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    Yours Truly

    Uploaded by

    lindiwe lindiwe

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Yours Truly

    Uploaded by

    lindiwe lindiwe
    6 views6 pages

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    Yours truly

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    6 views6 pages

    Yours Truly

    Uploaded by

    lindiwe lindiwe

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 6

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    DNA replication
    What is DNA replication?
    - The process during which the DNA molecule makes an identical copy (replica)
    of itself.

    Why is the process of DNA replication so important?


    - It doubles the genetic material that so it can be shared between the resulting
    daughter cells during cell division.
    - Ensures that cells formed after mitosis are genetically identical.

    When and where does DNA replication take place?


    - DNA replication takes place during interphase of the cell cycle, in the nucleus.

    How does the process occur?


     DNA helicase breaks the weak hydrogen bonds between the DNA molecule.
     Causing the DNA molecule to unwind.
     The DNA molecule unzips.
     Forming two separate DNA strands.
     Each strand will serve as a template (to form a complementary DNA strand).
     DNA polymerase will use free-floating nucleotides in the nucleoplasm to form
    a complementary DNA strand for each DNA template.
     Adenine is complementary to thymine, and cytosine is complementary to
    guanine.
     In the end, two new genetically identical DNA molecules are formed.
     Each molecule consists of one original strand and one new strand
     This process is controlled by enzymes.
     known as DNA replication.

    Significance of DNA replication for mitosis (Structured question)

    - Genetic material is doubled during DNA replication


    - So that each cell formed after mitosis receives the same amount of DNA
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    - to ensure that all the daughter cells are (genetically) identical, together with
    the mother cell

    Differences between DNA and RNA

    THE EFFECT OF MUTATION ON PROTEIN STRUCTURE (DNA SEQUENCE)

    Cell processes that copy genetic material are usually accurate to ensure genetic
    continuity in both new cells and offspring but, mistakes/changes (mutation) in the
    DNA can occur.
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    Meiosis
    (The Process of Reduction Division)

    What is it?

     This is a type of cell division whereby a diploid (somatic) cell divides to form 4
    dissimilar haploid sex cells
     It is used to produce gametes
     A cell undergoing meiosis will divide twice – the first division is meiosis 1 and
    the second is meiosis 2.

    Importance

     Ensures that each newly formed cell after meiosis has half the number of
    chromosomes as the parent cell, forming a haploid gamete that is ready to
    undergo sexual reproduction. It balances the doubling effect of fertilisation
     Introduces genetic variation. Genetic variation results in offspring that are
    better adapted to a particular environment and ensures that they will have a
    better chance of survival

    Meiosis 1

    Interphase

    Before meiosis begins, DNA replication takes place.

    Prophase 1

    1. Chromatin highly condenses to form visible chromosomes. Each chromosome


    is made of 2 sister chromatids held together at a region called the centromere
    2. Synapsis occurs – A process whereby homologous chromosomes are paired
    together, in close physical contact
    3. These chromosomes are ready to undergo crossing over, and they are called
    bivalent chromosomes (bivalents)
    4. Crossing over occurs – A sister chromatid overlaps a non – sister chromatid,
    at a point called the chiasma. Genetic material is exchanged between the
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    non–sister chromatids. Each homologue now contains both maternal and


    paternal genes. This process allows for genetic variation between the
    offspring and the parent cell, and allows for biodiversity within the same
    species.
    5. The non-sister chromatids will break apart after crossing over
    6. The centrosome will split into two centrioles
    7. Centrioles will move to opposite end poles of the cell, forming spindle fibres
    using microtubules
    8. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane will start to disintegrate.

    Metaphase 1

    1. Spindle extends across the whole cell


    2. Homologous chromosomes will randomly align themselves on opposite sides
    of the equator of the cell, parallel to each other. This random assortment
    further increases genetic diversity.
    3. The centromere of each chromosome will attach itself to a spindle

    Anaphase 1

    1. Spindle fibres will contract and shorten,


    2. Each spindle will pull a whole chromosome to the opposite end poles of the
    cell.

    Telophase 1

    1. The cell membrane will invaginate (constrict) to form a cleavage lumen in


    animal cells
    2. The cytoplasm will divide forming two nearly identical daughter cells, that
    contain half the number of chromosomes.
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    Meiosis 2

    (TWO CELLS ARE UNDERGOING THIS PROCESS)

    Prophase
    1. Chromatin highly condenses to form visible chromosomes. Each chromosome
    is made of 2 sister chromatids held together at a region called the centromere
    2. The centrosome will split into two centrioles
    3. Centrioles will move to opposite end poles of the cell, forming spindle fibres
    using microtubules
    4. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane will start to disintegrate.

    Metaphase 2

    1. Chromosomes are randomly arranged at the equator of the cell (singly).


    2. The centromere of each chromosome will attach itself to a spindle

    Anaphase 2

    1. Spindle fibres contract and shorten, the chromosomes spilt and the two
    chromatids making up each chromosome.
    2. Daughter chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite ends of the cell.

    Telophase 2

    1. The cell membrane of each cell will invaginate (constrict) to form a cleavage
    lumen.
    2. The cytoplasm of each cell will divide forming two nearly identical daughter
    cells, that contain half the number of chromosomes.
    3. At the end, 4 haploid un-identical cells are formed
    4. Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes of the original cell

    Non-disjunction

    - During anaphase two


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    - Sister chromatids fail to separate


    - A whole chromosome is pulled to the opposite end of one cell
    - The other cell will have no chromosome
    - This will create an abnormal gamete with 24 chromosomes
    - Fertilization between this cell and a normal cell will occur
    - The zygote will have an extra pair of a chromosome
    - (The zygote will have 47 chromosomes instead of 46)
    - This error is called a non-disjunction

    Crossing over

    - Homologous chromosomes lie together in close physical contact (synapsis)


    - To form bivalents
    - One sister chromatid overlaps a non-sister chromatid at a point called the
    chiasma.
    - Genetic material is exchanged between the non-sister chromatids.
    - Each homologue now contains both paternal and maternal genes.
    - This process brings about genetic variation between the offspring.
    - And allows for biodiversity within the same species.

    Differences between meiosis I and II

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