INSTRUMENT MECHANIC-1st Year - TT (NSQF 2022)

INSTRUMENT MECHANIC
NSQF LEVEL - 4
1st Year
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Electronics & Hardware
(As per revised syllabus July 2022 - 1200 of hrs)
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Sector : Electronics & Hardware
Duration : 2 Years
Trades : Instrument Mechanic - 1st year Trade Theory - NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022)
Developed & Published by
National Instructional Media Institute

Post Box No.3142
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
INDIA
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
Copyright © 2022 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition: January 2023 Copies:1000
Rs.275/-
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National
Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2022 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Media Development Committee members of various stakeholders
viz. Industries, Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under Ministry of Skill
Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing producing and disseminating Instructional
Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related institutions.
The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Instrument
Mechanic - Trade Theory - NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) in Electronics & Hardware Sector under
Annual pattern. The NSQF Level - 4 Trade Practical will help the trainees to get an international equivalency
standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will
also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) trainees will also get
the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level
- 4 (Revised 2022) the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from
these Instructional Media Packages IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality
of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
Addl.Secretary / Director General (Training)

Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this Institute is to develop
and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman and
Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and contribution
extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisation to bring out this IMP (Trade Theory)
for the trade of Instrument Mechanic - NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) under the Electronics & Hardware
Sector for ITIs.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Smt. D. Chitra - Training Officer,

Govt. I.T.I Ambattur Chennai - 50.
Smt. S. Gomathy - Training Officer,
Govt. I.T.I Guindy Chennai - 32.
Smt. S. Vijaya - Assistant Training Officer,
Govt. I.T.I Women Salem.
Smt. Hemalatha - Assistant Director (Retd),
Govt. R.I centre, Guindy, Chennai - 32
NIMI - COORDINATORS
Shri. Nirmalya Nath - Deputy Director,

NIMI, Chennai - 32.
Shri. S. Gopalakrishnan - Assistant Manager

NIMI, Chennai - 32.
NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the
development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intended to be used in practical workshop. It consists of a series of practical
exercises to be completed by the trainees during the course. These exercises are designed to ensure that all
the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 4 (Revised 2022) syllabus are covered.
The manual is divided into Fifteen modules.
Module 1 Basic Safety
Module 2 Basic Fitting
Module 3 Tube Joint and Fitting
Module 4 Basic Electricity & Passive Components
Module 5 Electrical Machine
Module 6 Transformer
Module 7 Electrical Measuring Instruments
Module 8 Semi Conductor, Transistors and Power Supply Circuit
Module 9 Oscillators
Module 10 Operational Amplifiers
Module 11 Logic Circuits
Module 12 A/D and D/A Converters
Module 13 Digital Meters and CRO
Module 14 Computers
Module 15 Microprocessor 8085
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centered around some
practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual, a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy to
understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there is a
scope for further improvement. NIMI looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty for
improving the manual.
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Course of the Instrument Mechanic Trade
Practical NSQF Level - 4 in E & H. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained
in NSQF LEVEL -4 syllabus on Trade Theory attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the
skill covered in each exercise to the extent possible. This correlation is maintained to help the trainees to develop
the perceptional capabilities for performing the skills.
The trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercises are given in every sheet of
this manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn trade theory connected to each exercise at least one class before performing
the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each exercise.
The material is not for the purpose of self-learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Exercise Learning Page
Outcome No.
Module 1 : Basic Safety

1.1.01 - 09 Familiar with industrial Training Institute (ITI) 1 1
Module 2 : Basic Fitting
1.2.10 - 19 Basic hand tools 1 20
Module 3 : Tube Joint and Fitting
1.3.20 - 23 Copper tube cutting, bending, swaging and flaring 2 33
Module 4 : Basic Electricity & Passive Components
1.4.24 - 54 Electricty and fundamental laws 3-8 40
Module 5 : Electrical Machine
1.5.55 - 61 AC Generator and DC generators and its working principles 9 73
Module 6 : Transformer
1.6.62 - 65 Transformers and its working principles 10 84
Module 7 : Electrical Measuring Instruments
1.7.66 - 84 Electrical Measuring Instruments and its working principles 11 - 13 87
Module 8 : Semi Conductor, Transistors and Power Supply Circuit
1.8.85 - 88 Semiconductor diodes 13 - 15 104
1.8.89 - 92 Transistors and Classification 113
1.8.93 & 94 Half wave and full wave rectifier 145
1.8.95 - 99 Working principle of zener diodes 157
1.8.100 - 111 Switch Mode Power Supply 164
Module 9 : Oscillators
1.9.112 - 114 Oscillators and its working principles 16 192
Module 10 : Operational Amplifiers
1.10.115 - 122 Operational amplifiers and their applications 199
Module 11 : Logic Circuits
1.11.123 - 135 Number systems 17 216
Module 12 : A/D and D/A Converters
1.12.136 - 140 Digital -to- Analog converter 18 255
Module 13 : Digital Meters and CRO
1.13.141 - 146 Working of frequency meter, phase measuring meter, time measuring
instrument and digital capacitary meter 18 & 19 266
Module 14 : Computers
1.14.147 - 156 Computer, parts and their working 20 280
Module 15 : Microprocessor 8085
1.15.157 - 160 Microprocessor - 8085 and its applications 21 293
(vii)
LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
Sl. Learning Outcome Ref.Ex.No

No.
1 Plan and organize the work to make job as per specification applying
different types of basic fitting operation and Check dimensional 1.1.01
accuracy using precision instruments following safety precaution. 1.2.09
[Basic fitting operation – marking, Hacksawing, Chiseling, Filing,
Drilling,Taping and Grinding etc. Accuracy: ± 0.5mm] CSC/N0304
2 Apply a range of skills to execute tube joints, dismantle and
assembles tubes and fittings of PI arc &ferrule and test for leakage. 1.3.20
[range of skills- cutting, threading, flaring, bending and joining] 1.3.23
ELE/N9410
3 Identify, test the cable and measure the electrical parameters. 1.4.24
ELE/N9411 1.4.30
4 Test various electrical passive and active components using
proper measuring instruments and compare the data using standard 1.4.31
parameter. ELE/N9412 1.4.39
5 Identify, test and use of various types of switches, E.M. relays, Circuit 1.4.40
breaker and construct electrical circuits. ELE/N9413 1.4.44
6 Estimate, Assemble, install and test wiring system. PSS/N6001 1.4.45-48
7 Test various electrical passive and active components using proper
measuring instruments and compare the data using standard parameter. 1.4.49-50
ELE/N9412
8 Verify characteristics of resonance circuits. ELE/N9413 1.4.51-54
9 Plan, execute commissioning, testing and evaluate performance of AC & 1.5.55-61
DC motors and generators. ELE/N9402
10 Execute testing, evaluate performance and maintenance of transformer. 1.6.62-65
PSS/N2406, PSS/N2407
11 Plan, select, and carry out measurement, extension of range, overhauling, 1.7.66-70
testing and calibration of 'D’ Arsonval meter, PMMC meter. ELE/N9414
12 Select, perform electrical/electronic measurement, earthing installation
service and calibrate MI instruments, electro dynamometer instruments, 1.7.71-83
Induction type and Special instruments- voltage tester, continuity tester,
rotation tester, phase sequence indicator, synchronising, synchronous
cope, frequency meter, thermocouple type ammeter. ELE/N9415
13 Identify, Test various analog and power electronics components, 1.7.84-98
Construct, test and analyze the circuit functioning. ELE/N9404
14 Detect the faults and troubleshoot SMPS, UPS, inverter, converter and 1.8.99-
Thyristor family. ELE/N7202 1.8.105
(viii)
15 Identify, place, solder and desolder and test different SMD, discrete
components with due care and following safety norms using proper tools 1.8.106
/setup. ELE/N5102 1.8.111
16 Identify, Test various analog and power electronics components, 1.9.112
Construct, test and analyze the circuit functioning. ELE/N9407 1.9.113
17 Construct and test different circuits using operational amplifiers circuits 1.9.114
and execute the result. ELE/N9407 1.10.121
18 Identify, test and Verify all digital ICs. Assemble, test and troubleshoot 1.10.122
various digital circuits and digital instruments. ELE/N9405 1.13.143
19 Measure the various parameters by CRO and execute the result with 1.13.144
standard one. ELE/N9416 1.13.145
20 Install and setup operating system and related software in a computer & 1.13.146
Practice with MS office and application software related to instruments. 1.14.155
ELE/N9417
21 Identify various functional blocks of a microprocessor system, identify
various I/O Ports, write and executive simple program and Interface a model 1.15.156
application with the microprocessor kit and run the application. ELE/N9418 1.15.160
(ix)
SYLLABUS
Duration Reference Professional Skills Professional Knowledge
Learning outcome (Trade Practical) (Trade Theory)
With Indicative Hours
Professional Plan and organize the 1. Importance of trade training, List

Organization of the Institute,
Skill 90 Hrs. work to make job as per of tools & Machinery used in the
Departments various trades &
specification applying trade. (01 Hrs.)
Professional functions. Types of work,
different types of basic
Knowledge 2. Safety attitude development of responsibility to be undertaken,
fitting operation and
16 Hrs. the trainee by educating them incentives and future planning of
Check dimensional
to use Personal Protective profession. Safely precautions to be
accuracy using precision
Equipment (PPE).(05 Hrs.) observed in the trade both during
instruments following
safety precaution. [Basic 3. First Aid Method and basic 'theoretical Periods' and 'Practical
training. (03 Hrs.) hours/workshop hours' Elementary
fitting operation –
First Aid. Safety and hazards. Sign
marking, Hacksawing, 4. Safe disposal of waste materials boards and types. Hazardous and
Chiseling, Filing, Drilling, like cotton waste, metal chips/ non-hazardous. Environmental
Taping and Grinding etc. burrs etc. (03 Hrs.) pollution related to the trade- caused,
Accuracy: ± 0.5mm]
5. Safety signs for Danger, consequences, mitigation and
CSC/N0304
Warning, caution & personal control. (06 Hrs.)
safety message. (03 Hrs.)
6. Preventive measures for
electrical accidents & steps to
be taken isuch accidents
(04Hrs.)
7. Use of Fire
extinguishers.(03Hrs.)
8. Practice and understan
precautions to be followed while
working in fitting jobs. (05 Hrs.)
9. Safe use of tools and
equipmentsused in the trade
(05 Hrs.)
10. Demonstration and uses of hand Basic hand tools, types,

tools- screwdrivers,pliers, classification use & metal cutting
spanners, tweezers, tester, wire fundamentals.
stripper, electrician knife, steel Filing- Flat, square and Parallel to an
rule, scriber, punches, hammer. accuracy of 0.5mm.
(06 Hrs.)
Measurement & measuring
11. Visual inspection of raw material
instruments, Marking tools,
for rusting, scaling, corrosion
Fasteners & Fastening devices. (05
etc. (05 Hrs.)
Hrs.)
12.Filing- flat & square (Rough
finish). (05 Hrs.)
13. Filing practice, surface filing,
side and checking 900 by try
square. (05 Hrs.)
14. Marking out lines, filling and
saving use of vice to given
dimensions. (05 Hrs.)
15. Filing- Flat, square and Parallel
to an accuracy of 0.5mm. (05
Hrs.)
(x)
16. Measurement of Length, Height
& Diameter by Vernier callipers
and Micrometers. (05 Hrs.)
17.Select drill bits, reamers and Precision Measuring Instruments,
tapes. (02 Hrs.) gauge blocks, sine bar, dial
18.Drill through holes and blind holes. indicators, vernier calipers,
(10 Hrs.) micrometers, bevel protractor,
19. Form external thread with dies to thickness gauges.
standard size. (10 Hrs.) Element & types of screw threads
used in instruments, Calculation of
drill size for tapping. (05 Hrs.)
Professional Apply a range of skills to 20. Flaring of tube and tube joints. Types of tubes used for
Skill 25 Hrs. execute tube joints, (06Hrs.) instrumentation. Tube cutter,
Professional dismantle and assembles 21. Cutting and threading of tube Flaring tools, swedging tools,
Knowledge tubes and fittings of PI arc length. (06 Hrs.) equipment's & fixture required for
04 Hrs. &ferrule and test for pipe bending, straightening, thread
leakage. [range of skills- 22. Fitting of tube and per sketch cutting, method of installation. (04
cutting, threading, flaring, observing conditions used for tube Hrs.)
bending and joining] ELE/ work. (06 Hrs.)
N9410 23. Fit and assemble tubes, PI arc
and ferrule fittings. (07 Hrs.)
Professional Identify, test the cable and 24.Construct a test lamp and use it Electrical components-conductor,
Skill 20 Hrs. measure the electrical tocheckmains healthiness. semiconductor & insulators.
Professional parameters. ELE/N9411 (02Hrs.) Standard wire gauge (SWG).
Knowledge 25. Measure the voltage between Introduction of electricity- static
05 Hrs. phase and ground and rectify electricity. Current, voltage, P.D,
earthing. (03 Hrs.) E.M.F, resistance. Electrical circuit
- D.C & A.C circuit differences.
26. Prepare terminations, skin the Importance of grounding. (05 Hrs.)
electrical wires /cables using wire
stripper and cutter. (03 Hrs.)
27. Measure the gauge of the wire
using SWG and outside
micrometre. (03 Hrs.)
28. Refer table and find current
carrying capacity of wires.
(03Hrs.)
29. Measure AC and DC voltages
using multi meter. (03 Hrs.)
30. Use the multi meter to measure
the various functions (AC V, DC
V, DC I, AC I, R). (03 Hrs.)
Professional Test various electrical 31. Measure the resistor value by Uses of multimeter. Resistor,
Skill 20 Hrs. passive and active colour code and verify the same Resistivity and colour code, Types
Professional components using proper by measuring with multi-meter. of resistors used in instrumentation.
Knowledge measuring instruments and (02 Hrs.) Definition and purpose of soldering
05 Hrs. compare the data using 32.Practice soldering on IC bases and desoldering. Soft soldering.
standard parameter. ELE/ and PCBs. (03 Hrs.)
N9412 Types of soldering irons. Solder &
33. Practice de-soldering using flux. Care & precaution of soldering.
pump and wick. (02 Hrs.) De-soldering tools and method of
use.
34.Join the broken PCB track and
test. (02 Hrs.)
(xi)
35. Practice on measurement of Ohm's law & Kirchhoff s laws.
parameters in combinational Series & parallel circuits. Primary
electrical circuit by applying Ohm’s & secondary cells and batteries.
Law for different resistor values and {Liquid & dry). Maintenance free
voltage sources. (03Hrs.) batteries construction-charging,
36.Measurement of current and efficiency-use, advantage.(05 Hrs.)
voltage in electrical circuits to
verify Kirchhoff’s Law. (02 Hrs.)
37.Verify laws of series and parallel
circuits with voltage source in
different combinations. (02 Hrs.)
38.Measure the resistance, Voltage,
Current through series and parallel
connected networks using multi
meter. (02 Hrs.)
39. Measure and test the voltages of
the given cells/battery using
analog/digital multi-meter. (02Hrs.)
Professional Identify, test and use of 40. Dismantle and identify the Switches and types. Magnet and
Skill 20 Hrs. various types of switches, different parts of a relay. (04 Hrs.) magnetism, magnetic properties.
E.M. relays, Circuit breaker 41. Connect a timer relay in a circuit Magnetic campus and its uses.
Professional
and construct electrical and test for its working. (04 Hrs.) Explanation of Electro-magnetism,
Knowledge
circuits. ELE/N9413 Advantages, disadvantages-
04 Hrs. 42.Connect a contactor in a circuit
application-types E.M. relays.
and test for its working. (04 Hrs.)
43.Construct and test series and (04 Hrs.)
parallel resonance circuit. (04Hrs)
44.Make a panel board using
different types of switches for
a given application. (04 Hrs.)
Professional Estimate, Assemble, install 45. Practice cutting, threading of Principles of alternating current, A.C
Skill 20 Hrs. and test wiring system. different sizes & laying & DC electricity, types of wave
Professional PSS/N6001 Installations. (05 Hrs.) forms, time period and frequency,
Knowledge peak to peak values, RMS values,
46.Draw layouts and practice in PVC
04 Hrs. Average values. (04 Hrs.)
Casing-capping, Conduit wiring
with minimum to a greater number
of points of minimum 15 mtrs. (05
Hrs.) length. (05 Hrs.)
47.Wire up PVC conduit wiring to
control one lamp from two different
places. (05 Hrs.)
48.Draw layouts and practice
Wiring for instrument panel.
(05Hrs.)
Professional Test various electrical 49.Measure the inductor value by Inductor and Inductance, types of
Skill 20 Hrs. passive and active written/colour code and verify the inductors, Factors affecting the
components using proper same by measuring with LCR value of inductance, self-inductance
Professional
measuring instruments and meter. (10 Hrs.) (L), Capacitance, types of
Knowledge
compare the data using capacitor, unit of capacitance,
04 Hrs.
standard parameter. ELE/ 50.Measure charge, energy store of factors affecting the value of
N9412 capacitor in series and parallel
capacitors, charge, energy stored
circuits with voltage source in
in capacitors. Capacitors in series
different combination. (10 Hrs.)
and parallel. Capacitors in DC
circuit. (04 Hrs.)
(xii)
Professional Verify characteristics of 51. Measure capacitive and inductive A.C.-impedance, Inductive
Skill 20 Hrs. resonance circuits. ELE/ reactance with increase/ reactance, capacitive reactance. AC
N9413 decrease the input frequency of current through - R, L, C circuits.
Professional
the circuit. (05 Hrs.) Resonance in RLC circuit.
Knowledge
52.Measure current & voltage and Importance - of series and parallel
05 Hrs.
determine the characteristics of resonance. (05 Hrs.)
RL, RC and RLC in AC series
circuits. (05 Hrs.)
53.Measure the resonance
frequency in AC series circuit
and determine its effect on the
circuit. (05 Hrs.)
54.Measure current & voltage and
determine the characteristics of
RL, RC and RLC in AC series
circuits. (05 Hrs.)
Professional Plan, execute 55.Start, run and reverse the Introduction of AC and DC generators
Skill 46 Hrs. commissioning, testing direction of rotation of working principles, construction.
Professional and evaluate performance s i n g l e ˆ p h a s e AC motors. Operation, field magnets, armature
Knowledge of AC & DC motors and (07Hrs.) windings, commutator and brushes,
10 Hrs. generators. ELE/N9402 56.Practice on speed control of EMF equation. Faraday's Law, Lenz's
single-phase AC motors. (06Hrs.) Law, Fleming's left Hand and right-hand
57.Install, connect and determine rules. DC motors working principles,
performance of single-phase DC construction, operation, types.
motors. (07 Hrs.) Different speed controlling techniques
of DC motors. AC motors, induction
58.Start, run and reverse the motors, three phase motors, stepper
direction of rotation of motors.(10 Hrs.)
singleˆphase DC motors.
(06Hrs.)
59. Install an alternator, identify parts
and terminals of alternator.
(07Hrs.)
60.Perform speed control of DC
motors - field and armature control
method. (06 Hrs.)
61.Connect, start and run three
phase induction motors by using
DOL, star-delta and auto-
transformer starters. (07 Hrs.)
Professional Execute testing, evaluate 62.Perform OC and SC test to Transformer, types, transformation
Skill 20 Hrs. performance and determine and efficiency of single- ratio. Open circuit test and short
Professional maintenance of phase transformer. (05Hrs.) circuit test, regulation Auto
Knowledge transformer. PSS/N2406, transformer. Current measurement.
63.Determine voltage regulation of
05 Hrs. PSS/N2407 Instrument transformer. Potential
single-phase transformer at
transformer and current transformer.
different loads and power factors.
(05 Hrs.)
(05 Hrs.)
64.Verify and measure voltage
regulation of auto transformer at
different loads. (05 Hrs.)
65.Perform series and parallel
operation of two single phase
transformers. (05 Hrs.)
(xiii)
Professional Select, perform electrical/ 66.Overhaul, check, fault find, repair, Basics of electrical measuring
Skill 40 Hrs. electronic measurement, test of voltmeter and ammeter. (07 instruments-
Professional earthing installation service Hrs.)
Types - absolute and secondary
Knowledge and calibrate MI instruments, 67.Study the construction circuit instruments. Types of secondary
06 Hrs. electro dynamometer operation and adjustment for instruments, DC instruments - 'D1
instruments, Induction type correct functioning of zero errors Arsonval meter, PMMC meter-
and Special instruments- on voltmeter and ammeter. working principle, method of
voltage tester, continuity (06Hrs.) working, moving coil operation.
tester, rotation tester, phase
68. Find the minimum and maximum (FSD) full scale deflection reading,
sequence indicator,
measurable range of the meter. measurement value, meter
s y n c h r o n i s i n g , sensitivity, accuracy. Meter
(07Hrs.)
synchronouscope, frequency resistance, maximum power,
meter, thermocouple type 69.Test the shunt and series capability etc.
ammeter. ELE/N9415 resistance of various rangeof
ammeter. (07 Hrs.) Meter range extension-
Converting galvanometer into
70.Practice multipliers for different
ammeter, voltmeter. Range
range extension of voltmeter and
extension of voltmeter, ammeter.
ammeter. (07 Hrs.)
Shunt resistance and series
resistance value calculation. Meter
resistance, meter FSD
identification techniques.(06 Hrs.)
Professional Select, perform electrical/ 71.Prepare plate earthing and Ohm meters- measuring electrical
Skill 60 Hrs electronic measurement, measure earth resistanceby earth resistance. Basic construction of
earthing installation service tester / megger. (05 Hrs.) Ohm meter, working method of
Professional
and calibrate MI instruments,
Knowledge 72. Test earth leakage by ELCB and ohmmeter. Types of Ohm meter -
electro dynamometer series and shunt type of ohm
10 Hrs. relay. (05 Hrs.)
instruments, Induction type meters. Megger/insulation tester,
and Special instruments- 73. Measure the power using
earth tester - construction working
voltage tester, continuity wattmeter. (05 Hrs.)
advantages and disadvantages of
tester, rotation tester, phase 74.Test and calibrate wattmeter. various types of ohm meter.
sequence indicator, (05Hrs.)
s y n c h r o n i s i n g , AC instruments - types of AC
75. Familiar with the construction of measuring instruments -MI, electro
synchronouscope,
energy meter and ampere hour dynamometer type, Working
frequency meter,
meter. (03 Hrs.) principle, construction, advantages
thermocouple type
ammeter. ELE/N9415 76.Overhaul, check and fault find of and disadvantages of MI
ampere hour meter. (05 Hrs.) instruments and electro
dynamometer instruments.
77.Test and calibrate ampere hour
Various applications.
meter. (05 Hrs.)
78. Measure power in single and Induction type meters -working
three phase circuit using voltmeter principle construction and
&ammeter. (05 Hrs.) operation of induction type
instruments. Construction and
79.Overhaul and maintenance of Applications - single phase and
KWH meter and energy meter. (05 three phase energy meter, watt
Hrs.) meter. Walt hour meter, Ampere
80. Test and calibrate KWH meter Hour meter, power factor meter etc.
and energy meter. (05 Hrs.)
Special instruments: voltage tester,
81.Measure power factor in three continuity tester, rotation test,
phase circuit by using power factor phase sequence indicator,
meter and verify the same with synchronizing, the synchroscope,
voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter _ frequency meter. Thermocouple
readings. (05 Hrs.) type ammeters.(10 hrs.)
82. Practice of use voltage tester to
Test electrical power in circuit, to
test for proper grounding, to
(xiv)
determine whether adequate voltage
is present in a wire. (05Hrs.)
83. Determines the phase sequence of
the threeˆphase supply system
using Phase sequence indicator. (02
Hrs.)
Professional Identify, Test various 84.Test the power diode, Zener diode, Semiconductor, Covalent bond,
Skill 80 Hrs. analog and power tunnel diode, photo diode using multi Doping, Intrinsic and extrinsic
e l e c t r o n i c s meter and determine forward to semiconductor. PN junction diode,
Professional
components, Construct, reverse resistance ratio. (05 Hrs.) Forward and Reverse
Knowledge
test and analyze the 85. Determine V-I characteristics of characteristics. Specification of
16 Hrs.
circuit functioning. ELE/ semiconductor diode. (05 Hrs.) diodes (data sheets). Applications
N9404 of diode. Special semiconductor
86. Measure the voltage and current diode-Zener diode, tunnel diode,
through a diode in a circuit and verify Photo diode.
its forward characteristic. (05 Hrs.)
Transistors. Defining transistors,
87. Measure the voltage and current NPN& PNP transistor, Symbol,
through a Zener diode in a circuit and operation, Biasing of Transistor &
verify its forward and reverse mode of Application. Transistor CB,
characteristic. (05 Hrs.) CC, CE Amplification, current gain,
88.Construct and test fixedˆbias, voltage gain, and power gain.
emitter-bias and voltage divider-bias Introduction to FET, MOSFET.
transistor amplifier. (05Hrs.)
Rectifiers: half wave rectifier, full
89.Construct and Test a common wave (bridge & center tapped)
emitter amplifier with and without rectifier. Voltage multipliers. Filters:
bypass capacitors Introduction, purpose and use of
90.Construct a single stage ripple filter. Types of filters.
amplifier and measure current gain, Capacitance filter, inductance
voltage gain & power gain. (05 Hrs.) filters, RC filters, LC filters, voltage
dividers and bypass filters.
91.Construct and test a FET Amplifier.
(04 Hrs.) Voltage regulators.
92. Construct and test a half wave, full Introduction & purpose Zener
wave and Bridge rectifier circuit. (05 regulators, shunt regulators, series
Hrs.) regulators, IC regulators, variable
93.Construct and test different filter regulators. (16 hrs.)
circuit used in rectifier and measure
output voltage with load. (05 Hrs.)
94.Construct and test Zener based
voltage regulator circuit. (03Hrs.)
95.Construct and test Zener and
transistor-based series
regulator. (03 Hrs.)
96 Construct and test a +12V fixed
voltage regulator. (05 Hrs.)
97 Construct and test a fixed +15ve
and –15ve voltage regulator using
ICs. (05 Hrs.)
98 Construct and test a 1. (05Hrs.)2V
30V variable output regulated power
supply using IC LM317T and its
characteristics. (05 Hrs.)
Professional Detect the faults and 99 List the defect and symptom in the
Skill 20 Hrs. troubleshoot SMPS, faulty SMPS. (02 Hrs.)
(xv)
Professional UPS, inverter, converter and 100 Measure / Monitor major test Power Supply units.
Knowledge Thyristor family. ELE/N7202 points of computer SMPS.
Introduction, purpose & use. UPS
04 Hrs. (02Hrs.)
and SMPS, inverters and converters
101.Troubleshoot the fault in the and their applications. (04 Hrs.)
given SMPS unit.Rectify
the defect and verify the
output with load. Record your
procedure followed for trouble
shooting the defects.(05Hrs.)
102.Open top cover of a UPS;
identify its isolator transformers,
the UPS transformer and various
circuit boards in UPS.(03 Hrs.)
103. Perform load test to measure
backup time. (03 Hrs.)
104. Install and test an inverter.
(02Hrs.)
105. Troubleshoot the fault in the
given inverter unit. R e c t i f y
the defects and verify the output
with load. (03Hrs.)
Professional Identify, place, solder and 106. Measure and plot input and General characteristics of an
Skill 20 Hrs. desolder and test different output characteristics of a CE amplifier, Concept of amplification.
SMD, discrete components amplifier. (05 Hrs.)
Professional PCB basic construction,
with due care and following 107. Check for cold continuity of applications. Lay outing circuit on
Knowledge
safety norms using proper PCB. (03 Hrs.)
04 Hrs. PCB.(04 Hrs.)
tools/setup. ELE/N5102
108. Solder the SMD components
from the given PCB. (04 Hrs.)
109. De-solder the SMD components
in the same PCB. (04 Hrs.)
110. Repair solder mask and damage
pad. (04 Hrs.)
Professional Identify, Test various analog Oscillators Oscillator’s oscillations, oscillation

Skill 20 Hrs. and power electronics 111. Demonstrate Colpitts oscillator, frequency, basic working principle
Professional components, Construct, test Hartley oscillator circuits and and working of Talk circuit, Crystal
Knowledge and analyze the circuit compare the output frequency controlled oscillators, Phase shift
05 Hrs. functioning. ELE/N9407 of the oscillator by CRO. oscillators, RC phase shift
(08Hrs.) oscillators, Colpitt, Clapp, Hartley.
(05 Hrs.)
112. Construct and test a RC phase
shift oscillator circuits. (06 Hrs.)
113. Construct and test a crystal
controlled oscillator circuit.
(06Hrs.)
Professional Construct and test different 114. Use analog IC tester to test the Operational Amplifier.
Skill 44 Hrs. circuits using operational various analog ICs. (07Hrs.)
amplifiers circuits and Differential amplifier, ideal op-amp.
Professional 115. Construct and test various Op
Knowledge execute the result. ELE/ Amp circuits Inverting, Non Op-amp with feedback, advantages
10 Hrs. N9407 inverting and Summing of feedback. Inverting and Non
Amplifiers. (05 Hrs.) inverting and inverting amplifier, Op-
amp as summer, differential
116. Construct and test Differentiator
amplifier. V to I converter and I to V
and Integrator circuits. (05 Hrs.)
converter, Instrumentation amplifier
(xvi)
117. Construct and test a voltage to Basics of op- amp applications -
current and current to voltage integrator, differentiator,
converter circuit using Op-amp.
(05 Hrs.) Introduction of timers (555) and its
applications.
118.Construct and test
Instrumentation amplifier (04 (10 Hrs.)
Hrs.)
119. Construct and test Astable timer
circuit using IC 555. (06 Hrs.)
120. Construct and test mono stable
timer circuit using IC 555.
(06Hrs.)
121. Construct and test 555 timers
as pulse width modulator.
(06Hrs.)
Professional Identify, test and Verify 122. Verify the truth tables of all Logic Number systems; binary, octal,
Skill 125 all digital ICs. Gate ICs by connecting switches decimal and hexadecimal number
Hrs. Assemble, test and and LEDs. (05 Hrs.) system. Conversion of number
troubleshoot various systems. Boolean algebra, binary
Professional 123. Construct and verify the truth addition, subtraction, multiplication
Knowledge digital circuits and table of all the gates using NAND and division. 1's and 2's compliment,
20 Hrs. digital instruments. and NOR gates. (05 Hrs.)
ELE/N9405 BCD code, ASCII code, gray code.
124. Use digital IC tester to test the Logic Circuits. Basic gates-AND, OR
various digital ICs (TTL and and NOT gates. De-Morgan \s
CMOS). (05 Hrs.) Theorem.
125. Construct and verify the truth Universal gates - NAND and NOR
table of all the gates using DTL gates.
circuit. (05 Hrs.)
Special gates - Ex-OR, Ex -NOR gates
126. Construct Half Adder circuit using and Buffer and its applications. Basic
ICs and verify the truth table. (05 digital ICs, function, digital application,
Hrs.) logic symbols.
127. Construct Full adder with two Half Adders - Half adder, full adder
adder circuit using ICs and verify Subtractor - Half subtractor, full
the truth table. (05 Hrs.) subtractor.
128. Construct Half subtractor and full Flip flops - RS flip flop, clocked RS flip
subtractor circuit using ICs and flop, JK flip flop,
verify the truth table. (05 Hrs.)
Basics of Counters and registers.
129. Construct the adder cum
Multiplexer and de--multiplexer.
subtractor circuit and verify the
result. (05 Hrs.) Digital meters: displays: LED, 7
130. Construct and test R-S flip-flop segment display, LCD, CRT, electro-
using IC7400 with clock and luminescent displays, electro-phoretic
without clock pulse. (06 Hrs.) image display, liquid vapor display, dot
matrix display.(10 Hrs.)
131. Verify the truth tables of JK Flip-
Flop using ICs by connecting
switches and LEDs. (06 Hrs.)
132. Construct and test 7493 as a
modulus-12 counter. (06 Hrs.)
133. Construct and test seven
segment LED display decoder
with IC 7447. (06 Hrs.)
134. Measure current flowing through
a resistor and display it on LED
Module. (06 Hrs.)
(xvii)
135. Construct and test Digital to A/D and D/A converters,
Analog (D/A) Binary Weighted
Introduction, weighted register D
resistor converter by using op-
/ A converter, binary(R-2R) ladder
amps. (06 Hrs.)
D / A converter, specification for
136. Construct and test Digital to D / A converter, Ramp or counter
Analog (D/A) converter using R- type A/D converter, GPIB (general
2R ladder network circuit. (06 purpose interface bus) IEEE -
Hrs.) 488, RS 232. (06 Hrs.)
137. Perform the interfacing of IEEE
488.2 standard with a single
controller can control up to 15
different instrument connected
star topology. (06 Hrs.)
138. Perform the interfacing of RS232
to the PC. (06 Hrs.)
139. Convert RS-485 signals to RS-
232 signals using RS-485 to RS-
232 converter. (06 Hrs.)
140. Display a word on a two-line Digital meters: frequency meter,
LED. (05 Hrs.) phase measuring meter, and
141. Measure/current flowing through time measuring instruments.
a sensor and display it on a LED Digital capacitance meter. (04
module (DPM). (05 Hrs.) Hrs.)
142. Practice on measuring
instruments in single and three
phase circuits e.g. (05 Hrs.)
Phase sequence meter and
Frequency meter etc. (05 Hrs.)
143. Practice on time measuring
instrument to measure the time
in different electrical control
circuit. (05 Hrs.)
Professional Measure the various 144.Measure the Amplitude, CRO: introduction and
Skill 20 Hrs. parameters by CRO and Frequency and time period of applications of CRO, functional
execute the result with typical electronic signals using block diagram of CRO, CRT
Professional power supply. Various types of
standard one. ELE/N9416 CRO. (10 Hrs.)
Knowledge probes. Applications of various
05 Hrs. 145. Take a print of a signal from DSO
types of CROs like dual beam
by connecting it to a printer and
CRO, Dual trace CRO, storage
tally with applied signal. (10 Hrs.)
oscilloscope. (05 Hrs.)
Professional Install and setup operating 146. Practice on windows interface Introduction to Computer, Block
Skill 70 Hrs. system and related and navigating windows. (07 Hrs.) diagram of PC, software
Professional software in a computer familiarization of Multimedia
147. Customize the desktop settings
Knowledge &Practice with MS office System consisting of CD ROMS,
and manage user accounts. (07
10 Hrs. and application software DVD ROMS, Sound Cards. (05
Hrs.)
related to instruments. Hrs.)
ELE/N9417 148. View system properties and
control panel details. (07 Hrs.)
149. Install necessary application
software for windows i.e. office
package and media player. (07
Hrs.)
150. Burn data, video and audio files
on CD/DVD using application
software. (07 Hrs.)
(xviii)
151. Dismantle and assemble the Computer Hardware, Computer
desktop computer system. (07 systems, computer hardware, CPU,
Hrs.) CPU operations, ROMs and RAMs,
152. Replace RAM and ROM from I/P and O/P and peripheral
CPU. (07 Hrs.) equipments, terminals, printers,
MODEMS, Data interface, ADC and
153. Identify different parts, its
DAC. (05 Hrs.)
function and operation of
modem. (07 Hrs.)
154. Install a modem to the computer
to send and receive data over a
telephone line or a cable or
satellite connection. (07 Hrs.)
155. Construct and test DAC and
ADC using computer network
circuit. (07 Hrs.)
Professional Identify various 156. Measure the crystal frequency, Introduction to microprocessor
Skill 40 Hrs functional blocks of a connect it to the processor. (10 microcomputers, Memories Intel
Hrs.) 8085. Architecture
Professional m i c r o p r o c e s s o r
Knowledge system, identify various 158. Use 8085 microprocessor, connect Instruction set of 8085,
10 Hrs. I/O Ports, write and 8 LED to the port, blink the LED Microprocessor.
executive simple with a switch. (10 Hrs.)
program and Interface a 1. Data transfer group.
model application with 2. Arithmetic group.
the microprocessor kit
3. Logic group. (05 Hrs.)
and run the application.
ELE/N9418 Basic Programming of 8085 such as
159. Perform addition and subtraction
adding, subtraction of two 8-bit
of two 8-bit numbers using 8085
microprocessors. (10 Hrs.) numbers, etc. Block diagram and pin'
diagram 8255 and its operation.
160 Demonstrate entering of simple Microprocessor applications.
programs, execute &monitor the
results. (10 Hrs.) (05 Hrs.)
(xix)
(xx)
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01 - 09
Instrument Mechanic - Basic safety
Familiar with industrial Training Institute (ITI)

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the industrial training institute which comes under Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
(MSDE) in association with Director general of training (DGT)
• explain the work structure in ITI using organization chart
• define working methods in a store of an ITI.
Introduction : Directorate General of training: To give • 31 Central institute

employment opportunity for the youths by imparting
• 10 Advanced training institute (ATI)
industrial training at various institutes. This also includes
training for women in separate institutes. The various skills • 2 Electronic process instrumentation (EPI) under ATI
developed by these student will be of great help in securing • 2 Foremen training institute (FTI)
jobs in the competitive market.
• Central industrial training institute (CTI)
The Directorate General of Training (DGT) under the aegis
of Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship • 1 National Vocational and Technical Institute FOR
(MSDE), is the apex organization for development and co- WOMEN (NVTI)
ordination of the long-term vocational training across the • 15 Regional vocational training institute for women
country. (RVTI)
In job market the requirements in different fields with • 2 Institute of Training of Trainers (IToTs)
expertise working knowledge is required. The skill
development for various people (of low income group, SC/ • 2 State government’s ItoTs
ST and physically challenged) were given in the training • Central Staff Training and Research Institute (CSTARI)
institute. There are suitable courses for candidates who
passed out school final like tenth standard and plus two. • National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI)
Training institute under DGT
• 13350 Industrial Training institute in India
Familiarise with the working of Industrial Training Institute including store

procedure
• explain working of Industrial Training Institute
• explain familiar with the training instructors of the institute
• define familiar with the courses offered in the institute
• define familiar with institute store and its function.
In all Industrial Training Institute in India same syllabus government’s Employment and training ministry. Head of
has been followed. the ITI is the Principal. The Vice Principal and Training
placement officer will report to the principal. Below this
There are total 13350 industrial training institute in India
hierarchy officers of different trades, office superintendent,
which includes government ITI, Private ITI approved by state
hostel warden/ PT instructor, store in charge and medical
government and national vocational training institute which
officer deploy their duties. The organizational chart is as
imparts training to around 19 lakhs youth in 126 trades.
given below.
This is as per data 2016-2017. Under each state, the
industrial training institute function under state
1
Importance of safety and general precaution observed in the industry / shop
floor
• explain importance of safety
• explain list down the safety precaution in a machine shop
• define list down the personal safety precautions
• define list out the safety precaution while working in a machine.
In general accidents won’t happen on its own but accidents • Don’t walk under a hanging load.
are caused on different reasons. Most of the accidents • Don’t play while you are working on a machine.
can be avoided. A good workman should know all the safety
• Choose appropriate tools for the job.
precautions so that he will along with his coworkers were
in an accident-free zone. To achieve this each and • Place the tools after work in it’s place.
everybody should follow the safety precaution as shown • Clean the oil drop immediately.
in figure 1 below. • Change the tool immediately when it is damaged or
In workshops safety is divided into three broad categories. worn out.
• Don’t direct the compressed air towards you or anyone.
• General safety • Personnel safety and
• Ensure there is sufficient light in the workshop.
• Machine safety.
• Clean the machine while it is not running.
General safety • Remove metal burrs and turnings.
• Floor and foot paths should be kept clean. There should • Before running a machine understand all aspect of
not be obstacles in the path handling the machine.
• Be attentive while walking and don’t run. Personnel safety
• While the machine is running don’t go elsewhere • As far as possible wear a single apron or a boiler suit.
• Don’t touch or handle a machine unless you are • Insert all buttons of the apron.
authorized to do. • Don’t use neck tie and scarves.
2 Electronics & Hardware : Instrument Mechanic (NSQF : Revised 2022) R.T. Ex 1.1.01 - 09
• Don’t stop the running machine by hand.
Machine safety
• Stop the machine immediately if something wrong
happens.
• Keep the machine clean.
• The auxiliary tools such as spanner, fixing nuts and
bolts should be changed if they are damaged are worn
out.
• Learn thoroughly how to operate a machine before
attempting to start.
• Don’t adjust the tools while the Electronics machine is
running. Do the adjustment after stopping machine.
• If you want to change the speed of the machine, stop
the machine first.
• Before switching off the machine ensure to switch off
the automatic feeds.
• Before starting the machine check the oil level.
• Ensure all the safety guards were in it places and then
starts the machine.
• Take measurement of the job after switching off the
machine.
• Roll up the sleeve above the ankles tightly. • While lifting or moving down heavy objects place this
• Wear safety shoes. on a bed spread with wooden planks.
• Haircut should be done closely Safety is a philosophy and understand this
• Don’t wear hand watch, rings and neck chains.
Safety is custom and tradition. Always follow
• Don’t lean on the machine this habit.
• Don’t wash hand on cold liquids.
Job opportunity in India and abroad at various
• When the machine is running don’t remove the safety Industries
apparatus.
An ITI certificate holder after completion if the course will
• Don’t use cracked or chipped tools
have Job opportunity in manufacturing industries and
• Don’t start the machine unless a) The working object workshops of Government / Private companies. They got
is firmly held and b) The feed machinery should be in plenty of opportunities in abroad as skilled workers.
neutral.
Self-employment
• Don’t adjust the clamps or hand held parts while the
machine is running One can become the owner of a factory or an auxiliary
• Don’t touch the Electronics equipment with wet hands unit to design and manufacture engineering products.
• Don’t operate faulty Electronics equipment Further learning scopes change can be implemented
• Ensure that the Electronics wiring has been done by • On the particular engineering branch one can do
an approved electrician Apprentice training.
• Concentrate on your work. Always be cool and calm • One can enhance his qualification by doing craft
• Work as per the operating procedure methodically. instructor certificate course.
• Don’t speak with others while working on machine. • One can join Engineering Diploma course
• Don’t distract other’s concentration of work
Personal Protective equipment (PPE)

• explain about personal protective equipment, and the purpose of using
• explain adout occupational hazards
• explain about occupational health safety and cleanliness
• explain listing out the high usage personal protective gears
In Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is clothing or worksite. It is used to protect employees when engineering
equipment designed to reduce employee exposure to and administrative controls are not feasible to reduce the
chemical, biological, and physical hazards when on a
Electronics & Hardware : Instrument Mechanic (NSQF : Revised 2022) R.T. Ex 1.1.01 - 09 3
risks to acceptable levels. PPE is recommended to be Maintenance of PPE should be under the control of
the last level of defense to prevent occupational injuries Management. The above schedule is for the non-effective
method by standard engineering procedures.
One can do reverse engineering methods instead of using
PPE. A design change can be implemented. Alternate Quality of PPE: In order for PPE to work effectively, strict
safety procedures can be adopted. A good illuminated and technical performance specifications and standards need
ventilated work shop can increase safety. PPE should be to be met so that it can protect the person. Refer the table
adopted for the last resort. As times are changing below.
Government and its opinion committee prescribe new
Choose the PPE according to the safety from hazards for
safety standards according to the work place and nature
which it should be protected.
of jobs.
Selection of PPE requires certain conditions
As per factory law 1948 and building and other construction
workers law 1996 stipulate use of PPE to a greater extend. • Nature of the accident and its severity
Ways to ensure works place safety and use personal • The density of dust particles in the atmosphere.
protective equipment effectively • When using the PPE calculate the time taken to finish
• Information about daily safety bulletin from regulated the job, the easiness of doing the job and the comfort
bodies should be shared with the workers by the level of wearing the PPE.
concern authorities. • Estimate to which extend the PPE will withstand
• Shop floor peoples should read all safety information • Easy for maintaining and cleaning.
books and know how to use PPE effectively.
• Should confirm to International and Indian standards.
• In general, the most used PPE like goggles, hand gloves
and aprons should be used while in machine working, Proper use of PPE
other wise there is no use in using them. Using PPE Well chosen PPE should be used by the workers.
equipment quite often will fetch good results in work
shop and will be accident free. Normally workers avoid using PPE. To over come this
problem, refer the below points
• The PPE alone won’t safe us fully from danger. Through
understanding and intricacies of the work should be • Give time for the workers to understand how important
known. Then only it will safe us from fear of being to use PPE.
unhealthy and accidents from work. • Give some relief from the operating rules and insist
• The PPE should be inspected for it’s quality to ensure workers to use PPE
the safety continuously. • The present status of economics, social activities and
Categories of PPE : We can classify the PPE in to two laws of discipline can be used to stream line the natural
category as per the nature of the accidents habits of the workmen.
• Non respiratory: This will protect us from injuries to • Make mandatory to use PPE at all times by the
our body externally. This will protect us in head, eyes, workers.
face, hand, feet and rest of body parts. • When giving PPE to a group of workmen, always ensure
• Respiratory: These are due to breathing the the workmen knows the importance of using PPE and
contaminated atmosphere. The contamination may be supervise whether they are using it or not.
due to fumes, toxic chemical evaporation and deadly
infectious viruses.
Table for Personal Protective Equipment
Sl.No PPE
PPE 1 Helmet
PPE 2 Safety footwear
PPE 3 Respiratory protective equipment
PPE 4 Arms and hand protection
PPE 5 Eyes and face protection
PPE 6 Protective clothing and overall
PPE 7 Ear protection
PPE 8 Safety belts and harnesses
Types of safety Hazards type Figure
Head Protection • While falling down Helmet (Fig 1)
• While striking on hard surface
• Spatter
Feet protection • Hot spatter Steel toe cap safety shoes of industrial
standard (Fig 2)
• Falling objects
• Working on wet surface
Nose Protection • Dust particles Respiratory pads (Fig 3)
• Fumes, gases and vapors
Hand protection • Burns due to direct contact of fire Gloves (Fig 4)
• Heat due to sparks
• Electric shock
Eye protection • Floating dust particles
• Radiation of infra-red and ultra violet Googles and welding helmet (Fig 5)
rays
Face protection • Sparkles while welding & grinding Face shield (Figs 6 & 7)
• Welding spatter striking
• Safety from UV rays
Ear protection • High decibel noise (more sounds) Ear muffs and ear plugs (Fig 8)
Body protection • Heat particles Apron, cap with sleeve, hand gloves and
leg guard (Figs 9 & 10)
Fig 1
Fig 6
Fig 3
Fig 2
Fig 7
Fig 4
Fig 10
Fig 5
Fig 9
Fig 8
First Aid
• explain about first aid
• list out the main objectives of the first aid
• explain ABC of first aid
• explain how to give first aid to the injured person.
First aid is (abbreviated - means) as ABC – airway, • Take swift action

breathing and circulation
• Neutralize the situation
The five main aims of first aid are to:
• Call for medical assistance
• Preserve life.
• Administer necessary treatment
• Prevent the escalation of illness or injury.
ABC of First Aid
• Promote recovery.
The ABC is A: Airway, B: Breathing and C: Circulation.
• Provide pain relief.
Airway: First ensure free passage of air is available around
• Protect the unconscious the patient. Crowd around the patient will cause suffocation
and leading to death.
Preserve the life : The first and foremost objective is to
preserve the life. Check if the patient is breathing. Place Breathing: If breathing stops then it may leads to death
the patient leaned in one direction. This will ensure to of the patient. Loosen any tight clothing. Continue to
clean the tongue from the throat. This will ensure any monitor the person's breathing and pulse until medical
objects like food particles will go inside the stomach. If help arrives. Give breathing support by certain techniques.
not this object will cause choking which leads to death.
Circulation: The blood circulation is most important for
The blocked object generally cause breathing trouble. The
patient’s survival. Nowadays the first aid persons were
first aid person should squeeze the stomach and beat the
given training in CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation)
back side of the patient. After this check if the patient is
breathing normally. There are certain norms to be followed by the First aid
person.
Prevent the escalation of illness or injury : As a part
of first aid training, you’ll learn how to treat wounds and Not to panic: Panic will lead to further damage of the
attend to injuries to prevent further spread or damage. For situation. Judgmental error happens when you are in panic.
example, if the patient is bleeding with huge blood loss, The first aid person should be calm and composed.
the first aider’s goal is to stop the bleeding until professional Decision taken while on emotion will lead the patient to.
medical representire arrives. danger. Hence be calm and attentive to the surrounding.
Quick and hopeful approach will be supportive to the
Promote recovery : Promotion of recovery includes using
patient.
a first aid kit to help the person in need. This can involve
washing, disinfecting, and bandaging a wound. In some Call medical emergencies: If circumstances permit call
cases, an antibiotic ointment can be used to promote medical emergencies and ambulance immediately. This
healing correct approach will save the life.
Training : Offering pain relief tablet if it doesn’t cause risk Surroundings play a vital role: For each and every
to the patient. If the person is bleeding, some pain relief different situation we have to adopt different approach. For
medicine is not advisable. It’s better to ask a medical example the first aid person should ensure no accident
expert first before offering any sort of medicine. will happen to him and there will be nobody in the
surrounding and take suitable action to the patient.
Protecting an unconscious person includes safely removing
them from a dangerous environment like a fire or busy Do not harm: In most of the time the first aid given in
road to safer conditions nearby. In a first aid course, enthusiastic manner will lead to further complications. For
participants learn how to position an unconscious person example, giving water to the patient in dizzy condition,
so that airways, breathing and circulation (ABC) aren’t cleaning the frozen blood and moving the limbs which has
obstructed. The goal of protecting an unconscious person been fractured. With wrong first aid some time the patient
is to ensure their safety before medical help arrives. dies. They may survive if wrong first aid has not been given.
Don’t move the patient if the situation does not warrant. If
Along with the above five objectives, first aid also provides
the patient is suffering from injury at the back, neck or
reassurance to the patient and confidence in the first aider
head, don’t move the patient here and there unnecessarily.
to respond appropriately. It’s a necessary and critical stage
Hence at times keep the patient as where he is lying.
for preventing serious harm and is an indispensable skill
to have. This does not means that you should not do anything.
Trained first aid worker should give first aid safely and
The five key principles of first aid
confidently. Hence when a person is unconscious handle
• Don’t panic with utmost care. When a person is suffering injury due to
sharp objects, never try to remove the sharp object. This Evaluate the urgency of the situation.
will lead to hemorrhage (severe blood loss). Find some Assure the situation requires emergency reporting
help under these circumstances. If the situation leads to death or casing severe damage
then only report emergency.
Reassurance: Console the patient to the possible extend.
This will give confidence to the patient. A crime scene: If you are witnessing a crime, give
identification and description of the criminal.
Stop the bleeding: When there is blood injury, apply
direct pressure on the cut or wound with a clean cloth or A fire accident: If you are going to report a fire accident
tissue until bleeding stops. then get details and the correct location of the accident.
Give details of someone missing or having burn injuries.
Golden hours: Head injuries, multiple trauma, heart attack
and stroke will be treated in good multi-specialty hospitals A life: Medical emergency for life in danger. Describe how
in India. The vital thing is to take the patient to these hospital the incidence happened and the present status of the victim
in time. The first thirty minutes is more important and this or patient.
is called the golden hours. Most patients survived after
A car crash: Describe correctly where the accident occurs,
getting treatment before these golden hours. Giving the
dangerous wound of the victims, vehicles registration
required first aid immediately and getting an ambulance
number and how many persons affected in the accidents.
and admitting the patient with in 30 minutes is the duty of
the first aid worker. Call emergency service: Emergency number differs for
each service.
Maintaining the hygiene: Keep your hand clean with a
good sanitizer. If required use sterile gloves to safe guard Police 100, Fire control 101, Ambulance of fire service
from viruses and bacteria. 102, Traffic police 103, Accident help line 108 and so on….
Cleaning and dressing: After washing your hand follow Report your location: The emergency team will arrive at
these steps spot very quickly. This depends on your report of how
precise the location to the dispatcher. Nowadays there
Apply Gentle Pressure: This step applies only if the
are various methods using advanced techniques in mobile
wound is bleeding.
phone. Through GPS enabled navigators you can pinpoint
• Rinse with Water. the location.
• Use an Antibiotic Cream or Ointment. Give your phone number to the emergency
dispatcher : It is important to give your phone number to
• Bandage the Wound – Sometimes if required.
the emergency dispatcher for the possible details from
Not to use local medications on cuts or open wounds: your end.
Local medications instead of giving relief will give irritation
Describe the nature of the emergency: Speak with clarity
to the tissues. Wash gently the wound with clean water
to the emergency dispatcher. First tell him the important
and apply certain bandage.
details. Then answer the question of the dispatcher to the
CPR (Cardio - Pulmonary resuscitation) method for possible extend of the known facts.
heart and lungs: Often CPR will save the life. The three
Do not hang up the phone: Don’t hang up your phone
steps of CPR in order.
till the dispatcher finishes giving the instructions to you.
• Call 911 or ask someone else to.
Basic first aid: Basic first aid refers to the initial process
• Lay the person on their back and open their airway. of assessing and addressing the needs of someone who
• Check for breathing. If they are not breathing, start CPR. has been injured or is in physiological distress due to
choking, a heart attack, allergic reactions, drugs, or other
• Perform 30 chest compressions. medical emergencies.
• Perform two rescue breaths. Important guide lines for first aider (Fig 1)
• Repeat until an ambulance or automated external • Evaluate the situation: Are there things that might
defibrillator (AED) arrives. put you at risk of harm? Are you or the victim threatened
Declaring the death: You should not declare the death by fire, toxic smoke, gasses, an unstable building, live
of a person on the spot. A well-qualified doctor should Electronics wires, or another dangerous scenario? Do
declare the death, by death certificate. not rush into a situation where you could end up as a
victim yourself.
How to report a medical emergency: It may seem
simple to report a medical emergency but in practice it is Remember ABC: The ABCs of CPR refers to the three
difficult. There is a tensed atmosphere at the accidence critical things you need to look
place. There will be large crowd of onlookers who won’t Airway: Does the person have an unobstructed airway?
lend an arm for support. On road side accidents this is
common. Hence it is very difficult to give first aid to the Breathing: Is the person breathing?
victim. The first aid person should do many things at the Circulation: Does the person show a pulse at major pulse
same time. Mobile phones were very useful at these times. points (wrist, carotid artery, groin)?
In the center of the chest, just below an imaginary line
running between the nipples, put your two hands together
and compress the chest down approximately 2 inches
(5.1 cm) at a rate of 100 compressions per minute. After
30 compressions, give two rescue breaths, done by
opening the airways, closing the nose, and fully covering
the mouth hole. Then check vitals. If the breaths are
blocked, reposition the airway. Make sure the head is tilted
slightly back and the tongue is not obstructing it. Continue
this cycle of 30 chest compressions and two rescue
Avoid moving the victims: Moving an injured person can breaths until someone else relieves you.
cause additional injury and pain, and may complicate the
Treat bleeding, shock and other problems if needed:
victim's recovery. Generally, you shouldn't move an injured
After ensuring victim’s normal breath and pulse normal,
person while treating them. If at all possible, wait for
the next foremost step is to stop bleeding especially on
trained first responders so you don't cause the victim more
head. Also give preference to victims affected by
harm.
Electronics shock.
Call emergency service: Call emergency service as early
Stop bleeding: Control of bleeding is one of the most
as possible by yourselves or through someone else. If
important things you can do to save a trauma victim. Use
you are alone in the accident spot, make arrangement for
direct pressure on a wound before trying any other method
easy breathing to the victim. As for as possible never leave
of managing to bleed.
the victim alone. (Fig 2)
Treat shock : Shock, often caused by a loss of blood flow
to the body, frequently follows physical and occasionally
psychological trauma. A person in shock will frequently
have cool, clammy skin, be agitated or have an altered
mental status, and have pale color to the skin around the
face and lips. Untreated, shock can be fatal. Anyone who
has suffered a severe injury or life-threatening situation is
at risk for shock.
Choking victim: Choking can cause death or permanent
Determine responsiveness: Before you start any rescue brain damage within minute. This is performed by straddling
efforts, you must remember to check the victim for the victim from behind and bear-hugging them with your
responsiveness. If you suspect that the victim has hands interlocked above their belly button but beneath
sustained spinal or neck injury, do not move or shake their breastbone. Thrust upward to expel air from the lungs
him. Otherwise, awake the victim gently by speaking and repeat until you are successful in clearing the object
continuously till you have to see response by victim. from the windpipe.
If the person remains unresponsive and has no pulse, prep Treat a burn: Treat first- and second-degree burns by
are for CPR. Unless you suspect a spinal injury, carefully immersing or flushing with cool water for at least 10 minutes
roll them onto their back and open their airway. If you (no ice). Don't use creams, butter, or other ointments, and
suspect a spinal injury, leave the person where they are, do not pop blisters. Third-degree burns should be covered
provided they are breathing. with a damp cloth. Remove clothing and jewelry from the
• Keep the head and neck aligned. burn, but do not try to remove charred clothing that is
stuck to burns.
• Carefully roll them onto their back while holding their
head. Treat a concussion: If the victim has suffered a blow to
the head, look for signs of concussion. Common symptoms
• Open the airway by lifting the chin.
include:
Look, listen and feel for sign of breathing:
• Loss of consciousness following the injury
• Make sure the patient’s chest heaves up and down
• Disorientation or memory impairment
and listen to his breathing.
• Vertigo
• If the accident victim does breathe and unconscious
then roll him over a side with head aligned with the • Nausea (vomiting)
body. This will drain the saliva and stop the tongue
• Lethargy.
from protruding. Also this will ensure to open the wind
pipe so to enable vomiting • loss of memory of recent events (short terms memories)
Check the victim’s circulation: Look closely for change Treatment to spinal injury: If you suspect a spinal injury,
in color of the victim. Check his pulse rating at carotid it is especially critical that you not move the victim's head,
artery which is on two sided of the neck. If there is no neck, or back unless they are in immediate danger. You
pulse then do the CPR. also need to take special care when performing rescue
breathing or CPR. Stay with the victim until help arrives. • Persons suffering from epileptic fits: Drooling of frothing
saliva from the mouth is one of the symptoms. The
Unconsciousness (COMA): A coma is a prolonged state
dresses were not proper in order is a general symptom.
of unconsciousness. During coma, a person is
unresponsive to the environment. The person is alive and • We can see the diabatic person who is suffering from
looks like they are sleeping. However, unlike in a deep lack of insulin intake.
sleep, the person cannot be awakened by any stimulation,
• We can think about the excessive intake of
including pain. If nobody attends to this patient then he
Psychotropic Substances like heroin, lsd etc. If it is a
may die.
prescribed drug, check whether less intake of medicine
When normal function of the brain stops then coma may by the patient.
occur. There are many reasons for brain to stop.
• Check whether the patient is mentally or physically
• Lack of oxygen for a few minutes to the brain causes depressed.
cell death of brain tissues.
• Check the red coloring around the wound due to blood
• Bleeding in the layers of the brain may cause coma or red tissues due to infection.
due to swelling and compression on the injured side of
• Check the wound is due to snake bite.
the brain.
• Mentally depressed person may become lunatic. Keep
• When there is no blood flow to a major part of the brain
this also in consideration.
stem or loss of blood accompanied with swelling, coma
can occur. • Strokes will often attack elderly persons. Keep this in
mind while attending senior citizen.
• Infections of the central nervous system, can also cause
coma. Please keep in mind of the above factors and decide the
nature of disease.
• In people with diabetes, coma can occur when blood
sugar levels stay very high or too low, can also lead to Electric shock : Loss of fluid from the body is too
a coma. This type of coma is usually reversible once dangerous. This may lead to blood pressure. At the same
the blood sugar is corrected. However, prolonged high time the blood flow is not uniform. Blood is circulated to
sugar level can lead to permanent brain damage and the other parts through the outer surface. Hence the skin
persistent coma. of the patient becomes white and body turns cold. The
oxygen to the brain is low as low blood flows to the brain.
• Coma may cause due to epileptic fits.
(Fig 3)
• Due to the spread of poison like inhaling poison gases
or snake bites may lead to coma.
• When you become severe addict to drugs and
consumption of limitless alcohol may result coma.
• Low or high blood pressure may be one of the reasons
for coma.
• Excessive body temperature both hot and cold
Followings were the symptoms when a patient is
unconscious
• Confused mindset
• Drowsiness
• Head ache
• Speechless and possible stroke
• Light headedness
• Un control bowel and bladder
• Heart palpitation
• Stupor
How to diagnose an unconscious injured person
• From alcohol smell in the patient’s body or near by
bottles one can conclude the reason for
unconsciousness.
Disposal of waste materials
• explain the waste materials
• explain many types of waste and how and where it is generated
• list out the wastage in a workshop
• explain the ways of disposing the waste
• sort out the wastes and keep it in bins with color identification.
Waste materials : Industrial waste generated by • Different metal wastes
Industries, Mines, Mills etc were called as waste materials.
• Lubricating oil, coolant oil, solvent etc
List of waste materials (Fig 1)
• E- Waste, Electronics and electronic wastes.
• Cotton wastes
• Glass wastes
Method of waste disposal (Fig 2) • Reduce environmental pollution

• Saves the earth and converse energy.
Incineration (Fig 3): By this method the waste is burned
in a controlled manner and the ash, gas and heat were
produced. New techniques are developed for this burning
process, used as energy-generating methods. The burned
out remains were treated and released to the environment.
90% of the waste is minimized.
Recycling: In waste disposal management, recycling the

waste is important and cost-effective method. The cost of
recycling is less and easy to implement. If you do
recycling, we can save the production and energy cost
and reduce environmental pollution.
Composting: Composting is the natural process of
Waste compaction: Plastic materials such as plastic
recycling organic matter, such as leaves and food scraps,
bottles, plastic cans were compressed and sent for
into a valuable fertilizer that can enrich soil and plants.
recycling. For this more space is required. Hence to
Landfills: This is the general term of filling the different transport from one place to another it becomes a tough
wastes in a open dumping yard. The land require for the job.
dumbing is large and controlled by waste management
Color codes for bins for waste segregation
organizations.
Burning the waste materials: If you can’t able to recycle Sl.No. Waste material Colour code
the waste or to find proper place to store, then you can 1 Paper Blue
burn the waste by fire. This burning should be a controlled
combustion and the technology which employs destroying 2 Plastic Yellow
organic materials in the waste. 3 Metal Red
Advantage of waste disposal 4 Glass Green
• To ensure the work place is clean. 5 Food Black
• Un hygienic environment is removed. 6 Others Sky blue
• Enhance the economy.
Occupational health hazards and safety
• explain the workshop safety
• explain about health condition related to work and safety
• explain the purpose of health condition related to work and safety
• define work related hygiene
• define work related dangers
• define work related disease.
Safety: Safety will free us from danger, accident, damage Anticipation (identification) : The accidents that may
and grief. It acts as a corrective measure that is reviewed happen and danger it may pose to the workmen should be
and approved by safety experts periodically to ensure a known from previous accidents. Employer should chart a
safe workplace and sustainable business operations method to escape from this accidence.
Occupational health and safety Recognition (Acceptance): Accept the disastrous effect
of the accident.
• It is commonly known as OSH or Occupational Safety
Health. It deals with healthy condition of work people Evaluation (Measurement and assessment): An
and the safety to be followed while doing work in accident rate is calculated by multiplying the number of
workshop. recorded incidents by 200,000, and then dividing that
number by the number of work hours in the organization.
• The prime concern is to protect the working environment
free from accidents. Compare this result after every accident and evaluate a
method to minimize
• This will not only protect directly the workmen but also
the all stakeholders such as the employers, customers, Control of workplace hazard: Six steps to control the
family of the workmen and people living in the hazard
surrounding.
Step 1: Design or re-organize to eliminate hazards.
• The factory related division such as hospital, industrial
Step 2: Substitute the hazard with something safer.
hygiene and safety department , general hygiene and
industrial safety engineering division were interlinked Step 3: Isolate the hazard from people. ...
to each other. Step 4: Use engineering controls. ...
Need of occupational health safety : For a factory to Step 5: Use administrative controls. ...
run smoothly and peacefully, the workmen in the factory
should be hale and healthy and work in a safety Step 6: Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
atmosphere. Occupational Hazards: The following are the type of
This is a decisive factor for the performance of the factory occupational hazards
in a coordinated manner to achieve great victories. It shines • Physical hazards due to noise, heat and cold stress,
in top as an accident-free factory. vibration, radiation of both ionized and non-ionized and
To increase efficiency in manufacture, the workmen should illumination.
be strong and free from diseases. This should be watched • Chemical hazards due to burning inflammable
by the employer. substance, explosion, toxic, corrosive and radioactive.
This will enhance the unity among workers and their • Biological hazards due to bacteria, virus, fungi, plant
morale. pest and infection
Absenteeism will be reduced. • Physiological hazard due to old age, sex, ill health,
Increase the production efficiency. sickness and fatigue.
Decrease the work-related accidents. Increase the quality • Psychological hazards due to wrong attitude, smoking,
and standard of the product. alcoholism and un skilled. Poor discipline,
absenteeism, disobedience, aggressive behavior,
Occupational (industry) hygiene accident proneness, violent behavior, bullying and
• Occupational hygiene deals with the accidents in sexual harassment.
workplace, environmental reasons and depressed • Mechanical hazards due to unsafe machinery,
status of workmen. The employer should anticipate, joblessness, no protective gears and no accessories
estimate, approve and mitigate these problems. for control.
• These will happen either inside the factory or outside
• Electronics hazards due to no earthing, short circuit,
the factory.
break in wire and no fuse or switch to break the circuit.
• These will cause detoriation of the workmen’s health,
his strength and his well being
• Ergonomics hazards due to in experienced people Golden words of safety
handling technical matters, machineries stationed at
wrong places, wrong design, non-maintenance of The one who violate safety is the one doing
equipment, worst condition and using wrong tools. accident
Safety practice
• explain the responsibilities of the employer and the employee
• define safety procedures and four basic safety signs.
Safety: Safety is the state of being safe; freedom from Safety signs can be divided into four categories. These
the occurrence or risk of injury, danger, or loss of live. signs can be understood by their shape and color. Some
signs are words only and other with words and figures.
Responsible person in the event of an accident :
For example a lift for maximum capacity and height.
Accident doesn’t happen on its own but caused by careless
peoples. The law says both the employer and the employee The four basic categories of safety signs
were responsible for the accident.
Prohibitory sign (Fig 1)
Employer’s responsibility
• Providing a workplace that is free from hazards that
may cause injury or diseases
• Providing free annual health examinations to employees
in notified establishments,
• Issuing appointment letters to employees, and
• Informing relevant authorities in case an accident at
the workplace leads to death or serious bodily injury of
an employee.
Mandatory signs (Fig 2)
• Additional duties are prescribed for employers in
factories, mines, docks, plantations, and building and
construction work, including provision of a risk-free work
environment, and instructing employees on safety
protocols.
Employee’s Responsibility
• While at work a worker must: take reasonable care for
their own health and safety.
• Take reasonable care for the health and safety of others.
• Comply with any reasonable instructions, policies and
procedure given by their employer, business or controller
of the workplace.
Rules and procedures at workplace : The employee
should follow the rules and regulations issued by the
employer. These may be written rules, otherwise you can
follow the trend prevailing from the coworkers. They are
how to use and preserve certain tools, how to complain if
machineries break down, emergency discipline, not to
move objects to restricted place and other activities.
Adhering to these will improve the safety.
Safety signs: You should be able to know and interpret
the various signs placed in a workplace. Some of these
may be very familiar to you. For example, “NO SMOKING”.
But for others it will be new. You should encourage them
to learn these signs. The signs may be warning you about
the possible accidents. So don’t ignore them.
Warning signs (Fig 3)
Information sign (Fig 4)
Prohibition sign
Mandatory sign
Warning sign
Informative sign
Sign Shape Colour Object Example

Prohibition Circle Red circumferences Denoted what should No smoking
with white/ red diagonal not to be done
strip and black objecis
Mandatory Circle On blue background with Denote what should be Hand gloves
white objects done
Warning Triangle Yellow background, Denote dangerous and Warning about
black border and object accidental zones electocution
Informative Square or Green background with Information adout safety First aid centre
triangle whitesign
Questionaries about your safety • Do you know how to use the apparatus, tools and
• Due you know the general safety law about your machines safely?
workshop? • Are you provided with safety gadgets and its safety
• Are you familiar with your work-related safety laws? instructions?
• Do you know how to work without danger to yourselves, • Have you been given the required training and advice
to your co-workers and to the general public? to execute your work safely?
• Do you ensure the apparatus, tools and machines are • Do you know who is responsible for safety in your
really safe? department?
• Do you wear safety equipment? • Do you know who is the safety representative?
Operation Electronics mains/ circuit breakers and Electronics safety

• explain about operate Electronics mains and circuit breaker
• explain about Electronics safety and its important.
Electronics safety : Electronics shock : An electric shock Electronics energy source. Electronics energy flows
occurs when a person comes into contact with an through a portion of the body causing a shock. Exposure
to Electronics energy may result in no injury at all or may
Treatment to be given in case of burns and severe
result in devastating damage or death. When electricity
bleeding : Due to Electronics shock injuries may happen
passes through a man for a few seconds of 10 million
which lead to bleeding and unbearable pain. If the body
amps, he may die surprisingly.
totally burnt, then clean the body with clean water or clean
The severity of the Electronics shock depends on the paper or cloth. Be careful about the blisters and bubbles
amount of electricity passed and the duration of the on the skin. This will reduce some pain on the victim. For
Electronics shock. Ensure these before moving to the next stage medication move the victim to the hospital.
emergency medication. Ensure the age of the person,
Check the bleeding on wrist, hand or fingers. If possible to
environmental atmospheric conditions, dry or wet surface
stop the bleeding do it yourself. Then call the doctor. Do
on which the person is lying, the measurement of voltage
the following for the first aid.
and check his footwear.
Manage the victim to lie down and take rest. As shown in
Effect of electric shock : Electronics shocks due to
figure 1 place the injured portion of the body facing upward
40 volt supply will give a tingling sensation which won’t be
with out any obstruction. As shown in fig 2 keep pressure
fatal but makes a person to jolt and out of balance. If the
around the wound until bleeding stops. As shown in figure
Electronics shock is due to higher voltage, then he may
3 use a sterile pad on the wound and close it with a gauge
be thrown to some distance. He may face severe injuries.
bandage.
The muscles in his body may contract and he can’t able
to remove the live wire. In these circumstances he may
become unconscious and his heat muscles will operate
inconsistently. Due to this death might occur. Some wound
will appear where the live wire is in contact with person.
Action to be taken in case of an electric shock
• First and foremost, isolate the person from the live wire.
Turn off the source of electricity, if possible. If not, use
a dry, nonconducting object made of cardboard, plastic
or wood to move the source away from you and the
injured person.
• Begin CPR if the person shows no signs of circulation,
such as breathing, coughing or movement.
• Try to prevent the injured person from becoming chilled.
• Apply a bandage. Cover any burned areas with a sterile
gauze bandage, if available, or a clean cloth. Don't use
a blanket or towel, because loose fibers can stick to
the burns.
Treatment to be given for the victim of electric shock:
The injuries due to Electronics shock on a victim need not
be reveling. If you notice injury then clean it with antibiotic
ointment and sterile dressings. Contact the first aid center
or the hospital as soon as possible to give medical aid for
the victim.
If the victim is conscious give the following treatment.
• Loosen the clothe around neck, chest and hip.
• Check the pulse and breathing.
• If the situation turns worst then do the CPR if you are
well versed with procedure. Otherwise call the
ambulance immediately. General procedure to be adopted for treating a
person from electric shock
Don’t give any thing orally to the unconscious
victim. Don’t move away from the victim. A • First find the source of Electronics shock and isolate
man suffering from Electronics shock as well the person by switching off the source. If it is not
as burn due to fire. Don’t waste time and give possible to locate the Electronics switch, then pull the
first aid to the burn injuries. Check his pulse person by wearing glows in your hand. If glows were
and breathing. With out calling external help not available, force the person to move away by any
make the victim to breath and have normal strong wooden object or any insulating materials.
pulse. This you can do if you are a trained CPR • Move the person slowly to an airy place.
professional.
• Check the consciousness and pulse rate of the shock • Keep along with the victim until he is fine.
victim. Check any wounds found on the body of the
• If the shock victim able to drink then you can give him
victim. If require arrange for CPR.
hot beverages.
• Call the doctor. Till such time give the required help to
the victim.
Safety practice - Fire extinguishers

• explain the consequences of fire accident
• explain the reasons in workshop fire accidents
• explain the fire extinguisher’s role in firefighting
• explain the general precautions to be followed to avoid fire accidents.
Fire hazards happen due to the inflammable objects stored Smoldering: It involves removal of oxygen or decreasing
in a fire prone zone. The uncontrollable fire in unwanted presence of oxygen.
place and time will create damage. This on some time will Cooling: It involves the process of reducing heat or removal
cause serious injuries to mankind or at some time leads of heat.
to death. Hence we should control the spreading of fire
and extinguish with in no time. Starvation: It involves the removal of fuel from the scene
of fire.
Is it possible to prevent fire? Yes we can do this by remov-
ing the three factors for fire accidents. Refer fig 1 given. Preventing Fire: Many of the fire accident resulting from
The reason for continuous fire is a small spark to an uncontrollable fire. This can be avoided
with a little care and common sense to extinguish in the
beginning. Flammable objects like cotton waste and wood
wastes were heaped together carelessly is one of the
reasons for fire accident. Dispose these wastes to the
appropriate bins. Electronics fire is caused by faulty
equipment and short circuits. The short circuit across the
terminal can be avoided by tightening the connection.
Correct rating of the fuse is most important. If the rating of
the fuse is not correct, it won’t melt and keep on feeding
the faulty current to trigger the fire accident. Check also
the insulation of the conductor and use only certified
• A source of ignition: On certain temperature each conductors.
substance will burn. During heat, the liquids and solid Clothes which are easily prone to fire should be away
substances begins to evaporate. This vapor is always from heat source. After the work completion shut off the
having the tendency to burn continuously unless heaters.
controlled. For example, petrol on room temperature
of 15-degree c will evaporate. Thinner, adhesive solution, solvent, kerosine, sprit and LPG
Gas were inflammable materials. These should be
• A source of fuel: If oxygen and high temperature were preserved in separate room away from heat and fire. When
given to any solid or liquid substance, then it will burn. not in use switch off the blow lamps and torches.
• A source of oxygen: The oxygen is found in abundance Classification of fire: Fire is divided into four categories
in the atmosphere. This will aid the continuous burning. as per the type of fuel. For different type of fire different
Extinguishing the fire: Basics principles on which fire method of fire extinguishing method were done. (refer fig 2
extinguishers works: to 5).
Fuel Method of extinguishing

Class ’A’ Fire Good practice is to cool them with jet of water. The jet should be aimed at
Wood, paper, cloth of solid materials the bottom of the fire and gradually towards upward fire.
Class ’B’ Fire Objects should be smothered. The total area of the burning liquid should be
Flammable liquids and covered. This will ensure to stop oxygen. Don’t pour water over the burning
and liquidable solids liquid. Use foam, dry powder or CO2 in cylinder.
Class ’C’ Fire When using liquefied gas great care should be taken. This will explode and
Gas and liquefied natural gas the entire area will be in flame. Under this circumstances fire alarm should be
initiated and the fire should be extinguished by experts. Use dry powder
extinguisher for this fire hazard
Class ’D’ Fire To quench the fire in metals the conventional/standard procedure is not
Involving Metals suitable to follow. On Electronics appliances the fire is quenched by spraying
dry powder carbon- di- oxide and dry powder carbon tetra chloride. Don’t
pour water or foam on the burning machineries.
Health and environmental guidelines

• explaining safety, hygiene, and environmental guidance
• explain hygiene and work and 1948 factories act.
The laws listed below should be observed 10 2000 law of guidance to stop substance liquefying
1 Enviromental safety as per act 1986 11 1987 revised act of 1982 of air pollution and control
2 Environmental safety as per law 1986 12 1982 act of air pollution and control.
3 Effect of environment on 1994 plan of expansion 13 1982 law of air pollution and control.
estimation
14 1983 Tamil Nadu laws of air pollution and control
4 Pollution and control as per 1999 law.
15 2000 law of the sound pollution board control and
5 1989 law of importance to chemical hazards and storing enforcement.
of chemicals
16 1978 and 1988 revised act of 1974 pollution and water
6 2000 revised law of importance to chemical hazards control.
and storing of chemicals
17 1983 Tamil Nadu law for pollution and water control.
7 1989 law of unnecessary hazards management and
18 1997 counter act for 1991 water pollution and water
handling.
control.
8 1998 law of unwanted biology medicine management
19 1978 law for water pollution and water control.
and handling
20 1948 factory law
9 2000 law of management and handling
21 1950 law for Tamil Nadu factories • For lifting and hoisting
22 1981 law for Gas cylinders • Lifting machines with chain and rope.
23 1910 act for Indian electricity • Rotating machines
24 1956 law for Indian electricity • Pressure plant
25 1934 act for Petroleum. • Evaluated floors and stair case.
26 1976 law for petroleum. • Persons with obesity
27 1991 act for people’s insurance. • Safety for eyes
28 1991 law for people’s insurance • Warning against dangerous sparks and gases.
29 2000 law for dangerous unwanted management and • Warnings for the usage of the portable electric lights
handling.
• Inflammable and explosive particles and gases.
Worst working environment will spoil the health and safety
• Warning against the occurrence of such accidents
of an employee. This not only in factory but can also pre-
vail elsewhere. The factory employee face numerous health • Safety of machine and building
issues and non-safety in the surroundings. The occupa-
• Maintenance of building
tional hazards not only affect the employee but also his
family and the peoples around him. • Cleanliness
The followings are the revised act 0f 1987(20). Occupa- • Disposal of unwanted wastes.
tional safety and health. • Air flow and temperature.
• Fencing should be done around a machine. • Dust and smoke
• Care while operating a machine • Artificial moisturization
• Engage young employees in dangerous machines. • Excessive crowd.
• Run machinery with power for cutting, bending and • Light
shearing operation.
• Drinking water
• Automated machines
• Toilet and urinal facility.
• Cover the new machines.
• Bin for spitting.
• Prohibit children where women employee are at work
in cotton extraction
Basic understanding on hot work, confined space work and material han-
dling equipment
• explain about hot work and need to do hot work
• describing stopped interval
• describing metal handling equipment and its use.
Hot work : For construction and maintenance works we Stopped interval of space : Employees at times need
need to do brazing, soldering, welding, gas cutting of to work on a confined space with out any room to move
metals and heating the metal and forming it requires high freely. Such restricted movement of work with in a low
heat. Works under such hot condition are termed as hot area is tedious to work. But work needs to be done. Work-
works. These hot works are dangerous and expoldable. ing in a confined space is dangerous because of the risks
Workers still do all types of hot works. It is inevitable. But from noxious fumes, reduced oxygen levels, or a risk of
can be preventable to some extend. fire. If a confined space has noxious fumes, you should
consider how these can be ventilated or removed if there
Instead of Use
is a risk of liquids or gases flooding in, you should estab-
Saw or torch cutting Manual hydraulic shears lish whether the valves can be locked shut if someone is
Welding Mechanical bolting going into a confined space and there is not enough oxy-
gen to breathe properly, you must provide breathing appa-
Sweat soldering Screwed or flanged pipe ratus or ventilate the space to increase oxygen levels be-
Torch of radial saw Mechanical pipe cutter fore entering.
cutting Confined working spaces were done in water tanks, small
vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, pits, man-
hole, tunnels, duct work, pipe line etc.
Material handling equipment cylinder that can hold stuff like grain. Other examples in-
clude hoppers which are large funnel shaped metal con-
Material handling is “the loading, unloading, and move-
tainer, bucket elevators, conveyor belts…etc.
ment of goods, as within a factory or warehouse, espe-
cially by the aid of mechanical devices. Thus, material Type 3: Industrial Trucks: These are vehicles or equip-
handling equipment means devices that help a warehouse ment that move materials. Sometimes workers run them,
function by moving and storing goods. and sometimes they are automatic. Automated Guided
Vehicles (AGVs) fall under both engineered systems and
Different types of material handling equipment
industrial trucks. Example: Fork lift, platform truck, order
Type 1: Storage and Handling Equipment: These are picker, pallet trucks and hand trucks.
shelves and racks where you store your material in be-
Type 4: Engineered Systems: These are vehicles or equip-
tween receiving it and shipping it. They are often designed
ment that move materials. Sometimes workers run them,
to utilize vertical space so the warehouse can hold more
and sometimes they are automatic. Automated Guided
items. Bins, drawers, stacking frames, flow racks, canti-
Vehicles (AGVs) fall under both engineered systems and
lever racks, and mezzanines are also included in this cat-
industrial trucks. Examples: Robotic delivery system,
egory.
automated storage and retrieval system. Basically any-
Type 2: Bulk Material Handling Equipment: If there’s a lot thing that moves materials around the warehouse so work-
of material altogether, you’re probably using bulk material ers don’t have to.
handling equipment. An example would be a silo, a large
Lifting and handling of loads

• explain non procedural weight lifting and its consequences
• explain six points of weight lifting.
Most of the accidents happen while lifting the load or mov- and joints. Don’t take heavy weight on back. Your back is
ing the load from one point to other. A situation may arise not a weight lifting machine.
for a worker to fix a heavy machine in a cramped area.
Lifting heavy weight in a confined area may result an in-
jury to the worker. At the same time weight need not be a
factor for accidents.
Lifting weights by non-procedural method will cause pain
on muscles, knees and particularly on spinal cord. The
pain due to these are very severe. We may collide with
other objects while moving with heavy loads.
Types of injury and how to avoid them As per figure 3 the bend spinal cord will take six time the
Cuts and abrasions (Fig 1): Cuts and abrasion results load when compared to straight position. Fig 3 refers to
due to rough surface and uneven sharp objects. Gener- the bend spinal cord position.
ally, hand gloves of leather is good for protection. But at
the same time other body parts may injure due to heavy
weight. So, review the weight to be handled.
Preparing to lift: Prepare your selves before lifting heavy

weight. (Fig 4)
Crushing of feet or hand (Fig 2): The load should be

placed with out harming hand and foot. When lifting heavy
load to height use some equipment.
Strain to muscles and joints: These are due to excessive
weight lifting and improper way of lifting. When lifting heavy
weights, improper movements will cause strain to muscles
Which to move? • Face to the direction in which the load to be moved
and lift the load and proceed
From where to which place?
• The person should sit on his fore toe and lift the weight
Need any help?
hugging to his body. Check whether the handle is safe.
Is there any resistance on the way between the loading
• Before lifting the load, the spine of the loader should
points?
be straight.
Person should able to see the direction where he is going
• Keep the legs straight and lift the load. With the help
with load?
of strong thigh muscles and bones the load can be
Carry the load in ascending order of weight. easily lifted. Lift the load with ease and without any
The following are the factors for a person able to carry jerk looking straight and keep the back straight.
weight • Until the lifting operation to the desired height keep
• Age your spine in an upright position. Hen the desired height
is arrived then bend your hips slightly beachward and
• Body structure come to a balance position with the load.
• Factors apart from body structure. • The weight should be hugged to your body. While on
• Experience of the person in lifting load. turning move your hold body with weight. Keep the load
towards your body until you reach your destination.
Difficulties of lifting heavy loads Don’t move your hip and wrist alone while turning, move
• The weight is not only the factor your whole body with the load.
• The shape of the object may be tough to handle Lowering the load (Fig 7)
• When compact loads were lifted, the pressure on the Ensure the unloading point free from any obstacles. When
arm muscles with extended hands will cause pain on unloading the knees should be bend half way and the spine
back and stomach. and head straight. Don’t bend your head towards the load.
Even at this point the hands should be aligned with the
• With out handles it is tough to move or lift the weight. load.
Correct manual lifting procedures (Figs 5&6)
Instrument Mechanic - Basic fitting
Basic hand tools

• explain the types of hand tools
• describe the various marking tools and methods of marking
• explain various types of accessories.
Combination plier (Fig 1)
Combination plier is made of forged steel and specified by

its length Wire stripper (Fig 6) : This tool used to remove insulation
from wire without damaging.
It is used to hold small pipes for cutting cables and used
as insulated plier in Electronics work.
Long nose plier (Fig 2): This plier is made of steel and
specified by its length. Used to hold nuts in.
Small holes and in narrow space.
Electronics knife (Fig 7) : This tool is made of steel and

contains two blades which can be folded in a holder.
Flat nose plier (Fig 3) : This plier is to hold thin flat

objects
It is used to remove insulation and clean the surfaces of

the wire.
This tool should not be used for cutting the wires.
Round nose plier (Fig 4) : Round nose plier is used to Screw driver (Fig 8) : Screw driver is used to fix and
form small hook and loop in wires. remove screw.
Side cutting plier (Fig 5) : Side cutting plier is made of Use appropriate screw drivers for the slots in screw head
steel and specified by its length.
Use insulated screw driver for Electronics appliances
Used to cut wires very closer (Electronics works)
NOTE: Pliers should not be used as hammers. Connectors : A small screw driver of length 75mm which
is used to remove and fix small screws
20
It is used to measure and check dimensions of objects in
meter or in feet
Available in 150 mm, 300 mm and 600 mm sizes
Graduation : Normally graduation is made on upper side
Neon tester (Fig 9) : Neon tester is used to check the
for metric and lower side for British
supply. It contains a small glass tube filled with Neon gas
and a neon lamp. A varister is connected in series to neon Accuracy : The measurement accuracy in metric is 0.5
lamp. mm and in British it is 1/64 inch
Materials : Steel scale is made of spring steel, stainless
steel, alloy steels and
High carbon steels hardened and tempered (Heat treated)
Jenny caliper (or) Odd leg caliper (Fig 13) : This is a
marking tool having one leg bend inwards used to scribe
or measure other leg is straight pointer portion is attached
with locknut in order to move up and down.
Double ended spanner (Fig 10) : This is made of cast
steel and its size is stamped on the flat portion.
It is used to tighten and loosen the bolt and nut.

A single ended spanner also available.
Measuring steel tape (Fig 11): Measuring steel tape is
a thin steel strip.
It has measurements of both metric and non-metric
measurements printed. Other name of Jenny Caliper
1 Hermaphrodite caliper
2 Odd leg caliper
3 Leg to pointer caliper
Types
1 Fixed point Jenney caliper
2 Adjustable Jenney caliper
Try square (Figs14,15&16) : Try square is used to draw
It is used to measure the length, breadth and height of the
(mark) and check right angle in a work piece.
objects.
The tape is available in various length in sizes for specified
usage.
Steel rule (Fig 12) : A steel ruler is manufactured from
either spring or stainless steel.
It has marking either in metric, non-metric or both markings
along its length
And tempered with the wooden handle.
Types of hammer
1 Hard head hammer: Used for hard works
2 Ball pein hammer 3 Straight pein hammer
4 Cross pein hammer 5 Double face hammer
6 Sledge hammer and 7 Claw hammer
Caliper (Fig 19) : Caliper is an indirect measuring tool
The stock of try square is made of cast iron and blade is
used to measure inside and outside dimensions with the
made of carbon steel
help of steel rules
Try square is specified by its length of blade (100, 150
and 200mm) and type. Fig 19
Types: Solid, Adjustable and master try squares

Hacksaw (Fig 17): Hack saws blade and frame are
important prime tools used to cut metals by fitters
Material : Caliper is made of high carbon steel or medium

Hack saw frame : It is a frame on which hack saw is carbon steel.
fixed and it is made of mild steel The measuring face is normally hardened and tempered.
Tension piece is made of high carbon steel. Wing nut is It is also made of mild steel case hardened.
made of cast iron.
Type of joint caliper
Handle is made of wood
1 Firm Joint caliper (Fig 20)
Types of Hack saw
1 Fixed hack saw frame
2 Adjustable Hack saw frames
3 Deep cut Hack saw frames
Hammer (Fig 18) : Hammer is of the important tool in
engineering field.
2 Spring joint caliper (Fig 21)
Hammer is used to striking, cutting, chipping, forging,

bending, punching and
Straightening sheets. It also used for riveting works.
Hammer is available from 125 grams and varies in size
depending on work to be done
Material : The face and pein portion of hammer is made
of drop forged carbon steel hardened
Types of legs : Depends upon the shape of legs calipers 5 Pipe vice 6 Hand vice
are classified into
7 Leg vice 8 Tool makers vice
1 Outside calipers and
9 Pin vice and 10 Quick release vice
2 Inside calipers
Files (Fig 22) : File is a multi-point cutting tool used to
remove unwanted metal portions from a job in order to
bring to the required shape
Pliers (Fig 24) : Plier is made of steel and specified by

its length. It is used to hold, cut, and twist wires Also to
hold small pipes.
Parts Insulated plier is used for Electronics works
1 Tip or point , 2 Edge, Size of the plier available in 150mm , 200mm length
3 Face or side, 4 Heal,

5 Shoulder , 6 Tang,
7 Ferrule 8. Handle
Uses
1 To remove unwanted metals so that the required shape
of the job is met
2 Used to file the portion to be fitted and
3 To give good appearance to the job
File is specified by its length, grade, cut and shapes.
Sl.No Grade number of teeth
1 Rough file 8 teeth per cm Screw driver (Fig 25) : This tool has a handle made of
wood or plastic and a blade made of steel. Working edge
2 Bastard file 12 teeth per cm is hardened. It is specified by the blades length. It is used
3 Second cut file 16 teeth per cm to tighten and loosen the screws. Suitable tip of the screw
driver is used to fit in the slot of screws. Insulated screw
4 Smooth file 20 to 24 teeth per cm drivers are used for electric works. Size of screw drivers:
5 Dead smooth file 40 teeth per cm 100 mm 150 mm 200 mm 250 mm and 300 mm available.
Types of files
1 Flat file 2 Square file
3 Three square or triangular file
4 Round file 5 Half round file
6 Safe edge file 7 Hand file
8 Knife file
Vice (Fig 23) : Vice is used to hold job firmly while doing
filing, chipping, hand sawing, drilling, planning, happing Spanner (Fig 26) : This tool is made of forged steel. It is
and dieing operation. specified by the space of flat portion of nut.
Different types of vices available depends upon the jobs. Types : Single end spanner , double end spanner and
Types adjustable spanner.
1 Bench vice 2 Machine vice In adjustable spanner jaws can be moved so that various
3 Universal vice 4 Swivel base vice size of bolt and nut can be tightened or loosened. In narrow
and deep places ring and box spanners are used.
2 Slotted angle plate
3 Swivel type angle plate
Surface gauge (Fig 29) : It is also called scribing block
and used to mark parallel lines to datum surface.
The two types of surface gauges are

Marking tools 1 Fixed type and 2 Universal type
Surface plates (Fig 27) : It is made of cast iron which is Parts as shown in Fig 29
stress relieved.to prevent distortion. The work surface is 1 Base 2 Rocker arm
machined and scrapped. The underside is heavily ribbed 3 Pillar
to provide rigidity. V Block (Fig 30 & 31) : V Block is used to hold job while
Available in grade 1,2&3. Grade 1 surface plate is marking and setting. Since it has V shaped
acceptable for most work. Surface plates are specified by Groove it is called V block. It is made of closed grain cast
their length, breadth, grade and Indian standards number. steel.
V Block is available either in square or rectangular shape.
Types of V Blocks
1 Single level single groove V Block
2 Single level double groove V Block
3 Double level single groove V Block
4 Match fair V Block
Punch (Fig 32) : In order to make the scribed line visible
Angle plates (Fig 28) : This is used to support jobs and till the completion of work dots are punched over the line
to provide a vertical or angular plane for marking. Angle by the punch. Punch has a cylindrical body knurled at the
plate is made of cast iron or cast steel machined accurately middle portion. The end portion is sharpened to the required
to an angle 90°. angle according to the job to be done. Head portion is
Types chamfered.
1 Plain solid angle plate

machine screws, 3 Set screws, 4 Group screws, 5 Thump
screw and 6 Self tapping screw
Bolts (Fig 35) : Bolts are used to join as well as dismantle

the machine parts.
It has a head portion and a threaded body portion.
Spanner is used to hold the head portion of the bolt while
tighten and loosening.
Specification : Bolts are specified by its head shape,

type of thread cut on the body, diameter,
Length and ISI number : For an example Hexagonal
bolt metric 10x60-4.8.I.S.1963
Material: Punch is made of tool steel or high carbon steel Types of bolts : Bolts types depends upon head shape
hardened and tempered and places where it is used.
Types
1 Center punch, 2 Prick punch, 3 Dot punch, 4 Pin punch,
5 Hollow punch
6 Bell center punch and 7 Letter and number punch
Accessories nuts (Fig 33) : In fitting works nuts are used
along with bolts for mating two parts.
Threads were being cut inwards in the nuts and the edges
are chamfered for safety.
Types of Nuts : 1 Hexagonal nut, 2 Square nut, 3 Lock
nut, 4 Slotted nut, 5 Castle nut, 6 Symmonds lock nut, 7
T Nut, 8 Wiring nut and 9 knurled nut .
Screws (Fig 34) : Screws are used as fasteners along
with nut like bolts. Available in various sizes.
Types: 1 Heavy duty machine screws, 2 Light duty
Scribers
• explain the features of scribers
• explain uses of scribers.
Scribers is a hand tool used to mark lines on job materials While marking lines on the object the scribers should be
which are to be filed or machined. These are made of hold like pencils so that, Lines drawn are parallel to the
hardened high carbon steel. edge of the object. Don’t place the scribers inside the
pockets since its edge is very sharp.
The tip of the scriber should be sharp enough to draw thin
lines. Use cork to cover the sharp edge of the scribe so that
injury and accidents can be avoided.
The tip of the scriber should be sharpened if found blunt.
Scribers are available in different sizes and shapes.
Normally plain scriber is used for marking.
Precision Instruments
• explain the types of precision instruments, types and method of working and use.
Introduction : Precision instruments are used to measure 6 Depth bar and 7 Thumb lever
the jobs very accurately during the progression and finished
The beam is graduated in inches at the upper side and in
stages. By these instruments measurements can be
mm at lower side called main scale. Similarly in movable
checked to the accuracy of 0.01 mm.so that high quality
jaw graduation are marked in inches and milli meter. In a
is maintained.
single vernier caliper separate calipers are available for
Types British and metric measurements
1 Vernier caliper 2 Outside micrometer Least count of a vernier caliper (Fig 2) : The smallest
or least measurement measured by the caliper is called
3 Inside micrometer 4 Depth micrometer
least count
5 Dial test indicator 6 Vernier height gauge
7 Vernier depth gauge and
8 Sine Bar
Vernier caliper (Fig 1) : The distance between two edges
of a job is difficult to determine by the eyes while using
normal measuring instruments. Hence a French scientist
Piere Vernier in the Year 1830 discovered Vernier Caliper. When the fixed and movable jaws are closed that is when
The instrument based on the principal of sliding Movements. zeroes of main and
When two lines coincide with each other so the Vernier scales coincides, 49th division of the main scale
measurement will be accurate. The instruments are called and 50th division of Vernier Scale are coinciding.
by its name Vernier Caliper, Vernier height gauge
So the least count is calculated as below
1 MSD = 1 mm 49 MSD = 49 mm
49 mm is divided into 50 divisions
Therefore in vernier scale 1 division =(1- 49/50) =0.02 mm.
Example of reading Vernier Caliper (Fig 3)
Vernier bevel protractor

Uses: Inside, outside and depth dimensions can be
measured by vernier caliper.
Material: Vernier caliper is made of Invar steel , nickel
steel or stainless steel
Parts: 1 Beam 2 Fixed jaw 3 Movable jaw 4 Fine adjusting
screws 5 Locking screws
Main scale reading + 60mm Vernier bevel protractor (Fig 7) : It is used to measure
angle with an accuracy of 5 minutes. Angular dimensions
Vernier division coinciding with main scale = 28mm
can be drawn and measured. The blade edges are made
Hence value = 28X0.02=0.56mm. Therefore the reading to angle of 60° & 30°.
is 60+0.56=60.56mm
Inside and outside depth micrometer
Outside depth micrometer (Fig 4) : Outside micro meter
is used to measure outside dimensions to an accuracy of
0.01mm. It works on bolt and nut principle. Job is placed
in between the anvil and spindle for measurement. In
metric, English method of measurement the Marking is
done in inches and mm and available in different ranges
Metric vernier micrometer has more accuracy of 0 to 25mm
and for British 0 to 1 inch.
Least count = 2 msp – 1 vsd

= 120 min – 115 min (120 inch – 115 inch)
= 5 min (5 inch)
Vernier height gauge (Fig 8) : It is used to measure the
height of a job and marking off set scriber is used to mark
below the base
Material: Frame is made of malleable cast iron. Anvil ,

spindle and sleeve are made of steel alloy
Parts : 1 Frame 2 Anvil 3 Spindle 4 Sleeve / Barrel 5
Thimble 6 Ratchet stop 7 Lock nut (spindle lock)
Inside micrometer (Fig 5): It is used to measure the
inside dimensions to an accuracy of 0.01mm and 0.01
inch
Parts: 1 Spindle 2 Base 3 Barrel/Sleeve 4 Thimble 5 ratchet

stop and 6 lock nut.
Depth micrometer (Fig 6) Parts: 1 Base 2 Beam 3 Vernier scale 4 Lock nut 5 Fine
adjusting screw 6 screw jaw and 7 Offset scriber
Dial test indicator (Fig 9): Dial test indicators are high
precision instruments used for comparing and determining
the variations in the size of a component to fix In a stand.
Uses
1 Used to identify the ups and downs on a surface of the
job
2 To check the accurate surface of a machine
3 To measure the slope along with sine bar
4 To set jobs in lathe very accurately
5 To check big size shaft mating
Types
1 Plunger type (Fig 10) and 2 Level type
Parts: 1 plunger 2 Anvil 3 Stem 4 Disc or dial 5 Rotatable

bezel 6. Bezel clamp 7 Pointer and 8 Revolution counter
Gauges (Fig 11,12,13&14)
Types of Gauges
1 Plug Gauge 2 Snap Gauge
Introduction: Gauges are important measuring device in
engineering fields it is used to provide certain dimensional 3 Ring Gauge 4. Telescopic Gauge
information according to a specified standard and to check 5 Feeder Gauge and 6 Radius Gauge.
the measurement very quickly gauges are mainly used for
checking the dimensions of the job in different shapes Sine bar : Sine bar is a device used to measure the angle
and sizes. They are made of steels. Inexperienced persons and slopes of a job to An accuracy one minute of the
can use the gauge very easily. The production time can degree.
be reduced and number of jobs can be increased. Uses
Classification of Gauges 1 To measure angles in job
1 Standard Gauge 2 Limit Gauge and 3 Adjustable 2 Used to measure slope angle along with slip gauge
Gauge blocks
3 Used to measure angles for milling, grinding and 5 Now slowly move the dial test indicator to the other
inspection applications. end of the job. If any variation.Found on the indictor
then the angular measurement wont be correct. For
Principle : It works on the principle of Trigonometry.
this we have to either increase or decrease the height
Sin Ø = Opposite side / Hypotenuse of slip gauge. The indicator should always be in zero
In a right angled triangle the ratio between opposite side while moving along the job. Then only it will be
to the hypotenuse is the value of Sine Slip gauge and considered as a good job set.
surface plates were used along with sine bar. The surface Calculation 1
plate will be at the base, slip gauge will be on opposite
1 The height of the slip gauge block is 17.36mm.
side and sine bar will be on the hypotenuse so as to form
a right angled triangle. 2 Length of the sine bar is 100mm
Material (Fig 15): Made of high chromium corrosion Now what is the angle of the job?
resistant steel. It is hardened, precision ground and
Formula
stabilized.
Sin Ø = Opposite side / hypotenuse
In fig 16 AB is the slip gauge height = 17.36mm (opposite
side)
AC is the length of sine bar = 100mm (hypotenuse)
Therefore Sin Ø = 17.36 / 100
= 0.1736
Ø = sin¹(0.1736)
Ø = 10º
Calculation 2
Construction Length of sine bar is 100mm. What is the height of the
1 Sine bar is rectangular in shape. It has holes across slip Gauge to to set an angle 30º
the surface. This holes will reduce its weight and can Formula
be able to fix with the slotted angle on its body.
Sin Ø = Opposite side / hypotenuse
2. Two control rollers of equal size were fixed on edges of
the sine bar. The distance between the two rollers is AB is the height of slip gauge H
the size of the sine bar. Normally the size of sine bar AC is the sine bar length=100mm
used will be 100mm.250mm and 500mm.
The angle for which the setting to be done Ø = 30º
Working method (Fig 16)
sin30º = H / 100
Therefore H = 100 X sin30º
= 100X0.5
= 50mm
Slip gauge (Fig 17) : Slip gauge is rectangular or square
in shape. It is made of high grade steel, grinded to high
precession and lapped surface finished. Slip gauge is
available in sizes separately on various sets. This is called
cage blocks
Slip Gauge set : Slip Gauge sets are available in metric
1 First stack the slip gauges as per the angle of the job and British sizes separately. In these metric size blocks
to be measured of 86 numbers were widely used.
2 Now place the sine bar roller of one end on the slip Grade
gauge and the other roller on the surface plate. Quality of the Gauge blocks are divided into four category
3 The job to be measured will be placed on the sine bar 1 Grade 00 : This grade gauge blocks are used to
as shown in fig 16. determine the
4 Set a dial test indicator on a vernier height gauge or on Grades of other gauge blocks manufactured. This is the
a suitable support the plunger part should touch on the first grade of the four grades available
job so that the pointer is on zero
This has been done in order to avoid air being passed
between gauges.After the job is done the slip gauge should
be dismantle as assembled
Points to be remembered for the selection of blocks while
performing rigging
1 As far as possible use small number of blocks
2 For the given measurement place from right to left on
decimal points
Care and maintenance
1 After the job has been done the blocks should be
washed in tetra chloride solution and a layer of
petroleum jelly should be applied on blocks
2 When used again the blocks should be cleaned in tetra
chloride.
2 Grade 0 : This is used for the inspection of more
accurate parts 3 Use large blocks first for rigging and setting the gauge
blocks.
3 Grade 1 : This is used to find the accuracy of jobs in
workshops 4 As far as possible avoid touching the lapped surface
area
4 Grade 2 : This is used for ordinary jobs.
5 Always wipe the cage blocks with animal skin
Gauge blocks are certified under three category by B.I.S.
6 After the job is done place the blocks in their boxes
They are grade 0,grade 1 and grade 2
and store them in a well humidified room.
Warning : Rigging :By placing two gauge blocks on one
above the other forming the sign + as in fig 18 and turning
the top gauge into a straight line.
Screw threads
• list out the parts and type of thread
• explain the drill size required for tapping.
Introduction : In engineering field machine parts are
assembled either by brazing, riveting or by welding. In
these process it is very difficult to separate the parts without
damage. Hence bolts, nuts, studs and screws were used.
Parts can be dismantle easily since threads has been
made. Threading principle has been discovered by an
English man Sir Joseph whitworth on 1814. A screw thread
is defined as a ridge of uniform section in the form of a
helix on either internal or external surface of a cylinder.
Terminology of the Thread (Parts as in Fig 1)
1 Axis of the screw rod : It is the linear center straight
line of the rod
2 Major diameter: It is the largest diameter of the top
of the thread. This diameter is the size of the screw.
3 Minor diameter: For external thread the minor threads the root portion is circular and crest portion
diameter is the smallest diameter after cutting the full is flat construction. For internal threads root is
thread. In case of internal thread, it is the diameter of formed by 1/8 th part of pitch which is round and
the hole drilled for forming the thread crest is flat.
4 Pitch Diameter : The distance between the centers
of opposite threads
5 Root : The bottom surface joining the two sides of
adjacent threads
6 Crest: The top surfaces joining two sides of adjacent
threads
7 Flank or side : The surface joining the crest and root
8 Depth: The perpendicular distance between the root
and crest of a thread.
9 Thread angle : It is the included angle between the
flanks of adjacent threads
10 Helix angle : The angle of inclination of the thread to
the imaginary perpendicular line
11 Pitch : The distance between two adjacent thread
measured parallel to the axis
12 Lead : The distance a threaded component moves ii ISO Inch thread (Fig 4) Unified thread : The angle
along the matching component during one complete of thread is 55 degrees and V shape thread is used
revolution. In a single start thread lead equal to pitch for all type of works.
Uses: Screw threads are used as fasteners to hold iii BSW (British Standard Whitworth) (Fig 4)
together and dismantle when required. For lifting loads Thread: This is used for all type of work. The angle
by screw jacks threads were used. Used to adjust die tool thread is 55° and has ‘V’ shape.
Used to make accurate measurements in micrometer

Standardization of threads: Machineries and machine
parts manufactured in various countries can used globally
in any country. Accordingly the threads and angle of
threads were determined as unique values and these values
were standard values.
Necessity of standardization : While a Japanese
machine is used in Tamil nadu the parts such as bolts
and nuts were damaged due to wear and tear they can be
produced locally instead of importing. This is the advantage
of standardization. iv BSF Thread (Fig 4) British standard fine thread:
This is similar to BSW thread and number of TPI is
Types of threads : Threads are classified by the angle more. It is used where vibration and shocks
being cut & TPI (thread per inch) encounters.
TPI basis : Number of threads being cut per inch. If more v British Association Thread BS Threads : Angle
number of cuts per inch then it is called fine thread and of 47.5° is cut in this type of small bolt and
less number of threads per inch called course threads. screws.BA tap set has size OBA to 22BA.Only 2
1 V Threads: A) ISO Metric thread B) ISO Inch thread nos of taps were available in each sizes.
(united threads) C) British whitworth thread, D) British 2
standard fine thread and E) BA Threads i Square Thread (Fig 5) : This type of thread is
2 Square thread and knuckle thread , being cut in screw jacks, vice spindle and fly press.
The angle of thread is 90°. These threads were used
3 Trapezoidal thread, Acme thread in mechanical power transmission and for lifting
4 Saw toothed thread and Buttress thread weights.
1 V Threads (Fig 2) : Threads are being cut in V shapes. ii Knuckle Thread (Fig 6) : This thread is used in
Example : Bolt , Nut spindles casting works, wooden works and railway wagon
coupling.
i ISO Metric threads (Fig 3) : The angle of thread is The crest and roots are semicircular in shape.
60 degrees. It is authorized by BIS. For external
3
i Trapezoidal Threads (Fig 7) : The angle between
the flanks were 30°. For joining and releasing the
parts of the machine while in operations these
threads were used.
Double start thread (Fig 12) : Thread which start from

two points (opposite to each other) are cut and known as
double start thread. In this lead is double the pitch size.
ii ACME Threads (Fig 8) : The angle of threads is

29°. It is used in lead screws and automobile lathes
4
i SAW Tooth threads (Fig 9): The thread is having Multi start thread : Threads starts from more than two
a slope of 3° on one side and 30° at other side. It is points are called Multi start thread. Here lead of the thread
used in place where pressure has to be given on is greater than the pitch and depends upon the number of
one direction like in carpenter’s vice spindle and starts in thread formation.
quick release press.) Tap and tap drill size : Tap is a cutting tool to form
internal threads in engineering works. Before doing tapping,
drill hole to be made according to the tap to be used.
Formula for metric size Tap.
Drill size = Tap size ( 2x0.6134xpitch). For M10 Tap the
drill size is calculated as shown Drill size =
10-(2x0.6134x1.5)
= 10-(1.226x1.5) , = 10-1.839 , = 8.161
ii Buttress Thread (Fig 10) : The thread has 90° on or 8.2mm
one side and 45° at the other side. It is widely used Explanation
in hand press and quick release vice.
Minor diameter = Major diameter – 2 x depth and
Starts of thread depth = 0.6134 x pitch
Single start thread ( Fig 11) : Thread being cut starting 2 depth of thread = 2x0.1634xpitch
from one place is called single start thread. In this type = 1.226 x 1.5 , = 1.839mm or 1.84mm
pitch and lead are equal. Minor diameter = 10 - 1.839 , 8.161 or 8.2mm
Instrument Mechanic - Tube Joint and Fitting
Copper tube cutting, bending, swaging and flaring

• explain type of copper tube study about copper cutting,bending,swaging of the diameter of the tube and
flaring the edges of the tube.
Types of copper tube Then fix the copper tube on the punch and hammer it.
While using lever type place the tube in the expander and
Soft copper tubes: These are used in refrigeration and
pull the lever.
air conditioner appliances
Hard copper tubes: These are used in commercial type
of refrigeration appliances. The tubes cannot be bend. But
if need arises. It can be bend by using” L” bend, elbows,
coupling,reducers,”T” joints and by brazing the tubes.
Soft copper tubes are available in the following sizes
50 feet length rolled in coil shape
3/16 inch (4.5mm) , ¼ inch (6mm), 5/16 inch (7.5mm),
3/8 inch (9mm) 7/16 inch(10.5mm), ½ inch (12 mm),
9/16 inch (13.5 mm), 5/8 inch(15mm) and ¾ inch (18.5mm)
of outer dia.
Hard copper tubes: Hard copper tubes are available in
the following sizes
¼ inch(6mm), 3/8 inch(9mm), ½ inch(12 mm), 5/8
inch(15mm), ¾ inch (18.5mm) , 7/8 inch ( 21mm), 1
inch(25.4mm), 1 and 1/8 inch(32mm), 1 and 3/8 inch
(35mm) and 1 and 5/8 inch ( 41mm) of outer diameters.
Steel tubes used in refrigerator has thin wall thickness
Stainless steel tubes: These are used in machineries for
diary and ice cream production.
Plastic tubes: These are used in drain water pipe line, in
water cooling condenser and for circulating the acids in
descaling operation.
Flexible copper tube: These are used in automobiles
and air conditioner for the flow of refrigerant by suction.
Copper tubes of dimension 3/16” to 7/8” are to be cut by
using tube cutter. Hacksaw blade with frame are used for
cutting copper tubes of size more than 1 and 1/8”.
Tube bending (Figs 1 - 5) : Tube bending is done to bend
the tubes without reducing the cross sectional area or
should not be pinched. The diameter of the bend should
be greater than the diameter of the copper tube by 5 to 10
times. Spring bender will always hold tight with the copper
tube. While removing, the bender should be rotated slightly
to ease the copper tube.
Swaging of copper tubes (Fig 6): In order to join two
copper tubes of same size by brazing, we have to first do
swaging operation. Brazing will be easy and sturdy than
flare connection. Length of swaging should be equal to
the diameter of the copper tube.
While using punch type swaging tool, the copper tube Flaring, flare fitting and testing the joints
must be inserted correctly into the hole of the flaring block. Necessity of flaring : In order to avoid gas leakage and
to ensure vapor tight seal, flaring need to be done.
33
This is the process of expanding the mouth of the copper
tube so as to fix effectively on the appliances. (Figs 7 & 8)
Types of flaring : 1 Single thickness flare and 2 Double

thickness flare
Single thickness flare (Fig 9) is used for small diameter
copper tubes.
Double thickness flare (Fig 10): It is used for large
diameter of more than 98mm copper tubes. Expansion of In Fig11 shows the proper and improper flares. This shows
mouth is only possible for large diameter copper tubes . how the expansion of the mouth does not match with the
Double thickness flare are more rigid then single thickness apparatus. The flares are un even, too small, too big or
flare. have burrs.
Flaring tube fittings (Figs 12,13 & 14) : Figure shows
how flaring tube fitting done on copper tubes.
Pressuring the joint on tube : If tubes are joined by flaring
or by brazing then the strength of the tube is to be checked
before connecting with the apparatus. For this checking
dry nitrogen gas of 150 psig or 10kg/cm² is used. Soap
solution is to be used to check the leakage in the tube.
For pressure testing in system the tube joint is subjected
to high pressure than ideal pressure of system.
Pinching and leak test
• state about the pinching tools , its principle of operation and uses
• draw the diagram and mention its parts
• understand brazing method, leak test after pinching.
Application description : Pinching process is done when
copper tube is pressed and applied pressure from one
end so that it can’t be released to the other end
Fig 1 & 2 shows one type of pinching tool. Here a screw
type rod with a handle at one end a ball bearing at the
other end. The screw type spindle rod is attached to a
main frame. After placing the copper tube in it’s place the
handle is rotated clockwise. Now the copper tube is being
pinched so that brazing work can be done on the pinched
end.
Test for leak: After pinching the copper tube will be removed
from the pinching tool. Now the refrigerant from the system
will be injected to the copper tube. Test with soap solution
has to done on copper tube surface to test leakage.
Tubes and pipes

• define the use of tubes and pipes
• determine the pipe bending, threading and cutting devices
• list out the type of pipe joints.
Introduction 4 Transmission of high pressure staem , special liquids,
and gases from one place to other.
Pipes are used to carry water and deliver to the sewage
system. Also used to transfer fluids in chemical Pipe materials : Pipes are classified according to
laboratories and industries. Pipe joints are used to avoid materials used for manufacturing.
leakages. Plumbers will carry out the work of pipe Metal tubes are
installation and pipe joints.
1 Mild steel pipes 2 Cast iron pipes
Pipes: Pipe is a hollow cylindrical circular shaped object.
Depending upon the type of work light duty and heavy 3 Cast iron soil pipe 4 Galvanized iron pipes
duty pipes are available. 5 Copper pipes 6 Aluminum pipes
Tubes: Tubes are available in different shapes such as 7 Brass pipes and 8 Lead pipes.
square , rectangle and circular of smaller size of less than
12mm diameter. Non-Metal tubes are
Purpose of Tubes and Pipes 1 Rubber 2 PVC
1 Cold and hot water can be transferred from one place 3 Stone ware and 4 Plastic.
to other place. These are all used in Electronics works.
2 Dirty water can be transferred to a sewerage plant. Pipe fittings : These are the devices joining one or more
3 Transporting fluids such as hydraulic oil, lubricating oil pipes of the same or different sizes. Fitting is also used to
and inflammable oil.
change the direction of flow of the materials. Also for
terminating the flow of material in last end of the pipe.
Types of Pipe fittings
1 Coupling joints are used to join same diameter of pipes.
Inner threaded portion of coupling is joined with outer
threaded portion of the pipe. (Fig 1)
2 Union fittings can be inserted into the pipe line and

can be tightened or loosened (Fig 2)
3 Reducer pipe fittings are used to join different size of

pipes. (Fig 3)
8 Elbow joints are used to change the direction of pipes

to an angle of 45º or 90º (Fig 8)
4 Eccentric reducer fitting are used to join different size 9 Long radius elbow joints are having radius more than
of pipes on different axis. (Fig 4) 1.5 times of the bore size of the pipe. (Fig 9)
10 Short radius elbow joints are having radius same as

5 Concentric reducer fitting are used to join different size the bore size of the pipe. (Fig 10)
of pipes on same axis.(Fig 5)
6 Tee branch types of fittings are used as shown in figure.
Joint is done from main pipe to small pipe of same or
different sizes. (Fig 6)
7 Reducing Tee branch is used to join small tubes from
the main bigger size tube.(Fig 7)
11 45 degree elbow joints are used to change the direction 2 Insert the pipe cutter at the marked portion. Now the
of pipe to 45 degree (Fig 11) cutter wheel should aligned with the pipe marking.
While keep on doing this the “V” shaped cutter wheel
portion will make depth on pipe and the pipe will be cut
in to two.
3 Excess metals while cutting will be left on the pipe
and this can be removed by pipe reamer or by files.
Multi wheel chain pipe cutter (Fig 15)
12 Pipe nipple fittings are used to join internal threaded Fig 15

pipes such as
A Closed nipple fitting has thread to its full length and
in small length (Fig 12)
Use: For large diameter pipe cutting it is used. Depending

upon the diameter of the pipe more number of wheels and
wings are utilized for cutting.
Pipe bending : Without using fittings the pipes can be
B Short nipple fitting has threads on ithe two ends bend to the desired direction and used. While bending the
and middle portion is plain (Fig 13) tubes care should be taken so that no scratch or dense
are formed on tube. This can be achieved by two methods.
1 Pipe bending by hand and
2 Pipe bending by fixtures or machines.
Pipe bending by hand
Sand is filled in the pipe and heated to moderate
temperature. Template can be drawn on the floor or on a
wooden plank. Now wooden pieces were filled on one end
of the pipe. Pipe is fixed in the vice rigidly. Heat the portion
Cutting tools : For cutting the pipes to the required length to be bend with a welding torch. Apply force on the other
various tools are used. They are end of the tube to bend for the required shape in template
1 Wheel pipe cutter and Pipe bending by Machine
2 Multi wheel chain pipe cutter. Types:
Wheel pipe cutter (Fig 14) is used to press the walls of 1 Portable hand operated pipe bender (Fig 16)
the pipe and cut the pipe to the desired length.
Parts : Tripod stand, pipe stop lever, handle or lever and
Fig 14 inside former.
Fig 16
Parts: Wheel cutter, Guide roller and adjusting screws. This type of pipe bender has three legs. Semicircular inside
former is fixed according to the outer diameter of the pipe.
Uses: In air-condition works and to cut copper and brass
pipes without any burr. 2 Bench type hand operated pipe bender (Fig 17)
Method of using pipe cutter Parts: Inner former, Lever or handle, Adjusting screws and
Pipe guide.
1 Mark the portion to be cut on the pipe and hold it tightly
on the pipe vice
Fig 17 Fig 19
Use: Used to bend pipes easily to the required shape

without damaging the pipes. This pipe bender is used to Fig 20
bend GI Pipes.
Hydraulic pipe bending machine
For bending the pipe without filling sand hydraulic pipe
bending is used.
Pipes having diameter of 75mm can be bend by this
machine.
By using inner formers pipes can be bend to our desired
shapes.
Fig 21
Pipe threading (Fig 18) :Pipes are threaded to join with
the fittings.Generaly BSP type threads are used. Threading
can be done by using die stock in lathe machine for external
threads. For checking the thread formed thread plug gauge
is used (Figs 19, 20 & 21)
Fig 18
Instrument Mechanic - Basic electricity & Passive Components
Electricty and fundamental laws

• explain electricity and its fundamental laws
• describe about conductors, semiconductors and insulators
• draw Electronics symbols
• differentiate AC and DC circuits.
Electricity is a form of energy. Without electricity, any that elements are called insulator. For example insulators
machines or Electronics equipment cannot function. As are glass, rubber, mica, plastic, PVC etc.
per electronic theory, matter has weight and occupies some
space. The three states of matter are solid, liquid and
gaseous and are formed by molecules. The molecules
were divided into sub particles called as atom.
The atom can be further divided into Neutrons, Electrons
and Protons. The center nuclear portion of the atom consist
of positively charged particles called Protons and Neutrons.
Neutrons have no charge. Around the nucleus negatively
charged particles revolve in fixed orbits known as electrons.
This structure is called as Atomic structure. Number of
protons and electrons are equal. Refer Fig 1.
Semi conductors : Semiconductor elements will have

four free electrons in its outer shell. Semiconductors will
have the properties of both conductor and insulator.
Example silicon and germanium.
Current : The movement of electrons in an Electronics
circuit is known as current.
Atomic structure (Fig 2): Electrons the negatively Symbol of current: I
charged particles revolves around the nucleus at fixed orbits
Unit of current: A (Ampere)
called as shells. These are denoted by K, L, M, N, O and
P letters. The number of electrons in each shell can be Measuring device: Ammeter
found out by simple formula 2n² where "n" is the number
Connecting method of Ammeter in a circuit; In series
of shell. Thus in first shell it will be 2 x 1² =2. In the second
shell, 2 x 2² = 8 and so on, The negative charged electrons Ampere : The electron movement in one minute through
have attractive force with positive charged protons so as a conductor or the quantity of current passes through a
to revolve around the nucleus. The electrons revolving in conductor of one ohm resistance and one volt EMF is
its final shell or orbit will have less attractive force with the called ampere.
nucleus. These electrons in the final orbits were called
Ammetre (Fig 3) : An instrument to measure the current
free or valance electrons.
in a circuit is called an Ammeter. This has to be connected
By giving sufficient force on this free electrons this can be in series of a an Electronics circuit.
dislodged from its orbit and fly away to the next atoms
final orbit. This chain action of movement of electron is 1 KA = 1000 Amps = 1 x 10³A.
called as electric current. 1 milli Ampere= 1mA = 1/1000 = 1 x 10 -3 A
Conductor : In a material where the conduction of free
electrons in outer orbit happens freely then that material Electro Motive Force (EMF) : The force required to move
is called as conductor. In metals where the number of free electrons from one end to other end in a circuit is called
electrons in the outer shell is one, two or three then it is a Electro motive force. It is deonted by the symbol ' E ' and
good conductor. For example the good conductors are the unit ' V ' (Volt). EMF can't be measured directly but
copper, aluminum, silver, gold, zinc, lead etc. can be calculated by the formula EMF = Vt + IR.
Insulators : In the atomic structure of elements where the Potential difference : The difference of Electronics
number of electrons in the outer orbits have 5, 6, or 7 then pressure between two points in an Electronics circuit is
40
Resistance : In an Electronics circuit the resistance
required to for one ampere of current with one volt potential
difference is one resistance of unit ohm.
OHMS Law : In a closed DC circuit of constant
temperature the current is directly proportional to the voltage
and inversely proportional to the resistance. (Fig 5)
I = E / R, E = I X R and R = E / I.
Work, power, force and energy

known as potential difference. This value is less than electro Work : Is the force required to move an object in its direction
motive force. The symbol is ' V ' unit of measurement is in and said work being done.
Volts. The measuring instrument is voltmeter which should
be always connected in parallel to the circuit. Work = Force x Distance moved, W = F X S
Voltmeter (Fig 4) : The connection of voltmeter is shown Work is measured in unit of Joules or Newton meter.
in the figure. Joule : If one Newton force is acted on an object to move
1KV = 1000V = 1 X 10³ V a distance of one meter then the work done is one joule
1 joule = 1 NM = 17 to the power of 7 ergs. 9.8 joules = 1
M Kg
Newton is the scientist who discovered gravitational force.
SUM : Calculate the work to be done if 50 Newton force is
applies to move an object to a distance of 500 millimeter.
p
W = F X S where F is the force S is the distance moved
and W is the work done
So W = 50 X 500 = 25000 Newton millimeter. 1000 Newton
milli meter = 1 Newton M which is 25000 / 1000 = 25 N M
or 25 joules.
Power (Fig 6) : Power is the quantity of work done in one
minute.
P = W / T where P is the power, W is the work done and
T is the time taken. Hence one Joule work done in one
minute is denoted by letter P. In an Electronics circuit if
one amp is applied between two points of 1 volt potential
difference then the power consumed in the circuit is
1watt.Power (P) = Voltage(V) X Current (I) or in short P =
V X I.
Horse power : The power consumed by any Electronics
machinery is specified in unit horse power or HP Thus 1
HP = 746 Watts or 0.746 KW.
1 milli volt = 1 / 1000 = 1 x 10-3 Efficiency : The ratio between the output power to the
1 micro volt = 1 / 1000000 = 1 x 10 . -6
input power is called efficiency. Percentage efficiency can or accidental path. Example a storm damaging a power
be expressed as (output power / input power) x 100. line and cutting off electricity. Short circuit usually takes
place when live wire touches ground.
Energy : Energy is defined as the power consumed in a

load in one hour. Energy is measured in the unit of Kilo
watt hour KWH. ENERGY = POWER X TIME. E = P X T.
Electronics circuit : It is the path for circulating Electronics
current. An Electronics circuit includes a source for power
such as battery or generator, resistors, inductors,
capacitors, diodes and switching transistors.
Closed circuit (Fig 7) : As shown in the figure a closed
circuit is a one where the current flow completes without
interruption.
Open circuit (Fig 8) : As in figure if the switch is in OFF
position or the load is disconnected or there is discontinuity
in the conductor then the circuit is in open condition. As shown in figure the two ends of supply is connected
before the load and short circuit occurs.
Short circuit (Fig 9): It is a connection established in an
Electronics circuit so that the current flows in an unplanned
Sl. No Alternative current (AC) Direct current (DC)

1 AC Circuit has no polarity. Frequency is DC circuit has polarity of +ve and -ve. The frequency
50 or 60Hz is always zero.
2 Voltage can be stepped up or down by using Voltage cannot be varied.
transformers.
3 Transmission cost is less. Transmission cost is high.
4 Maintenance expense is less. Maintenance expense is high.
5 Power factor ranging from zero to unity. Power factor is always unity.
6 AC supply has been generated by generators DC supply has been generated by batteries.
Conductors : Materials having low resistance to current 5 Capable of having the property to join or solder.
flow is called conductors. Example: Silver, copper, 6 Should have good ductility to draw wires of long length
aluminum etc.
Types of conductors and their properties
Character of a good conductor.
1 Silver : Silver has less specific resistance and good
1 Less specific resistance conductivity of 98%.Since the cost of the metal is high
2 Capacity to have good conductivity it is mainly used in Electronics instrument starters and
the contact tip of relays.
3 Should not be affected by heat for conductivity
4 Should have good strength
2 Copper: Copper has a good conductivity of electricity. sheets. Having conductivity of 60%. Care should be
Long wires can be drawn and flattened to a sheet. taken while using aluminum wires. Widely used in
Simple connection can be made. It is rust free having underground cables, overhead lines and industrial motor
a long life. Used in armature, field winding, instrument connection.
coils.
3 Aluminum: Aluminum has less weight and can be
drawn into lengthy wires and can be flattened into
Comparison of copper and aluminium

Sl.No. Property Copper Aluminium
1 Density 8.93 Kg / cm³ 2.75 Kg / cm³
2 Colour Reddish brown White
3 Stress 220 Nm /mm² 70 Nm /mm²
4 Conductivity 50 ohms /m 5 ohms / meter
5 Melting point 1083ºC 66ºC
Types of conductors Properties of insulator

1 Bare conductor 1 Specific resistance is more.
2 Insulated conductor 2 Easily flexible in nature
3 Solid conductor and 3 More die-electric strength
4 Strandard conductor 4 Easily melting quality
Bare conductor: It has no insulation over the surface. 5 More mechanical strength
Mainly used in earthing, overhead transmission lines.
6 Withstand heat
Insulated conductor: As the names implies there is
7 Water resistance and
insulating material over the surface. Nonconductive material
resistant to the electric current surround the cable inside 8 Not affected by ambient temperature.
forms protection against weather and short circuits, Types of insulators and its uses
Solid conductors: Solid conductor consist of solid center Mica: Mica has more die-electric strength and specific
heavier core metal. It is used for outdoor use where more resistance. Resist high temperature and normally used in
durability and higher current carrying capacity is required. electric iron box, and commutator as insulator.
Stranded conductors: These are thin, bundled wires are Asbestos: Asbestos are resistant to heat, fire, chemical
compressed and insulated with bon conductive outer layer. and biological degradation. Asbestos has more die-
Stranded wire is more flexible. Making it ideal for connecting electric strength. It is available in the form of sleeve, tape,
electronic components on a board. rope, and circular shape. Asbestos were used in circuit
breakers and Electronics iron box.
Insulator : An electric insulator is a material in which
electric current does not flow. The atoms of the insulator Poly vinyl chloride (PVC): PVC is less rigid, high impact
having electrons tightly bound which cannot move easily. strength, can easily extruded and moulded and has lower
It has two main properties of die-electric strength and temperature resistance. Used as insulating sheath around
insulation property. wires and cables.
Die electric strength : The die-electric strength of an Glass: It is transparent and resist high temperature. Used
insulating material is its Electronics strength. Under the in electric bulbs, tube lights and mercury arc rectifier.
strong electric field the insulating properties of an insulator
Rubber: Pure rubber is soft in nature. It is water resilient
breakdown allowing flow of charge. Its unit is KW /mm.
and resistant to alkalis and acids. Hard rubber can be
Die-electric voltage is the voltage under which the insulator
manufactured by mixing sulphur, zinc oxide and red lead.
breaks down its insulating property.
Used as an insulator in Electronics supply.
Insulation resistance : The alternating current resistance
Wires : Solid conductors which has uniform diameter and
between two Electronics conductors or two system of
circular cross section and withstand pulling force are called
conductors separated by an insulating medium. The
Electronics wire.
insulation resistance is measured by Megger, Ohm meter
and Insulation tester. Cable : It is an assembly of one or more Electronics
conductor held together with an overall insulating sheath.
Standard wire gauge 21 0.81 0.032 31 0.29 0.0116
Measurement of cable: Cables are denoted by their 22 0.71 0.028 32 0.27 0.0108
gauge numbers. Diameter of the cable is measured by
micrometer. The cross sectional area is calculated by 23 0.61 0.024 33 0.25 0.0100
diameter of the wire. 24 0.56 0.022 34 0.23 0.0092
Standard wire gauge is used to measure the thickness of 25 0.51 0.020 35 0.21 0.0084
electric wire. The gauge is made of steel. A circular steel
plate having slots on it circumference. Each hole slot 26 0.46 0.018 36 0.19 0.0076
corresponds to a gauge number which is written below 27 0.42 0.0164 37 0.17 0.0068
the slot. The gauge number specify the diameter and cross
sectional area of the wire. The slot size around the gauge 28 0.38 0.0148 38 0.15 0.0060
varies from 0.0076" to 0.324"(0.19mm to 8.23mm). The 29 0.34 0.0136 39 0.13 0.0052
largest slot will have the number zero inscribed below it.
The number below the slot goes from zero to 36. For 30 0.31 0.0124 40 0.12 0.0048
example if we want to know the gauge of the wire, it is
inserted into the slot correctly fitted and the numerical Earthing : In Electronics wiring work safety from
value below the slot denotes the gauge of the wire. (Fig 1) electrocution should be important. For this Earthing plays
an important role. An electrode is buried under the earth
to a depth of 2.5 meters. An attached conductor from the
electrode is taken which is having zero volt.
Purpose of earthing
1 When leakage of current from machinery and
Electronics apparatus happens, it is dangerous to touch
them by human and other living things. Earthing protect
this.
2 When thunder and lightning struck during rainy
seasons, large amount of Electronics discharge pass
through tall buildings and transmission line earthing
wire conduct this discharge to the ground.
3 To maintain a stabilized line voltage earthing should be
done.
The metal parts of the Electronics appliances should be
7/2.24 gauge means it is a seven strand wire and each properly earthed. This will ensure the leakage current to
strands diameter equal to 2.24mm and cross sectional pass through low resistance earth wire to the ground.
area is 4mm². Total cross sectional area of seven strands Further the protective fuse in the supply will melt and
are 25mm². isolate the circuit from main power source. When
The table below shows the gauge number for which the earthing is done properly in a machine and if the leakage
size in inch and cross sectional area in mm² is mentioned. current passes through the human body it reaches the
In the other table the multi strand wire cross sectional earth. The amount of leakage current a human body can
area of copper and aluminum wire for which the current withstand is 5 mA only and above this level it will be fatal.
carrying capacity is denoted. Type of earthing
SWG mm inch 10 3.25 0.128 1 System earthing : In order to safe guard the
No. Electronics system, a good earthing is provided to
11 2.95 0.116 ensure the potential of each conductor restrict to its
0 8.23 0.324
12 2.64 0.104 desired value for insulation. System earthing should
1 7.62 0.300 be done in Generating station and Sub stations.
13 2.34 0.092
2 7.01 0.276 2 Equipment earthing : As the name suggest the metal
14 2.03 0.080 portion of the equipment should be connected to earth
3 6.40 0.252 a conductor. This will safe guard the equipment and
15 1.83 0.072
4 5.89 0.234 persons working on it.
16 1.63 0.064 Note:
5 5.38 0.212
17 1.42 0.056 1 The earthing wire should of large diameter,
6 4.88 0.192 less resistance and at zero volt.
18 1.22 0.048
7 4.47 0.176 2 Greenish yellow insulation sleeve over the
19 1.02 0.040
8 4.06 0.160 earhing conductor is used. The earthing
20 0.91 0.036 tube should be painted in orange color.
9 3.66 0.144
Good earthing : The conductor which has less resistance 11 Functional insulation: The insulation required for
and conduct large leakage current should be used in a function of the Electronics appliances and basic safety
good earthing system. The value of the earth resistance is against shock is known as functional insulation.
3 ohms, on a rocky place it should be 8 ohms. In a good
12 Reinforced insulation: Like functional insulation,
earthing the conductor resistance should be one ohm.
reinforced insulation will have more doubled insulation
Terminology and safety.
1 Earth: The earth electrode is connected with the earth On touching the metal portion of an appliance which is not
is called earthing and if any objects connected to the earthed. (Fig 7)
earth electrode then these objects are termed as
As shown in figure when the insulation of the wire in an
earthed.
appliance breakdown, the live wire will get in touch with
2 Earth electrode: The metal plates and pipes the metal body. When 240V supply exist and the metal
connected to the mass of the earth is called earth part having 800 ohms resistive value and when one touches
electrode. it he will get 240milliamp or 0.3Amp resulting electrocution.
It should be noted that the rating of fuse is 5A which is not
3 Earth continuity conductor: The conductor which join
sufficient to blow by 300milli amp current.
the earth electrode and the metal parts of the appliances
is termed as earth continuity conductor. On touching the metal portion of an appliance which is
earthed. (Fig 8)
Size of the earthing conductor (ECC)
As shown in the figure the metal portion of the appliance
Smallest For copper 1.5mm2 and aluminium
get in touch with the live wire, then large amount of leakage
value 2.5mm2
current will flow to earth. For example the total resistance
Largest For copper 70mm2 and aluminium in series of metal portion of appliance, main cable, ECC
value 120mm2 wire and earth mass will be 8 ohms. The applied voltage is
In an Electronics circuit if the value of the current equals 240V and the leakage current will be 30Amps. With 5Amp
to 15,20,30 and 60 Amps then the ECC copper fuse installed this 30Amp current will be six time higher
conductor should have 14,12,10 and 8 SWG. and will blow the fuse. For this reason the person will be
safe from shock in an earthed system.
4 Earth current: The value of the earth leakage current
is known as earth current.
5 Earth fault: When an Electronics conductor by
accident get in touch with the ground then the fault
occurs in the system is termed as Earth fault.
6 Earth terminal: In Electronics appliances terminal will
be provided to join the earth wire.
7 Fault current: Due to defective insulation in conductors
current will pass adjacent to the conductors or from
conductor to earth is termed as Fault current .
8 Leakage: Due to low insulation of the conductor the
current will flow to other places
9 Leakage current: Due to low insulation or short circuit
low fault current flow is called leakage current.
10 Live: Between an object and earth if potential difference
exist then current will flow .
Electronics symbols
1 AC (Alternating current) 5 Neutral
2 DC (Direct current)
6 Phase
3 Positive 7 Neutral link
8 Main board without switch

4 Negative
9 Main board with switch 29 Variable capacitor
10 Distribution board without switch 30 Electrolytic capacitor
11 Distribution board with switch 31 Cell
12 Main fuse board without switch 32 Battery
13 Main fuse board with switch 33 Ammeter AC,DC,AC/DC
34 Voltmeter AC,DC,AC/DC
14 Distribution fuse board without switch
35 Watt meter
15 Distribution fuse board with switch
36 Ohm meter
16 Main switch (Power)
37 Multi meter
17 Main switch (lighting)
38 Phase indicator meter

18 Single pole single throw switch
(SPST)
19 Single pole double throw switch 39 Power factor meter

(SPDT)
20 Double pole single throw switch

(DPST) 40 Frequency meter
21 Double pole double throw switch

(DPDT)
41 Galvano meter
22 Two way switch

42 Energy meter
23 Single phase 50HZ alternating current
43 Generator, DC generator,
24 Three phase 50HZ alternating current
AC generator
25 Resistor 44 Ceiling fan
26 Impedence 45 Fuse
27 Inductor
46 Fuse with supply side indication
28 Capacitor 47 Wiring
48 Surface wiring
53 Earth flare
49 Under surface wiring

54 Earth test point
50 Surface conduit wiring
51 Conduit consealed wiring

55 Main transformer
52 Earth
56 Auto transformer
Multi meter, resistor, soldering and desoldering

• explain the method of using multi meter
• explain to calculate resistance value by color code
• describe the method soldering and de-soldering and type of soldering iron.
Multi meter separate jack for the measurement up to DC 10Amp
with +10 and -10 jack.
Multi meter is used to measure AC/DC current, voltage
and value of resistors. This instrument is also called as vi For measuring resistors the mode should be on DC.
VOM meter (Volt, ohm and milli ammeter).
vii For the measurement of AC parameter, a rectified AC
Types of multi meter is given to the moving system. By using the rectifier
the sensitivity in AC mode will be 5000 ohms / V
1 Analogue Multi meter (Fig 1)
viii Initially select the high range of measurement if we
don't know the range.
ix Step by step change the selector range to measure
the exact parameter.
x The tolerance in reading will be 3% if the pointer is in
extreme position, 6% when the pointer is at middle
portion and 12% when the pointer is at 1/4 portion of
scale. So it is very important to select the range.
xi For all DC measurements give supply after connecting
the leads. Similarly leads should be taken out after the
supply is disconnected.
xii For measuring electrolytic capacitor discharge the
capacitor before measuring.
xiii Zero adjustment should be done by shorting the leads.
i These are old ordinary type of multi meter. Use of Multi meter
ii Two types of meter as selector type and multi plug 1 To check the continuity of circuit and the apparatus
type available. connected.
iii This meter has a moving arrangement and a pointer 2 To check the supply availability at the source and its
moves over a graduated scale of parameters like value.
voltage, amps and ohmic value.
3 To check the continuity of measuring instruments, its
iv While using in DC circuit polarity has to be checked. resistance & voltage.
v When measuring 1000V DC using separate jack the 4 To measure the value of current
selector switch should be in 500V position. Use
5 Checking the Electronics appliances resistive power. show as 2.00 of 3 digit only. All the seven segments will
be connected to a supply.
6 To check the capacitors, resistors, diodes and
Transistors. Resistors : These are passive components in a circuit.
Manufactured in specific values. Used to limit the current
Precaution to be taken while using Multi meter
and to have voltage drop in the circuit. These are from 0.1
1 While on supply never use resistors for measurement. watts to hundreds of watts power resistors in use.
2 While measuring the current never use the test lead in Type of resistors
parallel to supply.
a Wire wound resistors b Carbon resistors
3 Don't use more than the selected range.
c Metal film resistors d Carbon film resistors
4 If the test leads were damaged in insulation then use
1 Wire wound Resistor (Fig 3): In wire wound resistor
new leads.
compressed insulating paper of ceramic, porcelain or
5 Alter the testing is over remove the red lead first and Bakelite will be used. Nicrome wires were wounded on
then the black lead. the ceramic former. Normally these are from 1 watt to
2 Electronic Multi meter (Digital type): Active and more than100 watts. The resistive value will be from 1
passive components are there in the circuit. Available ohm to several thousand ohms. In this type of resistors
in the range of a) Selector switch type b) Auto ranging when more than the specified current passes then the
type and c) LCD wire will break down resulting open circuit.
Digital multimeter (Fig 2) : The display used in this meter

is either LCD (Liquid crystal display) or LED (Light emitting
diode). Display is by four digit with a decimal point. When
measuring DC polarity symbol is there on left side of the
digit. Seven segment display feature is made in both LCD
and LED. Last three digit will be from 0 to 9 and first digit
1 only. 2 Carbon resistor (Fig 4) : These carbon resistors were
made of pure carbon or mixture of carbon. These
resistors will have leads on both ends as shown in
fig.These type of resistors are having 1 ohm to 22 mega
ohms and power capacity as 0.1 to 2 watts.
3 Metal film resistor (Fig 5): These resistors are

manufactured by slim to fat films. From 1 ohm to 10
mega ohm capacity is available. Power is only 1 watt.
Temperature ranging 120ºc to 175 ºc will withstand in
this type. PTC and NTC resistors were used for
switching purpose on specified temperature.
4 Carbon film resistor(Fig 6): On a ceramic tube thin

Digit Segment Digit Segment layer of carbon is deposited. It will with stand 85 to 155
ºc. Available from 1 ohm to 1 mega ohm range. Power
1 BC 6 FGECD
dissipation is only 1 watt.
2 ABGED 7 ABC
3 ABGCD 8 ABCDEFG
4 FGBC 9 ABGFC
5 AFGCD 0 ABCDEF
0.999 will be shown as .999. For 0.001 increase will show

as 1.000. Similarly from 1.999 an increase of 0.001 will
Classification of resistor with their function Resistor color coding (Fig 8) : Since the resistor is small
in size we can't print the value on the surface. For this
1 Fixed resistors : The value of resistance is fixed.
color coding is employed. There are 4/5/6 color band rings
2 Variable resistors (Fig 7): The value of the resistance over the surface. Each color represent a particular value
can be varied. The sliding contact will determine the (as given in the chart). Through this we can find the value
value of the resistor and can be varied. Another rotary of the resistor.
type is also available to vary the resistance value.
Figure shows four color bands. First two color bands

represent the first two digit of the value. Third digit is its
multiplier. That is the first two digits should be multiplied
with the third band multiplier. Fourth band is for the tolerance
to the value. For example in Fig 8 the color bands are red,
green, orange and gold and the value is determined as
below.
4 band 5 band 6 band

1st band 1st digit 1st digit 1st digit
2nd band 2nd digit 2nd digit 2nd digit
3rd band multiplier 3rd digit 3rd digit
4th band tolerance multiplier multiplier
5th band Not applicable tolerance tolerance
6th band Not applicable Not applicable Temperature coefficient
First color Second color green Third color Orange Fourth Gold
Red 2 Green 5 Orange 1000 Gold ± 5%
The value of resistor is 2x5x1000=25000 ohms. Tolerance 1K=1000 ohms, 1K6=1600 ohms, 0.1K=100 ohms,
is ±5% then the value is in between 23750 ohms to 26250 0.1M=10000 Ohms and 1M5 is 1500000 ohms. For
ohms. For large value of resistance Kilo or Mega were tolerance J ± 5%, K ± 10% and L ± 20% .
prefixed. Some resistors will have shortened print as below
Color chart table (For four band resistor)
Color 1st band/dot 2nd band/dot 3rd band/dot 4th band/dot
1st digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black -------- 0 1 ---------------
Brown 1 1 10¹ ±1%
Red 2 2 10² ±2%
Orange 3 3 10³ ±3%
Yellow 4 4 10 to power 4 ±4%
Green 5 5 10 to power 5 ±5%
Blue 6 6 10 to power 6 -----------------
Violet 7 7 10 to power 7 -----------------
Grey 8 8 10 to power 8 -----------------
White 9 9 10 to power 9 -----------------
Gold ----------------- ----------------- 10 to power-1 ±5%
Silver ----------------- ----------------- 10 to power-2 ±10%
None ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ±20%
Soldering
• explain about soldering .
Soldering : Soldering is a process used for joining metal Soldering procedure
parts to form a mechanical or Electronics bond. It uses a
1 Remove the insulation from the cable to be joined.
low melting point metal alloy which is melted and applied
Brush and clean the tip of the cables and prepare for
to the metal parts.
the joint.
Solder : Tin and lead were used in different ratio to form
2 Brush a small amount of flux on the tip of the cables.
an alloy.
3 The surface of the cable should brushed with flux till it
Soldering kit (Fig 1)
is shining. Remove excess flux and wipe the surface
with clean cloth.
4 Insert the tinned tip of the conductor to the lug and
solder it.
5 Clean the lug surface with clean cloth.
Safety and precaution while doing soldering
1 The element of the soldering iron should be carefully
cleaned.
2 Before heating the solder flux should be applied.
3 Don't touch the element of the soldering iron while in
use.
4 Turn the unit off after soldering or not in use.
5 Always put the soldering iron on its stand and never
put this on work bench.
6 Avoid breathing fluoride fumes while soldering.
Types of soldering
Types Mix of metals Temperature Type of flux Metal to join
Tin Man Tin 50% 392ºF or Zinc chloride Bronze, Copper,
Lead 50% 200ºC iron and steel
Electricians solder Tin 60% 365ºF or Resin Tinning. soldering,
Lead 40% 185ºC Electronics joints
Fine Tin 90% 426ºF or Tallow Tinning, Electronics
Lead 10% 219ºC joints
Necessity of Flux: When the metals to be soldered heated Also classified under wattage use as light duty (5W to
in the surrounding air, a thin layer of oxides forms. To 20W) and medium duty soldering iron (200W to 2400W).
remove this oxides and to make the surface clean flux is High temperature sensitive components like diode,
used. The melting point of flux is lesser than solder. For transistor and IC should be used for soldering by 5 to 25W
different types of metal soldering different flux is available. soldering iron. Similarly for low temperature sensitive
components like wire, resistor, inductor and capacitor can
Type of flux: For copper and its alloy metals Resin flux
be soldered with 25 to 60 watts soldering iron. The bit
is used. For aluminum metals aluminum flux or Eyre No 7
portion of the soldering iron will be either screw or block
flux is used. For E-Mild steel zinc chloride flux is used.
type. These bits are made of either with copper or copper
Diluted hydro chloride flux is used for G.I sheets.
plated with iron. These bits are available in different shapes
Types of soldering iron : We differential soldering iron as shown in figure 2.
for Electronics works and non-Electronics works. For non- 1 Round, 2 Round bevel,
Electronics iron soldering tip used for soldering. For
3 Pyramid, 4 Conical with bevel tip
soldering cable, pipe and automobile metal parts were
heated with blow lamps and then soldered. In an 5 Chisel.
Electronics iron the soldering bit heated by an element. Component like resistor, inductor and capacitors were used
This is classified as per voltage for light duty soldering with chisel tip iron. It is good to have the same width of
iron (6, 12, 24, 50 and 110V) and 230V soldering iron. component surface to the bit. If the length of the bit is
longer it is easy for soldering. Short tip will have low
temperature on tip of bit. Long usage of the bit will
undergo wear and tear. We have to file the tip of the bit.
To avoid wear and tear of the tip should be cleaned with
wire brush and placed on sponge pad.
Tinning : The technique of making a thin layer of solder

over the surface or dipping method is known as tinning.
Soldering stages
1 Before soldering take the required amount of solder
and flux
2 Heating the joints: After applying enough solder keep
the tip for 3 to 65 seconds. Doing this the flux will
attain the temperature of the solder and unwanted vapor
will go away resulting good soldered joint.
3 Cooling the joints: While doing soldering the joining
position should not undergo any change until the solder
solidified. Otherwise the joint will be weak and called
as cold or dry joint.
4 Cleaning the joints: After soldering the excess flux
around the joints should be removed. Otherwise the
corrosive nature of the flux will damage the component
and the board. Moreover dust will settle on this joints
and make the circuit inoperative. To remove the excess
flux we used many solvent. One of the solvent is ISO
Propyl alcohol. Apply this dilutes solvent where the
flux has to be removed. Then remove the dissolved flux
by ordinary strip brush.
Desoldering : Sometime we have to remove a component
from the circuitry. This is done by heating the soldered
joint and removing the component. This process is called
De- soldering. This is the simplest process of removing
wires and components from the soldered area. For de-
soldering we use de-soldering pump or plunger and wicking
tool.(Fig 3&4). Refer fig 3 this tool has been used widely.
This works on the suction principle. In fig 4 the plunger
has to be inserted fully till the button locks. This tool is
known as cocking tool.
Heat the place where de-soldering to be done. Place the
nozzle and press the button. Now pull the plunger and the
molten solder will be collected as shown in fig 5. We have
to repeat this process some more time until all the solder
were collected. As shown in fig 6 the solder on the nozzle
should be cleaned for the next time use.
Wicking Braid: Another de-soldering tool as shown in fig
7&8.
Ohm’s law and Kirchoff’s law, cells and batteries
• explain Ohm's and Kirchoff's law
• explain series and parallel connections
• explain types of primary cells, its usage and how it works
• explain secondary cells maintenance and how it works.
Ohm's Law : Ohm's law states' For constant temperature no loss in current. The current towards the point is marked
in a closed Electronics circuit, the voltage between any as + and leaving the point is marked as -. Now I1+ I2- I3 =
two points is directly proportional to the current passing 0.
through it and inversely proportional to the resistance of
Σ in= Σ out
the circuit. I=V/R. (Figs 1 & 2)
For example as in Fig 4 the current towards the junction

equals to current away from.
1 Kirchoff's first Law (or) current law (or) point law

(refer Fig 3)
The law says the total current entering a point or node in a
circuit equals to the total current leaving the point provided
I1 + I3 +I4 - I2 - I5 = 0 Application: Used for serial light set, connecting cells in
a car battery, and batteries in a torch cell.
I1 + I3 + I4 = I2 - I5
Open in a series circuit: In a circuit as shown in Fig 7,
Σ in= Σ out
when a voltage is applied and if an ammeter connected in
10A+ 2.5A+ 5A = 6A + X series shows zero reading then we can ensure it is in
7.5A = 6A + X open circuit. In open circuit nothing will work. There won't
be any voltage drop across the resistor. But if you connect
6A + X = 17.5A a volt meter between the open point and one end of source
X = 17.5 - 6A supply then the voltmeter will show the supply voltage.
Like that if we disconnect the source supply and connect
X = 11.5A an ammeter in series then the reading of the ammeter is
2 Kirchoff's second law (or) voltage law (or) mesh infinite.
law (Fig 5)
Reason for open circuit: There is no contact with source

terminal, breakage in wire, burned out resistance and
blowned fuse.
DC parallel circuit (Fig 8)
The voltage around a loop circuit equals to the sum of the

every voltage drop in the same loop will always be zero.
Thus V=IR1+IR2+IR3 =ΣV = 0
Types of circuit : Type of the circuit is by the way the
resistance is included in the circuit.
1 DC series circuit (Fig 6)
All the resistors will be connected in parallel. That is each

beginning point of resistors were connected in series and
connected to one end of source. Similarly the second
end of all resistors were connected in series and connected
to the other end of the source. Supply is given between
the two end of source.
In this circuit supply is given on both ends of each
resistors and value is same.
More than one resistor were joined in series. In this one Current in each resistor is inversely depends on its value.
end portion join with the second beginning portion. Now I1=V/R1, I2=V/R2 and I3=V/R3. The total current passing
supply will be given to the first begin end of the resistor to through the circuit is equal to the sum of all current
the last end of the final resistor. passing through the resistor. IT=I1+I2+I3.
1 Total resistance value is R1+R2+R3 To calculate the total resistance of the circuit I/RT=I/R1+
I/R2+I/R3.
2 Voltage drop across each resistors with constant
current is V1= IR1, V2=IR2 and V3=IR3. If the parallel connected resistors were of equal value then
the total resistance will be equal to 1/3R.
3 The total of V1+V2+V3 will be equal to the source supply.
The total resistance in a parallel circuit will be lesser than
4 The current will be same since all the resistors are the least resistance connected.
connected in series.
Short in a parallel circuit: As in Fig 9 if a short occurs
5 If any break occurs in the circuit then no current will between the points X&Y, then the total resistance of the
flow. circuit is zero and the circulating current will be high. To
avoid this, a fuse or a circuit breaker (MCB) should be this two electrodes were connected to an external load, a
connected. If R3 alone shorted then it should be understood chemical reaction takes place. Due to this Electronics
R1&R2 too shorted. If in any one of the branch is shorted current will pass through the load. This system of two
then it should be presumed all branches are shorted. electrodes in an electrolytic substance is called a cell.
Group of cells connected in series formation is known as
battery.
Types of cells
1 Primary cells and
2 Secondary cells.
Cells
Primary Cells Secondary cells

Voltanic cell Lead acid cell
Laclanche cell Nickel ron cell
Daniel cell
Mercury cell
Application
Silver cell
1 The load in each branch of the parallel circuit can be
controlled. Alkaline cell
2 From a single supply source lot of loads can be Lithium cell

connected. Primary cells: A primary cell is a cell that is designed to
3 DC series parallel circuit be used once and discarded, and not recharged with
electricity and reused like a secondary cell. In general,
Cell and batteries the electrochemical reaction occurring in the cell is not
Introduction : When an Electronics current passes reversible, and so these cells cannot be recharged. For
through an electrolyte, chemical reaction happens. This example. Dry cells used in radio, wall clock and calculators.
process is known as electrolysis and used for electro Secondary cells: A secondary cell or battery is one that
plating, block making, battery charging and for the can be Electronicsly recharged after use to their original
separation of metals. pre-discharge condition, by passing current through the
EMF generation due to chemical reaction : If two circuit in the opposite direction to the current during
electrodes for example carbon and zinc were placed in a discharge Example lead acid cell, Nical cadmium cell,
jar containing a solution of water and sulphuric acid. If and Nical iron cell.
Primary cells Secondary cells

The chemicals used in this cell will produce The chemicals used in these cell will produce chemical
chemical reaction on its own and when load is reaction and the current produced will be stored
connected current flows
After discharge this cell can't be used. After discharge this cell can recharged and can be used.
This cell has low AH capacity AH capacity is large.
No maintenance required Lot of maintenance is required
Less weight More weight
Very low internal resistance Low internal resistance
Short life Long life
Average terminal voltage is 1.5V Average terminal voltage is 2V
Describe Voltaic cell and explain its action (Fig 10) will happen inside the jar and this will produce a current
As shown in figure 10 a copper and a zinc plate were and glow the bulb. First SO4 will reach in zinc electrode
placed inside a glass jar without touching each other. and turns to zinc sulphate ZNSO4. Hydrogen H2 will reach
The jar is filled with an electrolyte of diluted sulphuric the copper electrode and becomes neutral. Hydrogen gas
acid. If we connect a voltmeter in between the plates, has emanated and rest of Hydrogen forms on the copper
voltage indicates an EMF has been generated. If we plate. Zn+H2SO4 reacts to ZNSO4+H2. Inside the cell the
connect a bulb as shown in Fig 10, a chemical reaction current passes through copper plate and then to bulb.
The copper plate acts as cathode and zinc plate as anode. cell. This cell is more advantageous over dry cell. For
The EMF is 1.1V. example a D type alkaline cell 1.5V capacity has 8 Ah
than dry cell of 2Ah of same capacity. The life of the alkaline
cell is 2 to 3 years and dry cell is 1.5 .
Grouping of cells
Cells in series (Fig 12)
Describe Daniel cell and explain its action

A Daniel cell is a best example of galvanic cell. It consist When the cells are connected in series then the total
of two electrodes of copper and mercury layered zinc. voltage E is the sum of the individual voltages as
Each electrode is immersed on its own electrolyte of E=E1+E2+E3+……….. Internal resistance given by the
copper sulphate and zinc sulphate respectively in a porous sum of their individual internal resistance as given by
vessel. The zinc rod acts as negative electrode and copper r=r1+r2+r3+…….. For n number of same voltage cell total
as positive electrode. When we join the two electrodes cell voltage =n x V volts and total internal resistor = n x r
with wire to a bulb then current will flow. The hydrogen ohms. If this cell is connected to an external load of
flow from the porous vessel to copper plate will oxidized. resistance R then total resistance = R+nr ohms.
ZN+H2SO4 --- ZNSO4+H2 and H2+CuSO4---- I = Total EMF / Total Resistance = NE / R+nr amps. For
H2SO4+Cu. Due to this polarization is restricted.. The maximum current total internal resistance should be small
EMF generated is 1.1V. The internal resistance is 2 ohms. than the external resistance.
This cell is used in laboratories to have stabilized current.
Cells in parallel (Fig 13)
Dry cell (Fig 11)
As shown in figure when 'm' of similar cells of EMF 'E'
and internal resistance of 'r' are connected in parallel
As in Fig 11 the outer shell is made of zinc sheets which

acts as negative electrode. In center the carbon rod is Total internal resistance = r / m ohms
placed which acts as positive electrode. Around the Total external resistance = R ohms and Total EMF = E
carbon rod ammonium chloride in paste form is placed. Volts.
This acts as electrolyte. The paste should be wet then
only chemical reaction takes place and that's why zinc Hence total resistance of the circuit = R+r/m ohms
chloride is used. The top of the cell is sealed with tar. On Total current in the circuit is E / (R+r/m) . For maximum
top there is metal cap which is positive and the bottom is current the external resistor should be small than the
negative terminal. The EMF of dry cell is 1.5V, internal internal resistance.
resistance is 0.4 to 0.5 ohm. Three sizes of dry battery
were available in market as AA, C and D.( AA Pen type, C Example: 1) 5 cells of 1.5V each having 0.3 ohms
medium size and D large economy size). resistance is connected in series and connected to an
external resistor of 2 ohms. What will be the current in
Alkaline cell the circuit.
The construction and working principle is same as that of I = NE / (R+Nr) = (5x1.5) / (5 x 0.3)+2 = 7.5 / 3.5
dry cell. The outer portion is made of zinc sheet which
act as negative electrode. A cylindrical portion in the center = 2.14 A
which contains potassium chloride acts as Positive
electrode. The manufacturing cost is higher than the dry
Construction of lead acid battery (Fig 14) Charging and discharging of lead acid battery
1 During discharge positive ion will go to the positive
plate and negative ion to the negative plate.
2 During charging positive ion will go negative plate and
negative ion will go to positive plate.
During the beginning of discharge
Positive plate---- lead peroxide (pbo2)----dark brown color.
Negative plate-----Sponge lead (pb)----slate grey color.
Electrolyte----Diluted sulpuric acid (specific gravity 1.28
When connected to a load H2SO4 will be separated to H2
and SO4 and comes to negative plate.
As shown figure the positive plate has two type.
Pb+SO4PbSO4
1 Plante plate and
Lead + sulphate lead sulphate.
2 Faure plate
When H2 comes to the positive plate it turns to lead
Plante plate: For charging and discharging All lead pure sulphate and water is formed.
electrode is used. It will take time form this plates and
also costly. Hence these are rarely used. PbO2+H2+H2SO4PbSO4+2H2O
Faure plate: The lead plate is rectangular grid in shape During the end of discharge
having the paste of lead peroxide on it. 1 Positive and negative plate turns into lead sulphate
Negative plate: The lead plate is rectangular grid in shape which is white in color.
having the paste of spongy lead which act as active
2 Since water is produced the specific gravity of
material .There will be one additional negative plate than
electrolyte will be 1.1
the positive plate. On each side of the positive side a
negative plate is available. This will increase the strength 3 The voltage of the cell will drop from 2.2V to 1.8V.
of the positive plate both sides are used effectively. 4 The chemical energy turns into Electronics energy
Separators: In between the positive and negative plates, which has been spend.
a thin porous rubber material is placed. This rubber
separator will pass the electrolyte and act as good During the beginning of charging
insulation. When DC supply is given to the terminals of the cell,
Container: The container is made of hard rubber. H2SO4 will separate as H2 and SO4. The SO4 will comes
Electrodes are placed inside the container along with the to the positive plate and chemical reaction takes place.
separator. The container is filled with electrolyte. The PbSO4 + SO4 + 2H2O PbO2+2H2SO4
bottom portion of the container is having ribs to hold the
plates. This bottom portion is known as sediment Positive electrode turns into lead peroxide and electrolyte
chamber. When the chemical reaction takes place H2SO4 forms. When H2 comes to the negative plate,
continuously, the active materials will fall in the sediment chemical reaction takes place as
chamber. Each cell have wall so that electrolyte doesn't PbSO4 +H2-----Pb+H2SO4.
pass to the other cell. Each cell has vent plug and cover.
Negative plate turns as sponge lead and electrolyte H2SO4
Plate connector: This is made of pure lead. All positive
forms.
plates are connected together and forms a group. Likewise
negative plates are also formed as a group. During the end of charging
Post connector: This is made of lead and connected to 1 Positive plate changed to lead peroxide and negative
plate connector and brought out outside to the cell cover. plate changed intospongy lead.
Terminal marking of cell connector 2 The specific gravity of the electrolyte raised to 1.28
Terminal Marking Color Thickness Shape 3 The voltage of the cell increased from 1.8V to 2.2V.
Positive + Red Small Circle/V 4 Electronics energy changed into chemical energy and
Negative - Black/ Large Flat stored.
blue Charge +ve plate electrolyte -ve plate
These are made of lead & will be connected either in Lead peroxide Sulphuric acid Sponge lead
series or in parallel to the cell end.
Electrolyte: The electrolytes were made by the mixture
of water and sulpuric acid to the ratio of 1:3 and the specific discharge Lead sulphate Water Lead
gravity of 1.24 to 1.28 sulphate
Indication of fully charged battery 1 Don't keep the batteries on discharge for long time
1 Color of the plates: On full charged battery positive 2 The acid level should be maintained above the
plate will be dark brown and negative plate will be slate electrodes.
grey.
3 Add distilled water when the level of electrolyte is below
2 Specific gravity: The specific gravity will be 1.6 the electrodes.
3 Emanation of gases: Hydrogen and Oxygen gases 4 The speed of charge and discharge should be
were produced and emanated as water bubbles. maintained.
4 Voltage of the cell: On full charge it will be 2.6 V 5 While on charging gas will be released and proper vents
while on full discharge 1.8 to 1.6V. should be provided.
By referring to fig 15 circuit, we can find the voltage with 6 When preparing electrolytes water should not added
load and voltage without load. By the switch in closed to the acid instead drop by drop acid should be added
position we can see on load voltage and in open position to the water.
we can see off load voltage shown in voltmeter.
7 The batteries should be clamped rigidly in automobiles.
8 Frequently check the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
9 Don't bring flame near the charging station.
10 Smear Vaseline instead grease on to the terminal.
Precaution while charging
1 The temperature of the battery should not exceed 45°.
The internal resistance of the cell
2 Don't use any tools in the charging circuit without switch
While the load is applied to the electrodes the current not off position.
only passes through the load but also passes through the
electrolyte and completes the circuit. The resistance offered 3 Don't disturb the connections while on charging.
to the current flow inside the cell is known as internal 4 Care should be taken not to spill acid on clothes.
resistance of the cell. Internal resistance depends on Ammonium solution should be used for the spill in
electrolyte, the distance between the plates and the clothes.
surface area of the electrodes. The voltage drop occurs
inside the cell depends on the current generated. 5 Use only DC source for charging.
Precautions to be observed in the maintenance of 6 Check the polarity of the both DC source and battery
batteries terminal for correct connection.
For long life and good operation of the battery the following 7 The DC source voltage should be greater than the battery
warnings to be considered. voltage.
8 The battery should be placed in a well ventilated place.
Type of switches and magnetism

• explaining switch and switch types
• explain magnetism
• explaining magnetic compass.
Switch and its types : Switch is used in an Electronics Double pole single throw (DPST) (Fig 3) : This switch
circuit to break the current flow or to make the current has four different terminals and is often used to connect
flow. There are basically four type of switches. two source terminals to their respective output terminals
1 Single pole single throw (SPST) (but never to each other). A DPST switch can be used in
2 Single pole double throw (SPDT) an "ON/OFF" configuration, where its terminal pairs are
3 Double pole single throw (DPST) and either connected ("ON") or not connected ("OFF")
4 Double pole double throw (DPDT). Double pole double throw (DPDT). (Fig 4) : This switch
is a switch that has 2 inputs and 4 outputs; each input
Single pole single throw (SPST) (Fig 1) : This switch
has 2 corresponding outputs that it can connect to. Each
has two terminals and used in industries widely. Low effort
of the terminals of a double pole double switch can either
is required to operate this switch. The rating of 6A, 16A of
be in 1 of 2 positions. This makes the double pole double
250V were available.
throw switch a very versatile switch. This switch is the
Single pole double throw (SPDT) (Fig 2) : This switch
combination of two SDPT switch and used to control the
has three terminals. This switch is used in the circuit to
motor rotation in two direction.
control flow in two different paths.
Magnetism and electro magnetism
Magnetite is an iron ore available in nature. It has the
capacity to attract certain other metals.
Classification of Magnets
1 Natural magnets: The magnetite mineral Lodestone
available in nature has got special magnetizing property
than other magnetite materials. It will show the North
and South poles.
2 Artificial Magnets: Metals having Iron or Iron alloys
display magnetic properties by induction of electric
current. These are called artificial magnets. There are
two types of artificial magnets in use.
i Permanent magnet: Iron, nickel, alnico, tungsten
steel and cobalt steel can be used for the production
of permanent magnet. As shown in fig 5 the shape
of these magnet varies as horse shoe, ring, bar and
cylinder.
ii Electro magnet: (Fig 6) Metals such as soft steel,

silicon steel are used. Over this copper coils are
formed. When an electric current passes through
this setup, the metal acts as magnet.
Advantages of electro magnetism

1 By passing electric current can change to magnetism
2 By reversing the direction of current flow the polarity of
the magnet can be changed.
3 By controlling the current flow we can control the
magnetic force.
4 Magnet can be made to the desired shape.
5 We can retain the magnetic force (without any change)
as long as we desire.
Differences between Electro magnet and permanent magnet
Sl.No Electro magnet Permanent magnet
1 Easy polarity change No polarity change
2 Magnetic pole strength can be changed Magnetic pole strength can't be changed
3 Used in small and big motors and generators. Used in very small motors.
4 Heavy weight can be lifted and can be hold No lifting of weights
5 Used in generators, measuring instruments, Used in cycles dynamo and small toys.
protective relays, lifts, bell and buzzers
6 High cost Low cost
7 Can't be used for direction in compass Is used in compass to find direction
Methods of Magnetization
1 Touch method
2 By means of electric current
3 By induction method.
Touch method (Fig 7)
By means of electric current : Wind a copper conductor

on iron core and when a DC current passes through the
coil, the iron core turns into electromagnet. Now place the
steel bar which is to be magnetized near the iron core.
Due to induction the steel bar now magnetized.
The steel bar which has to be magnetized is placed on a Type of Magnetic materials
work bench. Now take a bar magnet and rub on the steel 1 Ferro magnetic materials
bar from one end to the other end. Repeat the same process
again and again. The steel bar will become a magnet. 2 Paramagnetic materials and
Double Touch method (Fig 8) 3 Diamagnetic materials.

Ferro magnetic materials : Iron and alloys of iron which
are easily attracted by magnets were called Ferro magnetic
materials. The magnetic permeability of this metals are
high. Example of iron, nickel, and cobalt steel are can be
given.
Paramagnetic materials : These are the metals which
are weakly attracted by magnets. Example of aluminum,
gold and copper can be given. The permeability is slightly
greater than 1.
Diamagnetic materials : Materials that are freely
Place the steel bar to be magnetized on top of the two bar magnetized when placed in the magnetic field. However,
magnets as shown. Place a wooden piece on center of the magnetization is in the direction opposite to that of
the steel bar. Now move a bar magnet from one center to the magnetic field. The magnetism that is shown by these
the end as shown. This should be done again and again materials is known as diamagnetism. For example
till the steel bar turns magnet. bismuth, glass and water can be given. The permeability
Divided touch method (Fig 9) is slightly less than 1.
Place the steel bar to be magnetized on top of the two bar Fundamental magnetic terms
magnets as shown. IN this no wooden piece is required. Magnetic poles : In a bar magnet where the magnetic
Now two magnet bar should be rubbed from center of the lines goes-in and comes-out ends are called magnetic
steel bar to the edge and again from center to the edge as poles. At the ends of the magnetic bar the field strength
shown till the steel bar turns magnet.
will be high. North pole of a magnet will have the magnetic Reluctance : In a magnet the resistive force which
lines comes out and in south poles the magnetic lines opposes the formation of magnetic line magnetic
were goes-in. reluctance. Reluctance= MMF/FLUX. & denoted by letter
S and the unit is ampere turns/weber
Magnetic Lines of force (Fig 10) : These are imaginary
lines drawn by a magnetic needle from North Pole of a Permeability : Magnetic permeability is defined as the
magnet. Lines will be very close near the ends of the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
magnet The symbol is μ.(mue). It is the ratio between the flux
density and the magnetizing force. The permeability of air
is 1
Magnetic field strength or Field intensity or magnetic
intensity
Magnetic field strength refers to the ratio of the MMF which
is required to create a certain Flux Density within a certain
material per unit length of that material. This denoted by
letter H. Its unit is in Ampere turns per meter.
Flux density : The number of magnetic lines on a unit
surface is called flux density. It is denoted by letter B Its
unit is weber per meter square called as Tesla T . Hence
flux density = Total flux / core area.
Magnetic circuit : In a bar magnet the imaginary magnetic
lines from north to south poles externally and south to Coil : The number of turns of wire wound around a core
North Pole internally in completion is called Magnetic (as of iron) to create a magnetic field for an electromagnet
circuit. or an induction coil.
Magnetic flux : Magnetic flux is a measurement of the Helix and solenoid : In a coil if the length is greater than
total magnetic field which passes through a given area.. the diameter of the coil, then it is called solenoid. If the
Its unit is in weber (Wb) and symbol Ø. One weber = 10 to diameter is greater than the length then it is called Helix.
power 8 maxwell. The solenoid is a coil of wire, and the plunger is made of
soft iron. The magnetic field is formed around the coil when
Magnetic field : The magnetic field is the area around a
an electric current passes through it and draws the plunger
magnet in which the effect of magnetism is felt.
in. We can say that the solenoid is responsible for
Magnetic axis : The straight line joining the two poles of converting Electronics energy into mechanical work.
a magnet is called the magnetic axis
Toroid : If the solenoid is made in ring form then it is
Magnetic saturation : The material which is to be called toroid.
magnetized will have the magnetic property to some extend
Properties of a Magnet
and even if we give more force the magnetic strength will
not increase. This called the saturation point of magnetism. 1 It will attract iron and metals of iron alloys.
Magnetic screening : There is no insulation for the 2 If you hang the magnet on a thread, North pole will
magnetic lines. Hence if we want to protect ourselves from looks towards north and south pole to south direction.
the magnetic lines .some type of shield or screening should 3 By the principal of induction a magnetic material placed
be done. For example, when a soft iron ring is placed in a near magnet will turns into a magnet.
magnetic field, most of the lines are found to pass through
the ring and no lines pass through the space inside the 4 Like poles will always repel and unlike poles will attract
ring. each other.
Residual magnetism : When a DC current passes 5 If you break a magnet in to pieces then each piece will
through a coil it is magnetized. If the current is stopped act as individual magnet.
the coil is no longer magnetized but it will have some 6 It will lose its magnetic properties if it is heated or
amount of magnetism. This is called residual magnetism. struck down by a hammer.
Magneto Motive Force (MMF): The force required to 7 Each poles are having same magnetic strength.
produce magnetic lines in a magnetic circuit is called
MMF. This is like the EMF, the force required to drive the 8 We can't increase the magnetic strength beyond its
electrons in a Electronics circuit. The unit is in Ampere saturation point.
turns. This depends on the current, number of turns in the Properties of magnetic lines
coil, magnetic material and the cross sectional area.
1 Magnetic lines will travel from North pole to south pole
Ampere turns : The number of turns in a coil and the externally and south pole to North pole internally.
amount of current passing through it determines ampere
turn. Thus 1 MMF equals to one ampere current passing 2 Each and every magnetic lines will be a closed one.
through a one turn coil in a vacuum.
3 Magnetic lines won't intersect with each other.
4 Magnetic lines of same pole will leave from each other.
5 These lines passes easily through magnetic materials.
6 When these magnetic lines passes through a magnetic
materials, they turn the material into magnet.
7 Magnetic lines can be visualize as a rubber ring.
Care and maintenance of permanent magnet
1 Don't strike the magnet with a hammer, apply heat on
the magnet or throw it on a hard surface. The magnet
will lose its properties either in partial or in full.
2 Store your magnets with a keeper - A keeper is a small
piece of iron that is generally added temporarily between
the north and south poles of a magnet.
3 Keep magnets in pairs to avoid both north and south
sides from touching.
4 When storing multiple magnets, keep them in a non-
ferromagnetic container
5 Keep away from dampness. While due to wetness and
rust formation, it will loose its property.
Determine the direction of magnetic field around a 2 Helix or right hand rule (Fig 15): Imagine holding a
current carrying conductor current carrying coil in your right hand. Consider the
folded fingers represent the direction of current. Now
1 By right hand grip rule (Fig 11): Consider holding a
the index finger points the North pole and the other
current carrying conductor on your right hand. The
end denotes south pole.
direction of the index finger leads to the direction of
current and the rest of folded fingers direction indicate
the magnetic line direction.
Hyseteresis loop (Fig 16) : Consider a coil wound on an

iron core. When a DC current passes through the coil
controlled by a variable resistor. By this when we increase
the current the magnetizing force is H, Flux density is B,
will increase. If we plot this on a graph paper H in x axis
and B in y axis. The line joining the plotted points will look
2 By cork screw rule (Fig 12): Consider screwing a like a closed loop and called as Hysteresis loop.
right handed thread screw in a wooden board. Direction
of the screw indicate the direction of current and the
rotational direction of screw driver indicates the direction
of magnetic lines.
3 By Ampere rule (Fig 13): Consider the current is
passing from feet to head and if we find by a magnetic
needle, the north pole of the magnetic needle will turns
to your left.
Determination of pole direction in an electro magnet
1 End rule (Fig 14): If you look one end of the coil and
assuming current passing in clockwise direction then
that end is south pole and the other end is North pole.
In the beginning the value of H and B are zero. When the
current is increased gradually value of H increases in direct
proportion to B. After a particular point if value of H increases magnetic field system must be kept stationary while the
the value of B won't increase. This is the point of saturation. conductor is moving. Alternately, the magnetic field system
This denoted as OA in the Fig 16. When we decrease can be kept moving while the conductor is kept stationary.
current the value of H and B reduces. We can notice the For example Generator. Induced EMF = BLV SINØ Volts,
rate of increase in value of B is not same as rate of decrease where B is the flux density, L is the length of the conductor,
in value. When H becomes zero B wont comes to zero V is the relative velocity between the field conductors and
but remain in value ob. This is the value of residual Ø is the angle by which the conductor cuts the magnetic
magnetism. field.
When we increase the value of H in the opposite direction Statically induced EMF: This type of EMF is generated
up to the point c then the value of B comes to zero. The by keeping the coil and the magnetic field system,
force required to remove the magnetizing force in opposite stationary at the same time; that means the change in
(oc) is called the magnetic coercive force. When H flux linking with the coil takes place without either moving
increases still further B too increases in opposite and the conductor (coil) or the field system.
attains magnetic property.(od). When H is reduced retentive
Mutual induction (Fig 17): As shown two coils were
magnetism of value oe is attained. When H is increased
placed nearby. When one coil is supplied with current the
in positive direction the magnetic deflection force "of" takes
varying magnetic field is formed. This magnetic field will
place. Lastly magnet is saturated and comes to point (a).
induce an EMF in the nearby coil. This is known as mutual
If we join the points a, b, c, d,e,f and back to a , we get a
induction. This used in transformers, induction furnace and
loop. The area of the loop determine the electromagnetic
ignition coil.
property of the metal. The force required to remove the
residual magnetic field which is magnetic coercive force
will dissipated as heat. So in large magnetic coercive force
materials large power loss happen. This loss is known as
Hysteresis loss.
While using the core of the electro magnet its area of
hysteresis loop should be small. For example the area of
the hysteresis loop of silicon steel is small. Hence in most
cases silican steel is used as a core metal in making of
electro magnet.
Self-induction (Fig 18): When an AC current passes
Hysteresis loss through a coil the magnetic field around the coil varies.
This varying magnetic field will induce an EMF on the
1.6 stationary coil. This EMF is called self-induced EMF. This
 ηβm fV W 3
m EMF will act in opposition to the AC voltage applied. Used
in auto transformer, lightning arrestor, fluorescent lamp
Sl. No. Material Hysteresis choke, choke used in welding filament and in arc rectifiers
co-efficient to sustain the arc.
1 Silicon Steel 0.001
2 Mild steel sheet 0.003
3 Pure iron 0.004
4 Cast steel 0.012
5 Cast iron 0.016
Pure iron is used as the core in electro magnets. For
large size electromagnet silicon steel core is used. Iron
and nickel mixed alloy of Permalloy core is used where
less magnetic field is required as in Telephone. The mu
metal which is an alloy of nickel, copper, chromium, and Factors depends on induction
iron is used as core for less permeability and resistance.
1 Number of turns in the coil.
This will reduce the eddy current loss. This is used as
magnetic screener in instrument transformer. 2 Length of the coil.
Comparison of electric and magnetic circuit 3 Cross sectional area of the coil
Type of EMF: 4 Permeability of the core.
1 Dynamically induced EMF and Lenz’s Law (Fig19) : Lenz's law of electromagnetic
induction states that the direction of the current induced
2 Statically induced EMF.
in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that
Dynamically induced EMF: In order to generate a the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes
dynamically induced EMF (electromotive force), the the initial changing magnetic field which produced it.
Magnetic Compass (Fig 21)
As shown in figure 20 if we move the north pole of a bar

magnet inside the coil then a current will produce in ant
clock direction. Hence the coil is subjected to North pole
where the magnet is inserted. This north pole of coil end
will oppose the north pole of the bar magnet as shown in
figure.
The magnetic compass, in navigation or surveying, an

instrument for determining direction on the surface of Earth
by means of a magnetic pointer that aligns itself with
Now if we remove the bar magnet from the coil the
Earth's magnetic field. The dial of the compass is
movement of current is clock wise. The polarity of coil
graduated in degrees of 360.North is 0 degree, East is 90
now become south where the bar magnet has been
degree, South is 180 degree and west is 270 degree.
removed. Now this south polarity of coil end will attract
the north polarity of the bar magnet. The EMF induced by
this will oppose the one which created this EMF.
S.No. Electronics circuit Magnetic circuit
EMF MMF
1 Current Flux
Resistance Reluctance
2 Current (I) - (ampere) Flux (Ø) - (Weber)
3 EMF (Volt) MMF (Ampere turn)
ρL L
4 Resistance R  Reluctance S 
A μA
1 1
5 conductivi ty  Permeability 
Restivity Reluctivity
6 Current density (A/m2) Flux density B (wb/m2)
1 1
7 conductanc e  Perminance 
Reistance Reluctance
8 Resistivity Reluctvity μoμr A
Circuit breaker : Circuit breaker is a controlling device. be closed. When required the contacts can be opened
This can be used to make on and off the circuit under any either manually or automatically by the initiation of external
load condition. When over load, short circuit or earth fault devices. Due to some Electronics fault the circuit breaker
happens in a circuit, large amount of current will flow in is opened by the actuation of trip coil. The moving contacts
the circuit. The circuit breaker can be used to break the were separated by the fixed contacts during fault condition.
circuit either manually or automatically during such faults. This separation causes an arc in between the contacts
The circuit breaker works safely under fault condition resulting interruption of current and production of heat. To
drawing more power. The circuit breaker can with stand lower this heat the arc much be quenched by oil, vacuum,
the fault to its rupturing capacity measured by MVA (mega air or sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6).
volt ampere)
Types of circuit breaker
Working principle of a Circuit breaker : In circuit
breaker there is fixed and a moving contact called as 1 Oil circuit breaker (OCB)
electrodes. On normal working condition the contacts will
2 Air circuit breaker(ACB) Reed Relay: Apart from normal relays, the reed relay
employs a solenoid which induces movement on reed
3 Air blast circuit breaker(ABCB)
switch. Less power is required for the operation of reed
4 Miniature circuit breaker(MCB) relays. The tips of the contacts were made from gold or
5 Molded case circuit breaker(MCCB) radium. The resistive tendency to current at the tips were
low.
6 Earth leakage circuit breaker(ELCB)
Types of reed relays
7 Vacuum circuit breaker(VCB) and
1 Dry reed relay (Fig 23): This relay consist of two reed
8 Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker(SF6CB). contacts one fixed and the other moving. This
Relays : A relay is the device that opens or closes the arrangement is fitted inside a narrow glass tube. To
contacts to cause the operation of the other electric control. prevent oxidation the tube is filled with an inert gas. A
Relays control one Electronics circuit by opening and coil is wound around the tube and when it gets
closing contacts in another circuit. energized, the open contact of the reed relay is closed.
When the coil is de-energized the reed contact tip
These relays are very much used Electronics, electronics opened.
and power system generation and distribution. The relay
operates on sensing the parameters of current, voltage,
frequency, heat and gas. We can see two types of basic
relays.
1 Electro mechanical relays (Fig 22) : The relay consist
of a pair of contacts, one moving and the other fixed.
An electromagnetic coil is mounted on a frame. Under 2 Mercury wetted contact relay (Fig 24): On a vertically
normal condition when supply is not given to the coil, mounted closed glass tube, two reeds are mounted
the contact is open (NO). When the coil is energized inside. A little mercury is filled at the bottom of the
by a voltage on some condition then it will attract the tube. When the coil around the tube is energized a
moving contact so that it make contact with the fixed magnetic field causes the reed contacts touch each
contact and now the contacts closed (NC). other.
When the current decreases from a pre-determined value

an Undercurrent relay is used. When the voltage increases
or decreases from a pre-determined value is to be prevented
then we use Voltage sensing relay.
Current sensing relay: This relays are used in circuits 3 Ferreed relay (Fig 25): A switch is placed near an
where the current exceed or decreased from a electromagnet. Due to the strong magnetic field present
predetermined value. in the electromagnet the switch is pulled and closed.
Under current relay: The relay will operate when the This is due to the pulse received by electromagnet.
current decreases from the determined value. With absence of pulse the electromagnet de-energized
and the switch open.
Voltage sensing relay: These relays operate when the
voltage level increase or decrease from a predetermined
value.
Latching relay: The contacts which maintains its position
(open or close) even after the coil is de-energized is known
as latching relay. To reset the contacts manually a spring
hand reset mechanism is used. (HR) . The contacts can
be reset Electronicsly through a coil is known as
Electronics reset contacts(ER).
Clapper type armature relay : A moving contact fixed AC Relay : The magnetic field in an AC relay changes
to an armature is placed on either side of two fixed 100 times in a 50Hz system. Due to this there will be
contacts. On normal condition the right hand side fixed chattering on the contacts. To avoid this chattering there
contact will be in touch with the moving contact. When is a groove on the pole face in which a shading ring is
the armature is energized the moving contact will move to placed. This shading ring will produce a magnetic field
its left side making contact with the left fixed contact and which will be lagging the main magnetic field. Hence when
breaking contact from right fixed contact. With this we main magnetic field become zero there will be a little
can make a closed contact open and opened contact magnetic field in the shading ring. This will prevent
closed. chattering.
Impulse relay : This is a special type of relay capable of Note : Don't give DC supply to an AC relay. If a
operating in AC and DC circuits. When the coil get pulse, DC supply by accident given, large current will
the mechanism in the armature moves contacts from one pass (due to absence of inductive reactance)
position to other position. When another release pulse and burn the coil. But if we change the polarity
applied to the coil the contacts returns to its original in a DC relay no harm is done and the relay
position. will operate.
Thermal relay : Thermal relay operates on variation in Use of Solenoid: Normally solenoid were used as electro
temperature. A bimetallic flexible moving contact bends magnets. Apart from this it can be used for
and make contact with a fixed contact when the
1 Used as inductance or impedance,
temperature varies from a predetermined value. There is
some time delay for the bimetal strip to sense the 2 Miniature receiving antenna.
temperature. This has been used as a time delay function
in relays.
AC Circuits
• explain the principles of AC Current
• explain difference between AC and DC
• explain laws governing AC current.
Alternating current (Fig 1): The current produced in AC Difference between AC and DC
generator or Alternator is called Alternating current. This
S.No AC DC
along a particular time the value will vary in both directions.
The voltage or current will be zero at first and in one direction 1 6.6KV, 11KV, 33KV 6600V and less value
it will increase and attain maximum value and then decrees generation in generation
to zero. Again it will increase in the opposite direction to 2 Voltage can be stepped Transformation can't be
maximum and then decrease to zero. up or down by done
transformer
3 Less transmission Transmission cost is
charges costly
4 Less maintenance cost High maintenance cost
5 High power alternator Up to 10000KW genera
of range 500000KW tor can be manu-
can be manufactured factured
6 Speed control is not Speed control is easy
easy
AC supply is used everywhere in house, offices, factories, AC Generator : AC generation takes place as per Faraday's
shops etc. This is the cheapest generation of power and Law. When a conductor revolves is a magnetic field an
can be transmitted over long distance with less EMF is induced in the conductor which is proportional to
transmission loss. Large power with many times of voltage the rate of change of flux linkage. The wave form produced
with low current can be transmitted. The AC generation is by the AC generating current is of Sine form.
6.6KV, 11KV, 33Kv and with the help of step up transformer
higher voltage of 66KV, 110KV, 220KV and 400KV can be
EMF generated in AC generator (Fig 2) : Inside
transmitted. These will be ultimately reduced by step down a cylindrical magnet of south pole a conductor of
transformers to 415V (3Ø) and used. The 1 Ø supply is AB,CD rotate clock wise and an EMF is induced as
240V between the one phase and neutral is used for many shown in the figure 2.
single phase domestic and industrial appliances.
Position of the Induced EMF
conductor
0° ZERO V
0 - 90° ZERO TO MAXIMUM IN Positive
value
90 - 180° Positive maximum EMF to ZERO
180 - 270° Zero to negative maximum EMF
270 - 360° Negative maximum to zero V
When the conductor revolves a full circle of 360 degree in

the magnetic field an alternating current is produced.
AC fundamental terms and definitions
Cycle (Fig 3): The alternating current or voltage undergoes
changes one time in its magnitude and direction and
comes to its original position, has termed as one cycle.
Period: The time taken to complete one cycle is called

the period. T=1 / F second.
Frequency: The number of cycles performed in one second
is called frequency. In India 50 cycles per second AC
current is generated. The unit of frequency is in Hertz.
F=PN / 120 where P is the number of poles and N is the
revolution per minutes.
Instantaneous Value: The instantaneous value is "the
value of an alternating quantity (it may ac voltage or ac
current or ac power) at a particular instant of time.
Peak or maximum value: In an A.C source, peak value
of A.C is the maximum value of current in either direction
of the cycle.
Average value: The average value of alternating current
or voltage is defined as the average of all values of current
or voltage over a positive half-cycle or negative half-cycle.
Iav = I1+I2+I3+……+In. Irms = Imax X 0.707 and Vrms = Vmax
X 0.707.
RMS value: All the square root of the instantaneous values
in an half cycle is termed as Root Mean Square value
RMS All AC meters shows the RMS value and also called
as effective value.
Form factor: The ratio of the value of RMS to the average
value is the form factor.. Hence Form factor = RMS Value
/ Average value = 0.707 x Imax / 0.637 Imax = 1.1
Crest factor: Crest factor is defined as the ratio of peak
value to RMS value which is Imax / Imax X 0.707 = 1.414
Scalar quantity: It is a measurable quantity that is fully
described by a magnitude or amount. In scalar quantity
the addition and subtraction in algebraically.
Vector quantity: A vector quantity is defined as the
physical quantity that has both directions as well as
magnitude. The addition and subtraction cannot be done 2 Triangular wave (Fig 5): It is a non-sinusoidal
as in scalar quantity and should be done vector addition waveform named for its triangular shape. It is a periodic,
and subtraction. piecewise linear, continuous real function. The waves
has odd harmonics.
Phasor: A phasor is a scaled line whose length represents
an AC quantity that has both magnitude (peak amplitude)
and direction (phase) which is frozen at some point in
time.
Phase: The current and voltage in an AC circuit do not
peak at the same time. The angular phase difference
between the maximum possible values of the two
alternating quantities having the same frequency is called
the phase difference. 3 Sine wave (Fig 6): This is a sinusoidal uniform wave.
In every points in the waves the angular displacement
In phase: If two sine waves attains same higher and lower
is proportional to the trigonometric sine function.
magnitude in same time, then the two waves are said to
be "in phase". There is no phase angle difference between
these two waves.
Out of phase: If two sine waves attains same higher and
lower magnitude in different time, then they are called "out
of phase" waves.
Phase angle: The difference in angle between two out of
phase sine wave is termed as the phase angle. 4 Saw tooth wave (Fig 7): The saw tooth wave (or saw
Leading quantity: When in two sine waves, the first sine wave) is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform. It is so
wave which attain its maximum value is called the leading named based on its resemblance to the teeth of a saw.
quantity. The convention is that a saw tooth wave goes upward
and then sharply drops.
Lagging quantity: When in two sine waves, the second
sine wave which attain its maximum value is called the
lagging quantity.
Types of wave forms
1 Square wave form (Fig 4): Square wave is a non-
sinusoidal wave. The amplitude alternates at a steady
frequency between fixed minimum and maximum
values, with the same duration at minimum and
maximum. In an ideal square wave, the transitions
between minimum and maximum are instantaneous.
The waves has odd harmonics.
Inductor and inductance

• describe inductor and inductance
• explain types of inductors
• explain inductors in series and in parallel
• explain self-induction and mutual induction and the
• explain Q factor of the coil.
Inductance : Inductance is the tendency of an Electronics inductor. The unit of inductor is in Henry(H) denoted by
conductor to oppose a change in the electric current flowing symbol L.
through it .The flow of electric current in a coil creates a
Types of inductors
magnetic field around the conductor. The field strength
depends on the magnitude of the current. The coil is called 1 Air core inductor
2 Iron core inductor the core either inside or outside of the coil. It is used in
radio and other equipment that require specific fine tuning
3 Ferite core inductor
of inductance.
4 Laminated core inductor.
Henry: In a circuit in one second if 1 ampere flows and
5 Variable inductor induce an EMF of 1 volt then the inductance of the coil is
6 Film inductor 1L (Henry)
7 Coupled inductor Self-induction (Fig 3) : As shown in figure an AC supply

is given to the coil. The magnetic field around the coil
8 Toroidal inductor and varies and produce an EMF with the non-moving coil. EMF
9 Multi-layered inductor produced is by self-induction.
Factors determining the inductance

1 Core material
2 Number of turns
3 Distance between each turns and
4 The cross sectional area or diameter of the coil.
Energy stored: Due to the inductance, the current produce
the magnetic field and store the energy.
W= ½ L X I²
Inductors in series (Fig 1) : As shown when inductors Mutual induction (Fig 4) :As shown in figure two coils
connected in series the total value of inductance is equal are placed nearby on a core. Supply is given to one coil
to the sum of all inductance in series. and the magnetic field produced by it will interact with the
L = L1+L2+L3…..+Ln. nearby coil. The magnetic field is a fluctuating one it
produces an EMF on the second coil. This is due to mutual
inductance.
Inductors in parallel (Fig 2): If the inductors were

connected in parallel then the total value of the inductance
is given by 1/L = 1/L1+1/L2+1/L3…..+1/Ln.The value of total
inductance will be less than the smallest value of inductor
connected in series.
Q Factor : This factor is used to determine the quality of

an inductor. It is the ratio of the inductive reactance to its
resistance at a constant frequency. Large Q factor inductors
are used in tuning circuit of radio receiver.
XL 2fl
Q 
Fixed and variable inductors: Fixed inductors as name R R
implies have fixed value of inductance. Example: Bulb
ballast, antenna filter circuit and voltage controlled oscillator.
The value of the variable inductance is achieved by moving
Capacitors
• describe capacitor and capacitance
• explain the principal of capacitor and explain how the energy is stored
• explain types of capacitors
• explain how to check capacitors.
Introduction : Capacitor is a device which stores energy. Principle of Capacitor (Fig 1&2) : As shown in figure 1
In between two parallel Electronics conductor an insulating the two electrodes of the capacitor is connected to a DC
material called di-electric material is placed. supply in series with a switch and a milli ammeter. When
the switch is "on" we can see through the milli ammeter a 1 Directly proportional to the surface area of the metal
DC current is flowing. Within seconds the voltage between sheets
the capacitor plates will be same of the DC source supply,
2 Indirectly proportional to the distance in between the
no electron movement takes place. This will be indicated
electrode
as zero in milli ammeter. In this stage we know the
capacitor stores the energy. Now if we connect a load 3 Depends on the di-electric strength of the insulator and
across the electrodes of the capacitor then the energy 4 Depends on the temperature.
stored will be dissipated.
Capacitors connected in series (Fig 3) : More than one
capacitors are connected in series and the voltage applied
as shown.
1 Total value of the capacitance = I / C1+I / C2+I / C3+

As shown in figure 2 when a capacitor is connected to an ......I / Cn.
AC supply, the first quarter (0 to 90º) will charge the 2 Charge in all capacitors is same C1=C2=C3…=Cn
capacitor and in the second quarter (90 to 180º) the
capacitor discharges. Like that in opposite direction of 3 The voltage drop in each capacitor depends on its
180 to 270º and 270 to 360º charge and discharge happens. capacitance.
Since this is happening continuously there will be AC 4 The sum of the voltage drop of all the capacitors equal
current flowing with out stop. On contrary to this in DC the source supply voltage.
circuit the charge only happens and discharge doesn't
happens automatically. Hence we can conclude the 5 The voltage drop on each capacitor will be small than
capacitor in a DC circuit resist the current flow. its rated voltage.
To determine the voltage drop in a capacitor, Vx = (Ct x Vs)
/ Cx where Vx is the total voltage drop, Ct is the total value
of capacitance, Vs is the supply voltage.
Capacitors connected in parallel (Fig 4): More than
one capacitor is connected in parallel. Supply is given
across the capacitors.
Capacitance: Capacitance is the property to store electric

charge. The unit of capacitance is in Farad and denoted 1 Total value of the capacitance Ct = C1+C2+C3+….Cn.
by symbol "C". Capacitance C = Charge Q / Voltage V,
2 Voltage drop across each capacitor is the same.
C=Q/V farads.
3 The charge in each capacitor depend on its capacitance.
Farad: If the applied voltage across the capacitor is 1 volt
to produce 1 coulomb charge then the capacitance value 4 The total value of the charge Qt will be the sum total of
id 1 farad.. 1 farad = 1 coulomb / 1 volt. Farad is a large individual charges = Q1+Q2+Q3+.Qn
unit, hence it is called in micro farad. 1 micro farad=10t o 5 The supply voltage should be greater than the break
the power minus 6 farad. 1 Nano farad = 10 to the power down voltage of the capacitor in parallel.
minus 9 farad, 1 pica farad = 10 to the power of minus 12
farad. Note: The total capacitance of the circuit is
always greater than the least value capacitor.
Energy stored in a capacitor: The energy stored in a
capacitor depends on its capacitance and charged voltage. Types of capacitors: The types depends on the di-electric
E= (1/2) X CV². Where E is the energy, C the capacitance insulator used in it.
and V voltage. 1 Mica capacitor
Factors determining the capacitance : The value of 2 Ceramic capacitor.
the capacitance of a capacitor depends
3 Electrolytic capacitor
4 Paper capacitor
5 Variable capacitor.
Use of capacitors
1 In tube lights: When connected in parallel to the tube,
the power factor increases. When two tube lights
connected in parallel, a capacitor in series to a tube
light will remove the stroboscopic effect is removed.
By connecting the capacitor in parallel to the starter of
the tube, the radio interference is reduced. Also the Due to this the pointer of the meter moves rapidly to infinity.
spark produced at the contact point in starter while When the capacitor is charged, the potential difference
opening will be arrested. between the meter and capacitor terminal drops down.
Due to the low current the needle of the meter moves to
2 In gas discharge lamps: Choke or high reactance zero. By this Quick test we can check the capacitor. This
transformer is used and this will reduce the power factor. testing is not suitable for low value capacitance of ceramic
To compensate this a capacitor is used in parallel to and paper capacitor. The charging current will be very low
the starter. for movement of the meter pointer. Quich test is suitable
3 In Motor: In a single phase motor a capacitor is for high value and electrolytic capacitors.
connected in series with the starting winding. By doing Time constant : The time taken for a fully discharged
so the single phase works like a two phase and good capacitor to attain 63% of charge in seconds is known as
starting happens. the time constant. The symbol is t t (tau in Grrel alphapet).
4 In Supplies: To short come the power factor loss due t=RC where R is resistance and C is the capacitance. In
to the inductive load, a capacitor is connected in each time constant the capacitor takes 63% of time for
parallel to the supply. charge and 37% time for discharge. For example 1mu
farad capacitor with 2 mega ohm resistor of 50V supply
Checking of the capacitor (Fig 5) : A fully discharged
will have the time constant t=CR=2 X 10 power6 x 1 into
capacitor is connected to a high range ohm meter as
10 powe mius 6 is 2 seconds.. Hence in 5 time constant
shown in the figure. Through the meters battery voltage
of (5 x 2 = 10 secons) capacitor will reach 50V .
negative, the capacitor begins to charge.
To check the capacitor connect meter leads to the leads
of the capacitor. Due to the low resistance between both
terminals of the meter and capacitor a large amount of
current will flow.
Time constant Charging voltage Charging current

1 time constant
st
31.6V (63% OF 50V) 0.37 X 25=9.35 muA
2nd time constant 31.6+11.6=43.2V (for 18.4V 63%) 0.37 X 9.25=3.4 muA
3 time constant
rd
43.2+4.3=47.5V (for 6.8V 63%) 0.37 X 3.4=1.26 muA
4th time constant 47.5+1.6=49.15V (for 2.5V 63%) 0.37 X 1.26=0.47 muA
5 time constant
th
49.15+0.57=49.7V (for 0.9V 63%) 0.37 X 0.47=0.1 muA near 0
Types, ratings and application of capacitors

Types Capacity DC Volt range Use
Ceramic disc 1PF TO 1MF 50-500 RF and general
Ceramic tube 1PF TO 100PF 500-5K General usage and VHF
Paper 0.001 TO 1PF 200-1600 Motor and power supply power factor
Polyester 0.001MF 100-600 Small electronic circuit
Electrolytic Aluminum 1 TO 500000MFMF 50-100 Power supply and filter circuit
Mica 330PF TO 0.05MF 50-100 High frequency
Ceramic-variable 1.5 TO 16.1PF 200 High frequency
Film variable 0.85 TO 1.2-30PF 50 Oscillator antenna RF circuit
Air variable 10 TO 365PF 50 Broadcast receiver
Teflon variable 0.25 TO 1.5PF 2000 VHF & UHF
Impedence
• explain Impedance, Reactance, Admittance and Q Factor
• explain Electronics resistance, Inductor and Capacitor in series and in parallel.
Impedence : In a circuit having resistance, inductance, and Xc will be same and only resistance exist in the circuit.
capacitance together or any of the two together forms The frequency at which XL and Xc becomes same is called
resistance to the electric current flow is known as the resonance frequency and which is given by the formula
impedance. Denoted by the letter Z. Unit is in ohms.
. The power factor at the resonance frequency
is unit PF. When VL and Vc are same then it is called

Inductive reactance: In a coil the resistance to the voltage resonance.
inducement of EMF is called inductive reactance. The
symbol is XL and the unit is ohm. X L  2fl Where f is
the frequency and L is the inductance.
Capacitive reactance: The resistive force offered to the
charging of capacitor is called capacitive reactance. This
is denoted by symbol Xc. And the unit in ohm.
C is the capacitance.
AC Parallel circuit: In AC parallel circuit the voltage will
Impedance triangle: In an impedance triangle, the be same in all the branch and the current depends on
resistance (r) is always on the bottom of the triangle, the branch impedance. The total current in the circuit is
reactance (x) always goes on the side and the hypotenuse addition of phasor value of the branch current. To know the
is always the impedance (z). (Fig 1) total current we can find in two ways
1 Vector or phasor method and
2 Admittance method.
AC Parallel circuit admittance method to find current
(Fig 3) Branch current I=E/Z and I=E X I/Z where I/Z is the
admittance and is the inverse value of the impedance. It is
denoted by Y and equals to I/E. Hence total admittance
Yt = Total current / applied voltage = addition of phasor
current divided by the applied voltage. Admittance can be
determined by two components.
1 The component in phase to the applied voltage is called
the conductance and denoted by letter "g".
2 The component which is in perpendicular (quadrature)
to the applied voltage is called susceptance and
denoted by letter"b"
Conductance g = Admittance * cosØ,
= Y * cosØ,
= I/Z * R/Z (Y=1/Z cosØ=R/Z) = R/Z²
Resistor, inductor and capacitor in series: In Fig 2 R, Conductance g = R / R² + X².
L , C were connected in series to a AC supply source.V.
Susceptance b = Admittance * sinØ ,
The voltage drop in each element is Vr, Vc and VL. The
current in the resistor will be in phase with voltage, in = Y * sinØ,
inductance it is 90° lagging and in capacitor it is 90 degree = I/Z*R/Z, X/Z²
leading. VL and Vc will depend on the value of XL and Xc.
Power factor depends on these values. Susceptance b = X / R²+X². The units of admittance,
Ω
Like in this RLC circuit frequency f is in direct proportion conductance and Susceptance is mho with symbol
to inductive reactance and inversely proportional capacitive
reactance. So with change in frequency at one stage XL
Parallel resonance circuit (Fig 6) : A parallel circuit
Admittance containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a
capacitance, C will produce a parallel resonance (also
RLC Parallel circuit (Fig 3): In the circuit the resistor,
called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current
inductor and the capacitors were connected in parallel.
through the parallel combination is in phase with the supply
voltage. At resonance there will be a large circulating
current between the inductor and the capacitor due to the
energy of the oscillations, then parallel circuits produce
current resonance.
1 In this circuit the voltage across the resistor and

capacitor will be the supply voltage.
2 The current in the resistor will be in phase with the
supply voltage. The current in inductor will be 90º
lagging to the supply voltage and by leading 90º to the Resonance in RLC circuit: In series RLC circuit the
capacitor. resonance depends on the magnitude of the inductive and
capacitive reactance to be equal.
3 Adding the currents in the three elements vectorially
we get Ix=IL-Ic. Hence the line current will be (Fig 4) Converting Galvano meter to Ammeter (Fig 7): As
shown in the figure ammeter should be connected in series
I  I R2  I L  I C  in the circuit. By adjusting the shunt resistor more current
2
will be passing in the circuit. By this way Galvano meter
has been working as an ammeter. The shunt should be
connected in parallel to the meter. Now the total current in
the circuit is I=Ig+Is. Where Ig is galvano meter current
and Is current through shunt.
Resonance in AC circuit : Electronics resonance occurs

in an AC circuit when the effects of the two reactances,
which are opposite and equal, cancel each other out as
XL = XC. The point on the above graph at which this
happens is where the two reactance curves cross each
other.
Series resonance (Fig 5) : Consider a RLC circuit in
which resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in Converting Galvano meter to Volt meter (Fig 8): As
series across a voltage supply. This series RLC circuit shown in the figure voltmeter should be always connected
has a distinguishing property of resonating at a specific in parallel.Galvono meter is a sensitive meter hence cant
frequency called resonant frequency. be used to measure high voltage. A series high resistor is
connected with galvano meter to read the voltage.
In this circuit containing inductor and capacitor, the energy

is stored in two different ways Q Factor: Q factor (also known as Quality Factor or Q-
factor) is defined as a dimensionless parameter that
When a current flows in an inductor, energy gets stored in describes the underdamped condition of an oscillator or
magnetic field. resonator. The quality factor measures the performance of
When a capacitor is charged, energy gets stored in static a coil, a capacitor, or an inductor in terms of its losses
electric field. and resonator bandwidth.
Instrument Mechanic - Electrical Machine
AC Generator and DC generators and its working principles

• explain the principle of AC/DC Generators and its working
• explain Faraday's law, Lenz's law and Fleming left hand rule.
Introduction : These are called Alternator or AC Generator. The main three parts are
This will produce constant frequency and rotate in a
1 Stator, 2 Rotar and
constant speed and hence also called as Synchronous
Alternator or Synchronous Generator. These machines 3 Excitor.
convert mechanical energy to Electronics energy. As per
1 Stator: The frame is made of cast iron. Slotted silican
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction AC voltage is
steels core is fixed inside the stator frame. Inside the
induced.
slot the windings are placed. The inner silicon stell
Working principal of Alternator : At the center of the core is laminated so that the eddy current loass due to
main magnetic field a current carrying rotating conductor the armature core is lowered. The armataure winding
cut the magnetic field and an EMF is induced in the on the stator get heated and for cooling ventilating ducts
conductor. This is the principal of DC Generator and AC were available.
generator too work on the same principal. The value of the
2 Rotor: Therte are two types of rotors.
induced EMF depends on the flux and the speed of the
conductor. A Salient pole rotor and
The AC voltage induced in the armature is collected by B Smooth cylindrical rotor.
the slip rings. In DC Generator the field is stationary and A Salient pole rotor (Fig 2) : As shown in the figure
the armature rotates. In Alternator the armature is stationary thin laminated silicon stamping were joined together
and field rotates OR the field is stationary and armature by rivet or bolts. This forms as poles. This poles are
rotates. projected towards the stationary armature. The top area
Advantage of Armature stationary and rotating type of this poles are curved. This type of rotors are small in
length and large in diameter.There is space enough to
1 The weight of the field is less and can be rotated in place the field coils. The conduction of heat in the field
high speed. Due to this more voltage can be produced. coil is done easily. The cost of rotor is low.During
2 In the stationary armature the windings are more and operation machine produce much sound. To prvent
the conductor is thick. Due to this the induced voltage hunting the face of the poles are provided with damper
can be increased with increase in output power. windings. The field coils are connected in series so
that north and south poles were created. The two ends
3 With stationary armature the insulation of the winding
of the field coil is connected to the slip ring. This rotors
can be done easily.
are used in slow and medium speed alternator. The
4 With the stationary armature the induced voltage can poles formed is from 6 to 40. The maximum speed is
be collected by stationary terminals. There is no need 1000 RPM. To start the rotor a disel engine is used as
for carbon brushes and thereby avoiding sparks. the prime mover.
5 To give supply to the field two slip rings and brushes of
low capacity required.
Parts of an Alternator (Fig 1)
2 Smooth cylindrical rotor(Fig 3): As shown in figure

the cylindrical rotor of long length with less diameter is
73
used. Rotor is made of steel with slots over its surface.
Fied windins were placed inside the slots. 2 or 4 poles
can be formed in the rortor.These rortors are used in
high speed alternator. The maximum speed is from 1500
to 3000RPM. Since the rotor speed is high , it is made
of solid steel by forging. This are used with steam
turbine. This alternator has got high machine strength.
F = Frequency of the induced EMF in Hertz.

