 6900 kJ/mol

Fourth ionization: Na3+(g) → Na 4+(g) + e– IE4 = 9540 kJ/mol

Fifth ionization: Na4+(g) → Na 5+(g) + e– IE5 = 13400 kJ/mol

Sixth ionization: Na5+(g) → Na 6+(g) + e– IE6 = 16600 kJ/mol

The ionization energies of other elements are given in Table 4.

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS |2

 Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2023-2024

Table 4. Ionization Energies (kJ/mol) of Magnesium, Aluminum, Lithium and Sulfur.

Element IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6
Li 520 7300 11808
Mg 738.1 1450 7730 10500 13600 18000
Al 577.9 1820 2750 11600 14800 18400
S 999.5 2250 3360 4660 6990 8500

Do you see the trend in subsequent ionization energies as observed in sodium?

[Q3] Using the information given in Table 4, fill the blanks with > or <.

1. Li: IE1 _____ IE2 _____ IE3 _____

2. Mg: IE1 _____ IE2 _____ IE3 _____ IE4 _____ IE5 _____ IE6
3. Al: IE1 _____ IE2 _____ IE3 _____ IE4 _____ IE5 _____ IE6
4. S: IE1 _____ IE2 _____ IE3 _____ IE4 _____ IE5 _____ IE6

Can you see any regularity? How can you account for this?

First Ionization Energy

Just like the atomic radius, there is a general trend in the first ionization energy of elements. Let’s see if you
can recognize it from the ionization energy values given in the table below.

Table 5. First Ionization Energies (kJ/mol) of Some Representative Elements

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
First H He
Period 1312 2373
Second Li Be B C N O F Ne
Period 520 899 801 1086 1400 1314 1680 2080
Third Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period 495 738 578 786 1012 1000 1251 1521
Fourth K Kr
Period 419 1356
Fifth Rb Xe
Period 409 1176
Sixth Cs Rn
Period 382 1042

Do you recognize the trend in the first ionization energy across a period and down a group?

[Q4] I. Fill in the blanks with “increases” or “decreases”.

1. In going from left to right across a period, the first ionization energy _______________.
2. Down a group, the first ionization energy ________________.

II. From the following list, choose the element that has the lowest first ionization energy and the element
that has the highest first ionization energy.

1. Rb, Sr, Te, I, Xe lowest: __________ highest: __________

2. B, Al, Ga, In, Tl lowest: __________ highest: __________

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS |3

 Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2023-2024

TENDENCY TO FORM A CATION

In as much as ionization energy can be described as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
a gaseous atom, it can be used to compare the ease by which a cation can be formed by an atom. The lower the ionization
energy, the easier it is to remove an electron and consequently, the greater the tendency of the atom to form a cation.
The higher the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron and consequently, the lower the tendency
of the atom to form a cation.

Let us compare Na (IE1 = 495 kJ/mol) and Cs (IE1 = 382 kJ/mol). Of the two, Cs requires less energy for the
removal of its valence electron therefore, Cs forms a cation more easily compared to Na.

[Q5] I. Fill in the blanks with “increases” or “decreases”.

1. In going from left to right across a period, the tendency to form a cation _______________.
2. Down a group, the tendency to form a cation _______________.

II. From the following list, choose the element that has the least tendency to form a cation and the element
that has the greatest tendency to form a cation.

1. Rb, Sr, Te least: __________ greatest: __________

2. Li, Be, N least: __________ greatest: __________
3. B, Mg, Rb least: __________ greatest: __________

ELECTRON AFFINITY

The ability of an atom to accept one or more electron is measured by ELECTRON AFFINITY. Electron affinity is
defined as the NEGATIVE OF THE ENERGY CHANGE associated with the addition of an electron to gaseous atom.

X (g) + e– → X – (g) + energy

The electron affinity of some representative elements is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Electron Affinity (kJ/mol) of some Representative Elements

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
First H He
Period 77 (-21)
Second Li Be B C N O F Ne
Period 58 (-241) 23 123 0 142 333 (-29)
Third Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period 53 (-230) 44 120 74 200 348 (-35)
Fourth K Br Kr
Period 48 325 (-39)
Fifth Rb I Xe
Period 47 295 (-40)
Sixth Cs
Period 45
* Values in parenthesis are only estimated.

Although there are some exceptions, generally, electron affinity increases from left to right across a period but
only up to Group VIIA. There is a marked decrease in electron affinity for Group VIIIA. In fact, the electron affinity of
the noble gases is endothermic or energy requiring. Why?

On the other hand, in going down a group electron affinity generally decreases.

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS |4

 Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2023-2024

[Q6] From the following list, choose the element that has the lowest electron affinity and the element that has the
highest electron affinity.

1. Rb, Sn, Te, Xe lowest: __________ highest: __________

2. C, Si, Sn, Pb lowest: __________ highest: __________

TENDENCY TO FORM AN ANION

If ionization energy is related to cation formation, electron affinity is related to anion formation. A high electron
affinity implies a greater tendency to form an anion while a low electron affinity implies a lower tendency to form an
anion.

For example, bromine has an electron affinity of 324.6 kJ/mol while iodine has an electron affinity of 295.4
kJ/mol. Comparatively we can say that bromine has a greater tendency to form an anion than iodine.

[Q7] From the following list, choose the element that has the lowest tendency to form an anion and the element that
has the highest tendency to form an anion.

1. Rb, Sn, Te, Xe lowest: __________ highest: __________

2. C, Si, Ge, Pb lowest: __________ highest: __________

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

Electronegativity is a quantitative measure of an atom’s tendency to attract electrons in a chemical bond

(within the molecule). It determines the type of bond that are formed – covalent, polar covalent, ionic.

The larger the Electronegativity of an element, the greater is the tendency of an atom of that element to pull
electrons toward itself in a bond.

The electronegativity of some representative elements is shown in Table 7

Table 7. Electronegativity of some Representative Elements

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
First 2.1
Period H He
Second 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Period Li Be B C N O F Ne
Third 0.9
Period Na Ar
Fourth 0.8 3.0
Period K Kr
Fifth 0.6 2.6
Period Rb Xe
Sixth 0.7 2.4
Period Cs Rn

[Q8] Arrange the following elements in order of increasing Electronegativity:

Ba, B, I, Sn, Sr

______ < ______ < ______ < ______ < ______

Least Greatest

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS |5

 Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2023-2024

ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCE

The electronegativity difference of two atoms allows us to predict the type of bonding that will result.

Difference in EN
of combing atoms Type of Bond
0 to 0.4 Covalent
Between 0.4 and 2.0 Polar Covalent
2.0 and greater Ionic

[Q9] Consult the Periodic Table of Elements for the electronegativity of each element that makes up the ten
compounds in the table. Find the electronegativity difference between the elements in the compound and
classify the bond formed.

Compound Electronegativity Type of Bond

Difference
Aluminum oxide
Calcium fluoride
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen iodide
Lithium fluoride
Magnesium oxide
Methane (CH4)
Sodium chloride
Sodium oxide
Water (H2O)

Notes on PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS |6