Book 8

7.1
 Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
 Carbohydrates (Rice):
o Rice contains starch, a type of carbohydrate.
o Carbohydrates, including starch, are broken down in the body to form glucose.
o Glucose serves as the primary fuel for cell respiration, providing energy to the
body.
 Proteins (Chicken and Beans):
o Chicken and beans are rich in proteins.
o Proteins are essential for building new cells in the body.
o They contribute to the growth of the body and play a crucial role in repairing
damaged tissues.
o Proteins are also involved in the production of haemoglobin and antibodies.
 Fats and Oils (Avocado):
o Avocado contains fats and oils.
o Fats and oils provide energy to the body.
o They are necessary for the formation of cell membranes.
o While fats are solid at normal temperatures, oils are liquid.
 Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are essential nutrients found in food.
 These nutrients are vital for maintaining overall health, providing energy, supporting
growth, and facilitating repair processes in the body.

 Energy stores
 While you don't eat constantly, your body requires a continuous supply of energy.
 Carbohydrates and fats from your diet are the primary sources of energy, with proteins
serving as an additional source when carbohydrates and fats are depleted.
 Your body stores a small amount of carbohydrate in cells, particularly in the liver and
muscles, serving as short-term energy stores.
 Long-term energy stores consist of fat stored in specialized cells beneath the skin and
around certain organs.
 These energy stores, especially fat stores, provide the body with a reserve of energy that
can be utilized when needed.
 In addition to providing energy, fat stores in the body also contribute to heat insulation,
especially in animals living in cold environments, such as seals, helping prevent heat loss
from their bodies.
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 Vitamins
 Vitamins are essential nutrients required in small amounts, but their absence can lead to
illnesses.
 Vitamin A:
o Essential for maintaining good vision, particularly in low light conditions.
Supports white blood cells in fighting pathogens.
o Green vegetables, carrots, squash (e.g., pumpkin), fruits, dairy products
(cheese), and certain fish.
 Vitamin C:
o Promotes strong skin, aids in quick healing of skin damage, and maintains
healthy blood vessels and bones. Deficiency can lead to scurvy, characterized by
weakness and swollen, bleeding gums.
o Fresh fruits and vegetables, with citrus fruits, potatoes, and colorful berries
being rich in vitamin C.
 Vitamin D:
o Essential for strong bones and teeth by aiding in the absorption of calcium from
food.
o Oily fish is a good dietary source, but the majority of vitamin D is produced in
the skin when exposed to sunlight.
o Lack of sunlight exposure, especially in regions with little sunshine, can lead to
vitamin D deficiency, resulting in conditions like rickets in children, causing
abnormal bone growth.

 Minerals
 Various minerals are essential for the proper functioning of the body. Two crucial
minerals are calcium and iron.
 Calcium:
o Vital for the strength of bones and teeth, as they contain calcium.
o Foods made from milk, seeds, and certain nuts (e.g., almonds) are excellent
sources of calcium.
 Iron:
o Necessary to produce hemoglobin, which transports oxygen in the blood. Iron
deficiency can lead to anemia, causing fatigue.
o Good dietary sources of iron include meat (especially red meat), dark green
vegetables, various fish, and shellfish, as well as some nuts and seeds.

 Water
 Water is a vital nutrient required for various essential functions in the body.
 Cells and blood contain significant amounts of water, with approximately 60% of a
person's body weight being composed of water.
 Water in cells facilitates the dissolution of different chemicals, enabling reactions
essential for life.
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 Water in blood ensures smooth flow, allowing the transportation of substances

throughout the body.

7.2
 Diet
 Your diet is the collection of food you consume each day, providing various nutrients and
energy required for bodily functions.
 A balanced diet includes a variety of nutrients in appropriate proportions, ensuring the
right amount of energy for the body.

 Energy Requirements
 The daily energy intake should roughly match the energy expended by the body.
 Carbohydrates and fats are significant sources of energy in most diets.
 Factors Influencing Energy Needs:
o Energy needs vary among individuals based on factors such as physical activity
levels.
o Those engaged in sports or daily physical activities may require more energy.
o Genetic factors can influence how quickly the body utilizes energy.
o Growth phases, like adolescence, may demand extra energy for cell division.
o Body size, with taller individuals using more energy for movement than smaller
individuals.

 Different diets
 Dietary needs vary among individuals due to differences in age, activity levels, and
specific life stages.
 Young Individuals:
o Require sufficient protein for cell growth.
o Need sufficient carbohydrates for energy, especially if active.
o A moderate amount of fat is essential for energy and cell membrane formation.
 Sedentary Individuals:
o Those with a sedentary lifestyle may require less carbohydrates and fat
compared to highly active individuals.
 Pregnant Women:
o Need increased protein for the developing baby's cells.
o Require abundant iron for hemoglobin production in both their and the baby's
blood.
o Adequate calcium is crucial for building the baby's bones.
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 Fibre
 Fiber, though not a nutrient, is crucial for a healthy diet.
 Unlike nutrients, you cannot digest fiber, and it passes through the digestive system
without entering the blood or cells, eventually leaving the body as faeces.
 Despite not providing nutrients, fiber plays a vital role in maintaining digestive system
health.
 It helps prevent constipation by ensuring the smooth passage of faeces through the
digestive system, preventing build-up.
 The primary component of fiber is cellulose, found in plant cell walls. Therefore, foods
derived from plants, such as cereal grains, seeds, fresh fruits, and vegetables, are
excellent sources of fiber.
 Consuming fiber-rich foods not only promotes digestive health but also provides various
minerals and vitamins essential for overall well-being.

 Food groups
 Grouping foods into categories makes it easier to consider the nutrients they contain.
The triangle diagram illustrates different food groups.
 Emphasizes a balanced diet with a variety of nutrients from different food groups.
 Milk Group: Provides essential nutrients like calcium.
 Protein Group: Includes meat, fish, eggs, pulses, or dairy products, important for protein
intake.
 Fruits and Vegetables Group: Offers minerals, vitamins, and fiber crucial for overall
health.
 Starch and Fiber Group: Consists of rice, bread, pasta (preferably whole grain) for starch
and fiber intake.

 Not too much

 While it's essential to include various nutrients in your diet, moderation is key for certain
elements:
o Sugar: Excessive sugar consumption, a type of carbohydrate, can lead to tooth
decay and increase the risk of diabetes.
o Fat, Oil, and Carbohydrates: Consuming excessive amounts of fat, oil, or
carbohydrates can contribute to weight gain. This extra weight can strain joints,
the heart, and other organs in the body.
o Animal Fats: Overindulgence in fats from animal sources may elevate the risk of
developing heart disease.
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7.3
 Growth
 Every individual starts as a single cell that undergoes division, producing two cells.
 Each cell undergoes growth and division, leading to the formation of a cluster of cells
known as an embryo, eventually developing into a baby.
 This entire process occurs inside the mother's body, resulting in the birth of a miniature
human being.
 Human growth continues until around 18-20 years of age.
 Cells, fundamental units of life, contain significant amounts of protein. Energy is required
for cell division.
 Pregnant women and growing children require sufficient protein in their diets, along
with enough energy to support the process of cell division and overall growth.

 Development
 The progression from a single cell to an adult human involves more than mere growth; it
encompasses the formation and maturation of various tissues and organs.
 During the transition from a tiny embryo to a baby, the development involves the
shaping of different body parts and functions.
 As the baby matures into a child, there's a focus on specific aspects like strengthening
leg muscles and bones for walking and running, along with the cognitive development of
the brain for learning language, playing with toys, etc.
 Development refers to these changes and advancements that occur throughout an
individual's life.
 Every person is unique, displaying diverse rates and methods of growth and
development. However, despite individual differences, everyone undergoes the same
developmental stages.
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 Exercise and Health

 In addition to diet, lifestyle choices significantly impact overall health.
 Regular exercise is beneficial as it utilizes energy from daily food intake, preventing
excessive fat storage.
 Exercise contributes to the strengthening of the heart and muscles by challenging them,
promoting physical fitness.
 Beyond physical benefits, regular exercise can enhance mental well-being, making
individuals feel more cheerful and positive about life.
 Lifestyle decisions, including exercise and physical activity, play a crucial role in
maintaining overall health and preventing various health issues.