The number of cycles produced is the number of pair poles
per revolution. The number of frequency on one revolution
is = P / 2
Conductor revolves per second = N / 60
Hence frequency per second f = (P/2)*(N/60) = PN / 120
Hz.
EMF Equation of an Alternator :
Z = Total nuber of conductors per phase
3 Exciter: A small DC shunt or a compount generator is
connected to the alternator shaft. The exciter produce Ø = Flux per pole
110 to 250V DC. This voltage is fed to the field of the P = Number of poles
rotor througj slip ring.
Kd = Distribution factor
4 Damper winding: Damper windings are used to
prevent hunting and to attain the sysnchronous speed f = Frequency
of the alternator. On the top side of the salient pole Kc = Coil span factor
shoe, holes are there to hold copper bars. The end of
the copper bars are shorted. This is called damper Kf = Form factor
winding or squirrel cage winding. When the alternator One conductor in one cycle cuts the flux = 2Ø weber
rotates on normal synchronous speed no current
One conductor in one second cuts the flux = 2Øf weber
passes throgh the damper winding. When the rotor
deviate from synchronous speed there will be current One conductor in one second cuts 1 weber flux the the
in the damper winding. This current produces a torque volrage induced is ONE VOLT.
on the sgaft which adjust the speed to synchronous
In conductor in one second the EMF induced is = 2Øf
speed. More over these damper winding on unbalanced
Volts
load condition will balance the 3 phase supply. No
damper winding is provided on turo alternator since the Z conductors induced EMF = 2ØfZ
field poles are soild and strong. Average EMF induced in one phase = KdKc2ØfZ Volts
5 Relation between speed and frequency of RMS value of EMF induced in one phase = KdKcKf2ØfZ
alternator (Fig 4): Rotor speed of the alternaor N, Volts
Frequency if the induce EMF(f), and number of poles Form factor of sinusoidal wave = 1.1 = 1.11*2ØfZKdKc
P has relation between each other. As shown in FIG4 Volts
the conductor X rotates from the mid of the pole in Therfore E = 2.2* ØfZKdKc Volts
clock wise direction. When the conductor passes the
Impulse relay : This works on both AC and DC supplies.
mid of the north pole the flux density is higher and the
This consist of a coil which is enerzised by an impulse.
EMF indused is also high. When the conductor is in
An armature connected to a mechanisam will move a
between the two poles less EMF is induced and when
contact from open to close or close to open position. On
comes at the center of the south pole again high EMF
removal of the pulse the contact go backs to its original
is induced. The direction of the EMF induced is
position.
opposite to each other under North and south poles.
Hence when the conductor passes through a pair of Thermal Relay: This relay will operate depending upon
poles a full cycle EMF is induced. the temperature. The bi metallic strip on heat sensing will
bend and touch a contact or break a contact. It will take
P = Total number of poles. time for sensing heat by the bi metallic strip. Hence this
N = Speed of rotor in RMS relay is used for time delay function.
AC Relay: The magnetic field of this relay changes 100 Position of the Induced Electronics force
times in a 50 Hz supply. Hence this reaches zero and conductor
change the direction. Due to this chattering takes place.
To avoid chattering, a groove on the pole phase with a 0º zero
shading ring is places. This shading will create a magnetic 0 to 90º On positive side from zero to
field which is lagging the main magnetic field. So when maximum EMF value
the main magnetic field becomes zero there is some
amount of magnetic field in the shading ring. This will 90 to 180º On positive side from maximum EMF
eliminate chattering. to zero value
Note: Don't give DC supply to an AC relay. If 180 to 270º On negative side from zero to
given to a DC supply, on absence of inductive maximum EMF value
reactance excessive current will flow which 270 to 360º On negative side from maximum
burns the coil. Likewise in a DC relay with AC EMF to zero value
input the positive/negative polarity changes
resulting the coil burned out. On completion of one revolution of the conductor, an
Principle of DC Generator alternating current of one cycle is induced. This AC current
will be converted to DC current by commutator.
As per Faradays law of electromagnetism an Electronics
force is produced in the Generator. AC to DC conversion in a commutator (Fig 6)
1 In between a magnetic field if a conductor rotates then

an EMF is induced in the conductor.
2 This induced EMF value directly in proportion to the
change in flux and the speed at which the conductor
cuts the flux. Reasons for dynamically induced EMF
are
A Magnetic field,
B Conductor and
In the figure 6 AB and CD conductor of end S1 and S2 is
C the force required to rotate the conductor. connected to two slip rings. Two brushes B1 & B2 is placed
EMF Generated in DC Generator (Fig 5) on the slip ring The brushes are connected to the load.
The conductor and the slip ring rotates together. Brush is
stationary. In this the conductor moves from 0 to 180º anti
clock wise with AB conductor in South Pole, the current
will flow inwards from A to B. The conductor CD is in the
North pole and the current will flow outwards from C -D.
So S2B1LOADB2S1ABCDS2 completes
the circuit flow of current.
When conductor moves from 180º to 360º, AB will be under
North Pole the flow inwards BA. The conductor CD will
be in South Pole and the current flows outwards DC.The
slip ring S1 will be with brush B1 and S2 with B2 connected
the circuit closes as
S1B1LOADB2S2DCBAS1. Even though
current flow will be changing is direction in conductor, the
current in the load will be in one direction
only..B1LOADBE. The alternating AC is converted to
DC by the slip ring. This DC is pulsating and by using
many segment of commutator pure DC will be generated.
Assume a conductor AB,CD revolves in between the
Faraday's Law of induction
magnetic field of North and South pole in clock wise
direction. This will create an alternating Electronics force First Law: When a conductor rotates in a magnetic field
on the conductor. it cuts the magnetic field and an EMF is induced in the
conductor.
The full revolution of the conductor 0 to 360º is shown
Second Law : The amount of EMF induced in the
below.
conductor is directly proportional to the flux.
Lenz Law : Lenz law states that an induced electric current
flows in a direction such that the current opposes the
change that induced it.
Fleming's left hand rule (Fig 7): Fleming's Left Hand field poles. Fir small generator yoke is made of cast
Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and iron and cost is low. For bigger machine it is made of
middle finger of the left-hand perpendicular to each other, cast steel or rolled steel. The base and terminal box
then the thumb points towards the direction of the force were fitted to the yoke.
experienced by the conductor, the forefinger points towards
the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger
points the direction of the current
2 Pole core and pole shoe (Fig 10): The field magnet
Fleming's left hand rule (Fig 8) : Fleming's Right Hand comprise the pole core and pole shoes. Pole core and
Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and shoes were made up of thin stamping of silicon steel
middle finger of the right-hand perpendicular to each other, of thickness 0.25mm to 1mm. This is pressed in a
then the thumb points towards the direction of the hydraulic press and riveted or bolted together. Pole
conductor, the forefinger points towards the direction of shoe forms a less air gap between armature and poles
the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards so that the flux will be uniform. It also support the field
the direction of the induced EMF in the conductor. coil.
3 Field coil or field windings (Fig 11): Field coil or

pole coil are made of copper wire or copper rectangular
Parts of DC Generators and their function strips having the required turns. It is well insulated.
1 Frame or Yoke This pole coil is placed on the pole core between yoke
and pole shoe. When current is passed through the
2 Pole core and pole winding coil, a magnetic pole set on the pole shoe. The
3 Field coil or field winding magnetic flux from north to South Pole is bisected by
the rotating armature conductor. This will induce an
4 Armature core EMF. Series winding will have less field resistance when
5 Armature winding compared to short field winding which has large
resistance.
6 Commutator
7 Brush and brush holder
8 Brush rocker
9 Bearing
10 Front and rear end cover.
4 Armature core (Fig 12): The armature is made up of
11 Terminal box.
0.5mm circular laminated silicon steel plates either
1 Frame or yoke (Fig 9): This is the machine outer part cylindrical or in the form of drum. The stampings are
and called as frame or yoke. This give support to the riveted together. On the circumference of the armature
field poles and is a total enclosure to protect the slots were cut either by die cut or by punching device.
machine. This is used to conduct the magnetic flux in A keyway is made inside diameter of the armature. To
cool the armature duct holes were drilled along the cover or to the bracket support on the yoke.
cylinder. The armature winding is placed on the slots.
9 Bearings: Normally ball bearings are used. For heavy
In order to arrest the winding on the slots, wedge made
of wood, bamboo or fiber is used. The armature core
gives less resistance to the magnetic field and also
serves to complete the magnetic circuit. On the mild
steel shaft the armature core, commutator, and
bearings were placed.
duty roller bearings are used. These bearings are filled

with high density oil so as to reduce the sound while
running. To reduce wear and tear sleeve bearing is used.
10 Front and rear cover: This is made of cast iron in
5 Armature windings: The winding is done on a former.
circular shape. End plates are fitted with screws on
First it is done on rectangular shape then by using coil
yoke. In the center of the cover there is provision to
puller the desired shape is achieved. This coil is placed
hold hearings on which the armature shaft rests. To
inside the insulated slots. The resistance of the
give air circulation long radial slots were made. The
armature wing is 1 ohm or less than 1 ohm.
front and end cover were denoted by the rotating sign
6 Commutator (Fig13): The commutator is used to get on commutator side and pulley on motor side.
the current from armature winding. The alternating 11 Terminal box: This is made up of hylam or Bakelite
current produced by the armature will be converted to insulating plate. With the help of bolt and nut armature
DC current by the commutator and supply it to the and field coil ends were fixed. Also used to connect
load. Hard copper in the shape of wedge is placed to the load.
form a cylindrical structure. Each of this is called the Eddy current. If the armature core is made of solid metal
segments. Between two segments mica insulation is then its Electronics resistance is low. If this solid metal
provided. The number of coils in the armature and the revolve in pole magnetic field an EMF is induced in the
number of segments in commutator is same. One side armature core. Current due to this EMF is called eddy
of the copper strip is raised and having slot on it. This current.
portion is called the raiser or copper lug. The tip of the Since the Electronics resistance of the solid core is less,
armature winding were soldered to the lug of the riser. huge current will flow and heat the armature core. This will
Due to the centrifugal force the segments will affect the insulation of the armature coil. Also flux loss will
disintegrate. To avoid this a V shaped groove has been happen. To avoid all this short come the core of the
cut on the segment. This has been filled with V shaped armature is made up of 0.5mm thick silicon steel and
micanite ring and end rings. This structure is placed coated with varnish on both sides. These are pressed and
on the shaft. riveted together. Thus the eddy current loss is reduced.
Types of armature winding
1 Lap winding,
2 Wave winding.
Difference between lap winding and wave winding
Lap winding Wave winding
The number current Whatever be the number of
path is equal to the poles, only two way path for
number of Poles (a=p) the current.(a=2)
Brushes are placed Whatever be the number of
7 Brush and brush holder (Fig 14): Brushes are used as per the number of poles , only two brushes were
to collect the DC current from the rotating commutator. poles placed.
This is made up of copper or carbon mixed alloy. By The total current Total current is available
adjusting the spring in the brush holder the pressure to generated is equal in two path.
the brush can be adjusted. to the sum of the
parallel path current.
8 Brush rocker: The ring shaped insulating material
Low voltage and high High voltage and low
which hold the brush holder is called as the brush
current application is current application is used.
rocker arm. This is used to align the brush position to
used.
the neutral axis. Brush rocker is fixed to the bearing
EMF Equation of DC generator in one revolution = ØP weber
A single conductor intersect one weber flux in one second Rotation of armature in a second = N60
will induce one EMF Volt.
In a conductor number of flux
Number of poles =P intersected per second = ØP * N/60
Speed of flux produced by poles = Weber (10 maxwell)
8
CONDUCTOR IN A SINGLE
parallel PATH =Z/a
Rotating speed = N RPM
Voltage in a single parallel path E = (ØZN/60) * (Z/a) volts
Number of total conductors in armature = Z
EMF Produced in the generator = (ØZN/60) * (P/a) volts
Paths in armature =a
P, Z, a are constant. Hence the induced EMF is directly
EMF induced in the generator =E
proportional to the flux and the speed of conductor.
A single conductor intersecting flux
Types of DC Generators
Separately excited generator Self-exited generator
Shunt generator Series generator compound generator
Long shunt generator short shunt generator
Cumulative differential Cumulative differential
DC Motor
• explain principle and operation of DC motors
• explain types of DC motors
• explain speed controls of DC motors.
Introduction : The machine which convert the Electronics In figure 3 the flux produced by the poles and the current
energy to mechanical energy is called a motor. A DC carrying conductor is shown. In this the flux on top side
machine can be used as a motor or generator. of the conductor is in the direction of the pole flux, and
increased. Due to this the top portion of the conductor is
Principle of DC motor : A current carrying conductor
closely surrounded by the pole flux and opposes the bottom
placed in a magnetic field will experience a torque. This is
portion of the pole flux. The flux at the bottom portion of
the principle under which the motor operate.
the conductor is low. The bend flux at top portion will try to
Operation of a DC motor (Fig 1) straighten and due to this a force has been created which
push the conductor down. Thus a torque has been produced
in the conductor. The closed conductor which is placed in
the magnetic field of the poles will undergo cyclic polarity
change the pole flux will push the conductor downwards
and upwards, the conductor rotate in a single direction.
With many such conductors wound on the armature it
rotates continuously.
Back or counter EMF : As per Faraday's electromagnetic
induction when the armature rotates it will cut the magnetic
field of the poles which are stationary and an EMF is induced
in the armature. This EMF is called the counter or back
EMF.The direction of the EMF is as per Fleming's right
hand rule.1 ¥gL? ng? Value of EMI Eb=ØZNP / 60a Volts.
The induced back EMF in the rotor will be in opposite to
the applied voltage. Back EMF is less than the applied
It is shown figure 1 the flux between the poles are uniform.
voltage. Eb = V-Ia*Ra.
In figure2 the magnetic field shown around a current
carrying conductor (right hand grip) Torque produced in DC motor : A Turning force along
the axis of an object is called the torque. Torque = Force
x the radius and the unit is Newton meter.
T = F X r = F X distance moved by the force.
W= F x 2πr which is 2πt. The work to be done in a second
is W=2πt X N/60 joules or watt and N is the revolution per
minute RPM.
Armature torque : The torque produced in all the
conductors is the total torque of the armature. Work to be
done = 2πT a N / 60 watt. Eb = V - I a R a
V = Eb+I aR a V I a= E b+I a+Ia²R a, which is the given
Electronics force. E bI a is the Electronics energy
transformed to the work done.
Ia²Ra is the armature copper loss.
The Electronics energy transformed = The work done.
Eb*Ia = 2πTaN / 60 and Ta = Eb*Ia X 60 / 2πN = 9.55EbIa / N
Newton meter. Compound motor (Fig 4): In this both series and shunt
windings were connected. The series winding is connected
Shaft torque or output torque : The total torque in the in series to the armature and shunt winding in parallel to
armature is used for the work done in the shaft . This the armature. Parallel shunt winding is called short shunt.
torque is known as shaft or output torque Tsh. The loss Another shunt winding which connected in series with
occurs in motor (Ta-Tsh). Torque in shat will be less than armature is called long shunt winding. The current which
the torque in armature. Shaft torque. When BHP is passes through the series connected shunt which is in
measured, the engine torque is determined by applying a opposite direction of the parallel shunt is called differential
break to the flywheel "as opposed to using a torque". compound motor. The current which passes through the
BHP=2πTshN. And Tsh=BHP*60*746 / 2πN. series connected shunt which is in same direction of the
Relation between Torque, armature current and flux parallel shunt is called cumulative compound motor.
The torque produced in the motor is directly proportional

to the current flowing in the armature and the flux produced
by the poles. Ta = proportional to armature current and
flux.
2Ta N  ZNP 
Eb I a   Eb  60xa 
60  
ZNPla 2Ta N

60 xa 60 Speed control of DC motor : N = Ø / E b where
Eb = V -IaRa therefore N = V - IaRa / Ø. The armature
2πtaa =∅ ZPIa (Cross multiplication) resistance of the motor, field flux and supply voltage can
be changed to vary the speed and control it.
ZPl a
Ta  = TaI a DC Series motor speed control by armature divider
2a (Fig 5): A variable resistance is connected in parallel to
Speed of the DC motor: Eb = ØZNP / 60a in which Z,P the armature. This will reduce the overall resistance and
and a are constant. Therefore Eb = ØN and N= Eb / Ø the current flow is increased. The flux will increase since
the current increases.
The speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back
EMF and indirevtly proportional to the flux.
Types of DC motors
1 Shunt motors
2 Series motor and
3 Compound motor
Shunt motor (Fig 2) : The shunt is a winding of thin wires E = Eb / Ø. So increase in flux will reduce the speed. In
of more turns and resistance which is connected in parallel this control we get speed less than normal speed.
to the armature.
DC Series motor speed control by field divider
Series motor. (Fig 3): The series winding is a thick few (Fig 6) : A variable resistor is connected in parallel to the
turns winding having low resistance. This is connected infield as shown in figure. In this the current to the field is
series with the armature. low and so the low flux.
connected. The voltage to the armature is reduced. Hence
Eb reduces. So speed reduces. In this method we get low
speed than the normal speed. There will be no change in
the field current. It will be costlier to do with this speed
control. Power loss and heat produced by resistor will be
high.
E = Eb / Ø. So decrease in flux will increase the speed. In

this control we get speed greater than normal speed.
Tapped field control (Fig 7): In this tapping will be
provided in the series winding and connected as shown in
figure. At first the motor is run at its full speed and can be
varied by changing tapping in series winding.. With change
in flux due to change in number of series winding we can
achieve variable speed. This type of motor is often used in
Application: Printing machine, low power cranes and
small application like fan motor and mixie motors.
hoists.
Shunt motor speed control - By field control (Fig 11):
A variable resistor connected in series with the field. Since
the current to the field is less, the flux also reduces. Hence
the speed will be high and above the normal speed.
Series Parallel method (Fig 8) : This is a very easy

method to achieve two speed controls. This type of speed
control is very much used in the fan motor.
Advantages
1 Can get speed more than the normal speed.
2 The current to the field is low, hence low power loss
and heat.
3 This method is simple, cost effective and more efficient.
Disadvantage
1 Field strength is weak and in high speed torque is
reduced.
Supply voltage control method (Fig 9): The series field
is connected in series with a variable resistor. The current 2 Commutation will occur due to weak field
to the series field can be varied. With this speed from zero Single phase induction motor
to its maximum can be achieved. Fractional horse powe
motor employs this technique. The power loss due to the Introduction: By construction 1Ø induction motor is very
heat generated in the variable resistor can be eliminated similar to 3Ø induction motor. This is largely used in
by suitable silicon controlled rectifier(SCR) houses, offices and in industries. Normally it is available
in 1 HP rating and in FHP.For special application the rating
will be 1.5 HP to 10 HP.
Working principal of single phase induction motor
(Fig12): When a single phase AC supply is given the stator
field it produces a pulsating magnetic field instead of a
rotating magnetic field. In the AC cycle the first positive
cycle will produce a field which turns the rotor in clock
wise direction. The next negative cycle produce a field
which turns the rotor in anti-clock wise direction. In net
Shunt motor speed control - By armature control effect the rotor won't rotate at all and vibrates. But if we
(Fig 10): In series with the armature a variable resistor is
rotate the rotor in one direction with the hand it will produce to create a 90 degree out of phase current with the current
a torque and rotate. in main winding. By changing the number of turns and
thickness of the starting winding the value of the reactance
changes from that of main winding. This change in
reactance cause the out of phase current in both windings.
So a single winding induction motor won't self-start. To

make it self-start another winding is used. This winding is
called the auxiliary or self-start winding. When the motor
attains 75% speed the starter winding disconnect from
the circuit by a centrifugal switch. The motor will now run
in the main winding.
Producing a rotating magnetic field by two windings In case the reactance of the both windings are same then
(Fig 13) : By splitting the single phase supply we can the field produced in not a rotating magnetic field but a
create a rotating magnetic field in single phase induction varying magnetic field. Note the wave form of the current
motor. To achieve the phase splitting an additional start or in main and auxiliary winding which is 90 degree apart
auxiliary winding is used along with the main winding. and poles are formed suitably.
Auxiliary winding is so placed in the main winding so as
Degree Position Main winding (1-1') Starter winding(2-2') Rate of magnetic

rotation
0º A Large amount of current and flux No current and no flux 0º
45º B Current flows and flux produced. Current flows and flux generated 0 to 45º rotation
90º C Current becomes zero and no Current flows and flux generated 45 to 90º rotation.
flux production
135° D Current flows in opposite direction Current reduces still flux produced. 90 to 135º rotation.
Flux produced
180º E Maximum current flows in Current becomes zero. Flux becomes 135 to 180º rotation.
opposite direction.Flux is zero. That is 0º state in
produced. 180º opposite.
In figure the magnetic field displacement for every half cycle The number of input pulse will have equal number of step
of the AC in 45º period is shown. Like this following 180º rotation on the rotor. Then speed of rotor depends on the
the poles will rotate till 360º and attain the position of 0º. frequency of the input pulse. The shaft of the stepper motor
This is how the rotating magnetic field happens in single won't rotate continuously but will be positioned precisely
phase induction motor. with accurate speed control. The number of steps in each
Classification of single phase induction motor full rotation will be from numbers 12, 24, 72, 144, 180 and
200. Corresponding to this step angle for each step will be
1 Resistance start induction run motor. of angle 300, 150, 50, 20 and 18.
2 Induction start induction run motor. Note: The special feature of the stepper motor
3 Capacitor type motor. is used in open loop control system.
a Permanent capacitor start motor. An open-loop system is a type of control system in which
the output of the system depends on the input but the
b Capacitor start induction run motor input or the controller is independent of the output of the
c Capacitor start capacitor run motor. system. These systems do not contain any feedback loop
and thus are also known as non-feedback system.
4 Shaded pole motor.
Step Angle : For every command pulse from the controller
5 Stepper motor. the degree of turn of the shaft is the step angle β..
Stepper motor : Basically the stepper motor is like a The least step angle is 0.72º and maximum 90º. Normally
synchronous motor. There is no commutator and brush the step angle 1.8º, 2.5º, 7.5º and 15º were the standard.
on the rotor. The motor on getting input pulse from a To determine the step angle we have to consider the stator
controller will rotate the rotor to the fixed angular step.
poles or the number of teeth. β = Ns - Nr *360 / Ns - Nr. Disadvantage
The number of steps required for one full rotation is called
1 If proper controlling is not done then resonance will
Resolution. So Resolution = 360º /β.
happen
Note: This motor is so designed to hold the rotor
2 It is not easy to run in high speed.
for a longer period in its position even though
there is stator current present in the winding. Applications: Printers, hard disc drive, Fax machines,
No damage is done to the rotor on this state. Plotters, Modern office equipments, medical apparatus
But on other motors with stalled rotor, back EMF and in Robotics
collapses and high current pass through the Three phase induction motor :
winding causing it to burn and damage.
Introduction : The motor is a device which convert
Types of Stepper motor Electronics energy to mechanical energy. The three phase
1 Variable reluctance (VR) Stepper motor induction motor on three phase AC supply. The simple
construction, low repair, good torque, good speed, and
2 Permanent magnet (PM) Stepper motor
low cost were the prime reason for choosing than the single
3 Hybrid stepper motor. phase and DC induction motors. Used in industries, home
and offices. This works on the principle of magnetic
1 Variable reluctance (VR) Stepper motor : This type
induction and hence called induction motor.
of stepper motors ere in existence for quite a long
period. This consist of stator winding soft iron rotor Operation of a Three phase Induction motor : The
which has teeth cut on the circumference. When the principal of DC motor will applicable to this motor. The
stator is given the DC voltage, the poles will produce a current carrying conductor will experience a torque when
magnetic force which pulls the teeth of the shaft and placed in a magnetic field. There is no Electronics
cause rotation. connection to the rotor. On the contrary Electronics current
is induced in the conductor. The stator acts like the primary
2 Permanent magnet (PM) Stepper motor : This low
of a transformer. Rotor acts like the secondary of the
resolution stepper motor is very cheap. Their step
transformer.
angles 7.5 to 150º(48-24 step per turn).. The magnetic
flux density is increased with the formation of north When the stator is given the 3 phase electric supply, rotating
and south poles parallel to the shaft. The torque is magnetic field is produced. This field cuts the conductors
much more forceful than VR type stepper motor. This in the rotor which were shorted. An EMF is produced in
is also called as Tin can or Can stock. the rotor which drives the current. This magnetic field which
is responsible for the production by the stator magnetic
3 Hybrid stepper motor : This motor is having the
field will be in opposite direction. This can be inferred by
best characteristic of PM and VR stepper motor. The
Maxwell's cork screw rule. The rotor experience a torque
step resolution, torque and speed were very good. The
due to the stator field. Due to this the rotor rotates following
step angle is 3.60º to 0.90º(100-400 steps per turn)
the same direction of the rotor field. The speed of rotor is
But the cost of this motor is higher than PM stepper
less than the speed of the stator magnetic field. The speed
motor.
at which the stator rotating field is known as the
Advantages synchronous field and the trailing rotor speed is the actual
1 When the motor is stationary and the windings are speed.
energized will have the full torque Rotating magnetic field in the stator : The induction
motor rotates due to the rotating magnetic field on the
2 The angular movement of the shaft is directly
stator. The stator comprise three windings at 120º
proportional to the input pulse.
Electronicsly. These are non-salient stator poles. When a
3 We can achieve different speeds since this is depends three phase supply is given to the winding, three separate
on the frequency of the input pulse. pulsating fields were produced. Due to the Electronics
4 With load we can operate on low speed. phase difference on the three windings the fields in each
winding together forms a single rotating field on the stator.
5 On open loop system digital pulse is being given. The When a two pole induction motor is given a 3 phase supply
construction of the stepper motor is simple and cost of how the rotating magnetic field is as shown in the figure A.
controlling is small The Electronics current in the stator winding is 120
6 Starting, stopping and reversing can be done. Electronics degree apart. The resultant current is shown
on 60º interval. After 60 Electronics degree in fig A a number
7 The accurate position of the shaft and its speed can 2 is denoted. The phase current Ib is zero and positive
be achieved and Iy is negative. Now as shown in figure C then end of
8 There is no contact brush on the rotor hence life time the coil Y2 and R1 the current goes inwards as positive. In
of the motor depends on the bearings Y1a nd R2 end the current comes out which is negative.
Due to this the magnetic poles will be shifted by 60 degree
and comes to new position. On this basis of the current
wave position, each Electronics 60 degree addition to initial position on 360º
(3,4,5,6,7) poles position keeps on changing and comes
The speed of the rotating magnetic field is the synchronous
speed. This depends on the supply frequency and number
of poles . Ns = 120f / P where Ns is the synchronous
speed , f is the supply frequency and P is the number of
poles.
Slip and Rotor speed
The rotor on induction motor will rotate on the same
direction of the rotating magnetic field. This is less than
the synchronous speed. The difference between the
synchronous and actual speed persist. Due to this the
conductor will cut the field continuously and torque is
produced. The difference between the synchronous speeds
to the actual speed is called as slip. Fractional slip S=
Ns-Nr / Ns , % of slip =( Ns-Nr / Ns) * 100. The value of the
% slip in an induction motor is normally 2% to 5%
Instrument Mechanic - Transformers
Transformers and its working principles

• explain the principle of transformer
• explain the types of transformers
• experimenting the transformer by open and short circuit.
Introduction : Transformers works on mutual induction 2 Shell type transformer and

principle. In Electronics substation it is widely used for
3 Berry type transformer.
lower voltage to higher voltage and vice versa.
Transformer and its principle of operation (Fig 1)
Marinating the same frequency power has been

transformed from one circuit to the other circuit.
On an iron core two winding were formed by Electronicsly
insulated one from the other is formed. The winding on
which the supply given is known as the primary winding
and the other winding is secondary from which the output
is taken. When applying AC supply to the primary winding
an alternating magnetic flux is produced through the axis
of the iron core. This flux cut the winding and as per
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction an electro
motive force is produced.. The EMF generated in the
secondary winding is due to mutual induction. EMF Core type transformer (Fig 3a&b)
induced is proportional to the number of turns in the
winding.
Types of Transformers (Fig 2): Types of transformers
were shown in figure. As per the voltage to be transformer
we can again sub divided into
a Step up and
b Step down transformer.
1 Step up transformer: The number of turns in
secondary winding is more than the primary winding.
Due to this EMF produced in the secondary is greater Construction as shown in fig 3a&3b. The cores will be of
than the applied primary voltage.. the rectangular sheets of I &L shapes. The coils on the
core will be cylindrical. The primary and secondary coils
2 Step down transformers: The number of turns will be
were wounded on separate limbs. Since the winding is
less than the primary winding. Hence the EMF produced
around the core, it is called as core type transformer.
in the secondary is less than the voltage applied in the
primary. Shell type transformer (Fig 3b)
Transformer core: As per construction The core of the shell type transformer is made of E&I shape
sheets. There will be three limbs in this type of transformer.
1 Core type transformer
In the center limb the primary and secondary winding is
84
wound on one over other. The center limb will be larger Potential transformer PT (Fig 6): This transformer with
than the outer limbs. The core is around the winding as a a voltmeter is used widely to measure high voltage. For
shell, so it is called shell type transformer. the primary winding, thin wire of large turns of small diameter
wires were used. This coil has to be connected in parallel
Berry type transformer (Fig 4)
to the HT supply to be measured. The secondary wire
consist of few turns of large diameter wires. The secondary
is connected to the voltmeter. One end of the secondary
is connected to earth to prevent high voltage due to loose
connection. The secondary voltage voltmeter (110V) is
calibrated with the full capacity of the primary voltage.
The berry type transformer is as shown in fig4. Then primary

and secondary windings were wound on the center limb of
a rectangular sheets formed as a cylindrical one. It is very
difficult to wind the coil in berry type transformer. This
type of transformer is very rarely used.
Type as per cooling method employed
1 Natural air cooling transformer Current transformer CT (Fig 7): Current transformer is
2 Air blast cooling transformer used to measure the high current in transmission and
3 Oil immersed natural air cooling transformer, and distribution lines. The core of the transformer should have
low reactance and low iron loss. To reduce secondary
4 Oil immersed forced air cooling transformer
leakage reactance the windings were wound closely. One
Type as per the usage or more turns of the primary winding is connected in series
1 Power transformer and with the line in which the current is to be measured. The
2 Distribution transformer. large turns secondary winding is connected to the ammeter
1 Power transformer (Fig 5) : The power transformer with an end of the winding earthed. The ammeter in the
is used in Electronics generating station. Generation secondary is so calibrated to read the full heavy current of
of low power electricity at generating station is very primary.
cheap. To transmit this power as it is to faraway places
by transmission lines will incur heavy losses. To
overcome this the voltage at the generating end is
stepped up and transmitted.
EMF Equation of a transformer (Fig 8): The EMF•

induced in a transformer depend on the flux density (Øm)
in the core, system frequency (F) and the number of turns
in the winding(N) In a full AC cycle the flux becomes zero
4 times.
2 Distribution transformer : A distribution transformer

or service transformer is a transformer that provides
the final voltage transformation in the electric power
distribution system, stepping down the voltage used in
the distribution lines to the level used by the customer.
Instrument transformer: To measure high voltage and
currents, this type of instrument is used.
In one frequency change in flux = 4Øm Webber.
Types for the usage in instruments
In F frequency change in flux = 4ØmF webber. In one
1 Potential transformer and second one webber flux has been cut and the induced
2 Current transformer. EMF is 1 volt. In a cycle the EMF induced is = 4ØmF
webber volt. If N is the number of turns in winding then the variable loss.% voltage regulation =( Vo - Vl ) / Vo x
EMF induced = 4ØmFN volt. This is the average EMF 100. Where Vo is the no load voltage and Vl is the full
induced in the winding. load voltage.
Since the wave form is sinusoidal the effective EMF (RMS)
is = the form factor x average value.Form factor = RMS
value / average value = 1.1. The induced EMF Value =1.1
x 4ØmFN volts, where Øm = Bmax x area. And Bmax
equql to Maximum flux density weber/m².
Area is in meter². Np turns in primary will have an induced Auto transformer (Fig 11): This is a single winding
EMF Ep=4.4ØmFNp volts.Ns turns in secondary the transformer. The core with the single winding, input and
induced EMF Es=4.4ØmFNs volts. output leads were taken as shown in Fig 11. The current
pass in between the input and output terminals. Fig 12
Transformer ratio (K): It is the ration between factors in
shows the parts of a auto transformer.
primary winding to the factors in secondary wings of
Primary induced voltage Ep, Primary number of turns Np,
primary current Ip to secondary induced EMF Es,
secondary number of turns En and secondary current Ei.
RMS value of the primary induced EMF = 4.44 ØmFNp
volt. RMS value of the secondary induced EMF = 4.44
ØmFNs volt. RMS secondary / RMS primary = 4.44
ØmFNs / 4.44 ØmFNp = Ns / Np = K also known as
turns ratio AND Es / Ep is the voltage ratio. If we consider
a ideal transformer without any loss then the power input
= power output. Which is Vp x Ip = Vs x Is and Ip / Is =
Vs / Vp =K.
If we demote voltage current and number of turns together
Transformation ratio = Vs / Vp = Ns / Np = Ip / Is.
Transformer tests: Transformer is a static device since it
has got no moving parts. So there is no frictional loss.
Like in other machines there are core losses and copper
losses. This can be found out as below. Advantages
1 Open circuit test (Fig 9): The object of this test is to 1 The amount of winding material is less and so the price
find out core or iron loss. The core or iron loss depends also low. Power loss is low.
on voltage and frequency. In this test voltage of low
2 With the tapping in winding we can get low voltage.
value and normal frequency is applied. The secondary
winding (high voltage side) should kept in open. When 3 When comparing with the two winding transformer the
there is no load in the secondary the primary current is voltage regulation is good.
called as "no load current. Normally this no load current
4 When comparing with the two winding transformer and
will be small and hence a small range ammeter and
auto transformer of similar capacity, the efficiency of
watt meter has been connected as shown in the figure.
auto transformer is high.
The no load current in ammeter is low and the copper
losses due to this is insignificant. So the core and Application of auto transformer
copper losses were as red by the watt meter.
1 The same transformer can be used as step-up and
step-down transformer.
2 Can be used as a voltage booster.
3 The three phase auto transformers were used in 3 phase
induction motor starter.
2 Short circuit test (Fig 10): The object of the test is to
4 In transmission line 3 phase auto transformer is used
find out copper or variable loss. The copper loss in a
for grid connection.
transformer is directly proportional to the square of the
current. The volt meter, ammeter and watt meter were Disadvantages of auto transformer
connected as shown in the figure 9 with high voltage
1 When in the winding of the auto transformer
winding. Low voltage side winding is short circuited.
output(secondary) have any winding cut then the total
With an auto transformer the primary winding is
load will shifted to input primary side.
supplied with normal frequency slowly rising supply
voltage. The voltage increased till the full load current 2 The short circuit current will be more severe than the 2
passes in the primary side. Now on full load current winding transformer.
the meter reading of watt meter is the copper or the
3 The load cant be taken off from the primary winding.
Instrument Mechanic - Electrical Measuring Instruments
Electrical measuring instruments and its working principles

• explain types of Electronics instruments, its torque and damping methods.
Introduction : When we learn about electricity we come

across terms like current, voltage, resistance, frequency,
power factor…etc.
Each of the parameters are having separate units and we
measure them with different meters. Meters can be
broadly classified into
1 Absolute instruments and
3 Integrated instruments (Fig 3): The Electronics
2 Secondary instruments. energy spend during a particular time is measured by
1 Absolute instruments: The values of the quantity to integrated instrument. For the best example is the
be calculated in terms of physical constants and their energy meter. It cumulate the Electronics energy and
deflection are given by Absolute Instruments. The shows over a time by the counters n the face of the
measurement measured by this meter need not be meter.
compared with other types of meter. Example: Tangent
Galvano meter.
2 Secondary instruments: Secondary instruments are
those, in which the value of Electronics quantity to be
measured can be determined from the deflection of the
instruments. These meters are calibrated with the help
of absolute instruments. Most of the meters are of
Secondary instruments. For example: Ammeter,
voltmeter, energy meter etc.
Classification of secondary instruments
1 Indicating or deflecting instrument Torque or force on an indicating type instrument
2 Recording instrument and For proper function of indicating instrument, three type of
torque or force is required.
3 Integrated instruments
1 Deflecting or driving torque.
1 Indicating or deflecting instrument (Fig 1):
Measurements were indicated over a dial over which a 2 Controlling torque
pointer moves. Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Energy 3 Damping torque.
meter, Ohm meter etc.
1 Deflecting or driving torque: This torque will move
the pointer from zero position. Due to the effect of the
current this torque is produced.( Magnetic effect, heat
effect, electro static effect, induction effect or by
chemical effect). This torque converts Electronics
energy to mechanical energy.
2 Controlling torque: To stop the pointer due to the
deflecting torque at the desired measuring value another
torque is required. This torque is known as controlling
torque. The controlling torque opposed the deflecting
torque. When both the torques were same, the pointer
stops. When the supply is removed, the pointer returns
to zero due to the controlling torque.
Types of controlling torque
2 Recording instrument (Fig 2): For a particular duration
the varying measurement has been drawn on a graph a Spring control and
paper. These measuring instruments were used in
b Gravity control.
Electronics generation station. Example: ECG machine
and thermo scope
87
a Spring control (Fig 4): As shown in the figure two reading without any oscillation and quickly then we
coiled shape phosphor bronze hair springs were can assure critical damping is used. Due to excessive
mounted on a spindle up and down. The two springs damping the indicator will move slowly to its destination.
were fixed so that when one spring expands, the other Due to under damping the indicator moves very slowly
spring will compressed. When the spindle rotates one and take time. There will be oscillation of the needle
spring compress and other spring expands due to the over the scale.
deflecting and controlling torques. When the measured
There are three types of dampings.
unit reaches both torques are same and will be shown
on the dial. When the supply is disconnected the A Air friction damping.
compressed spring will be released (due to control B Fluid friction damping and
torque) and the pointer returns to zero. These springs
should have the following characteristic. C Eddy current damping.
A Air friction damping: Damping by air friction employs
1 Piston type and
2 Box or sector type.
Piston type (Fig 6): A light aluminum piston is connected
to the spindle of the meter. This piston will move to and fro
inside a chamber which is closed on one side. When the
needle moves the piston moves inside the air chamber.
The air inside the chamber is pressed. Compressed air
escape through the edge of the piston slowly. This create
a damping torque and will establish the needle vibration
free.
1 Should be nonmagnetic.
2 Should be of least Electronics resistance
3 Should not elongate due to heat.
4 After repeated numerous operation the spring should
retain its spring force.
Advantages: The spring is used for conducting the current
to the moving coil. Can be used on any stage.
b Gravity control (Fig 5): In this method the controlling
torque is achieved by the gravitational force. As shown Box or sector type (Fig 7): Figure shows two quadral
in the figure two weights are positioned in perpendicular circular air chamber. A rectangular plate is fixed inside the
to each other. One is the control weight and the other chamber. The plate is fixed to the spindle. When the needle
is the balance weight. Control weight is used to bring moves the plate will moves inside the air chamber and
controlling torque and to bring the pointer back to zero. produce the damping torque.
Balance weight is used to stabilize the pointer over the
reading.
Fluid friction damping (Fig 8): A x shaped aluminum

sheet is immersed in a damping fluid. Aluminum sheet is
connected to the spindle. When the pointer turns the
spindle rotates and the aluminum sheet inside the damping
fluid creates a damping torque. Due to this the pointer is
stable. The damping fluid should have the following
Advantages: Cheaper than the control springs and the characteristic.
scale of the instrument is uniform
1 Should be nonconductive.
3 Damping torque: The indicating needle will oscillate
2 No change in viscosity
around the reading eventhogh deflecting and controlling
torque is present. This will take time for the reading. To 3 Should not evaporate.
get instantaneous reading another torque known as 4 It should not corrode the plate.
damping torque is required. If the needle shows the
3 Testing potential
Upto 500V
2000V
No voltage
Disadvantage 4 Using position

This type of damping force should be used in meters where
placed in vertical position. Verticle
C Eddy current damping (Fig 9): This method of Horizontal

damping is superior than other damping methods. A
thin copper or aluminum disc is mounted on a spindle. Use angle 60º
This disc will rotate between a U shaped permanent
magnet. When the pointer moves, the spindle rotate
along with disc. The magnetic field between the poles From vertical ± 2º
of the magnet will cut the rotating disc. An EMF is
induced in the disc. This EMF produces an eddy From horizontal ±10º
current, which moves in opposite to the EMF. This will
create a damping torque known as eddy current
damping torque. 5 Accuracy class: For % of full scale deflection and
% of actual reading
2.5 Measuring range end value
2.8 Length of scale
6 Indication error
1 Indicating loss ± 1%
Identification of meter terminals : If it is a DC meter 2.5 Indicating loss ± 2.5%
then marking will be +VE AND - VE. Red will be +VE and
black will be - VE. If it is an AC meter then phase and 3.5 Indicating loss ± 3.5%
neutral will be of same color. On multi range meter the 7 Type of instrument
phase will be in red color and neutral will be in black with
voltage rating indicated. If the meter is provided with range Moving coil meter
selector switch or knob then proper rating selection should
be done by selector or knob. If the value of the source is Moving iron meter
unknown then measure with high range first, then for the
fraction measure with the desired switch range. The Electro magnetic quotiemt meter
indicator should deflect more than 60% of range for
selkection. Electro dynamic meter with magnetic
Details on the instrument dial screen
1 Measuring range and unit
Moving coil with rectfier
V VOLT μV MV and KV
A AMPERE μA mA and KA Thermo couple meter
W WATT mW MW KW Separate series and shunt resistance
meter
Ω OHM mΩ , KΩ , MΩ
Induction type meter
HZ HERTZ KHZ MHZ
2 Types of supply
Vibarator type meter
Direct current DC
Alternating current Hot wire meter
Direct and alternating current

Electro static type meter
3 phase AC
8 Type of scale
Course and course fine scale. Error of 1 to 2.5% applicable panel meters
Fine scale meters. 0.1 to 0.3% error instruments with mirror in back
ground
Extended scale. Used in short time over load or starting current

measurement
Linear scale. Used in moving coil instruments. Full range of scale is

uniform
Non-linear scale. Used in moving iron instruments. Scale is non uniform
Non-linear scale coarse. Used in Megger
Cause of errors in meter 4 Reed or tube pointer

1 Device error: These errors are due to assembly while
manufacture, wrong adjustment and using in wrong
position. 5 Hair line pointer
2 Influence error: Due to environmental moisture, heat,
vibration and magnetic field
3 Switching error: Wrong connection of the meter
6 Knife pointer with
4 Human error: Error in reading due to parallax and mirror scale
wrong calculation of sub division.
Apart from these the amount of error in the meter changes
as given in the table. The error were given in number will
represent ± value and expressed as % Mirror scale: This is used where precision is important.
Parallax error will happen during reading when the pointer
Error Useage is leaned to some angle and not straight. We have to
0.1 TO 0.3 In laboratories where precision is take reading by not seeing the image of pointer on the
important mirror but to see straight on the needle. By this Parallax
error is avoided.
0.5 Laboratory and portable measuring
instrument Zero adjustment: There is provision for the pointer doesn't
go below or beyond maximum value. There are two
1 TO 2.5 Panel instruments used in factories stoppers on the dial to prevent this. By adjusting the zero
Type of indicators or pointers adjustment screw the pointer can be brought in line with
zero reading of the scale. As far as a meter is concerned
1 Standard pointer when the battery voltage reduces, zero error will occur.
2 Knife pointer By When the zero adjustment screw is turned, there is a
provision to get the correct voltage by a variable resistor
inside.
Meter sensitivity: The current required to turn the scale
3 Lance pointer
deflection of the scale is called the meter sensitivity. This
level will vary from 5 micro amp to 75 milli amps. When a
moving coil meter(PMMC) is used as a Volt meter a series
resistance(multiplier) of high value is connected to the
coil of the meter. At this level the sensitivity of the meter
is = Resistance between the meter / meter range. That is
it is the inverse ratio of the full scale deflection current.
This denoted bu ohms per volt. S= 1 / I(FSD)=1/1ma=1/
(1/1000)=1000ohms/volt.
Loading effect of voltmeter: The sensitivity is an
important factor before selecting a voltmeter for the desired
voltage measurement. Loading effect of the voltmeter is
the difference between actual voltage that exists in the
circuit without connecting the voltmeter and the voltage
that appears after connecting voltmeter. A voltmeter is
placed across a resistor to measure its voltage. For For 1 volt it is 1000Ω. For 50 volts it is 5000Ω. When this
example refer figure 10 & 11. For each voltage drop of voltmeter is connected in parallel to the 50KΩ resistor,
50K in the two resistors we can arrive as 50V. In the
then the total resistance will be reduced by 25KΩ. and
figure 8 let us assume we use to measure the voltage
the voltmeter reading will be (25 / 70)*100V = 33.3V. Hence
drop across the resistor of 50k ohm with a less sensitivity
the voltmeter shows 33.3 volts instead 50volts. This wrong
meter(1000 ohms per volt). When the meter range is at
meter reading is called the loading effect.
50V its resistance is 50KΩ.
Permanent magnet moving coil meter -PMMC

• explain the meter sensitivity, zero adjustment and effect of voltmeter
• explain the principle and working of PMMC .
Permanent magnet moving coil meter (Fig 1) : When is made to the rotating coil to give the source supply. The
a current carrying conductor is place in a magnetic field pointer is attached to the spindle which moves over a
then a torque will be induced in the conductor. This DC graduated scale. On two end of the spindle jewel bearings
motor principle is used in PMMC. were mounted.
Operating principles: When current passes through the
moving coil which is placed in the magnetic field, a torque
is induced in the coil. This rotate the spindle. The pointer
will moves over the scale due to the spindle rotation. The
torque is proportional to the current and hence the scale
is linear and uniform.
The torque produced is T = BLINr Newton, where B=Flux
density in weber/M2., L is the effective length of the coil in
meter, I is the current in Amps and N is the number of
turns in the coil.
Note: By using this meter we can measure
directly the current in micro Amps. For
measuring more current we have to use shunts.
For still more current to measure, Multipliers
are used.
As shown in figure 1 a U shaped permanent magnet is
Advantage
used. Pole shoes are fixed at the end of the poles for
uniform air gap with the moving coil. Thin strand is wound 1 Consume less power.
over a rectangular former made of copper or aluminum. 2 Uniform scale and 270º deflection
This rectangular former gives a stable shape to the coil
and give eddy current damping to the meter. At the center 3 More torque / weight ratio
of the former a circular soft iron cylindrical core is placed. 4 Superior damping torque.
This core reduces the reluctance in the magnetic flux and
increases its value. It core also serve to distribute uniform 5 Safety from stray magnetic field.
flux in between the poles. The coil wounded on the former 6 There is no hysteresis loss.
is attached to the spindle. On top and bottom of the spindle,
hair springs made of phosphorous bronze were fixed. 7 Using correct resistance, meter can be used as
These springs produces the controlling torque. Provision Ammeter or Voltmeter.
Disadvantages S =( Im Rm) / (I- Im) , where Im = Full scale deflection
current, Rm = Meter coil resistance S= Shunt
1 Can be used only on DC supply
resistance, Im Rm = Voltage drop of the meter, and
2 Only spring control can be used V= Measuring voltage
3 Cost is high 2 M ( V-Vm) / Im where V is the measuring voltage,Vm
4 Due to loss in magnetism of the permanent magnet is the full scale deflection, Im meter current, and M
there might be error in measurement. multiplier resistance.
FORMULAS KWH = revolution of disc / Meter constant.
Ammeter - Shunt
1 Im / I = S / (S+Rm) OR
Extending the range of meter

• explain the extending the range of voltmeter
• explain the extending the range of ammeter.
Extending the range of Volt meter: All meters are having Extending the range of Ammeter meter: The meter coil
constant resistance. According to the passage of current will withstand to certain current limit. To measure current
voltage drop occur. V=IR. All meters are manufactured to above that limit, a resistor in parallel to the coil is used.
withstand a particular current carrying capacity.Hence to This resistor is called as Shunt.
measure high voltage we have to increase the coil
To calculate the value of shunt resistance SR =( ImRM) /
resistance. For this series resistance are used and called
(I-IM) where SR is the shunt resistor, SM is the meter
as multipliers. To calculate multiplier resistance MR = (V-
resistance, IM is the meter current and I is the current to
Vm) / Im or MR=(MF -1)*Rm,
be measured.
MF = V / Vm. Where MR is the multiplier resistance, V is
Note : The shunt resistor is made of manganese
the voltage to be measured, Vm is the full scale deflection,
and there wont be any variation in resistance
Im is the meter current and MF is the multiplying factor.
due to temperature.
Multi range voltmeter (Fig 1): As shown in figure the
Multi range Ammeter(Fig 2) : Shunt resistance of equal
multi range voltmeter is having multipliers or the required
number is used for the range number. This is selected
range These are selected by the switch and connected to
through a range selector switch.
the circuit.
S.No Moving Iron Moving coil

1 A piece of pig iron A current carrying conductor
is attracted by the is placed in the magnetic
Note:Normally the resistor will change its value
electro magnet and field of permanent magnet
due to temperature change.Hence the
a torque is indued and a torque is induced in
multiplier resistor should be made of material
the conductor.
having low temperature co-efficient. Materials
such as manganese and constantant should be 2 Spring gravity control Only normal spring control
used. The temperature coefficient of is used is used
Manganese is 0.000015 and that of constantant
3 Air damping is used Eddy current damping is
is 0.00001.
used.
4 The deflection torque is directly proportional to The deflection torque is is directly proportional to the
the square of the current (T directly proportional to I2) current(T directly proportional to I)
5 The scale is uniform The scale is not uniform
6 This is not for precision measurement Precision measurement can be taken.
7 Low price High price
8 High power loss Low power loss
9 Can be used both in AC &DC supply Only DC supply can be given
10 Used in AC/DC Ammeter, voltmeter Used in DC Ammeter, DC voltmeter, Galvano meter and
Ohm meter.
Ohm meter
• explain principle of ohm meter, its construction and working method
• explain megger and earth tester construction and working method.
From 1Ω to 100000 Ω of mid range resistors can be Shunt type Ohm meter(Fig 2): This is used to measure
measured by any one of the following methods resistance of low value. The left hand side of the scale
begin with zero and the right hand side ends with infinity.
1 By ohm meter
In this type moving system M , zero adjusting resistor,
2 By Wheatstone bridge method and battery will be connected in series.In parallel to the
3 By Ammeter and Voltmeter battery the resistance to be measured is connected.
4 By comparison method Working method (Fig 2)
5 By substitution method.
Types of Ohm meter
1 Series type ohm meter and
2 Shunt type ohm meter
Series type ohm meter (Fig 1): This is used to measure
medium range resistors of value 1Ω to 100000 Ω. In this
type , the moving system, current limiting resistance R
and the resistor to be measured in series as shown. Zero
adjusting resistor is connected in parallel to the moving
system. The left hand side of the scale is indicated with
infinity mark and right hand side with zero. The left hand 1 The resistance to be measured and the battery are
side of the scale is narrow and not in uniform. connected in parallel. As per shunt type when 1&2
points are shorted , the full level current will not pass
through the moving system. Hence there is no current
in moving system and no deflection of needle and the
reading is zero.
2 When terminal 1&2 is open, the full current will pass
through the moving system and maximum torque is
produced and the needle will deflect to end of right
side scale showing reading infinity.
3 When a resistor is connected in between terminal 1&2,
the current passing through the moving system is
inversely proportional to the resistance to be measured
Working principle: When a current carrying conductor and the resistance of the meter coil. This current
is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor will experience produces a torque which moves the deflection of pointer
a torque. On this principle this meter works. over the scale.
Between terminal 1&2 a resistor is connected. When the Note: The accuracy of the meter depends on
switch S is closed a current which is indirectly proportional the condition of the battery. Before using the
the resistance will flow in the circuit. Due to this the meter terminal 1&2 is shorted and zero
indicator moves and shows the value of resistance. adjustment is done by the variable resistor.
magnetic field. The coil experience the maximum torque
If this is not possible then use a new battery. under the pole faces and the pointer set at the zero end of
Before using the meter don't give supply. The the resistance scale.
electrolytic capacitors should be discharged.
Since the relation between the current and the For improving the torque, the voltage coil V2 is used. The
resistance in inverse the scale of the meter is coil V2 is so allocated that when the pointer deflects from
not uniform. It will be narrow towards infinity. infinity to zero coil moves into a stronger magnetic field.
Multi range ohm meter (Fig 3): With a single meter we In Megger, the combined action of both the voltage coils
can measure in the range of 1Ω to 100000 Ω of medium V1 and V2 are considered. The coil comprises a spring of
resistance. For accurate readings ranges of 0-100, 0-10000 variable stiffness. It is stiff near the zero end of the coil
and 0-100000 were selected through a range switch. Range and becomes very weak near the infinity end of the spring.
switch acts as a multiplier factor in ohm meter. The actual The spring compresses the low resistance portion and
reading should be the pointer placement multiply with the opens the high resistance of the spring, which is the great
range factor. In a series ohm meter type how the range advantage of the Megger because it is used for measuring
swith and battery were connected is shown in figure3. the insulation of the resistance which is usually very high.
The instrument has voltage selector switch which is used
for selecting the voltage range of the instrument. The voltage
range is controlled by selecting the varying resistance R
connected in series with the current coil. The voltage is
generated by connecting the hand driven generator.
Working of Megger : The testing voltage is usually 500,
1000 or 2500 V which is generated by the hand driven
generator. The generator has centrifugal clutch due to which
the generator supplied the constant for the insulation test.
The constant voltage is used for testing the insulation having
low resistance.
Note: The accuracy in this meter is low when
low and high resistance were measured The Megger has three coils two pressure coils and one
current coil. The pressure coil rotates the moving coil in
Megger or Insulation tester: To measure insulation the anticlockwise direction, whereas the current coil rotates
resistance ( meg ohm) megger is used. This is also called it in the clockwise direction.
as meg ohm meter.There are two important parts in this
meter. When the unknown resistance is connected in the circuit,
the pointer of the moving coil becomes stable. The pressure
1 Hand driven generator and coil and the current coil balance the pointer and set it in
2 High range ohm meter. the middle of the scale.
Construction (Fig 4): When the handle of the megger is The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
rotated around 160 RPM a DC voltage of 500 or 1000V is voltage applied to the external circuit. When the testing
produced by the generator inside. The current range will circuit is applied across the Megger, and if there is no
be 5 to 10m amps. shorting throughout the insulation then the pointer deflects
towards the infinity. Which shows that the resistance has
high insulation. For low resistance, the pointer moves
towards zero.
Note: Before using the megger, its terminals should be
kept open and the handle is rotated. Now the indicator
shows infinity. When the terminal is short circuited the
indicator will show zero.This pre-check should be done
before using megger.When current flows in the live line
don't use the megger.Rotate the handle in the direction
indicated. Apart from insulation resistance this meter is
also used for continuity test.
The construction of the Megger is shown in the figure below.
Now in the market we get domestic electronic megger
The Megger has one current coil and the two voltage coils
with push button type selector. For industry megger
V1 and V2. The voltage coil V1 is passed over the magnet
operated by motor is available. The megger is classified
connected to the generator. When the pointer of the PMMC
as per its voltage generation.
instrument deflects towards infinity, it means that the
voltage coil remains in the weak magnetic field and thus When doing the insulation test between line and body, the
experienced the very little torque.the torque experienced earth terminal of the megger is connected to the body. For
by the coil increases when it moves insides the strong testing the insulation test of a machine the megger voltage
should be the double the machine rated voltage.
to be driven to the ground. If we use DC directly for the
Megger range Where used
measurement then it will be wrong measurement due to
50000MΩ / 2500V Power transformers and high electrolytic EMF.
tension equipment testing
Synchronous rotary rectifier: A voltage drop is produced
2000MΩ / 1000V To test power circuit and motors. when the AC voltage is injected to the earth.This AC voltage
50MΩ / 500V To test house wiring and small should not be given to moving coil type ohm meter.
motors of 250V range. Hence with rectifier the AC us converted to DC and given
to the Ohm meter.
Earth resistance tester (Fig 5) : This is used to measure
the earth resistance, earth continuity and soil resistivity.Fall Ohm meter: The Ohm meter is build in to the system to
of potential method is used for the measurement. measure the earth resistance. Refer figure 5. In the middle
of the poles of a permanent magnet , a current and a
pressure coil is placed on the same spindle 900 apart.
Current coil is connected in series and the pressure coil
is connected in parallel. In between the two coil a pointer
is fixed which moves over a scale. There are four terminals
P1 ,P2 C1 and C2. Here P1 and C1 were shorted and
brought to another terminal called E which is connected
to the earth electrode. P2 and C2 were connected to
auxiliary electrode B and C.
Operation: The auxiliary electrodes B&C were to be
separated from earth electrode by 12.5 and 25 meters
apart. B and C terminals should be on the earth too. As
shown in the figure E, B, C were connected and the handle
of the generator is rotated to 160RPM. Due to this the
current in the current coil and the current in the pressure
Parts coil will have a ratio and the pointer will moves as per this
1 Hand driven generator, ratio and show a measurement. This is the measurement
of earth. To measure the correct resistance, it is done in
2 Rotary current reverser. four or five places( the distance between the spikes same)
3 Synchronous rotary rectifier and and do the average measurement.
4 Ohm meter. Note: A frequency is generated in the meter.

Another equal frequency associated with the
Construction : Hand driven Generator: When the handle circuit will cause the pointer to vibrate.At this
of the generator is rotated to about 160 RPM a voltage of point the rotation through the handle should
500V DC is produced. On its armature shaft, s rectifier be increased or decreased so as to stop the
and a current reversal mechanism is fixed. pointer vibration
Rotary current reverser: This is fixed on the generator
shaft. The DC voltage generated into AC voltage which is
Types of indicating instruments

• explain the types of indicating instruments and it's operation
• explain the advantages and disadvantages of indicating instruments.
Types of indicating instruments setup the iron moves inside the coil of the air core. The
1 Moving iron instrument (attractive and repulsive) movement of the iron in the air core depends on square of
the current directly. T=I². Whatever be the current direction
2 Permanent magnet moving coil instrument in the coil, the iron always moves inside the core. This
3 Dynamo meter instrument can be used both in AC and DC circuits.
4 Electro static meter. Advantages
5 Induction meter. 1 Can be used in AC and DC supplies. There is no polarity

marking on the terminals.
Moving iron attraction type (Fig 1): If a small iron is
place in a magnetic field then it will be attracted to the 2 Gravity or spring control id used.
field. On this principle this instrument works. As shown in 3 Air damping is used.
figure an oval shaped soft iron is placed inside a spindle
which is connected to an indicator which moves over a 4 Uses high operating torque.
graduated scale. The spindle rest on jewel bearing. In this
5 Cost of this instrument is low.
6 Low turn high diameter coils are used for ammeter and
high turn low diameter coils are used in volt meter. For
this reason shunt and multipliers are need not be used
to measure the parameters to some extent.
7 Meter needle can have a deflection up to 240 degrees
for better accuracy.
Disadvantages
1 Calibration is not linear that is at the beginning it will
be narrow and dispersed at the end.
2 Errors are due to Hysteresis, frequency and stray
magnetic field.
Repulsion type motors (Fig 2) : The principle of operation
is force due to repulsion of like poles of magnet. As shown
in figure two soft iron pieces were mounted on a spindle in
parallel. On soft iron is movable and the other is fixed.
This is placed inside the air core of the coil. The pointer is
attached to the spindle which moves over a scale. The
supply is given and the coil produces a magnetic field
which create same polarity on the two soft iron strips. A
repulsive force created in between the two soft iron strips
and the moving strip will turns the spindle which in turn
moves the pointer.
In moving iron meter the torque T is directly proportional to
the square of the current, the reading at the start will be
narrow then widens. To offset this and to have a more or
less uniform graduation of the scale , the fixed iron will be
conical of less area at the tip.
Due to deflection, the moving soft iron will move from the
base of the fixed iron to the tip of the fixed iron .This
deflection torque is low and the scale is more or less
uniform. Air friction damping is used. The characteristics
are similar to attraction type meter.
Watt meter and energy meter

• explain the principle of watt meter and its working method
• explain the advantage and disadvantage of wattmeter
• explain the working of energy meter and the description of its parts.
Wattmeter 3 Electro static type which is used in DC only.
To determine the power used in an AC circuit we use the Dynamo meter type Watt meter(Fig 1) : Dynamo meter
formula W=VI COSθ . Hence we can find voltmeter, type instruments can be used in both AC and DC. This
ammeter and power factor meter to determine the power. meter works on the principle of DC Motor. That is when a
But to setup the three meters with connections, time current carrying conductor is placed on a magnetic field
consumed and the changes in load will give errors in then the conductor will experience a torque.
readings. To overcome this the function of the three meters
As shown in figure1 there are two coils pressure coil (moving
can be combined to give a single meter called wattmeter.
coil) and current coil (fixed coil). Two current coils of less
Types of Wattmeter resistance and thick wires of few turns were connected in
series with the load. The pressure coil is of high resistance
1 Dynamo meter type used in AC and DC.
coil wound on a wound on a aluminum former. This is
2 Induction type used in AC only. placed in between the two fixed coils. The former is
connected to the spindle. To have the controlling torque as per the load current. Due to these magnetic forces the
for the moving coil and to give supply springs were provided. torque produced will be directly proportion to the product
The aluminum former on which the pressure coil is wound, of current and voltage. When this instrument is used as
gives eddy current damping. To avoid high voltage being Ammeter and voltmeter, the scales are uniform. While
fed to the pressure coil, a high resistance is connected in using as wattmeter the scales are uniform. Deflecting torque
series. The weight of the pressure coil is less and able to T α V*I OR T α W. Air in-between the coil acts as a core
rotate freely. Moreover, the series resistor will provide zero and hence hysteresis effect will be low.
degree in between the moving coil current and the pressure
Advantages
coil voltage that is they are in phase.
1 Can be used both in AC and DC
2 Got more accuracy
3 When using as a watt meter the scale is uniform.
4 Since it is air core, losses due to hysteresis and eddy
current is low.
Disadvantages
1 The cost is high when compared to PMMC.
2 While using as an Ammeter or Voltmeter the scale
wont be uniform
3 It is less torque weight ratio and hence less sensitivity.
4 Consume more power while in operation
Working principle : The pressure coil produces fixed
magnetic field. The current coil produces magnetic field
Using dynamo meter type meter as Ammeter and Voltmeter
To measure less amount of current (micro or milli amps)

the coils should be connected as shown in the figure.
To measure high amount of current the coils should be

connected with shunt resistance as shown in the figure.
To use this meter as Voltmeter connection should be

done as per in the circuit shown.
Induction type Wattmeter (Fig 2) : This meter works on coil (V+ VCOM) is connected in parallel to the supply. In
the principal of Electromagnetic induction. This can be between the two magnets a thin aluminum disc attached
used only on AC. In this a shunt magnet (pressure coil) to a spindle is placed with bearings for easy rotation. To
and a series magnet (current coil) were used. Thick coil of produce damping a U shaped permanent magnet is placed.
few turns is used as current coil (M, L) and connected in For controlling torque spring control is used.
series with the supply. Thin wire of more turns of pressure
When load current is low the voltage drop in the current
coil is very less and the error will be less if the pressure
coil is connected as in the figure.
As shown in figure 4 the pressure coil is connected after
the current coil from supply side. Here in the current coil
we will get current of the load and the current in pressure
coil which will lead to error in reading. In this connection
when the load current is high the current through the
pressure coil is very low and the error also low.
Wattmeter rating : The rating of the pressure coil in the
wattmeter will be 110V, 220V and 500V. The current coil
rating will be 1A, 5A, 10A, 20A, and 30A. If the supply is
above 500V then use a potential transformer. For more
than 30A use current transformer. When using these
transformer wattmeter of rating 5A and 110V is generally
Working principle : When current flows in the meter the
used.
shunt magnet will have constant magnetic field. In the
series magnet the magnetic field is as per the current to Advantage of using current and potential transformers
the load. When these two fluxes cut the aluminum disc for high current/voltage measurements
an eddy current is produced. This eddy current and the 1 The length of the conductor for connection to the meter
magnetic fields due the two magnets will interact with each is reduced.
other and produce a torque in the aluminum disc. This
torque will rotate the spindle causing the deflection of 2 The insulation level of the meter can be reduced.
pointer over the scale. The deflecting torque is directly 3 The high voltage / current proximity can be avoided.
proportional to the watt. Between the pressure coil voltage
and flux 90 degree out phase should be achieved. For this 4 To make measurements accurately.
in the shunt magnet copper shading rings were used. This Method by which potential / current transformers
meter is very efficient. connected to wattmeter (Fig 5) : As shown in fig 5 when
Connect the wattmeter pressure coil as per the connecting a current transformer, the primary should be
measurement of current (Fig 3 & 4) connected in series with the high current supply. The
secondary should be connected to the current coil of
wattmeter between terminal M & L along with an ammeter.
The primary of the potential transformer is connected in

parallel to the high voltage supply. The secondary of the
potential transformer is connected in parallel to the
pressure coil of wattmeter between the terminals V+ ,
VCOM. A Volt meter is connected in parallel
By these connection methods the calculation of high
voltage and current can be done as
Supply voltage = Wattmeter pressure coil reading X PT
As shown in the figure the pressure coil is connected before
Ratio
the current coil on the supply side. The voltage drop due
to the current coil for the load will be less than the voltage Full heavy current = Wattmeter current coil reading x CT
drops across the pressure coil to the load. This will create Ratio
a power loss and this power is added to power and shows
To calculate the power = CT Ratio x PT Ratio x wattmeter
wrong reading.
reading.
Working principal: When supply is given to the meter,
Note : This meter will be useful in its reading the current in the pressure coil is directly proportional to
when supply voltage and frequency is constant. the supply voltage. A magnetic field is created in the
Single phase energy meter : This is a rotating type pressure coil. At the same time the load current will pass
instrument. In these instruments driving, breaking and through the current coil which also produces a magnetic
recording devices were available. The wattage consumed field. These two magnetic fields cut the aluminum disc
by the load multiplied by the duration of consumption will and produce eddy current on the disc. This eddy currents
give the energy consumed. To measure this energy meter will react with the two magnetic fields and produce a torque
is used. This works on electromagnetic induction principal. on the aluminum disc. The spindle along with the disc
rotates. The worm gear attached to the spindle moves to
Construction of Energy meter (Fig 6) : Iron core: The
show the reading.
magnetic flux will form in a particular path in Energy meter.
Hence the leakage flux and the magnetic reluctance is Creeping error: With out any load and with absence of
very low. current in the current coil, there will be some residual flux
in the pressure coil. This will cause to rotate the disc at
very slow speed. Due to this small amount of power will
be shown as consumed on no load condition. This error is
known as creeping error. This is due to
1 To compensate the frictional losses the torque produced
might be high,
2 The pressure coil is being fed more voltage than required
and
3 Due to vibration and stray magnetic fields.
To avoid creeping error (Fig 7) : To arrest the aluminum
disc being on rotation with out any load, two opposite
holes were punched on the aluminum disc. These holes
when comes under the pressure coil while on rotation will
give a resistive force to stop the disc. So when the current
stops due to no load the disc will rotate only half a
Current coil: On an iron core thick wire of few turns will be
revolution.
wound and connected in series to the load. The full load
current will pass through this coil.
Potential or voltage coil: On an E shaped iron core thin
wire of large turn will be wound and connected in parallel
to the supply. This will produce eddy current aluminum
disc.
Disc: The disc is formed by a thin circular aluminum disc.
This placed in between two magnets. The disc is attached
to a spindle which house a worm gear and counting wheels.
The disc rotates at a speed directly proportional to the
product of current in the current coil and voltage across
the voltage coil.
3 phase 4 wire energy meter (3 Phase 4 element
Spindle: This is made of hardened steel rod of small type) (Fig 8)
diameter. Both ends of the rod are pointed. For rotation of
the spindle with out any friction, the ends are placed on
jewel bearings. On top of the spindle a small worm gear is
fixed.
Shading rings: Copper shading rings will be placed on
the center of the shunt magnet. This shading ring is used
to create 90-degree phase angle between the flux produced
by the pressure coil and its voltage. To avoid losses due
to friction two more moving copper shading rings were
placed.
Breaking magnet: To give breaking, the aluminum disc
is placed in between two U shaped permanent magnet.
This magnet is called the breaking magnet. This magnet
will produce an opposite torque to the torque produced in
the aluminum disc.
As shown in figure single phase meter of three units were 3 The magnetic circuit is not symmetric. (Not uniform)
placed one below another. The three-aluminum disc were
Reasons for error in the driving system
mounted on a single spindle. The three-pressure coil
(240V) were given 3 phase supply. Due to the torque on 1 Excessive friction in the moving parts.
the aluminum discs the spindle rotate. The speed of the 2 The strength of the permanent magnet decreases due
spindle depends on the power consumed. to aging.
The power used and the duration of usage will be calculated 3 The self-breaking effect due to the series magnet.
by the worm gears to the counting units. To adjust the
power factor and to compensate losses due to friction, 4 The change in Electronics resistance value of the disc.
shading rings were used. With permanent magnets the Correcting the tolerance value
breaking force is produced.
With rated voltage on potential coil and the current in current
In certain meters the torque will be produced in a single coil is at zero, the disc will rotate. To arrest the rotation of
disc from 3 single phase discs placed at 120-degree side the disc two holes were punched on opposite side of the
wise. Here there will be only one break magnet. The three disc. When the disc passes in between the poles with
phase 4 wire energy meter is used with balanced load and rated voltage on electro magnet will stop the disc rotation.
unbalanced load. It is used where single phase as well as With this we can ensure the low load adjustment.
three phase as separate loads to be measured.
Unity power factor when the load is connected
3 phase 3 wire energy meter (Fig 9) : In this type he
principal of measurement by two-watt meter is used. This The rated voltage on potential coil and full load current on
contains two current coils and two pressure coils (415V). the current coil will rotated the disc on correct speed. We
As shown in figure the two current coils were connected should ensure this. If the disc rotates on different speed,
in series to two separate loads. Each end of the pressure the position of the break magnet should be adjusted to
coil is connected to the line where the current coils is have the desired disc speed.
connected. The other two end of the pressure coil is 0.5 power factor when load us connected
connected to the third phase. The two-aluminum disc on
common spindle will rotate in between the current and With rated voltage and full load current, adjust the meter
pressure coils. The disc rotates as per the flux produced low power factor and ensure correct speed of the disc.
by the two coils. The gear positioned on the spindle will On unity and 0.5 power factor again ensure the meter disc
show the consumed watt hour (KWH). On the edge of the rotates at correct speed.
disc, U shaped permanent magnet is positioned. This is
used for breaking. On certain meters the torque will be With unity and 0.5 power factor the meter should be tested
produced on a single disc. To produce the breaking torque for correct speed with 100% load current and 5% low load
a single U-shaped permanent magnet is used. current.
To calculate the error in the energy meter
The power recorded by the meter and actual power used
,expressed in percentage is the error in the energy meter.
True power can be calculated with the reading of the volt
meter, ammeter and the power factor meter.
True power = (EICosθt) / (1000x3600)Kwh. "t" is the time
taken in seconds.
Recorded power is the product of the meter constant and
the number of revolutions in a particular time. Meter
constant is the number of revolution per KWH)
Recorded energy = ( Number of revolutions in a particular
time / meter constant)
% error = ((Recorded energy - True energy) / True energy))
x 100
3 phase 4 wire energy meter is used where balance and
unbalance load condition exists. To calculate the error in the energy meter by another
method.
Reasons for error in the driving system
Here meter constant is compared with the test constant.
1 The change in amount of flux is due to high variation in
supply frequency and resistance in shunt coil magnet. Meter constant (watt second per second) = (3600 x 1000)
/ ( number of revolution for 1 KWH )
2 The variation in supply frequency and resistance in shunt
coil magnet will cause a shift in current and voltage Test constant = EI X t (in seconds) / Number of actual
wave form. revolutions
Hence % error = (Meter constant - test constant ) / (test The identical pressure coils A and B pivoted on a spindle
constant) x 100 constitutes the moving system. Pressure coil A has a non-
inductive resistance R which is connected in series with
If the meter registers more power than the actual power
it, and coil B has a highly inductive choke coil L which is
then it is +ve error
connected in series with it. The two coils are connected
If the meter registers less power than the actual power across the voltage of circuit. The value of R and L are so
then it is -ve error adjusted that the two coils carry the same value of current
Magnitude Power factor Percentage full at normal frequency i.e. R= WL.
of error load current The current through the coil A is in phase with the circuit
± 2.5 1 lagging 5% voltage while that through the coil B legs the voltage by an
angle ? which is nearly equal to 90°. The angle between
± 2.5 0.5 10% the planes of coils is equal to ?. Connections to moving
±2 one 10% to 200% coils are made through thin silver or gold ligaments which
are extremely flexible and this gives a minimum control
±2 0.5 lagging 20% to 200% effect on the moving system.
In IS 722(PART II 1977) the energy meter rating and Note:
accuracy is given. Standard basic current IB is 2.5, 5, 10,
20 and 30A. Highest rated current is 200 x (2 times IB) 1 When the load is not connected to the meter
the pointer will denote some reading since
The allowable error with current and power factor there is no control mechanism in this type
Three phase energy meter standard rating: 10, 20, 30, 50 of meter.
and 100A with voltage 120/240/415 Volts. 2 The scale graduation is like this. With center
For instrument current transformers: 1A or 5A as 1 and to both left and right the readings
were 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0,6….0
To calculate multiplication factor in a multi range watt
meter. 3 Left hand side indicates inductive(lagging)
and right capacitive (leading) loads.
Multiplication factor MF = (Pressure coil range x current
coil range) / (Highest reading on dial) AC Voltage and current measurement using PMMC
Meter (Rectifier type) : This type of meter employs a
To calculate power with CT and PT connected in a multi rectifier to change AC to DC and use for the measurement.
range watt meter As shown in the picture a rectifier is used along with a DC
Power W = Watt meter reading x MF x CT Ratio x PT meter. The use of low frequency copper oxide rectifiers
Ratio will give good indication up to 20KHz. In an AC circuit a
DC meter with a diode is used to measure the AC voltage.
Types of power factor meter
Advantage of Rectifier instrument
1 Electro dynamic power factor meter.
1 Silicone or Germanium rectifiers are used in radio
2 Moving iron power factor meter. frequency application
Single phase power factor meter - Dynamo meter 2 Rectifier instrument is 50% more sensitive than AC
type meter.
Construction 3 Milli ammeter and Micro ammeters were manufactured
It consists of a fixed coil FF (split into two parts) which by using rectifier instruments.
carries the current of the circuit under test. So, the
magnetic field produced by this coil is proportional to the
main current
Frequency meter
• explain the working principle of frequency meter
• explain the analogue and digital frequency meter
• explain phase sequence indicator, continuity tester and syncroscope.
Frequency meter Apart from this Electronic frequency counter, Frequency
bridge stroboscope and oscilloscope are used to measure
There are many types of frequency meters.
frequency.
1 Mechanical resonance type
Mechanical resonance vibration Frequency meter
2 Electronics resonance type, (Fig 1) : This instrument works on the principal of
3 Ratio meter type. mechanical resonance. This consist of number of thin steel
strips called "reeds" The reeds are placed in a row then the disc rotate on the opposite direction to the previous
alongside and closed to an electromagnet. The reeds feel one.
attractive force from the electromagnet and starts vibrating.
The reeds are 4mmwidth and 0.5mm thick. On ascending
order the reeds are placed. Each successive reeds has a
difference of 0.5Hz. So for a frequency of range 47 to 53
Hz 13 reeds were required. The front of the leads were
bend to 90 degrees and painted in white color. On
each reed the corresponding frequency will be indicated
on a scale.
Phase indicator using choke and lamp (Fig 4): In this

meter two lamps were connected to two phases of the
supply. The choke (inductor) is connected to the 3rd phase
of the supply with other end to mid connection of series
lamp. This will form as a star connection. The lamp on
Working principle: When the frequency meter is one phase is denoted as UVW and the other lamp denoted
connected to the supply voltage for which the frequency is as UWV. This is connected to the three phase supply
to be measured, the electro magnet will produce a varying through rest leads as shown. When connected, the lamp
magnetic field. This field change as per frequency. The which glow brighter will indicate the phase sequence of
vibration corresponds to the frequency will be sensed by the supply. Instead of connecting a choke, a capacitance
the reed and starts vibrate. For example in a 50Hz supply can be connected for checking the phase sequence of the
the reed marked for 50Hz will vibrate speedily when supply.
compared to 49.5 and 50.5 reeds.
Disadvantage: If the supply voltage is low, the vibration
in the reeds were minimum and can't be noticed. To get
accurate measurement the reeds should be finely tuned.
It is very tough to determine decimal frequency below
0.5Hz.
Electronics resonance Frequency meter (Fig 2):As
shown in the figure there are two fixed coil connected with
a moving coil. Fixed coil F1 will resonate on 45 Hz with L1
and C1 combination. Similarly F2 will resonate to 55 Hz
with combination of L2 and C2. The current I1 and I2
passing through F1 and F2 will be the vector sum of the
current passing through the moving coil M1. As shown in Continuity tester (Fig 5&6): Continuity tester is a device
the figure when supply voltage is given the current through used to check the path of the circuit's continuity. The circuit
the fixed coil will be out of phase to the voltage. under test should not have any supply prior to testing.
On figure 7&8 the voltage tester is used to test the voltage
between any two points in a circuit.
Phase sequence indicator (Fig 3): When phase

sequence changes there won't be any suffering in light
and heating load. This meter shows the phase sequence
of a three phase system. On the dial in opposite direction
two different sequences were marked. Three phases of a
AC supply is connected to U,V and W terminals of the
meter. Now the disc in the indicator will rotate. The rotation
Synchroscope (Fig 9 &10): Synchronization is the
UVW of the disc ensures the correct sequence RYB phase
process of connecting two different Electronics supply.
of the supply . If we change any one phase of the supply
For example two generating system connected to a
common network. The fundamental rule to observe 1) The
magnitude of current and voltage of the system should be
same,2) Their frequencies should be same 3) The phase
sequence of the two systems to be same. The instance
to which the switch is closed for connecting the two
supplies is done by the Synchroscope.
Instrument Mechanic - Semi - conductor, Transistor & power supply circuits
Semiconductor diodes
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define semiconductors
• state the types of semiconductors
• state the unique property of a PN junction
• explain the classifications of diodes
• list out type numbers/code numbers of diodes.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials whose Electronics property
lies between that of Conductors and Insulators. Because
of this fact, these materials are termed as semiconductors.
In conductors the valence electrons are always free. In an
insulator the valence electrons are always bound. Whereas
in a semiconductor the valence electrons are normally
bound but can be set free by supplying a small amount of
energy. Several electronic devices are made using
semiconductor materials. One such device is known as
Diode.
Semiconductor theory
Basic semiconductor materials like other materials have
crystal structure. The atoms of this structure, are bonded
to each other as shown in Fig 1. This bonding is known as
covalent bonding. In such a bonding, the valence electrons
of the atoms are shared to form a stable structure as shown
in Fig 1.
Intrinsic semiconductors
The most important of the several semiconductor materials
are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). Both these
semiconductor materials have four valence electrons per
atom as shown in (Fig 1). These valence electrons, unlike
in conductors, are not normally free to move. Hence,
semiconductors in their pure form, known as Intrinsic
semiconductors, behave as insulators.
However, the valence electrons of a semiconductor can be
set free by applying external energy. This energy will tear-
off the bound electrons from their bond and make them
available as free electrons as shown in (Fig 2). The
simplest method of turning bonded valence electrons into
free electrons is by heating the semiconductor.
The higher the temperature to which the semiconductor is
heated, more the bound electrons becoming free and will
be able to conduct electric current. This type of conduction Arsenic,Indium, Gallium etc. is added to pure semi conductor
in an intrinsic semiconductor (pure semiconductor) as a material, more number of electrons become free in the
result of heating is called intrinsic conduction. mixed material. This enables the semiconductor to have
From the above said phenomena, it is important to note that higher conductivity.
semiconductors are temperature-sensitive materials. These foreign materials added to the pure semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor are referred to as impurity materials.
The number of free electrons set free by heating a pure The process of adding impurity to an Intrinsic semiconduc-
semiconductor is comparatively small to be used for any tor material is known as Doping. Since the doped semicon-
useful purpose. It is found experimentally that, when a ductor materials are no longer pure, they are called impure
small quantity of some other materials such as or extrinsic semiconductors.
104
Depending upon the type of impurity used, extrinsic The holes are the majority charge carriers in P type semi
semiconductors can be classified into two types; conductor and the electrons are the minority charge
carriers.
1 N-type semiconductors
When a pentavalent material like Arsenic (As) is added to
a pure Germanium or pure Silicon crystal, one free electron
results per bond as shown in (Fig 3a). As every arsenic
atom donates one free electron, arsenic is called the donor
impurity. Since a free electron is available and since the
electron is of a Negative charge, the material so formed by
mixing is known as N type material.
P-N junction
When a P-type and a N-type semiconductors are joined,
a contact surface between the two materials called PN-
junction is formed. This junction has a unique characteristic.
This junction, has the ability to pass current in one direction
and stop current flow in the other direction. To make use of
this unique property of the PN junction, two terminals one
on the P side and the other on the N side are attached.
When a N-type material is connected across a battery, as Such a PN junction with terminals attached is called a
shown in Fig 3b, current flows due to the availability of free Diode.
electrons. As this current is due to the flow of free
electrons, the current is called electron current.
In N type semi conductor the current is due to electrons,
therefore the electrons are the majority charge carriers.
The semi conductor materials are temperature sensitive,
heating causes the covalent bonds to break down by
creating electron-hole pair. The holes are minority charge
carriers - in N type semi-conductors.
2 P-type semiconductors
When a trivalent material like Gallium(Ga) is added to a
pure Germanium or pure Silicon crystal, one vacancy or
deficit of electron results per bond as shown in Fig 4a. As
every gallium atom creates one deficit of electron or hole,
the material is ready to accept electrons when supplied.
Hence gallium is called acceptor impurity. Since vacancy
for an electron is available, and as this vacancy is a hole
which is of Positive charge, the material so formed is known
as P-type material.
When a P-type material is connected across a battery as
shown in Fig 4b, current flows due to the availability of free
holes. As this current is due to flow of holes, the current is
called hole current.
When a P and N material is put together, at the junction of
P and N materials, as shown in Fig 6, some electrons from
the N-material jump across the boundary and recombine
with the hole near the boundary of the P-material. This
process is called diffusion. This recombination makes
atoms near the junction of the P-material gaining electrons
and become negative ions, and the atoms near the
junction of the N-material, after losing electrons, become
positive ions. The layers of negative and positive ions so
formed behave like a small battery. This layer is called the
depletion layer because there are neither free electrons
nor holes present (depleted of free carriers). This depletion
region prevents further the movement of electrons from the
N-material to the P material, and thus an equilibrium is
reached.
To forward-bias a diode, the Anode should be connected

to the +ve terminal of the battery and the Cathode to the
-ve terminal of the battery. When a diode is in the forward
biased condition, the resistance between the terminals
will be of the order of a few ohms to a few tens of ohms.
Hence, current flows freely when a diode is forward biased.
The internal voltage set up due to +ve and -ve ions at the
junction is called barrier potential. If any more electrons On the other hand, when a diode is reverse biased, the
have to go over from the N side to the P side, they have to resistance between the terminals will be very high, of the
overcome this barrier potential. This means, only when the order of several tens of megohms. Hence, current does not
electrons on the N side are supplied with energy to flow when a diode is reverse biased. As a rule, the ratio
overcome the barrier potential, they can go over to the P of resistance in forward to reverse bias should be of at the
side. minimum order of 1:1000.
In terms of voltage applied across the terminals of the PN Types of diodes

junction diode, a potential difference of 0.7V is required The PN junction diodes discussed so far are commonly
across the terminals in the case of silicon diode and 0.3V referred to as rectifier diodes. This is because these
in the case of Germanium diode for the electrons, in order diodes are used mostly in the application of rectifying AC
to cancel off the barrier potential and cross over the barrier to DC.
as shown in Fig 7. Once the barrier potential gets canceled
due to external voltage application, current flows through Classification of Diodes
the junction freely. In this condition the diode is said to be 1 Based on their current carrying capacity/power
forward biased. handling capacity, diodes can be classified as
When the applied external battery polarity is as shown in – low power diodes: can handle power of the order
Fig 8, instead of canceling the barrier potential, the of several milliwatts only
external battery voltage adds up to the barrier potential,
– medium power diodes: can handle power of the
and, hence, no current flows through the junction. In this
order of several watts only
condition the diode is said to be reverse biased.
– high power diodes: can handle power of the order
Since current flows through a PN junction diode when it is
of several hundreds of watts.
forward biased and does not when reverse biased, the
diode can be thought of to be a unidirectional current 2 Based on their principal application, diodes can
switch. be classified as,
The two leads connected to the P and N terminals are – Signal diodes: low power diodes used in
known as Cathode and Anode. communication circuits such as radio receivers etc.
for signal detection and mixing
– Switching diodes: low power diodes used in While doing the above test, if a diode shows a very low
switching circuits such as digital electronics etc. for resistance in both the forward and reverse biased conditions,
fast switching ON/OFF of circuits then, the diode under test must have got damaged or more
specifically shorted. On the other hand, a diode is said to
– Rectifier diodes: medium to high power used in
be open if the meter shows very high resistance both in the
power supplies for electronic circuits for converting
forward and reverse biased conditions.
AC voltage to DC.
Testing of diodes using digital Multimeter
3 Based on the manufacturing techniques used,
diodes can be classified as, If the digital multimeters are used for testing the diodes,
first the selector switch must be kept at diode testing
– Point contact diodes: a metal needle connected
position. The +ve terminal of the MM (lead A as in the
with pressure on to a small germanium(Ge) or
fig 10 must be connected to the anode of a diode and the
silicon(Si) tip.
negative terminal (lead) to the cathode, the diode is forward
– Junction diodes: made by alloying or growing or biased the MM will display the barrier voltage of the diode
diffusing P and N materials on a semiconductor in the forward biased condition.
substrate.
On the other hand, if the meter leads are reversed, the diode
Types of diode packaging will be reverse biased and MM will display 1.
The type of packaging given to diodes is mainly based on
the current carrying capacity of the diode. Low power
diodes have either glass or plastic packaging. Medium
power diodes have either plastic or metal packaging. High
power diodes will invariably have either metal can or
ceramic packaging. High power diodes are generally of
stud-mounting type.
Testing rectifier diodes using ohmmeter
A simple ohmmeter can be used to quickly test the
condition of diodes. In this testing method, the resistance
of the diode in forward and reverse bias conditions is
checked to confirm its condition.
BYxxx, xxx- from 100 examples:
Recall that there will be a battery inside an ohmmeter or a
multimeter in the resistance range. This battery voltage onwards, BY127, BY128 etc.
comes in series with the leads of the meter terminals as
shown in Fig 9 and lead A is positive, lead B negative.
DRxxx, xxx- from 25 examples:
onwards. DR25, DR150 etc.,
1Nxxxx examples: 1N917 1N4001, 1N4007

etc.
Behaviour of diode when FORWARD BIASED
Fig 11a shows a forward biased silicon PN junction diode
using a variable DC supply. When the applied voltage is
slowly increased starting from 0 volts as long as the voltage
across the diode VF is less than that of the depletion barrier
potential (0.7 volts for Si diodes), no current or a negligible
current flows through the diode, and, hence, through the
circuit. This is shown in the graph at Fig 11b.
But once the voltage VFacross the diode becomes equal to
or greater than the barrier potential 0.6 to 0.7V, there will
If the positive lead of the ohmmeter, lead A in the Fig 10, be a canceling effect of the barrier potential. Hence, the free
is connected to the anode of a diode, and the negative electrons from the N region get pushed away by the -ve
(lead B) to the cathode, the diode will be forward-biased. battery terminal(remember like charges repel) and cross
Current will flow, and the meter will indicate low resistance. over the junction, pass through the P region and get
attracted by the + terminal of the battery. This results in the
On the other hand, if the meter leads are reversed, the diode electron current passing through the diode, and, hence,
will be reverse-biased. Very little current will flow because through the Load.
a good diode will have very high resistance when reverse
biased, and the meter will indicate a very high resistance.
In a similar way, the holes in the P region are pushed away allowing more and more current to flow through the diode.
by the +ve battery terminal, cross over the junction, pass It can be seen from the graph at Fig 11b, that beyond the
through the N region and get attracted by the -ve terminal cut-in voltage, the current increases sharply for very small
of the battery. This results in hole current through the voltage increase across the diode. In this region, above the
diode, and, hence, through the Load. cut-in voltage, the forward biased diode behaves almost
like a closed switch. The only limiting factor for the current
Thus current flows through the diode when the forward bias
at this stage is the maximum current the diode can handle
potential is higher than the barrier potential. This current
without getting burnt or the junction getting punctured
flow through the diode is because of both electrons and
permanently. This current limit is given in diode data books
holes. The total current in the circuit is the sum of the hole
as maximum forward current, If max.
current and the electron current. Hence, diodes are called
bipolar devices in which both hole current and electron Behaviour of diode when reverse biased
current flows.
When an external DC voltage is connected across the
diode with the polarity as shown in Fig 12, the diode is said
to be reverse biased.
From the graph at Fig 11b, it can be seen that, once the
forward voltage goes above 0.6V the diode starts conducting,
resulting in considerable current through the circuit. This
voltage level across the diode is referred to as cut-in or
knee or threshold voltage.
If the applied forward voltage is further increased beyond
the cut-in voltage, the depletion layer further narrows down
than the rated PIV is applied across the diode, it will ii three letter and numeral code for industrial devices.
become defective permanently. (Example, ACY17 and so on).
– Maximum average forward current, IFor If that a diode The first letter in the pro-electron type code indicates the
can allow to flow through it without getting damaged. type of semiconductor material used in making the device.
Example, device numbers starting with A are made of
– Forward voltage drop, VF or Vf that appears across the
germanium.
diode when the maximum average current, IF flows
through it continuously. The second and third letter indicate the applications of the
component. Example, in the type code BY127, the second
– Maximum reverse current, Ivr that flows through the
letter Y indicates that it is a rectifier diode.
diode when the Maximum reverse voltage, PIV is
applied. The numeral after the second or third letter is the code
number of its detailed voltage, current and temperature
– Maximum forward surge current, IS that can flow through
specifications.
the diode for a defined short period of time.
c The JIS type code
– The maximum junction temperature in degree centigrade
the diode junction can withstand without malfunctioning In Japan, the JIS, (Japanese Industrial Standards) code is
or getting damaged. used. This system of component numbering is almost
universal. In this system, all component numbers start with
– Suggested application indicates application for which
2S, followed by a letter and several numbers. Example.
the diode is designed and produced.
2SB364. The letters after the S has the following significance:
The above listed specifications go with all rectifier diodes.
A = pnp hf
As all these specifications cannot be printed on the
physically small size diodes, the diodes are printed with a B = pnp If
type number instead. When this type number is referred to
C = npn hf
in the manufacturer’s manual, the detailed specifications
for a particular type number of the diode can be obtained. D = npn If
There are hundreds and thousands of diode manufacturers Some components will have type numbers which does not
all over the world. To bring standardization for the diodes match with any of the above said international standards.
and other components manufactured by different Then, these type numbers are particular to the individual
manufacturers, the manufacturers and standards manufacturers. These codes are generally referred to as
associations have set certain international standards for manufacturer’s house code. However, these type numbers
the benefit of users of the components. The principal may conform to one or more of the international standards.
industry standard numbering systems are dealt with here: Almost all standard diode data books lists popular
manufacturers house codes.
a The JEDEC type code
Diode equivalents
The EIA in USA maintains a register of 1N, 2N types
familiarly known as Jedec types, which have world wide There are several occasions, especially while servicing
acceptance. electronic circuits, it may not be possible to get a
replacement for a diode of a particular type number. In such
1N is used as a prefix for semiconductors with one junction.
cases one can obtain a diode having specification closest
For example all 1N components refer to diodes because
to the one to be replaced. Such diodes are referred to as
diodes have one junction. Prefix 2N is used with components
equivalents.
having two junctions.
Example: In a circuit, diode 1N 4007 is found to be
b The PRO-ELECTRON type code.
defective. If 1N4007 is not available in stock, then, instead
The Association International Pro-electron in Europe of 1N4007, BY127 can be used because BY127 is the
maintains a register of Pro-electron types which have wide equivalent for 1N4007.
acceptance in Europe.
Components in the Pro-electron system have,
i two letter and numeral code for consumer devices
(Example, BY127 and so on).
Photodiodes
• explain working of photodiode
• explain the advantages of PIN photodiode
• list the application of photodiodes
• explain working of photodiode and tunnel diode.
PHOTODIODES
P-N Photo diodes
Photodiodes are produced by silicon techniques.
Photodiodes are operated in the reverse direction. A supply
voltage and a series resistor are therefore required to
operate photodiodes. The basic circuit for the operation of
photodiodes is shown in Fig 1.
When no light is incident on the photodiode, a reverse

current flows through the p-n junction, as it does in any
normal semiconductor diode, but in photodiodes it is
usually referred to as the “dark current” IRo.
When light strikes the p-n junction, crystal bonds are
broken as a result of the supply of energy. Mobile charge-
carrier pairs are produced, which immediately migrate as
a result of the electric field present. The holes travel
towards the p-layer and the electrons towards the n-layer.
As a result of illumination, an additional photocurrent I’photo
occurs, which increases linearly with the illuminance. This
photocurrent is superimposed as a reverse current on the
relatively small dark current, so that for the total photocurrent
occurring with illumination, the following applies: The advantages of PIN photodiodes are;
Iphoto = IRo + I’photo – high sensitivity in the infrared range
Since IRo is far smaller than I’photo then: – short switching times,
because of which, they are extensively used in remote
Iphoto = I’photo
control using modulated infrared light.
The rise in Iphoto is almost linear. Photodiodes are therefore
In operation they are similar to p-n photo diodes as shown
particularly suitable for the accurate measurement of
in Fig 1.
illuminance. Physical appearance and dimensions of a
typical photodiode BPW 32 is shown in Fig 2. Typical application of Photodiodes
PIN Photo diodes Because of the very small photocurrent, photodiodes are
generally used with an amplifier as shown in Fig 4. Amplifier
PIN photodiodes were developed to overcome the drawbacks
stages with FET(Field Effect Transistor) are usually used
of p-n photodiodes. The letters PIN indicate the zone
with photodiodes because of the high input resistance of
sequence as given below;
FET.
P-layer/Intrinsic-layer/N-layer
NOTE: Field Effect Transistors well known as FET is
A typical internal construction of a PIN photodiode is another type of transistor. Details of FET is discussed in
shown in Fig 3. lessons to follow.
Circuit diagram of a simple Light controlled amplifier is from the balance band of p-side to the conduction band of
shown in Fig 5. This circuit uses a single FET for amplifying n-side takes place. With the interments of the reverse bias
the output of the photodiode connected in series with a the tunnel cureent also increases. When forward bias is
resistor. applied the Fermi level of n-side bcomes higher that the
Fermi level of p-side, thus the tunneling of electrons from
the n-side to p-side takes place. The amount of the tunnel
current is very large than the normal junction current.
When the forward bias is increased, the tunnel current is
increased up to certain limit.
When the band edge of n-side is the same as the Fermi
level in p-side, the tunnel current is maximum with the
further increment in the forward bias the tunnel current
derease and we get the desired negative conduction
region. When the forward bias is raised further, normal pn
junction current is obtained which is exponentially
proportional to the applied voltage. The V-I characteristics
of the tunnel diode is given,
The working point of the FET can be adjusted with trimmer The negative resistance is used to achieve oscillation and
R2. As the illumination on the photo diode increases, the often Ck+function is of very high frequency frequenices.
negative gate is reduced and therefore Vout reduces. The Tunnel Diode Symbol
same value of R3 and R4 are chosen to ensure linear
relationship between Iphoto and Vout over a wide range. Thus The symbol for a tunnel diode is shown below.
this photoamplifer works satisfactorily not only for very Tunnel Diode Applications
slow changes in illumination but also with alternating light.
llumination Photometer using photodiode and Opamp
An illumination Photometer with an op-amp as an amplifier
is shown in Fig 5. The output of the photo sensor follows the
illuminance linearly, which may be in the range between
0.05 lx and 5000 lx, with a sensitivity of 5μA/lx. The sensor
has the type designation TFA 1001W and is intended for Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very
use in video cameras and optical instruments. fast and in microwave frequency range. It was the quantum
mechanical effect which is known as tunneling. It is ideal
What is a Tunnel Diode? for fast oscillators and receivers for its negative slope
A tunnel diode (also known as a Esaki diode) is a type of characteristics. But it cannot be used in large integrated
semiconductor diode that has effectively “negative circuits - that’s why it’s an applications are limited.
resistance” due to the quantum mechanical effect called When the voltage is first applied current stars flowing
tunneling. Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped pn juncion through it. The current increases with the increase of
that is about 10 nm wide. The heavy doping result in a voltage. Once the voltage rises high enough suddenly the
broken band gap, where conduction band electron states current againg starts increasing and tunnel diode stars
on the N-side are more or less aligned with valence band behaving like a normal diode. Because of this unusual
hole states on the P - side. behavior, it can be used in number of special applications
The application of transistors in a very high in frequency started below.
range are hampered due to the transit time and other Oscillator Circuits
effects. Many devices use the negative conductance
property of semiconductors for theses high frequency Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators
applications. A tunnel diode is one of the most commonly as the transition between the high Electronics conductivity
used negative conductance devices. It is also known as is very rapid. They can be used to create oscillation as high
Esaki diode after L.Esaki for his work on this effect. as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativty oscillation up
to 100 GHz in a appropriate digital circuits.
The concentration of dopants in both p and n region is very
high, at round 1024 - 1025 m -3. The pn junction is also abrupt. Used in Microwave circuits
For this reasons, the depletion layoer width is very small. Normal diode transistors do not perform well in microwave
In the current voltage characteristics of tunnel diode, we operation. So, for microwave generators and amplifiers
can find a negative slop region when a forward bias is tunnel diode are used. In microwave waves and satelite
applied is very high so at absolute zero temperature the communication equipments they were used widely, but
Fermi levels lies within the bias of the semiconductors. lately their usage is decreasing rapidly, as transistors
Characteristics of Tunnel Diode: When reverse bias is which operate in this frequency range are becoming
applied the Fermi level of the p-side becomes higher than available.
the Fermi level of n-side. Hence, the tunneling of electrons
Resistant to Nuclear Radiation: The tunnel diode is losing coupled to a tunable cavity. By
using a short, antenna feed probe placed in the cavity off
Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of magnetic
centre loose coupling is achieved. To increase the stability
fields, high temperature and radioactivity. That’s why
of oscillation and achieve o/p power over wider bandwidth
these can be used in modern military equipment. These
loose coupling is used. The range of the output power
are used in nuclear magnetic resource machine also. But
produced is few hundred micro - watts.
the most important filed of its use satelite communication
equipments. This is useful for many microwave application. The physical
position of the tuner determning the frequency of operation.
Tunnel Diode Oscillator
If the frequency of operation is changed by this method ,
Tunnel diode can make a very stable oscillator circuit that is called mechanical tuning. Tunnel diode oscillators
when theyare coupled to a tuned circuit or cavity, biased can be tuned electronically also.
at the centre point of negative resistance region. Hwew is
Tunnel diode oscillators which are meant to be operated
an example of tunnel diode oscillatory circuit (Fig )
at microwave frequencies, generally used some form of
transmission lines as tunnel circuit. These oscillators are
useful in application that requires a few milwatts of power,
example - local oscillators for microwave super electrodyne
receiver.
Transistors and Classification