 Smoking
 Smoking cigarettes not only harms the smoker's health but also affects the health of
those exposed to secondhand smoke.
 Tobacco comprises various harmful substances, each contributing to different health
issues.
 Nicotine:
o Found in tobacco, nicotine is addictive and can provide alertness.
o It damages blood vessels, making them narrower and increasing the risk of heart
disease.
 Tar:
o Tobacco smoke contains tar, a dark, sticky mixture of substances.
o Tar chemicals contribute to cancer by causing uncontrolled cell division and
spreading to other parts of the body.
o Smoking elevates the risk of various cancers, including lung cancer.
 Carbon Monoxide:
o A poisonous gas in tobacco smoke.
o Combines with hemoglobin in red blood cells, hindering oxygen transport to
body cells.
o Smoker's cells receive insufficient oxygen, impacting respiration and energy
production.
 Particulates:
o Tiny particles in tobacco smoke, including carbon and other materials.
o Accumulates in the lungs, causing the breakdown of alveoli walls.
o This breakdown results in larger spaces, making it difficult for smokers to get
enough oxygen into their blood.
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7.4
 The skeleton
 Animals' bodies are supported by a skeleton, providing structure and support.
 Insects and other arthropods have an exoskeleton, which is a hard outer skeleton
located outside their bodies.
 The human skeleton is internal, composed of bones.
 Bones are hard, strong structures containing a significant amount of calcium.
 Adequate calcium in the diet is crucial for proper bone growth, and protein is also
necessary for building strong bones.

 Joints
 Bones, by themselves, cannot bend, and movement in the skeleton occurs at joints
where two bones meet.
 Hinge joints function like door hinges, allowing bones to move back and forth in one
direction, like the opening and closing of a door.
 Ball-and-socket joints permit a broader range of motion, allowing bones to move in a
complete circle. In these joints, one bone has a ball-shaped end, and the other has a cup
or socket that accommodates the ball.
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 Joints in the arm

 In the human arm, various joints facilitate movement and flexibility.
 Notable joints include the shoulder joint, elbow joint, wrist joint, and joints in the
fingers.
 The X-ray image of the arm reveals key bones:
o Humerus: The upper-arm bone.
o Radius: The forearm bone on the thumb side.
o Ulna: The forearm bone on the little finger side.
 The elbow joint is a hinge joint, allowing back-and-forth movement.
 The shoulder joint is a ball-and-socket joint, providing a wide range of motion at the
shoulder.

 Muscles
 Bones and joints rely on muscles for movement.
 Muscles are composed of specialized cells capable of contracting, which means they can
make themselves shorter.
 Muscles use energy, derived from nutrients, especially glucose, for contraction. Energy is
released through respiration.
 The more a muscle is contracted, the more energy (and glucose) it consumes.
 Muscles generate a strong pulling force during contraction and are often attached to
bones via tough cords called tendons.
 When a muscle contracts, it pulls on the tendon, which, in turn, pulls on the bone,
causing movement at the joint.
 The biceps, the largest muscle, has two tendons attaching to the scapula. The term
"biceps" is unusual because it ends in an "s" even in the singular form (one biceps, two
biceps). The prefix "bi-" signifies two.
 - The longer, thinner muscle is the triceps.
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 Bending the elbow joint

When you decide to bend your arm at the elbow, your brain sends an electrical impulse
along a neurone to your biceps muscle.
 Cells in the biceps muscle respond to the electrical impulse by contracting, causing the
entire muscle to get shorter.
 The biceps muscle is anchored to the scapula at one end and the radius at the other end.
When it contracts and gets shorter, these bones are pulled closer together.
 As a result, the elbow bends, demonstrating the movement in the diagram.
 To achieve arm bending, the biceps contract (gets shorter), and the triceps relaxes.
 The contracting biceps pull on the tendon, causing the radius to move upwards and
bending the arm at the elbow joint.

 Straightening the elbow join

 Muscles can only pull and cannot push; therefore, another muscle is needed to
straighten the arm at the elbow joint.
 The muscle responsible for straightening the arm is the triceps.
When a muscle is not contracting, it is in a relaxed state.
 To straighten the arm, the triceps contract (shortens), and the biceps relaxes.
 The contracting triceps pull on the tendon, causing the ulna to move downwards and
straightening the arm at the elbow joint.

 Antagonistic muscles
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 The biceps and triceps muscles function as a team to enable the bending and
straightening of the arm at the elbow joint.
 When the arm is bent, the biceps contracts, and the triceps relaxes.
 When straightening the arm, the triceps contract, and the biceps relax.
 Muscles that work together in this manner, with one contracting while the other relaxes,
are termed antagonistic muscles.
 Antagonistic muscles coordinate to move the bones at a joint in different directions,
providing flexibility and control over various movements.