• introduction of transistors
• list the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes
• list the important classifications of transistors
• state the name and functions of terminals of a transistor
• name of the types of transistor packages
• describe the two tests to be conducted on a transistor before using it
• working principle of transistor.
Introduction One other important application of transistors is its use as

a solid state switch. A solid state switch is nothing but a
Transistors are the semiconductor devices having three or
switch which does not involve any physical ON/OFF
four leads/terminals. Fig 1a shows some typical transistors.
contacts for switching.
Fig 1b shows the symbols used for different types of
transistors. Transistors can be thought of as two PN junction diodes
connected back to back as shown in Fig 3.
Before the transistors were invented (1947), there was what

were known as vacuum tubes which were used in amplifiers.
A typical vacuum tube is shown in Fig 4a.
Transistors are mainly used for enlarging or amplifying

small electric/electronic signals as shown in Fig 2. The
circuit which uses transistors for amplifying is known as a
transistor amplifier.
113
Compared with the present day transistors the vacuum
tubes were big in size , consumed more power, generated
lot of unwanted heat and were fragile. Hence vacuum tubes
became absolute as soon as transistors came to market.
Transistors were invented by Walter H. Brazil and John
Barlow of Bell Telephone Laboratories on 23rd Dec. 1947.
Compared to vacuum tubes (also known as valves),
transistors have several advantages. Some important
advantages are listed below;
– Very small in size (see Fig 4b)
– Light in weight
– Minimum or no power loss in the form of heat
– Low operating voltage
– Rugged in construction.
To satisfy the requirements of different applications, several
types of transistors in different types of packaging are
available. As in diodes, depending upon the characteristics,
transistors are given a type number such as BC 107, 2N
6004 etc., The characteristics data corresponding to these
type numbers are given in Transistor data books.
Low power Medium power High power
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSISTORS
transistors transistors transistors
1 Based on the semiconductor used.
(less than (2 to 10 watts) (more than
– Germanium transistors
2 watts) 10 watts)
– Silicon transistors
Like in diodes, transistors can be made, using any one of
the above two important semiconductors. However, most
of the transistors are made using silicon. This is because,
silicon transistors work better over a wide temperature
range (higher thermal stability) compared to germanium
transistors.
Transistor data books give information about the
semiconductor used in any particular transistor.
Medium power and high power transistors, also known as
2 Based on the way the P and N junctions are large signal amplifiers are used for achieving medium to
organized as shown in Fig 5. high power amplification. For example, signals to be given
– NPN transistors to loudspeakers etc. High power transistors are usually
mounted on metal chassis or on a physically large piece
– PNP transistors of metal known as heat sink. The function of heat sink is to,
Both NPN and PNP transistors are equally useful in take away the heat from the transistor and pass it to air.
electronic circuits. However, NPN transistors are preferred Transistor data books give information about the power
for the reason that NPN has higher switching speed handling capacity of different transistor.
compared to PNP.
4 Based on the frequency of application
Details of switching speed is discussed in further
lessons. – Low freq. transistors (Audio frequency or A/F
transistors)
Whether a transistor is PNP or NPN can be found with the
help of transistor data book. – High freq. transistor (Radio frequency or R/F
transistors)
3 Based on the power handling capacity of
transistors as shown in Table below (Fig 6). Amplification required for signals of low or audio range of
frequencies in Tape recorders, PA systems etc., make use
Low power transistors, also known as small signal of A/F transistors. Amplifications required for signals of
amplifiers, are generally used at the first stage of high and very high frequencies as, in radio receivers,
amplification in which the strength of the signal to be television receivers etc., use R/F transistors.
amplified is low. For example, to amplify signals from a
microphone, tape head, transducers etc.,
5 Based on the manufacturing method Emitter - emits current carriers(electrons/holes)
– Grown junction Collector - collects current carriers
– Alloy junction Base - controls flow of current carriers from emitter to
collector.
– Planar type
While connecting a transistor to a circuit, it is necessary
– Point contact to identify the base, the emitter and the collector pins. A
– Epitoxial Transistor data book gives information on pin identification
of transistors. However, it is convenient to put sleeve wires
– Mesa over the transistor pins for the following reasons;
The aim of each manufacturing process is to yield transistors – for easy identification while wiring
most suitable for a particular type of application.
– sleeves act as spacers while mounting and solder
Transistor data books generally do not give information ing
about the adopted manufacturing process of transistor.
However, the relevant details can be obtained from the – they ensure the required minimum lead distance
transistor manufacturer. from the solder joint to the transistor body.
6 Based on the type of final packaging Following colour scheme is suggested for putting sleeves
to transistor pins although, any convenient colour scheme
– Metal may be adopted.
– Plastic Base pin - Blue colour sleeve
– Ceramic Emitter pin - Red colour sleeve
Metal packaged transistors are generally used in medium Collector pin - Yellow colour sleeve
and high power amplifications. Plastic packaging is generally Shield pin - Black colour sleeve
used for low power amplification. Some plastic packages
come with a metal heat sink. Such transistors are used for Transistor type packages:
medium power amplification. Ceramic packaging is used The popular transistors with different ratings used for
for special purpose very high frequency applications, for general purpose to special applications are manufactured
higher temperature stability etc., in a variety of package styles.some of the commonly used
Some examples of packaging type codes used with transistors with their package numbers and lead
transistors are, TO-3, TO-92, SOT-25 and so on. indentifications are shown in Fig 8.
Transistor data books give information about the type of Heatsink

packaging and its case outline. In any Electronics/electronic cirouits the high power
Inside a transistor rectifiers, SCRs, transistors, MOSFETS, even LEDs used
in high bright lights consumes power generates considerable
Inside a transistor there are two PN junctions connected to amount of heat while the cicuit is functioning.Typically
each other as shown in Fig 3 and Fig 5. Outside a power handling semiconductor devices/components are
transistor, one can see only three leads. These leads are inadegquate to dissipate heat as their dissipation capability
known as base, emitter and collector as shown in Fig 5. is significantly low.
As shown in Fig 5, the three leads/pins/pigtails called
base, emitter and collector are taken from each of doped Due to this reason, heating up of components leads to
semiconductor material. malfunctioning problems and may cause failure of the
entire circuit or performance of the system. Therefore, to
In simple terms, as shown in Fig 7, the function of the base, solve these problems, heatsinks are the solution that must
emitter and collector regions of a transistor are, be provided to these semiconductor devices for cooling
purpose.
Heatsink is a device made of aluminium metal attached to
the electronic device, that dissipates heat into surrounding
air meduim and cools them for improving their performance
reliability and also avoids the damage to the components.
Heat sink transfers the heat or thermal energy from a high
temperature component to a low temperature medium like
air.
Heatsinks are classified into different categories as extruded
heatsinks as they can be made as extrusions based on the
heat dissipating rating shape and size etc as shown in
Fig 9.
To select a particular heatsink various parameters are to be While connecting a transistor to a circuit, it is necessary
taken into consideration such as heat dissipation rate in to identify the base, the emitter and the collector pins. A
heat dissipation ratio of the semiconductor device used in Transistor data book gives information on pin identification
watts, maximum junction temperature of device in degree of transistors. However, it is convenient to put sleeve wires
celsius, air flow condition etc. over the transistor pins for the following reasons;
The method of mounting a transistor in To - 220 package 2 Quick turn-on test
is shown in Fig 10. A thin mica film is introduced between
Recall that the base lead of the transistor controls the flow
the transistor body and the aluminium heatsink surface. An
of current carriers from emitter to collector. So, if the base
insulating washer inserted to avoid short circuit by the
is open, then there can be no current flow through emitter-
screw and nut used for tightly fastening to the heatsink that
collector. This means, the resistance between emitter and
radiates the heat generated of the transistor.
collector will be high when the base is open as shown in Fig
Testing transistors using ohmmeter 12a. This can be checked using an ohmmeter with the base
1 Junction test lead open.
Since a transistor can be regarded as two diodes connected In Fig 12, the +ve and –ve indicated across
back-to-back, a transistor’s general working condition ohmmeter is the internal battery polarities of
(quick-test) can be assessed by checking these two the meter and not the markings at the meter
diodes as shown in Fig 11a and 11b. prod sockets.
Fig 8a shows a NPN transistor and Fig 8b shows a PNP When the collector and base leads of a transistor is
transistor. The imaginary diodes 1 and 2 can be tested as touched with a wet finger as the base of the transistor turns
testing any diode. When a diode is tested, if the ohmmeter ON the transistor and makes current to flow through
shows high resistance in one direction and low resistance emitter-collector. Because of the current flow, the resistance
in another direction, then the diode corresponding to that across emitter-collector will be low. From this test it is
diode junction can be regarded as GOOD. One important possible to make a quick test of the transistors basic
point to note in a transistor is that, both the diodes of the operation. This test is most suitable for low power and
transistor should be GOOD to declare the transistor as medium power transistors.
GOOD.
Chart - 1
Types of transistor packages and pin identification chart
The above two tests on a given transistor, using a simple
ohmmeter revels the condition of the transistor. These
tests are essential before using a transistor in a circuit.
Testing transistor using DMM
Electronics repair technicians often uses a digital multmeter
(DMM) to test whether a transistor is working in fig 14.
properly or not (serviceable or unservicecable).The DMM is
shown simple test with DMM function/ range switch set at
the diode symbol (Diode tesst mode) is used for this
purpose.
There are three set of testing across the base to Emitteer,
base to collector and Emitter to collector terminals both in
forward and reverse directions as shown in Fig 14. are to be
carried out to determine the condition of any transistor.
As the transistor is considered to be junction of two - back
- to - back diodes, in this test, the DMM measures the
voltage drop across the base to Emitter and base to
collector in both directions.The readings of common type
of small signal type normal working (Serviceble) silicon
NPN transistor is given in the table below as a reference.
Direction Base to Emitter Base to collector Emitter to collector Remarks
Forward 0.45v to 0.9v 0.45 to 0.9v ‘OL’ serviceable
Reverse ‘OL’ ‘OL’ ‘OL’
Incase the bipolar transister measures contrary to these Any further increase in forward bias voltage across the PN
readings it is considered to be defective. Also, with the junction increases only the current through the junction. If
voltage drop readings it is possible to determine the emitter an excessively large forward voltage is applied across a P-
lead of an unknown/unmarked transistor,as the emitter - N junction, the junction ruptures resulting in short circuit of
base junction typically has a shightly higher voltage drop the junction. Then, the P-N junction no more behaves as a
than the collector- base junction. PN junction. Hence, while applying forward voltage across
Thus, this test is used only to verify whether the transistor a P-N junction, the maximum permissible voltage limit
is serviceasle or rot, but it doesnot guarantee that the should not be crossed.
transistor is operating within its designated parameters. In a transistor, the forward voltage across the base-emitter
Transistor data from transistor data book PN junction is referred to as VEB or VBE. The maximum value
of VEB that can be applied across this junction is indicated
Introduction as VEB(Max). If the applied voltage across E-B junction,
Voltage across the junctions and current through the base, exceeds VEB(Max), the junction will rupture and the transistor
collector and emitter in a transistor are symbolically . The will become defective.
direction of current arrows corresponds to the direction of The value of VEB(Max) is different for different transistors. This
conventional current. specification for any particular transistor can be obtained
Similar to diodes, at the contact region of each P-N from transistor data books. As an example VEB(max) of a few
junction, there are depletion regions. The depletion is at the transistors are given below;
region forward biased base-emitter junction and wide at the
reverse biased base-collector junction. Transistor BC147 BC148 BC180 BF200
1 Maximum permissible emitter-base voltage, type number

VEB(max) or VBE(max) VEB(max) 6V 5V 3V 3V
Recall from the lesson of P-N junction diodes, that the
forward bias voltage required to set a PN junction into The terms VEB(max) and VBE(max) are the same
conduction is 0.7volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium.
2 Maximum permissible collector-base voltage, emitter configuration are discussed in further lessons. The
VCB(max) or VBC(max) current gain in common-emitter configuration is indicated
by the symbol β (spell it as Beta). All data books give the
When a P-N junction is reverse biased, the junction does
current gain of transistors in β. This is because, once β of
not conduct. If the applied reverse voltage is increased
a transistor is known, the current gain of the transistor
beyond a limit, the junction ruptures and the junction starts
when connected in other configurations as shown in Fig
conducting like any conductor losing is original property.
15b and Fig 15c can be easily computed.
This maximum permissible reverse voltage that can be
applied across the collector-base is indicated by VCB(max) or
VBC(max). This value is different for different transistors. This
value for any particular transistor can be obtained from
transistor data book. As an example VCB(max) for a few
transistors are given below;
Transistor BC147 BC148 BF170 BF200

type number
VCB(max) 50V 30V 160V 30V
3 Maximum permissible Collector-Emitter Voltage,

VCE(max)
The value of b given in data books is generally the current
This is the maximum voltage that can be applied across the gain calculated as a ratio of, a small change in DC base
collector-emitter junction of a transistor. Beyond this
current (DIB) to a corresponding change in the DC collector
voltage both the base-emitter and the base-collector junction
will get damaged. VCE(max) is also different for different current (DIC).
transistors. VCE(max) for any particular transistor can be Hence, a suffix DC is attached to the term b and given as
obtained from transistor data book. As an example VCE(max) β dc in data books. β dc of transistors is also referred to as
for a few transistors are given below HFE in some data books.
Transistor BC147 BC148 BF170 BF200 Fig 15b shows a common-base amplifier, where the
type number base lead of the transistor is common to both the input and
output terminals. The current gain in common-base
VCE(max) 45V 20V 160V 20V configuration is indicated by the symbol α (spell it as
alpha). The current gain α , of a common-base amplifier will
4 Maximum permissible collector current, IC(max) always be less than 1. Although the current gain of this
This is the maximum current that can be forced to flow amplifier is very low, this configuration is preferred over the
through the collector region of a transistor. If current higher common emitter configuration in some special amplifiers.
than this limit is forced the collector, the transistor will get Details of common-base amplifiers are discussed in further
heated up excessively and eventually burn out. This lessons.
specification IC(max) of a transistor indicates whether the Fig 15c shows a common-collector amplifier, where the
transistor is low, medium or a high power transistor. IC(max) collector lead is common to both the input and output
of any particular transistor can be obtained from transistor terminals. This common-collector configuration is also
data book. IC(max) for a few transistors are given below; known as emitter-follower because, voltage at the
emitter lead follows the voltage given at the base of the
Transistor BC547 BC548 BF170 BF200 transistor. The current gain in a common-collector amplifier
type number is not very much different from that of the common-emitter
amplifier. Hence, no separate symbol is used to indicate
IC(max) 200mA 200mA 50mA 20mA the current gain of a common-collector amplifier. This
configuration is as important and as popular as the common-
5 Minimum DC current gain, bdc or HFE emitter configuration because, it is used to interconnect
circuits having different impedances. Details of this circuit
The current gain of a transistor is a ratio of the output
are discussed in further lessons.
current to the input current. A transistor can be connected
in three different ways as shown in Fig15. It is very important to note that the β of a transistor is given
in data books as β Minimum(MN) or β Typical(TP). This is
Fig 15a is referred to as common-emitter configuration
because the value of β varies due to variations in the level
or common-emitter amplifier. This is because, the emitter
of the base current. Details of variation in β is discussed in
lead of the transistor is used as a common terminal
detail in further lessons. While designing a circuit, it is
between the input and output. Common emitter amplifiers
suggested to use the typical value of β of the transistor.
are the most commonly used amplifier configuration in
If the data book gives only the minimum value of β , the
electronic circuits. This is because, in this configuration,
typical value can be taken as twice the minimum value.
you get the best out of a transistor. Details of common
6 Typical application of a particular type of transistor – Industrial circuit applications
Transistor applications are almost infinite. However, these – Consumer circuit applications
applications can be broadly classified as given below;
– Special purpose circuit applications
Characteristics Common base Common emmiter Common collector
Input resistance Very low (less than 100ohm) Low (less than 2K) High (above 100k ohm)
Output resistance Very high (more than High (less than 50k ohm) Low (less than 100 ohm)
100k ohm)
Current gain Less than one High (about 100) Very high (above 100)
Voltage gain Medium High Medium
Phase relation In phase 180 phase shift (invert or In phase

between I/P and O/P phase)
Applications High frequency applications Audio frequency application Impudence matching

for more
Under each of the above classification, there may be one – typical application of the transistor.
or more further classifications. Transistor data books give
these details as appendix to the data book. Data books In addition to the above listed specifications, there
generally adopt some form of symbolic coding scheme are a few more specifications for transistors. These
under the column use/appln to indicate the application of specifications will be introduced at the appropriate
a particular transistor. Meanings of the codes will be given place in further lessons.
in the appendix of the data book. Transistor type numbering scheme
For example, in Towers International Transistor Selector The transistor type numbering scheme follows the same
Data Book, for the transistor 2N 6004, under the column PRO-ELECTRON(European), JEDEC(American),
USE the codes mentioned is AMG. This means 2N6004 is, JIS(Japan) and House codes (particular to the manufacturer)
A - Audio frequency transistor standards as used for diodes.
M - Medium current rating Transistors in Pro-electron standard are registered with,
G - General purpose applications – two letter and three numeral codes or
From this code, we can conclude that the transistor – three letter and two numeral codes.
2N6004 is used for general purpose amplifier circuits in the A few examples of,
audio frequency range for medium current/power application.
– Two letter and three numeral codes are, AC128,
Important specifications that go along with any transistor, BC107, BF200 etc.
can be summarised as follows;
– Three letter and two numeral codes are, ACY17,
– maximum permissible emitter-base voltage, VEB(max) or BCX73 etc.
VBE(max) Two letter and three numeral codes
– maximum permissible collector-base voltage, VCB(max) The first letter in the type number of the device indicates,
or VBC(max) the type of semiconductor material used in making the
– maximum permissible collector-emitter voltage, VCE(max) device.
– maximum permissible collector current, IC(max) Example: Device numbers starting with B are made of
Silicon.
– minimum or typical dc current gain, bdc or HFE
The second and third letters indicate the general applications as they have two PN junctions. This first numeral is
of the component. followed by the letter N and a register number. For example
a device numbered 2N6004 indicates that, it is a device
Example: In transistor type code BC107, the second letter
with two junctions (transistor) which was the 6004th to be
C indicates that it is a low power audio frequency transistor.
registered in the standards. The detailed specification for
Table No.28 of pocket table book gives further details of pro-
the registered number can be found referring to transistor
electron codes for transistors.
data book.
The three digit numerals after two or three letters is the
In JIS (Japan) standard transistor type numbering scheme,
registration code number which corresponds to the detailed
all transistor numbers start with 2S followed by a letter and
voltage, current and temperature specification of that
several numbers(e.g. 2SB77). The letter after S has the
transistor. This detailed specification can be obtained
following significance,
referring to data book.
A = PNP transistor for high frequency application
Three letter and two numeral code
B = PNP transistor for low frequency application
If the transistor has a three letter and two numeral code,
then the first two letters carry the same meaning as given C = NPN transistor for high frequency application
in the above example. The third letter indicates that the
D = NPN transistor for low frequency application
device is manufactured for a specific field of application.
Manufacturers who cannot manufacture transistors which
For example: BCY98 indicates that it is a silicon, audio/low
satisfy the full detailed specification of any of the above said
frequency, low power, industrial transistor.
standards employ their own coding scheme. Such coding
In Jedec(USA) standard transistor type numbering schemes are known as House codes and they are
scheme, the first numeral gives the number of PN junctions particular to individual manufacturers. One such House
in the device. For example 1 for diodes as they have only code maintained by, The Semiconductors Ltd., Poona,
one PN junction and 2 for conventional bipolar transistors has house code such as SL100, SG100 etc.
Transistors Input and Output Characteristics of Transistors

• state the necessity of characteristic curves for transistors
• list and explain the two important characteristic curves of transistors
• define voltage and break down voltage
• state the importance of DC load line curves
• state the meaning of Q-point
• state the method of fixing Q-point for a given transistor using the transistor data.
A semiconductor diode, as shown in Fig 1, has only one PN the effect of one parameter with the others. To have a clear
junction. When the voltage across the PN junction is understanding of their relationship a minimum of two
increased or decreased, the current through the diode characteristics graphs should be plotted for any transistor.
increases or decreases. There is only one voltage They are,
parameter(Vd) and one current parameter(Id). Therefore, the – Input characteristics
relationship between these two parameters is easy to
understand through the diode characteristic graph of Vd – Output characteristics.
versus Id as shown in Fig 1b.
In a transistor since there are two PN junctions there are

three voltage parameters VBE, VBC, VCE and three current For simplicity in understanding, consider a common-
parameters IB, IC, IE, as shown in Fig 2. emitter amplifier. The two characteristics graphs are shown
in Fig 3.
Any change in any one parameter causes changes in all
the other parameters. Hence it is not very easy to correlate
In this test circuit, VCE is set to the required value by
adjusting the voltage source VCC. A resistor is introduced
in the collector of the transistor to prevent excessive
current in the collector which may damage the transistor.
The base-emitter voltage VBE can be set by adjusting the
potentiometer. An additional resistor is introduced in
series with the DC supply VBB and the POT only to limit the
voltage across VBE, and hence, the base current.
Output characteristics or Collector characteristics
The graph at Fig 3b, shows the relationship between the
output voltage VCE and output current IC for different values
of IB.
For simplicity in understanding, consider one of the curves
of Fig 3b for a particular value of IB as shown in Fig 4.
Fig 4 shows the collector characteristics for a constant IB
of 10μA. Behavior of IC for different values of VCE is
explained below;
– When VCE is 0, the collector-base diode is not reverse-
biased. Therefore, the collector current is negligibly
small.
– For VCE between 0.7V and 1V, the collector diode gets
reverse-biased. Once reverse biased, the collector
gathers all the electrons that reach its depletion layer.
Hence the collector current rises sharply and then
becomes almost constant.
– Above the knee voltage and below the break down
voltage, the collector current does not rise steeply or
the current is almost constant even if the value of VCE is
increased. Thus the transistor works like a controlled
Input characteristics or Base characteristics constant current source in this region.
The graph at Fig 3a shows the relationship between the – Assuming that the transistor has a βdc of approximately
input voltage VBE and input current IB for different values of 100, the collector current is approximately 100 times
VCE. the base current as shown in Fig 4 (1mA is 100 times
Since the base-emitter section of a transistor is nothing but 10 μA).
a diode, the graph resembles a diode curve as in Fig 1b. – If VCE is further increased, beyond the break down level,
But, it is important to note that in Fig 3a, there is a diode VCE(max), the collector-base diode breaks down and
curve for each value of the collector-emitter voltage VCE. normal transistor action is lost. The transistor no longer
While plotting the diode curve 1 of Fig 3a, the value of VCE acts like a current source. As the collector-base gets
was maintained constant at 1V. In curves 2 and 3, the value ruptured, the junction is shorted and hence current
of VCE was increased and hence the path of the curve increases rapidly above the breakdown point as shown
becomes different. in Fig 4.
Why does this happen? The answer is, because of the

higher collector voltages, the collector gathers a few more
electrons flowing through the base-emitter. This reduces
the base current. Hence, the curve with higher VCE has
slightly less base current for a given VBE. This phenomenon
is known as Early effect.
The gap shown between the curves in Fig 3a is very small.
In practice, this gap will be so small, sometimes not even
noticeable.
Plotting input/base curves of any given transistor
Necessary data for plotting the input or base characteristics
can be obtained by constructing a simple test circuit as
shown in Fig 3.
If several curves for different IB are drawn on the same graph,
the collector curves look like what is shown in
Fig 3b.
Since the assumed βdc of the transistor was approximately
100, the collector current is approximately 100 times
greater than the base current at any point in the active
region. These curves are sometimes called as static
collector curves because DC currents and voltage are
being plotted.
In Fig 3b, notice that at the bottom most curve, eventhough
the base current is zero, a small collector current exists.
This is because of the leakage current of the collector
diode. For silicon transistors this leakage current is so
small that it can be almost ignored.
In Fig 3b, also note that the break down voltages become
lower at higher currents. This means that the base-emitter
voltage from knee point till the break down, known as the
voltage compliance of a transistor, decreases for larger DC Load Line
collector currents. Hence, it is necessary to avoid very high • The straight line is know as the DC load line
collector current such that the transistor operates in a
• Its significance is that regardless of the behavior
wider active region.
of the transistor, the collector current IC and the
Generally transistor data sheets/books do not show collector collector-emitter voltage VCE must always lie on
curves of transistors. To see the collector curves of a the load line, depends ONLY on the V CC ,
particular transistor, an instrument known as curve tracer
RC and RE
is used. This instrument looks similar to an oscilloscope.
It displays collector curves similar to those shown in Fig 5.
• It must be true at the same time as the transistor
characteristic. Solve two condition using
simultaneous equation
If different transistors are tried on the curve tracer, you will

notice changes in knee voltage, βdc, breakdown voltage,
etc.
TIP: Two transistors of the same type number (e.g.
2N6004) may have a wide variation in the collector curves.
The collector curves are very important because, from
these curves the following important information required Q-Point (Static Operation Point)
while designing an amplifier circuit using a particular type
of transistor can be obtained; • The intersection of the dc bias value of IB with the dc
load linen determines the Q-point.
– DC current gain β of the transistor at different set DC
values of IB and VCE. • It is desirable to have the Q-point centered on the load
line. Why?
– Maximum value of VCE that can be applied for a set value
of IB and IC. • When a circuit is designed to have a centered
Q-point, the amplifier is said to be midpoint biased.
– Maximum value of IC that can be made to flow for a set
• Midpoint biasing allows optimum ac operation of the
value of IB.
amplifier.
AC Load Line
• The ac load line of a given amplifier will not follow the
plot of the dc load line.
• This is due to the dc load of an amplifier is different from
the ac load.
Application of a Transistor as Switch

• explain the function of the transistor
• explain the operation of a transistor as a switch
• describes the operation of a transistor switching circuit
• state the application of transistor switch.
The function of a transistor at cut-off condition: the

transistor is operation at cut-off condition when the emitter
and collector junction are both reverse biased
Consider the circuit in Fig 1
Vce=Vcc-(Ic*Rl)……………..(1)
Since Ib=0 and Ic= 0Vce=Vcc
The transistor is said to be cut off for the simple reason that
it does not conduct any current as in fig 1a.this corresponds
to a switch in an open state, therefore a transistor at cut off
is said to be open state.
The function of a transistor at a saturation condition:
The transistor is operated at a saturated condition when
both the emitter and collector are in forward bias.
In fig 1b if the value of Rb and Rl are such that Vce tends to
zero, then the transistor is said to be saturates. Putting
Vce=0 in the eqn (1) we get • transistor is normally off without output current unless
forward voltage is applied in the base emitter circuit
Vce=0=Vcc-IcRl or Ic=Vcc-Rl
• the forward voltage controlling the base current mines
The operation of a transistor as a switch: The switch the amount of output current
action for Q1 in fig. 2 illustrated how the output current can
be conducted at the input .note the following importance In fig 2 the control circuit of the input determines the base
operating characteristics. current determines the amount of output current.
In fig 2 the control circuit of the input determines the base The transistor in fig 4 is said to be at saturation, when it has
current. For the power circuit the output is the collector reached its maximum collector current. when used as
current. An NPN transistor is used for Q1.the emitter is switch, the transistor is divided into cut off and saturation
common to both (a) the current circuit at the input and (b) by the base current varied by the emitter –base voltage.
the power output circuit
Transistor switching time: now let pay attention to the

The base emitter junction of Q in fig 2 can be forwards behavior of the transistor as a transistor from one state to
biased by the battery B1.Switch S1 must be closed apply the other. consider the transistor circuit shown in fig 5b.this
the forward voltage. reverse polarity means that the N wave form makes transistor between the voltage level V2
collector is more positive than base, with switch S1 open and V1 at V2 the transistor is at cut off and at V1 is applied
,no current flow in base emitter .The reason is that the between the base and the emitter through a resistor R2
forward voltage is not applied .therefore the resistance of which may be included explicitly in the circuit or may
the emitter to the collector of the transistor is very high. No represent the output impedance of the source furnishing
current flows in the power circuit and the lamp does not the wave form.
glow.
Next assume that switch that S1 is closed this cause a
small change in current flow in the control circuit .R is the
current limiting resistor for the base current. Therefore the
resistance from the emitter from the collector for the
transistor drops. Consequently a large current flow in the
power circuit causing the lamp to glow.
Operation of transistor switching circuit: The schematic
circuit in the fig 3 shows the measured voltage and collector
current Ic in the ‘transistor OFF' condition. Note that only
a tiny leakage current of 1micro amp flow from the emitter
to collector. The resistance from E to C is calculated as
R=V/I=9V/0.000001A=9 M Ω
The transistor has a resistance of 9 mega ohms, which is
like the open or off condition of a switch
The fig 4 shows the measured voltage and current in the
‘transistor ON condition. First, the voltage from the emitter
to the base has been increased by adjusting B1,The
forward –biased voltage of 0.86V at the emitter-base In the fig the current does not immediately responds to the
junction of the transistor cause the resistance of the input signal. Instead there is a delay and the time escaped
transistor from E to C drop this resistance from E to C is during this delay
calculated as toff=td+tr
R=V/I=0.4V/0.085A=4.7 ohms When the input signal is at state t=T the current again falls
to the responds. Immediately
toff=ts+tf
The application of transistor as a switch:
The transistor switch is used as
• as an electronic on off switch
• in the mono stable and bi-stable multi vibrators.
• In counter and pulse generator circuit
• in clipping and clamping circuit
• as a sweep starting switch in the cathode ray
oscilloscopic equipments
When is connected to small current (in Fig 6. switch
• as a relay, but unlike the machanical relay the connected to Vcc through current limitting resistor Rs. ),
transistor has no moving mechanical parts. transistor will go in saturation, so transistor will act as
Transistor relay switch: Transistor driven relay electronic close switch so, current flows through relay. Due to current
switch circuit shown in Fig 6. This type of circuits are flowing in Relay. Relay will be magnetised and N/O contact
mostly used in electronic circuits to drive high current and will close. So, bulb load connected to the AC supply will
voltage circuits by using a small input voltage or current. ON.
Circuit in Fig. 5 is same as transistor switch. In this relay When in put switch is OPEN, there is no current flowing
will be the load for transistor. Transistor will ON-OFF relay to base of transistor. Transistor will goes in cut off, so
by operating base current and relay will be operated high transistor will act as OPEN switch *** current how through
by current or voltage load. relay. Relay will not be energized and N/O contact remains
open. So, bulb load is not getting current, it will not glow.
Biasing of Transistors
• describe the operation of a NPN transistor & PNP transistor
• state the typical percent of base current and collector current in a properly biased transistor
• state the relationship between IE, IB and IC
• state when a transistor is said to be properly biased
• state the meaning of leakage current ICO.
Biasing of transistors – The base layer is very thin, of the order of 1/10th the
width of the outer layers, and is very lightly doped.
Biasing a transistor means giving correct polarity and
current level of voltages at the terminals of a transistor, Transistor operation
such that, it functions as intended. (as an amplifier or as a
As transistors have three layers, there are two junctions as
solid state switch etc.)
shown in Fig 1. The base-emitter junction behaves as one
Recall, transistors are three-layer semi-conductor devices diode junction. The base-collector junction behaves as
consisting of either a P-type layer sand wiched between the other diode junction.
two N-type layers as shown in Fig 1a or N-type layer
Recall that a diode junction conducts only when +ve supply
between two P-type layers as shown in Fig 1b.
is connected to the P material and -ve supply to the N
material. Fig 2a shows a NPN transistor where the base-
emitter junction is forward-biased. Hence, the diode
conducts resulting in large flow of majority carriers(electrons)
from N-type to P-type material.
Fig 2b shows the base-emitter junction forward biased
and the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. Why is
the base-collector reverse biased? what effect does this
connection have on the transistor operation?
The answer is, in a NPN transistor, majority c arriers are
From Fig 1, the following points are important to note; electrons, because, the emitter and collector are N-type
materials. Free electrons are generated in the N-type
– The widths of the outer layers, i.e. emitter and collector
emitter because of the forward-biased base-emitter junction.
layers are much greater than that of the base layer.
If the collector voltage is not there , then all the generated
– The emitter layer is heavily doped compared to both the electrons flow to the base as shown in Fig 2a.
base and collector layers. When the base-collector is reverse-biased, then, a positive
voltage appears at the collector. This positive voltage at the
collector completely changes the path of the electron
current flow. Because of the thin base and the low base-to-
emitter voltage (0.7V for silicon), about 95 percent of the
electrons pass through the thin base and are attracted to
the more positive potential collector as shown in Fig 2b.
Only a very small percentage of the electrons from the
emitter combine with holes in the base.
The ratio of the change in output current to the change in

the input current is called the amplification or gain. In
Fig.4, change in output current is ΔIC due to the change in
the input current ΔIB. Therefore the current gain introduced
by the transistor is
Current gain
Output current change ΔΔ 9mA

C
= = = 900
Input current change ΔΔ 0.01mA
B
Gain is a dimension-less quantity

This condition as shown in Fig 4, in which the two junctions
of the transistor are connected to such polarities of the
voltage source, such that the transistor behaves as an
amplifier, the transistor is then said to be properly biased
It can be seen from Fig 3, that the, or correctly biased.
– current carriers come from the emitter Some books use the term Forward biased
– base current is small( 5% of emitter current) instead of the term properly biased.
– and, the collector current is high (95% of emitter Summarising a transistor is said to be properly biased or
current). correctly biased or forward biased if,
– its base-emitter junction is forward biased
– and, its base-collector junction is reverse biased.
On the other hand, if the polarities of voltages connected to
transistor junctions is as shown in Fig 5a and 5b, because
the base-emitter junction is reverse biased, no electrons
are available for conduction, and, hence, the transistor
action does not exist. If the base-emitter is forward biased
but the base-collector is not reverse biased as shown in Fig
5c, then, there is no amplification as both the junctions
Under such conditions, it can be seen that, small changes
simply conduct as diodes.
in the emitter-base current will result in large change in the
collector current. For example, an increase of say one In a properly biased transistor as shown in Fig 3 and Fig 4,
electron in base current will result in an increase of 19 the relationship between IE, IB and IC is given by,
electrons in the collector current. This is because the
collector current is 95% of the emitter current whereas the IE = IB + IC .....[1]
base current is only 5% of emitter current. This means that
or IC = IE – IB
the value of the collector current can be easily controlled by
changes in the bias on the emitter-base junction. or IB = IE – IC.
Summarizing, small changes in the base current results in Minority current in transistors
large changes in the collector current as shown in Fig 4.
This is nothing but amplification which is the intended In NPN transistor, as shown in Fig 6, if no voltage is applied
across the base-emitter junction, but a reverse-bias is
function of a transistor. This behaviour of a transistor is
known as Transistor action. applied across the base-collector junction, the following
things happen,
equation IC = IE – IB. However, this slight increase in IC value
can be neglected because, the value of ICO will be very very
small compared to IC (due to IE) at normal working
temperature.
In any typical general purpose transistor,

– value of IC and IE will be in milliamps
– value of ICO will be in nanoamps to microamps
– value of IB will be in microamps.
Operation of PNP transistors
Working of a PNP transistor is exactly the same as that of
NPN transistors discussed earlier, if the role played by the
electrons in NPN transistors is interchanged with holes as
given below;
In a PNP transistor,
– The majority current carriers are holes instead of
– There is no current in the base-emitter path as no bias electrons
voltage exists.
– The minority current ICO, is due to electrons in the N-
– The base-collector diode is reverse biased; hence, the type base material instead of holes.
forward current due to the majority current
carriers(electrons) is zero. Test circuit for testing proper transistor biasing
– A small quantity current of the order of a few If a transistor is properly biased (i.e. B-E junction forward
nanoamperes to microamperes flows in the base- biased and C-B junction reverse biased), then, there will be
collector. This small reverse current is due to minority collector current IC of the order of milliamps. To check this
current carriers, electrons in the P-type base material. an LED is connected in the collector circuit of the transistors
as shown in Figs 8a and 8b. The LED in the collector glows
– The minority current increases if the voltage applied to only when the transistor is properly biased otherwise the
the base-collector increases or the junction temperature LED remains OFF.
increases. This is because current increases
temperature and temperature releases current carriers Resistor RB and RC are introduced in the circuit to limit the
from the covalent bond structure. base and collector currents such that the transistor does
not get damaged due to excessive current.
This minority current is called the leakage current and is
shown by the symbol ICO. ICO means, collector current IC
with emitter terminal open. The value of this leakage
current ICO will be given in the transistor data sheets for all
transistors.
As shown in Fig 7, since the forward collector current IC due
to majority carriers and the leakage current ICO due to
minority current carriers flow in the same direction, they are
combined. Therefore, the total collector current will be
equal to,
IC = IC(majority) + ICO(minority) .......[2]
Because of the minority current ICO, the value of collector
current IC will be slightly more than that, given in the
Gain and impedance of common emitter amplifier
• state the meaning and method of finding voltage gain
• state the meaning and method of finding input impedance
• state the meaning and method of finding output impedance
• state the meaning and method of finding power gain
• state the phase relationship between input and output in a CE amplifier.
After a transistor is biased with the Q point near the

middle of the DC load line, the transistor can be made to
amplify AC and DC signals as shown in Fig 1a. When we
use a transistor to amplify a small AC signal, the small AC
signal to be amplified is coupled to the base of the
transistor using a capacitor. A capacitor is used for AC
coupling because as discussed in earlier lessons
capacitors behave as short for AC signal and open for DC
signal. The varying amplitude and frequency of the coupled
AC signal produces greater value variations in the collector
current of the same shape and frequency as shown in Fig
1b.
As shown in Fig 1a, if the input is a 1 kHz sine wave, the
output will be an enlarged 1 kHz sine wave. The small sine
wave given at the base of the transistor produces variations
in the base current. Hence, the collector current is an
amplified sine wave of the same frequency. The sinusoidal
collector current flows through the collector resistor and
produces an amplified sine wave output. Such amplifiers
which retain the shape of the input signal at the output are
called linear amplifiers.
Fig 1b, shows the DC load line, the Q point and AC input
and output signals. This is generally referred to as the AC
load line. As can be seen from Fig 1b, the AC input voltage
produces variations in the base current. This results in
sinusoidal variations about the Q point. Variations in Q
point are nothing but the variations in the collector current It is to be noted that in most linear CE amplifier circuits the
resulting amplified form of the input signal. current gain Ai is almost equal to bdc of the transistor.
For small input signal levels, generally referred to as small Therefore the following approximation can be used for Ai.
signal operation, the peak to peak swing in the collector
Ai  
current should be less than the ±10% of the collector
current at Q point to keep the distortion in the amplified In the amplifier at Fig 1, if bdc of the transistor is 100, then
output with in acceptable limits. the current gain Ai of the amplifier can be taken as 100.
For large input signal levels, generally referred to as large- Voltage gain, A or A of CE amplifier
V
signal operation, the peak to peak swing in the collector The voltage gain of an amplifier is the ratio of AC output
current will be larger(more than 10%). If the swing is very voltage to the AC input voltage. This is represented as,
large, the transistor may go into saturation and cut off. This
swing into saturation and cut off will clip the positive and Voltage gain, A v =
V
out
negative peaks of the output signal. This clipping is nothing V

in
but distortion, meaning, the output will not be an exact
replicate of the input signal. Small letter v is used for voltage because it is
AC CURRENT GAIN Ai, of a CE amplifier AC voltage whose amplitude keeps changing
with time.
The AC current gain of a CE amplifier shown in Fig 1 is the
ratio of the AC component of the collector current ic, to the
For example, in Fig 1, if the input voltage vin is 80 m V(p-p)
AC base current ib.
and the corresponding output voltage vout is 7.2 V(p-p), then
i the voltage gain AV is given by,
c
A =
i i
b
Voltage gain, A =
7.2
(p − p ) = 90
Small letter i is used to represent AC current v 80m V
(p − p)
whose value keeps changing with time.
A voltage gain of 90 means that, in this amplifier, a base br'e = 100(25 W) = 2.5 KW
voltage of 1 mV produces an output voltage of 9 mV.
Zin = R1 R2 b r'e
The input and output voltage may be rms,
peak, peak-to-peak, as long as the input and = 18 KW 8.2 KW 2.5 KW
output are measured the same way consistently.
= 1.73 KW.
Input impedance, Zin of CE amplifier
Practical way of finding Zin
Recall that the maximum transfer of power takes place
To find Zin of a given CE amplifier circuit, it is merely
when the impedances of the supplying and receiving
necessary to measure the AC signal input voltage and
circuits are matched.
current. Then, use these values in the formula, and calculate
If impedances are to be matched for best circuit operation, Zin.
both impedances must be known. If a single device such
A simpler method to measure iin is to connect a series input
as a microphone, speaker, relay, etc. is to be used, its
resistance of known value in series with the input signal, as
impedance will be given by the manufacturer. The amplifier
in Fig 3.
to be designed for such a circuit must have an input or
output impedance to match the input-output devices. The voltage drop across the resistor Rs is measured, and
The AC source driving the amplifier has to supply AC Ohm’s law is used to determine iin.
current to the amplifier. The less the current the amplifier V −V
draws from the source, the better because the supplying I
in
= X Y
R
source does not get loaded. The input impedance of the s
amplifier determines how much of current the amplifier
The value of Vin can be measured directly, as shown in
takes from the ac source or the preceding stage of the
amplifier. Fig 3.
In the normal frequency range of an amplifier, the coupling

and by pass capacitors behave as a short for ac. The AC
input impedance Zin sometimes referred to as input
resistance Rin is defined as the ratio of input signal voltage
to input signal current.
v in
Z in 
iin
where, Vin and iin are rms or peak or peak-to-peak values.

Output impedance, Zout
Fig 2 shows the AC equivalent circuit of the CE amplifier
shown in Fig 1. The output impedance of a CE amplifier is naturally the
impedance at the output terminals.
From the AC equivalent circuit the input impedance Zin is
given by, To find the Zout of the CE amplifier shown in Fig 4, consider
the AC equivalent of the output as shown in Fig 4a.
Z in  R 1 R2  r' e .....[1] Recall that a transistor operating in the linear portion of its
characteristics curve is like a current source. Therefore, we
can represent it as a current source iC.
As can be seen from Fig 4a, this collector current source
is in parallel with the collector resistor RC. Assuming that
the collector current source is ideal, it has infinite internal
impedance. Then, the only impedance in the output is the
collector resistor RC.
where,
R1 and R2 are the voltage divider resistors,
b is the DC current gain and r'e is the ac emitter
resistance (VBE/IE). r'e is approximately equal to 25W when
the Q point is chosen at the mid of the load line.
In the CE amplifier at Fig 1, if R1 = 18KW, R2 = 8.2KW and
the transistor b is 100, the input impedance Zin will be,
The Thevinin’s voltage appearing at the output is the voltage The negative sign associated with output
gain(A) times the input vin. power. This is because, in a CE amplifier, the
Therefore, Vout = A.vin output is 180° out of phase with the input signal.
Details are discussed in the forthcoming
Hence, the output AC equivalent circuit of the amplifier can paragraphs.
be simplified as shown in Fig 4b. In Fig 4b, an ideal output
voltage source AVin with zero internal impedance is in In the CE amplifier at Fig 1, power gain Ap is the ratio of
series with the collector resistor RC. Therefore, the output output signal power to input signal power. The formula is,
impedance of the CE amplifier is approximately equal to
the collector resistor RC, P
Zout ≈ Rc out
Power gain =
P
In the CE amplifier circuit at Fig 1, if RC = 1000W, the output in
impedance of the amplifier is equal to the value of RC , that
is 1000 W. Power gain is also given by,
Practical way of finding Zout Ap = – Av . Ai
The easiest way of measuring the output impedance of a where,

CE amplifier circuit is given below; Av is the voltage gain (vout/vin)
1 Measure the unloaded output voltage Vout of the CE Ai is the current gain (ic/ib)
amplifier.
2 Place a variable resistor across the load terminals, as For the amplifier at Fig 1, if Av = 90 and the b of the transistor
shown in Fig 5. is 100, then the power gain Ap of the amplifier is given by,
Ap = - Av.Ai = 90 x 100 = 9000.
This means that if an AC input power of 1 μW is given to the
amplifier, the output power will be 9mwatts.
Practical way of finding Ap
Since the formula for power is, P = I2 x R = Ix I x R
Since,
V
I (substituting this in above equation, we get)
R
V2
P
R
Therefore, by Ohm’s law, power gain is easy to calculate
when signal voltages and impedances are known as given
below;
3 Adjust the variable resistor until the voltage drop
V V
across it is one-half of the unloaded output voltage P =
out 2
and Pin = in 2
out
Vout. Z
out
Z
in
4 Remove the variable resistor and measure its value. Knowing the values of Pout and Pin power gain of the circuit
This value is equal to Zout. can be calculated.
Power gain, Ap in decibels, dB
Zout is not a fixed value; it varies with transistor
voltages and the load resistance. Care must The power gain of amplifiers is often expressed in decibels
always be taken to maintain an undistorted (dB). To calculate the power gain of an amplifier in decibels,
signal when input or output impedances are use the following formula.
measured.
P
out
Power gain dB = 10 log
Power gain, Ap of a CE amplifier P
in
In the CE amplifier shown in Fig 1, the input power is given
Input - Output phase relationship
by,
Recall, that while calculating the power gain it was
Pin = vin.ib
mentioned that the output signal of a CE amplifier is 180o
and the output power is given by, out of phase with its input signal. To find out why this
Pout = - vin.ib happens in a CE amplifier, assume that the DC base bias
current IB at the set Q point is 30 μA. The corresponding
collector current is 1 mA. When the AC signal is applied to
the input, the base bias varies from 20 to 40 μA, as shown
in Fig 1b. Since the type of transistor used is NPN, as base
bias is increased to 40 μA, collector current ic increases.
The resultant effects are,
– the increased transistor conduction causes less
voltage drop across the transistor(VCE)
– increased iC causes a larger voltage drop across
RC. Hence, the voltage across the collector to
ground gets reduced.
In Fig 1a, as the output signal is taken across the transistor
collector and ground, an increasing signal voltage causes
a decreasing output signal.
As the input signal level decreases, say to 20 μA, the
forward bias is less and transistor conduction decreases .
When transistor conduction decreases, its resistance is
higher and so the voltage drop across it increases. With
increased voltage drop across the transistor, the output
voltage Vout increases. This increase in Vout reduces the
voltage drop across the collector load resistance RC.
From this, it can be concluded that in a CE amplifier, a
negative-going input signal causes a higher, or, more
positive-going output signal. Therefore, in a CE amplifier
the output is 180o out of phase with the input.
Practical way of finding input-output phase
relationships Since it is applicable in measuring signals, anything that
can be expressed in waves may also be measured with dB.
The phase relationship between input-output can be found In the disciplines of acoustics electronics,dB is liberally
in two ways as given below. utilized.
Method 1: Using a dual trace CRO, connect one of the To be exact, decibel dB is expressed in this term: dB 10log
CRO inputs to the input of the amplifier and the other CRO (P1/P2). Where P1 and P2 are two different values of
input to the output of the amplifier. Make the oscilloscope power.
to trigger on the input signal. The waveforms shown on the
CRO show the phase relationship between input and It is primarily used because it can represent an extremely
output as shown in Fig 6a. huge number into a convenient scale. Inradio link designs,
values often differ enormously and to contrast these values
Method 2: If a single trace CRO is used, then instead of decibel is used. Its logarithmic properties make calculation
feeding complete sinewave to the input, feed only the easier. With the implementation of dB, engineers and
positive signal pulses as shown in Fig 6b. These positive physicist are now able to calculate values with simple few
pulses can be generated using a simple half-wave rectifier numbers as an aiternative of arduous 9 to 10-digit ones.
as shown in Fig 6c.
dBm is different but definitely related to dB. dBm stands
With the positive pulse fed at the input, the output of the CE foran absolute power level. It is in reference to another unit
amplifier will be negative pulse as shown in Fig 6b. Use the of power the milliwatt.
signal as an external trigger source for the CRO to view the
waveform. Mathematically, dBm = 10* log (P/1mW)
dB vs dBm The value of “P” is power in watts. Then, with further

calculation, you can convert the absolute power unit “P”
When a physical quantity, such as power or intensity, is into dBm. The value of power level “P” is now referenced to
measured relative to a reference level it is expressed in 1 mW. The unit dBm is devised because in practice, 1 mW
decibels (dB), which is a logarithmic unit. Decibel is is a convenient reference point from which to measure
considered as a dimensionless unit because it is a ratio of power. dBm is considered as an absolute unit “a unit to
two quantities with the same unit thus cancellation takes measure power.
place. It is used for quntifying the ratio between two values.
The best example of this is the signal - to -noise ratio. Additionally, based on what value the power is referred to,
a particular absolute value of power can be in any kind. If
Sound pressure level is typically measured in dB but the dBm “which can be written in dBmW by the way - is
unit is not limited to that quantity alone. There are a lot of acquired because of 1mW reference, a value can be in a
uses of this measuring unit particularly in engineering. form of dBW if it is referred to 1 watt.
Common Base Amplifier
• calculate the voltage gain,current gain,input impedance and output impedance of a common base
amplifier
• list the typical applications of common base amplifiers.
Fig 1 shows the typical circuit schematic of a common Equation 2 indicates that the output impedance of a CB
base amplifier (CB-amplifier). amplifier is relatively high, of the order of kilo ohms
(because you can fix the value of RC as you wish ! ).
From Fig 2, the output voltage Vout is
Vout = Io RC = Ic.RC
IC
Since  = , I C = .IE
IE
Therefore, Vout = IC RC = a.IE.RC .......{3}.
Vin
Since, I E = equation 3 can be written as,
Common base amplifiers have a current gain of less than r' e
1. Recall, the emitter current and the collector current of a The voltage gain AV of CB amplifier is given by,
transistor are almost equal. In a common base amplifier
since the input current is IE and the output current is IC, the Vout Vin 1 RC
AV = =  RC =  ......{4}
current gain, symbolically represented as a (alpha), is Vin r' e Vin r' e
given by,
Since r'e is very small compared to RC, the voltage gain AV
Output current I of the CB amplifier is quite high.
c
Current gain (α ) = = .
Input current I
E The power gain Ap of the CB amplifier is given by,
Since IE > IC , a will always be less than 1. AP = Ai.AV
Fig 2 shows the ac equivalent of a common base amplifier, Power gain AP will be medium because although Ai is less
shown in Fig 1. than or equal to 1, AV of the CB amplifier is quite high.
Input/Output phase relationship
The input and output of a common base amplifier are in
phase with each other. This can be found experimentally.
Fig 3 shows a CB amplifier with voltage divider bias.
In Fig 3, the base of the transistor is at ac ground due to the
bypass capacitor CB. The input signal drives the emitter
and the output is taken from the collector. The biasing
resistors R1, R2 will have negligible effect on the input
impedance. Therefore, the input impedance of the CB
From Fig 2, the input impedance Zin of CB amplifier is given amplifier is approximately equal to r'e itself.
by,
Zin = RE r'e .....{1}.
Since RE is generally much greater than r'e, eqn..1 can be

simplified as,
Zin = r'e
The equation for Zin indicates that, the input impedance of
a CB amplifier is very low and almost equal to the ac
resistance r'e of the emitter diode (recall r'e will be generally
25Ω).
Referring to the AC equivalent network of the CB amplifier,
the output impedance Zout of CB amplifier is given by,
Zout = RC ......{2}.
The voltage at the base (at T1) is given by, The output impedance Zout is given by,
Z  R  3.3KΩ
R2 out c
VB  Vcc
R1  R2 The input Vin to the amplifier is given by (note that CB bypas
R2 for AC signal),
2.2K
 .12V
10K 2.2K '
re
 2.16Volts Vin  V
' s
R  re
s
The emitter current IE is given by, 20.5Ω
500mV  10mV
1KΩ  20.5Ω
V -V
I  B EE Therefore the unloaded output voltage Vout is given by,
E RE
2.16 - 0.7 Vout(no load)=Av.Vin

1.2KΩ =161 x 10mV
 1.22mA =1610mV=1.61 volts
The output voltage of the amplifier with load RL is given by,
Therefore, re' is given by,
R
V  L xV
' 25mV out (load) R R out (noload)
re  C L
IE
6.8K
25mV  x1.61V  1.08V
  20.5Ω 3.3K  6.8K
1.22mA
Class Room Assignment: Calculate the output voltage of
Input impedance Zin is given by, the CB amplifier (as done in step above) if load resistor RL
was,
'
Zin  re  20.5Ω i RL=3.3K
The voltage gain Av is given by, ii RL=10K and,
iii RL=100K
R 3.3K
c
A = = = 160.97 = 161 Ω
v r' 20.5
e
Field Effect Transistors

• identify various power electronic component
• construction of FET & JFET
• difference between FET & BJT
• difference between JFET & BJT
• Heat sink and its purposes
• FET amplifiers in measuring device applications.
Identification & different power electronic flowing into the gate to turn on the device.When a thyristor
components starts conducting current into the gate is of on importance
and thyristor can only be switched off by removing the
A thristor is an improved diode. Besides anode (A) and
current between anode and cathode.If S1 is closed,the
cathode (K) it has another lead which is commonly
thyristor will not conduct, and the globe will not light. If S2
described as a gate (G), as found on picture. The same
is closed for a very short time, the globe will illuminate.To
way a diode does, a thyristor conducts current when the
turn off the globe S1 must be opened. Thyristors are marked
anode is positive compared to the cathode, but only if the
in some circuits as SCR, which is an acronym for silicon
voltage on the gate is positive and sufficient current is
controlled rectifier. A triac is very similar to thyristor, with the type of (P or N type) the main current in either by
the difference that can conduct in both directions. It has electrons or by holes and never both. For this reason FET
three electrodes called anode 1 (A1), anode 2 (A2), and are also known as uni polar transistors or uni polar device.
gate (G). It is used for regulation of alternating current
There are a wide variety of FETs. One of the fundamentals
circuits. Devices such as hand drills or globes can be
types called as junction field effect transistor (JFET) is
controlled with a triac. Thyristor and triacs are marked
discussed.
alphanumerically, KT430, for example. Low power
thyristors and triacs are packed in same housings as Junction Field effect Transistor(JFET)
transistors, but high power devices have completely It is a three terminal device and looks similar to a bi-polar
different housing. Pin-outs of some common thyristors and transistor. The standard circuit symbols of N-channel and
triacs are shown a and b. Diacs or two- way diodes as P-channel type FETs are shown in Fig 2.
they are often referred to, are used together with thyristors
and triacs. Their main property is that their resistance is The internal diagram of a N-channel FET is shown in Fig.3.
very large until voltage on their ends exceeds some
predefined value. When the voltage is under this value,a
diac respond as a large value resistor, and when votage
rises it acts as a low value resistor.
Field effect transistors (FET)
The main difference between a bi polar transistors and a
Construction
field effect transistor is that,
As shown in Fig 3a, a n-Channel JFET has a narrow bar
Bi - polar transistor is a current controlled device.
of n-type. To this, two p-type junctions are diffused on
In simple terms, This means that the main current in a opposite sides of its middle part Fig 3a. These diffused
bipolar transistor (collector current) is controlled by the junctions form two P-N diodes or gates. The n-type
base current. semiconductor area between these junctions/gates is
called channel. The diffused P regions on opposite sides of
Filed effect transistor is a voltage controlled device.
the channel are internally connected and a single lead is
This means that the voltage at the gate (similar to base of brought out which is called gate lead or terminal. Direct
a bipolar transistor) controls the main current. Electronics connections are made at the two ends of the
In a bi-polar transistor (NPN or PNP) the main current bar. One of which is called source terminal, S and the other
always flows through N-doped and P-doped semi conductor drain terminal, D.
materials. whereas, in a field effect transistor the main A p-channel FET will be very similar to the n-channel FET
current flows either only through the N-doped in construction except that it uses P-type bar and two N
semiconductor or only through the p-doped semiconductor type junctions as shown in Fig 3b.
as shown in the Fig 1.
If the main current flow is only through the N-doped

material, then such a FET is referred as a N-channel or N
type FET. The current through the N-doped material in the
n-type FET is only by electrons.
If the main current flow is only through the p-doped
material, then such a FET is referred as a p-channel or p-
type FET. The current through the P-doped material in the
p-type FET is only by holes.
Unlike in bipolar transistors in which the main current both
by electrons and holes, in contrast in FET depending on
FET notation listed below are essential and worth
memorizing,
1 Source terminal: It is the terminal through which
majority carriers enter the bar(N or P bar depending
upon the type of FET).
2 Drain terminal: It is the terminal through which
majority carriers come out of the bar.
3 Gate terminal: These are two internally connected
heavily doped regions which form two P-N junctions.
4 Channel: It is the space between the two gates
through which majority carriers pass from source to
drain when FET is working(on).
Working of FET
Similar to Biploar transistors, the working point of adjustment
and stabilization are also required for FETs.
Biasing a JFET
– Gates are always reverse biased. Therefore the
gate current IG is practically zero.
– The source terminal is always connected to the end
of the supply which provides the necessary charge
carriers. For instance, in an N-channel JFET source
terminal S is connected to the negative of the DC
power supply. And, the posive of the DC power
supply is connected to the drain terminal of the
JFET.
Whereas in a P channel JFET, Source is connected to the
positive end of the power supply and the drain is connected
to the negative end of the power supply.
Let us now consider an N channel JFET, the drain is made
positive with respect to source by voltage VDS as shown in
Fig 4a. When gate to source voltage VGS is zero, there is
no control voltage and maximum electron current flows
from source(S) - through the channel - to the drain(D). This
electron current from source to drain is referred to as Drain
current, ID.
When gate is reverse biased with a negative voltage(VGS
Important specifications of typical JFETs
negative) as shown in Fig 4b, the static field established at
the gate causes depletion region to occur in the channel as BF245B BFW10
shown in Fig 4b.
Polarity of the device
This depletion region decreases the width of the channel
causing the drain current to decrease. (N-type/P-type) Nj Nj
Maximum drain-source
If VGS is made more and more negative, the channel width
decreases further resulting in further decrease in drain voltage, VDS 30 V 30 V
current. When the negative gate voltage is sufficiently high, Maximum gate-source
the two depletion layers meet and block the channelcutting voltage, VGS 30 V 30 V
off the flow of drain current as shown in Fig 4c. This voltage Maximum drain current, ID 25 mA 20 mA
at which this effect occurs is referred to as the Pinch off Maximum forward gate
voltage, VP.
current, IG 10 mA 10 mA
Thus, by varying the reverse bias voltage between gate and
Pinch-off Voltage
source(-VGS), the drain current can be varied between
maximum current (with -VGS=0) and zero current(with - (at ID=0), VP 8V
VGS=pinch off voltage). So, JFET can be referred as a Maximum power
voltage controlled devices. dissipation, Pmax 300 mW 300mW
P channel JFET operates in the same way as explained Package type TO92 TO72
above except that bias voltages are reversed and the Pin Diagram fig W141e fig W158b
majority carrier of channel are holes. (Refer 6605 data manual)
The term Nj in the specification indicates that it is a N-type As discrete components FETS are chiefly used in,
junction FET.
– DC voltage amplifiers
As discussed earlier FETs also need a proper biasing – AC voltage amplifiers(input stage amplifiers in HF
arrangement for it to work. Like transistors, FETs can also and LF ranges)
be conneted in different cofiguration. Fig 5 gives a simple
– Constant current sources
common source amplifier configuration.
– Integrated circuits of both analog and especially in
Digital technology.
One application of JFETs are illustrated below;
1 Fixed gain a.c voltage amplifier
In the circuit at Fig 6, the amplification is determined by the
design. it can be varied within certain limits of the drain
resistance and the source resistance are made variable.
Potentiometers can be connected in series for this purpose.
Typical applications of JFET

One very important characteristic of JFET is its very high
input impedence of the order of 109 ohms. This characteristic
of FET has made it very popular at the input stage of a
majority of electronic circuits.
Difference between JFET and BJT
JFET BJT
1 In a JFET there is only one type of carrier ie., 1 In BJT both electrons and holes play role in
holes in p type channel and electrons in n-type conduction. It is called as bipolar transistors.
channel. For this reason it is called unipolar 2 The input circuit of a BJT is forward based
transistor. and hence has low input independence.
2 As the input circuit of a JFET is reverse biase 3 In typical BJT base current might be a few A.
and therefore it as a input independence.
4 BJT uses the current into its base to control a
3 No current enters the gate & JFET. large current between collector and emitter.
4 JFET uses voltage on the gate terminal to the
control current between drain and source. No
junction in JFET so noise level is very small
FET Amplifiers in measuring device applications. devices, due to their high input impedance.
• Field effects transistors (FETs) are used in mixer • It is also used in radio frequency amplifiers for FM
circuits to control low inter modulations distortions. devices.
• FETs are used in low frequency amplifiers due to its • It is used for mixer operations of FM and TV receiver.
small coupling capacitors.
• It is used in large scale integration (LSI) and computer
• It is a voltage controlled device due to this it is used in memories because of its small size.
operational amplifier as voltage variable resistors.
• It is commonly used as input amplifiers in devices i.e.
voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and other measuring
MOSFET
• state the principle of operation of MOSFET and its types
• list the special type of MOSFETs
• explain the features of MOSFETs.
In MOSFETs, control is via an insulating layer instead of a is referred to as the substrate connection. Together with
junction (as in JFETS). This insulating layer is generally the semiconductor material of the channel, this substrate
made of silicon dioxide, from which the very name MOSFET forms a p-n junction, which can be used as a second
is derived(Metal Oxide Semiconductor). Some times the control-electrode. It is then led out of the casing, like the
MOSFETs are also referred to as Insulated-gate FET, for other electrodes. In a number of versions, however, the
which the abbreviation used are IFET or IGFET. substrate electrode is connected directly to the source
connection in the casing, which rules out the additional
Types of MOSFETs
control possibility.
Depletion-type MOSFETs
Fig 2 shows the circuit symbols for depletion-type n-
Construction and mode of operation channel MOSFETs and p-channel MOSFETs. For the n-
Fig 1 shows the construction of a depletion MOSFET of the channel type, the arrow points towards the line represent-
n-channel type (Fig 1). ing the channel; in the case of the p-channel type, on the
other hand, it points away from the line representing the
channel. The continuous line representing the channel
indicates that it is a depletion-type MOSFET.
N-channel MOSFETs are operated with a positive drain-

Here, two highly doped n-zones are diffused into a p-doped source voltage. They have a considerably greater practical
silicon plate, which is referred to as the substrate, and are significance than p-channel MOSFETs, which require a
provided with junction-free drain and source connections. negative drain-source voltage for their operation.
Between the two zones there is a thin weakly n-doped Enhancement-type MOSFETs
channel, which produces an Electronics connection between Construction and mode of operation
the source and drain without an external field-action. This
channel is covered by an insulting layer of silicon dioxide Enhancement-type MOSFETs have a similar technologi-
(SiO2), to which a metal electrode is applied as the gate cal construction to the depletion types. Without the exter-
connection. nal action of a field, however, no conducting channel exists
between the drain connection and the source connection,
If a voltage UDS is applied between source and drain, at UGS so that at UGS = 0V, no drain current can flow. Fig. 3 shows
= 0V an electron current flows from the source electrode via the construction of an enhancement-type n-channel
the n-channel to the drain electrode. If, however, a negative MOSFET.
voltage is applied to control electrode G, the electrons
present in the n-channel are forced out of the vicinity of the
gate electrode, so that a zone depleted of charge carriers
is produced there. This causes a constriction of the n-
channel and consequently also a reduction of its
conductivity. If the gate voltage becomes more negative,
the conductivity of the channel is reduced, as is consequently
also the drain current ID. Another peculiarity of depletion-
type MOSFETs is that they can also be controlled with a
positive gate-voltage. Charge carriers are then drawn out of
the p-doped substrate into the n-channel and its conduc- The same circuit designations are used for the four electrodes
tivity is increased even further, compared with the conduc- of the enhancement-type MOSFET as they are for the
tivity at UGS = 0V. depletion types: drain, source, gate and substrate. The
circuit symbols used are different. The line representing the
Designations and circuit symbols
channel in the circuit symbol is discontinuous for an
The same designations are used for the connections of enhancement - type MOSFET. This indicates that no drain
MOSFETs as they are for JFETs, i.e source, drain and current ID flows at UGS=0V. The circuit symbols for the two
gate. MOSFETs, however, have another electrode, which types of enhancement MOSFET are given in Fig. 4.
Enhancement-type MOSFETs are only rarely produced as Fig 6 shows the construction of an enhancement-type n-
individual transistors. Their construction and working channel VMOSFET and the associated circuit symbol.
principle are, however, widely used in integrated MOS
switching circuits.
Special types of MOSFET
Dual-gate MOSFET
The dual-gate MOSFET is a special type of depletion
MOSFET. It has two series-connected channel regions as
the current path. The conductivity of each of these two
channel regions can be independently controlled via its
own gate. The construction and circuit symbol of a depletion-
type dual-gate MOSFET of the n-channel type are reproduced
in Fig.5. Because of the four connections, this special type From above Fig 7 it can be concluded that depletion type
is also referred to as a “MOSFET tetrode”. MOSFETs are normally ON type switches i.e, with the gate
terminal open a nonzero drain current can flow in these
devices. This is not convenient in many power electronic
applications. Therefore, the enhancement type MOSFETs
(particularly of the n-channel variety) is more popular for
power electronics applications. This is the type of MOSFET
which will be discussed in this lesson. Fig 6(b) shows the
photograph of some commercially available n-channel
enhancement type power MOSFETs.
VMOSFET
The field-effect transistors dealt with so far, can handle only
relatively small powers during amplification or switching.
The reason for this is the relatively long channel of
approximately 5 μm with a forward resistance of
approximately 1kΩ to 10kΩ. With present-day
manufacturing techniques, it is possible to produce a
vertical structure for field-effect transistors, instead of the Operating principle of a MOSFET
customary horizontal sequence of layers. consequently,
At first glance it would appear that there is no path for any
higher allowable currents and voltages are obtained, so
current to flow between the source and the drain terminals
that considerably greater powers can be amplified or
since at least one of the p n junctions (source - body and
switched.
body-drain) will be reverse biased for either polarity of the
applied voltage between the source and the drain. There is different transistors that collectively rely on an electric field
no possibility of current injection from the gate terminal created by the voltage on the gate in order to control the
either since the gate oxide is a very good insulator. current flow between the drain and the source. One of the
However, application of a positive voltage at the gate many types of FET is the Metal - Oxide Semiconductor
terminal with respect to the source will convert the silicon field effect transistor or MOSFET. The Metal - Oxide
surface beneath the gate oxide into an n type layer or Semiconductor (i.e) silicon di oxide is used as an insulating
"channel", thus connecting the source to the drain as layer between the gate and the substrate of the transistor.
explained next.
The gate region of a MOSFET which is composed of the
gate metallization, the get (silicon) oxide layer and the p-
body silicon forms a high quality capacitor. When a small
voltage is application to this capacitor structure with gate
terminal positive with respect to the source (note that body
and source are shorted) a depletion region forms at the
interface between the SiO2 and the silicon as shown in the
fig. 8(a)
The positive charge induced on the gate metallization
repels the majority hole carriers from the interface region
between the gate oxide and the P type body. This exposes
the negatively charged acceptors and a depletion region is
created.
Further increase in VGS causes the depletion layer to grow
in thickness. At the same time the electric field at the oxide
-silicon interface gets larger and begins to attract free
electrons as shown in fig. 8b. The immediate source of
electron is electron-hole generation by thermal ionization.
The holes are repelled into the semiconductor bulk ahead
of the depletion region. The extra holes are neutralized by
electrons from the source.
As VGS increases further the density of free electrons at the
interface becomes equal to the free hole density in the bulk
of the body region beyond the depletion layer. The layer of
free electrons at the interface is called the inversion layer
and is shown in Fig. 8(c). The inversion layer has all the
properties of an n type semiconductor and is a conductive
path or "channel" between the drain and the source which
permits flow of current between the drain and the source.
Since current conduction in this device takes place through
an n-type "channel" created by the electric field due to gate
source voltage it is called "enhancement type n-channel
MOSFET". The silicon dioxide is basically a capacitor is basically a
The value of VGS at which the inversion layer is considered capacitor that holds charge whenever voltage is applied to
to have formed is called the "gate-source threshold voltage the gate. This charge then creates a field by pulling
VGS(th)". As VGS is increased beyond VGS(th) the inversion oppositely charged particles or repelling particles with the
layer gets somewhat thicker and more conductive, since same charge and allows or restricts the flow of the current
the density of free electrons increase further with increase between the drain and source.
in VGS. The inversion layer screens the depletion layer CMOS (complementary Metal -Oxide Semiconductor)
adjacent to it from increasing VGS. The inversion layer basically uses a p-type and n-type MOSFETs in pairs to
screens the depletion layer adjacent to it from increasing complement each other. In this configuration, MOSFETS
VGS. The depletion layer thickness now remains constant. only have significant power consumption during switching
FET Vs MOSFET and not while it holds its state. This is very desirable,
especially in modern computing equipment where power
The transistor, a semiconductor device, is the device that and thermal limits are pushed to the edge. Other types of
made all our modern technology possible. It is used to FET cannot replicate this capability or are too expensive to
control the current and even to amplify it based on an input manufacture.
on an input voltage or current. There are two major types of
transistors, the BJT and the FET. Under each major Advancements in MOSFETs are constantly evolving, both
category, there are many subtypes. This is the most in size as companies keep going into smaller architectures.
significant difference between FET and MOSFET. FET But also in design like the 3D MOSFETs that show a lot of
stands for field effect transistor and is a family of very promise. MOSFETs are the transistor of choice for today
as researchers try to find other types of transistors that can
be a suitable replacement for it.
Advantages of MOSFET
1. Low gate signal power requirement.
2. Fast switching speed. No storage time effect as in
transistors.
3. Power MOSFETs are not subjected to forward or
reverse bias secondary breakdowns.
Drive circuit for MOSFETs
There are several circuits for turning a power MOSFET ON
or OFF. The type of circuit depends on application. As a
thumb rule, the higher the gate current at turn-on and
turn-off, the lower will be switching losses. A sample drive
circuit for a MOSFET is shown in the figure below.
A common method of coupling the drive circuitry is to use
a pulse transformer. PTs are used to isolate logic circuitary
from MOSFETs operating at high voltages.
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.8.93 & 94
Half wave and full wave rectifier

Objectives : On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the meaning of the term rectification
• describe the working of a half wave rectifier
• state the limitations of half wave rectifier
• describe the working of a two-diode full wave rectifier
• list the disadvantages of two-diode full wave rectifier.
RECTIFICATION
Almost all electronic circuits need DC voltage for their
working. This DC voltage can be obtained by dry cells and
batteries. Use of a dry cell is practicable only in portable
electronic circuits such as transistor radio, tape recorders
etc. But in circuits requiring large voltages and currents, like
high power audio amplifiers, television sets etc. batteries will
not only be very expensive but also be voluminous.
An alternative method of obtaining DC voltage is by
converting the AC mains supply of 240V, 50Hz into DC
voltage. This technique is not only convenient but also
takes very small space compared to battery packs. This
process of converting AC to DC is known as rectifica-
tion. Fig 1 shows the principle of converting AC to DC of
required voltage level.
When this sinusoidal signal is applied across the diode D
as shown in Fig 2, the diode conducts (behaves as a closed
switch) only during the +ve half cycle of the input sinusoidal
voltage and does not conduct (behaves as a open switch)
during the -ve half of the input sinusoidal voltage. This
process repeats again and again thus producing a pulsat-
ing +ve wave-form at the output across the load, RL as
shown in Fig 2.
The transformer will step-down or step-up the mains AC to the
The operation of a half-wave rectifier circuit can be summa-
required level. The stepped-up or stepped-down AC from the
rised with the help of Fig 3 as follows:
output of the transformer is then converted to DC using diodes
making use of their unique unidirectional property. 1 During the positive half cycle of AC input, the diode is
forward biased as the anode of diode is positive as
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
shown in Fig 3a.)Hence current flows from anode to
The simplest form of AC to DC converter is by using one 2 Hence current flows anode to cathode, through load RL
diode. such an AC to DC converter is known as half-wave to secondary of transformer as shown in Fig 3b. The IRL
rectifier as shown in Fig 2. drop across load resistor RL is the DC voltage Vdc with
At the secondary of the transformer, across terminals P & the polarity as shown in Fig 3b.
Q, when seen on a CRO, the electric signal is a sinusoidal 3 When the +ve half cycle of the input sinusoidal is
wave with its peak value of VP and a frequency determined completed, the voltage across the RL will be a positive half
by the rate at which the alternations (+ve to –ve) are taking sinewave as shown in Fig 3c. The peak of rectified voltage
place. In Fig 2, the frequency is 50Hz as this voltage is is also equal to the peak of the input AC voltage.
taken from 50Hz AC mains supply. 4 During the negative half cycle of the input AC, the diode
If the voltage across P and Q is measured using an AC voltmeter, is reverse biased as the anode of diode is negative as
the voltmeter shows the rms (root mean square) value, Vrms of the shown in Fig 3d.
sinusoidal wave which will be less than the peak value. The 5 Hence, the diode behaves as an open switch and no
relationship between VPeak and Vrms is given by, current flows through the load and hence there is no
Vrms= 0.707 Vpeak ........[1] voltage output across load RL as shown in Fig 3d.
6 After completing the –ve half cycle, when the input
conversely, signal goes positive again, the whole operation re-
peats starting from step 1.
145
Peak inverse voltage
The half-wave rectifier at the instant the secondary voltage
is at its maximum negative peak shown in Fig 5a. Since
the diode is reverse biased, it behaves as an open switch
there is no voltage across the load RL. Therefore, From
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, all the secondary voltage appears
across the diode as shown in Fig 5b. This is the maximum
reverse voltage that appears across the diode in the reverse
biased condition. This voltage is called the peak reverse
voltage or more commonly as the peak inverse voltage
(PIV). Therefore, in a half-wave rectifier the peak inverse
voltage across the diode is equal to the -ve peak value of the
secondary voltage VS(peak).
Vs(rms)
Vs(peak) 
0.707
Calculating output DC level in half-wave rectifiers

Important points to note for calculating the output DC level
of a halfwave rectifier are;
– the output of a halfwave (HW) rectifier across the load resistor
is a pulsating DC
- the peak voltage is equal to the peak value of the +ve half
cycle of the AC input
– the pulsating signal level is zero when the input AC is
in the –ve half cycle as shown in Fig 4.
TWO-DIODE FULLWAVE RECTIFIER
- hence the output DC can be read by connecting
voltmeter across the load resistor which will read the In a half-wave rectifier there is no rectification action during
average DC value of the pulsating signal, ignoring the the -ve half cycle of the input AC voltage. Because of this
diode drop the output DC level is low (0.318 VS(peak)). This limitation of
a half-wave rectifier can be overcome by using two diodes
- The average DC value of the pulsating output in a half wave
and a centre-tap-transformer as shown in Fig 6.
rectifier is given by,
Vaverage or Vdc= 0.318 VP ........[2]
In Fig 6, each diode and the common load resistor RL form

two independent half-wave rectifiers. Because of the cen-
tre-tapped secondary winding, each diode receives only
half of the total secondary voltage.
The opposite ends of the transformer secondary windings
always have opposite polarities with respect to the centre
tap. As shown in Fig 6, when end A of the secondary
winding is positive, the bottom end B will be negative.
For the polarity shown in Fig 7a, the anode of D1 is positive

and, hence, forward biased. Whereas, the anode of D2 is
negative, and, hence, does not conduct. Current flows
from the transformer(end A) D1  RL  back to
Ripple frequency
the transformer centre-tap. This direction makes point C
The frequency of the rectified pulsating DC is same as the across the load RL as the +ve terminal of the output DC
frequency of the input AC signal. voltage.
146 Electronics & Hardware : Instrument Mechanic (NSQF : Revised 2022) R.T. Ex 1.8.93 & 94
During the next half cycle, end B of transformer is +ve and
A is –ve as shown in Fig 7b. Hence the anode of D2 is +ve
and this diode conducts whereas D1 does not. Current
flows from the transformer(end B)  D2  RL  back
to the transformer centre-tap. This direction of current
again makes point C across the load RL as the +ve
terminal of the output DC voltage.
Ripple frequency in a full wave rectifier

From Fig 8c it is seen that two cycles of output occur for each
input cycle of AC voltage. This is because, the full wave
rectifier has inverted the negative half-cycle of the input
voltage. As a result, the output of a full wave rectifier has a
frequency double the input AC frequency. This is because the
fullwave rectifier has inverted the negative half cycle of the
It is important to note the following two points; input voltage, therefore if the main frequency is 50 Hz. the
– At any instant of time either D1 or D2 conducts but never output frequency of the pulsating DC will be 100 Hz.
both.
The fullwave rectifier at the instant the secondary voltage
– While any of the two diodes is conducting, the rectified reaches its maximum positive value. From Fig 9, It is seen
current i, flows through RL in the same direction as that each diode in a full wave rectifier must have PIV rating
shown in Fig 7a and Fig 7b. So the DC output voltage greater than the peak value of the full secondary voltage
is positive at the common cathodes of the diodes D1,D2. 2Vs(peak).
Fig 8 shows the input and output wave-forms of a fullwave
rectifier. As can be seen from Fig 8, the rectifier works both
in the positive and negative half cycles of the AC input to
produce a DC output across the load resistor RL. Although
only one diode conducts at a time, the outputs are
combined in RL. Hence, fullwave rectifier provides double
the DC current to the load compared to that of a half-wave
rectifier.
Since both the half cycles of the input AC signal are rectified
by the circuit at Fig 6, this circuit is known as a fullwave
rectifier. Since this fullwave rectifier uses two diodes this
circuit is also known as two diode fullwave rectifier.
Output DC level in a two-diode full wave rectifier
A full wave rectifier is a combination of two half-wave Disadvantages of TWO DIODE fullwave rectifier
rectifier. The DC value of a fullwave rectifier is twice the
The full wave rectifier using two diodes and centre tap
output of a half-wave rectifier. It is evident from Fig 8 that
transformer has the following disadvantages;
the average or DC value of a fullwave rectified output is
– A centre-tapped transformer that produces equal
Vdc = 0.636 VS(peak) [0.318 VS(peak)+ 0.318 VS(peak)]
voltages on each half of the secondary winding is
where, VS(peak)is the equal peak voltage between the centre- difficult to manufacture and, hence, expensive.
tap and one end of the transformer `secondary’ in terms of
– Centre-tapped transformers are generally bulkier than
rms Vdc can be given by the
ordinary transformers, and, hence, occupy larger space.
VS(rms) = 0.707 VS(peak)
– In a two diode full wave rectifier, only half of the
Vs(rms) secondary voltage is made use of at a time although it
Therefore, Vdc = 0.636 . = 0.9 VS(rms) works in both +ve and –ve half cycles.
0.707
Electronics & Hardware : Instrument Mechanic (NSQF : Revised 2022) R.T. Ex 1.8.93 & 94 147
Bridge rectifier
• describe the working of a bridge rectifier
• compare half-wave, fullwave and bridge rectifiers.
THE BRIDGE RECTIFIER – Current flows from the transformer(end A)  D1  RL

The disadvantages of a full wave rectifier using two diodes  D3  back to the transformer(end B). From the
and centre-tap transformer can be overcome by a modified direction of the current flow point C is the positive
fullwave rectifier as shown in Fig 1. In Fig 1, since the terminal of the DC output across RL.
diodes are connected in the form of a bridge, this rectifier – During the other half cycle of the input (–ve half cycle),
circuit is commonly known as a Bridge rectifier. end B of the transformer becomes +ve as shown in Fig
2b. Diodes D4 and D2 are forward biased, whereas D1
As can be seen in Fig 1, the bridge rectifier does not need
and D3 are reverse biased.
a centre-tapped transformer. Also, all the secondary volt-
age is used for rectification at any given time. – Current flows from the transformer(end B)  D4  RL
 D2  back to the transformer(end A). From the
direction of the current flow, point C is again the +ve
terminal of the DC output across RL.
Note that, current I is in the same direction through
RLduring both +ve and –ve half cycles of the input AC. The
result is, a +ve rectified DC voltage appears at the end of
RL connected to the cathodes of D1 and D4.
Output DC level in a bridge rectifier

Fig 3 shows the input AC and the output pulsating DC wave-
form of a bridge rectifier.
The operation of a bridge rectifier can be summarized in the

following steps;
– When end A of the transformer secondary is +ve, as
shown in Fig 2a, diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased
whereas, D2 and D4 are reverse biased, and, hence, D2
and D4 do not come in the circuit.
This wave-form is similar to that of the full wave rectifier

using a centre-tap transformer. Hence, the average DC
value of the output is,
Vdc = 0.636 VS(peak)
or Vdc = 0.9 VS(rms)
where, VS(rms ) is the full secondary AC rms voltage.

NOTE: In a two-diode fullwave rectifier VS(rms)refers to only
half of the total secondary voltage whereas in a bridge
rectifier VS(rms) refers to full secondary voltage.
Comparison of half-wave, fullwave and bridge rectifier is given below in a tabular form;
Half wave Full wave Bridge
• Number of diodes required 1 2 4
• Transformers Peak output voltage
• DC output voltage in terms of VS(peak) 0.318 VS(Peak) 0.636 VS(Peak) 0.636 VS(Peak)
• DC output voltage in terms of VS(rms) 0.45 VS(rms) 0.9 VS (rms) 0.9 VS(rms)
• Diode current rating IL (max) 0.5 IL (max) 0.5 IL (max)
• Peak inverse voltage VS(peak) 2VS(peak) VS(peak)
• Ripple frequency f input 2finput 2finput
Filters
Objectives : On completing this lesson you shall be able to
• state the meaning of frequency selective filters
• define an electronic filter
• state different types of filters
• define a low pass filter
• define cut-off frequency
• define a high pass filter
• applications of high pass filter
• define a band pass filter
• applications of band pass filter
• explain roll-off rate
• list a few applications of LPFs.
Filters sometimes active devices such as transistors, IC’s etc.,

These circuits are designed to allow or to block(filter) a
The term to filter, in general, means to selectively remove.
band of frequencies as shown in Fig 1. Filters may also be
For example, water filters are used to remove dust, dirt and
designed to allow or block a particular frequency
disease causing germs from water. This means, the water
component.
filter selectively removes or blocks dust, dirt and disease
causing germs but allows or passes purified water. In a
similar way, in electronics, signals may consist of more
than one frequency component. Then filters which selec-
tively remove or allow a band of frequencies are used. Such
filters are called filters. These filters are common in
electronic circuits.
Filters are electronic circuits comprising of electronic
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and
Filters constructed using only passive components such
as resistors, capacitors and/or inductors are called pas-
sive filters.
Filters constructed using active devices such as transis-
tors or op-amps in addition to passive components are
called active filters.
Types of FILTERS
Referring to Fig 1, filters may be classified as,
Low pass filters - Passes or allow low

frequencies
(for example: 30 to 300 Hz) Passive RC-low pass filter
High pass filters - Passes or allows high fre- A typical RC low pass filter and its frequency response is
quencies (for example: 1 KHz shown in Fig 4.
and above)
Band pass filters - Passes or allows a particular
band of frequencies
(for example: 300 Hz to 1 KHz)
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
An ideal low pass filter is a circuit which passes all
frequency signals from 0-Hz to a particular frequency
called the cut-off frequency. This also means that, a low
pass filter stops all signals having frequency beyond the
cut off frequency as shown in Fig 2. The output of the RC low pass filter is taken across
capacitor C.
The frequency response of an ideal low pass filter as shown
in Fig 2 will be constant in the pass band up to the cut off When input Vin is DC (0 Hz), capacitor C behaves practi-
frequency fC. Beyond fC , called as the stop band the cally as open circuit. At low frequencies, reactance of
output of the filter is zero. C (XC = 1/2pfC) is very high. Hence, at low frequencies
capacitor behaves almost as open circuit. Therefore, at low
However, in practice it is not possible to design a frequencies output of filter is same as the input.
LPF having ideal characteristics as in Fig 2. When input signal frequency increases, the capacitive
reactance XC decreases(XC is inversely proportional to
frequency).
Therefore, capacitor C gives a low resistance path for the
high frequency signals to ground. Hence, as the input
signal frequency increases the output of the filter Vout
decreases. This is shown in Fig 4. At a particular high
frequency, capacitor C acts as a short circuit grounding all
the input. When this happens, Vout = 0 volt.
Definition of cut-off frequency

The cut-off frequency, fC is defined as the frequency at
which the power output of the filter is one half of the input
power. In terms of voltage, at cut-off frequency fC, the output
A practical low pass filter can be defined as a circuit which amplitude will be 70.7% of the input amplitude as shown in
allows all frequencies below a particular frequency called cut Fig 4.
off frequency and attenuates heavily all frequencies above
the cut off frequency as shown in Fig 3. Cut off frequency fC of a RC low pass filter can be calculated
using the formula,
Attenuation means reducing the amplitude/
1
magnitude of the signal. fc =
2RC
Low pass filters can be constructed using, where, R = Resistance in ohms
– Resistors and capacitors - referred to as RC-filters C = Capacitance in farad
fC = Cut off frequency in Hz.
– Inductors and capacitors - referred to as LC-filters.
A low pass filter constructed using one resistor
and one capacitor as shown in Fig 4 is known as
a single stage LPF. This is also called a single
pole LPF. Since the output of a LPF lags from
input, LPFs are also referred to as Lag networks.
Measurement of gain in DECIBEL (dB)

Gain of a LPF is given by,
Vout
Gain in dB = 20 log
Vin
At cut-off frequency, since the output voltage will be 70.7%
of the input ,
Gain of a LPF at cut-off frequency fC = 20 log (0.707)
= – 3 dB
Hence, in a LPF, fC is also called the 3 dB frequency of the

filter.
ROLL-OFF
The rate at which the output level of LPF decreases
depends on the number of stages in the LPF as shown in
Fig 5.
The rate of decrease in output level, or rate of increase in
attenuation after the cut off frequency fC is called roll-off.
Roll-off of a filter is expressed in decibels-per-decade(dB/ 1 in DC power supplies as ripple filter to block AC ripples
decade) or decibels-per-octave(dB/octave). from reaching the output.
The higher the number of stages in a LPF, the higher will 2 in tone control circuit of amplifiers, tape recorder
be the roll-off rate and better will be the performance of the amplifiers etc., to separate low frequencies (Bass
LPF as shown in Fig 5. signals).
The disadvantage of cascading more number of filter 3 in cross over networks (shown in Fig 7) in speaker
stages is, the attenuation to the input signal is the pass- boxes.
band increases as more number of resistors come in series High Pass Filters (HPF)
between the input and output.
A High pass filter is a circuit that only allows signals above
In general, a n-pole (n-stage) LPF will have 20 x n dB/ a particular frequency called cut-off frequency to pass
decade roll off. through it. An ideal HPF blocks signals whose frequency
Passive LC Low Pass Filter is below the cut off frequency fC as shown in Fig 7a. The
Low pass filter can be constructed using an inductor (L) frequency response of a practical HPF is shown in Fig 7b.
and a capacitor (C). A typical L-C low pass filter designed Applications of High Pass Filters
for fC = 1 KHz is shown in Fig 6. High pass filters are used in wide variety of applications. A
few such applications are;
The frequency response of LC low pass filter and RC low – in tape recorders and amplifier tone control network
pass filter will have the same shape. The cut-off frequency – in loud speaker cross over network
in LC low pass filter is given by,
– in scratch filters
1 – in communication transmitters and receivers.
fC =
2 LC Band Pass Filters (BPF)
where, L = inductance value in henry A band pass filter is a circuit that allows all the signals
C = capacitance value in farad. whose frequency is between two frequency limits called
lower cut off frequency (fL) and upper cut off frequency
In audio frequency circuits, LC low pass filters are not
(fU). Band pass filter heavily attenuates signals whose
preferred as the physical size of the indicator will be large.
frequency is less than the lower cut off frequency or more
However, in radio frequency applications(r.f), LC filters are
than the upper cut off frequency as shown in Fig 8.
popular as the inductor size will be small at such high
frequencies. Applications of Band Pass Filters : Band pass filters are
used in wide variety of applications. A few such applications
Applications of Low Pass Filter : Low pass filters are
are;
used in wide variety of applications. A few such applications
are;
– in cross over network
– as voice filters in amplifiers
– in graphic equalizer networks
– in communication transmitters and receivers.
Ripple filters for rectifiers

• state the need for filtering pulsating DC
• describe how a capacitor filters the pulsating DC
• state the value of ripple after filtering, using a capacitor input filter in the half wave rectifiers
• state the value of filtered DC output in terms of rms and peak value of input AC in the half wave
rectifiers
• design a simple capacitor filter using 10% ripple rule for a full wave rectifier
• state the working of RC  filters
• state how inductors can be used to smoothen pulsating DC
• state the output level and the ripple level of a choke input filter.
Ripple filters
The output of rectifiers is a pulsating DC voltage as in Fig
1a and not a pure DC voltage like the output of cells or a
battery as shown in Fig 1b.
Capcitor input filters

The most important component used in any ripple filter
circuit is the capacitor. Since capacitors store Electronics
energy and release it when required. This property of a
Pulsating DC voltages cannot be used in most of the capacitor is made use of in smoothing the pulsating output
electronic circuits like radios, tape recorders etc. These of rectifiers.
circuits require pure DC voltage similar to that of the output
of a battery as shown in Fig 1b. Hence, it is required to Filtering output of Half-wave rectifiers
remove or at least reduce the pulsation in the output of the
rectifier circuits. The circuits used to filter off or reduce the Fig 3a shows a capacitor input filter connected at the
pulsation in the DC output of rectifiers are known as output of a half-wave rectifier.
smoothing circuits or more popularly as ripple filters as
shown in Fig 2.
From Fig 4, the exact value of DC voltage and ripple voltage
can be calculated as given below;
Vr(p p)
Vdc(HW)  VS(peak)  .....[1]
2
where,
Vr(p-p) = peak-to-peak ripple voltage, in volts
IL = required DC load current, in Amps
fr = ripple frequency in Hz
C = capacitance in Farads.
Fixing the permissible Vr(p-p)and knowing f and IL the
required value of C can also be found using this formula.
While designing a filter circuit, the following methods can

During the first quarter cycle of source voltage VS, the diode be used to calculate theoretically the ripple voltage in the
is forward-biased and ideally behaves like a closed switch. output of the filter circuit;
Since the output of diode is connected directly across the
METHOD
capacitor, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage VS(peak)
as shown in Fig 3b. The method of expressing the ripple in the output DC is by
ripple factor r, defined as,
As shown in Fig 3b, when the input VS just passes the
positive peak, the diode stops conducting. This is be- V
r(rms)
cause, the capacitor has VS(peak) volts across it with the Ripple factor,r =
polarity shown in Fig 3c. When VS passes its +ve peak, the V
dc
voltage at the anode of diode is slightly less than VS(peak). where,
Hence, the diode is reverse biased and behaves like a open
switch. r = ripple factor(dimensionless)
With the diode open, the capacitor discharges through Vr(rms) = rms value of ripple voltage
the load resistance RL. By deliberate design, the dis-
Vr(pp)
charging time constant (product of R L and C) is made
=
much greater than the period T of the input signal. 2 3
Because of this, the capacitor will discharge only a
small portion of its stored charge during the OFF time of Vdc = DC output voltage.
the diode, as shown in Fig 3b. If the RLC time constant is large enough such that the
By the time the capacitor loses a small portion of its capacitor is recharged in a short time compared with half
charge, the source voltage again reaches its peak, the the period T of input AC, the theoretical value of the ripple
diode again conducts and recharges the capacitor to the factor can be calculated using the formula,
peak voltage VS(peak). This process of charging during a brief
1
period of positive peak and discharging during the falling r = (for halfwave) .....[2]
period of the positive peak continues as shown in Fig 3b. 2 3 f RL C
where,
From Fig 3b, it can be seen that the voltage across the load
resistor is almost a pure DC voltage. The only variation from r = the theoretical ripple factor for a half-wave
the pure DC voltage is the small ripple caused by charging
C = capacitance in μF
and discharging of the capacitor.
RL = load resistor in ohms
As the capacitor charges to the peak value of the input
VS(peak)and discharges only a small portion of it, the DC f = mains supply frequency in hertz.
output of the half-wave rectifier, instead of 0.45 VS(rms) is
From equation 2 above, it is clear that one way to reduce
only slightly less than VS(peak) as shown in Fig 4.
the ripple is by increasing the discharging time constant,
RLC. In other words, increasing the value of C or RL the time
constant becomes larger, and, larger the time constant,
purer is the DC output of the filter.
Filtering output of Full wave and Bridge rectifiers
In a fullwave rectifier or bridge rectifier, the ripple frequency is
double the supply frequency as shown in Fig 5. As a result
of higher ripple frequency, when compared with halfwave
rectifier (Fig 4), the capacitor gets charged twice as often and
has only half the discharge time as shown in Fig 5.
In Fig 6, the two RC filter sections are connected between

the input capacitor C and the load resistor RL. While
designing these filter sections, the value of R is made much
greater than XC at the ripple frequency. Therefore, a major
portion of the ripple voltage gets dropped across R instead
of across the load resistor RL. Typically, the value of R must
be at least 10 times greater than XC at the ripple frequency.
This results in each RC section attenuating (reducing) the
ripple by a factor of 10. Thus more the number of sections
of RC, less is the ripple across RL and purer is the DC output
voltage across RL.
The main disadvantage of the RC filter sections is the loss
of DC voltage across each R. Hence, RC filter circuits are
suitable only for small load currents or for large load
resistance.
Inductor input filters
An alternative to using a capacitor in parallel with the load
resistor, is to use an inductor in series with the load as
shown in Fig 7. Since an inductor opposes any change in
current through it, the inductor coil will cause a smoothing
effect in the output as shown in Fig 7. Here the inductors
Therefore, the ripple in the filtered output is smaller and the are called Chokes as they choke the ripple.
DC output voltage approaches more closely the peak If the coil resistance of the inductor is neglected (being very
voltage VS(peak). small), the DC output will be,
The formulae used for calculating the ripple in the output or Vdc= 0.636 VS(peak) as in the case of capacitance filter.
the ripple factor is the same as discussed for half-wave If the resistance of the coil is considered, the DC output will
rectifiers. be slightly less due to the IR drop across the coil.
Ripple filter design guidelines LC filters
While designing a capacitor-input filter, you need to choose For large load current requirements, instead of RC filters,
a capacitor that is large enough to keep the ripple small. LC filters as shown in Fig 8 are preferred. The reason is, a
How small is the ripple depends on how large is the large portion of the ripple voltage is dropped across the
capacitor. As capacitor becomes larger, it costs more and inductor with minimum DC voltage drop because inductors
hence, more expensive will be the filter circuit. have only a small winding resistance.
In Fig 8, XLis made much greater than XC at the ripple
Most designs use the 10 percent rule. This says, select a
frequency. Hence, the ripple across the load is reduced to
capacitor that will hold the peak-to-peak ripple at approxi-
extremely low levels.
mately 10 percent of the peak voltage VS(peak).
Neglecting the choke’s resistance, the DC output voltage
RC filters
is given by,
With the 10 % ripple rule we get a peak-to-peak ripple of
Vdc= 0.636 VS(peak) as in the case of a capacitor input filter.
around 10 percent of the DC load voltage. To further reduce
the ripple at the output, filters as shown in Fig 6 may be The ripple factor, r is given by,
connected between the filter capacitor and the load. These 0.7
are known as RC π filters. These filters reduce the ripple in r= ....[3]
LC
the output to less than 1 percent making the output a pure
DC similar to the output of a battery.
Application
It is used in Electronics and electronic circuits application
such as microwave oven, CRT strong electric field coils &
high voltage test equipments.
Full wave voltage doubler
The input voltage gets doubled through this circuit. During

the positive half cycle sinusoidal wave of AC, Diode D1 get
forward biased and D2 get reversed biased, so capacitor C1
From the above equation for r, unlike in case of capacitor
charger through the P1 to the peak value of sine wave
input filter, it can be seen that in a LC filter circuit the ripple
(Vpeak) and during the negative half cycle of sine wave, D2
factor is not determined by the value of the load resistor.
is forward biased and D1 reverse biased, so capacitor C2
Hence, with a capacitor and inductor in the filter circuit, the
get charge through the p2 to peak.
ripple is independent of the load current.
Now a days LC filters are being replaced by integrated Now both the capacitors are charged to Vpeak so we get
circuit(IC) voltage regulators, active filter circuits which the 2 V peak (Vpeak + Vpeak) across the C1 and C2 with no load
reduce the ripple and keep the DC voltage constant. connected.
Voltage tripler circuit
In this we need to add 1 more diode and capacitor to the
half wave voltage double circuit.
In first positive half cycle capacitor C1 gets charged to
Vpeak and capacitor C2 charged to 2 Vpeak in the negative
half cycle.
Now, during second positive half cycle, Diode D1 and D3
conducts andD2 get reverse biased. In this way capacitor
C2 charges the capacitor C3 upto the same voltage as
itself, which is 2Vpeak.
Now the capacitor C1 and C3 are in series and voltage
acorss C1 is Vpeak and voltage across C3 is 2Vpeak so the
voltage across the series connection of C1 and C3 is Vpeak
+2Vpeak = 3Vpeak and get triple the voltage of input V peak
Volt.
Voltage multiplier
The voltage multiplier is a type of diode rectifier circuit
which can produce an output voltage any time greater than
the applied in put voltage. Although it is usual in electronic
circuit to use a voltage transformer to increase a voltage Voltage divider circuit
sometime a suitable step-up transformers are required for
high voltage applications may not always be available. So A voltage divider circuit or a potential divider circuit is a
we are using voltage multiplier circuit which increases or simple electronics circuit that converts a higher input
steps-up the voltage without use of transformer. voltage to a lower output voltage just by using a couple of
resistors. It is often used in analog circuits like op-amp Equating the above two equations, we get
based circuits for example, where the required voltage
VOUT / R2 = VIN / (R1 + R2)
may be variable.
Finally, VOUT = VIN *R2 / (R1 + R2)
The following images shows as a simple voltage divider
circuit consisting of two resistors R1 and Rs. VIN is the Example
input voltage while VOUT is the output voltage taken Let us see an example for the voltage divider equation. Let
across the resistor R2. VIN be 5V and the values of R1 and R2 are 10000 Ω (10
Thus, just by using two resistors R1 and R2, we can ΚΩ) and 20000 Ω (20 ΚΩ) respectively. From the above
convert any input voltage VIN to any desired output voltage given equation, we can calculate the value of VOUT as
VOUT by appropriately choosing the values of R1 and R2. follows:
Voltage Divider Equation VOUT = 5* 20000/(10000+20000)
The formula for calculating the output voltage VOUT of a VOUT = 3.3V
voltage divider network is given below: This combination of R1 as 10KΩ and R2 as 20 KΩ is one
VOUT = (VIN *R2) (R1+R2) of the commonly used voltage divider circuits to convert a
5V level signal to a 3.3V level signal.
Where, VIN = Input Voltage
Applications
Voltage dividers are quite commonly used is analog as well
as digital circuits. Some of the common applications of
voltage divider circuits are mentioned below.
1 Level shifters
One of the main applications of a voltage divider is to act
as a level shifter. As already mentioned in the introduction,
if the microcontroller and a sensor are working at different
voltage levels, then a simple level shifter consisting of a
VOUT = Output Voltage couple of resistors configured in voltage divider fashion will
R1 and R2 values of two resistors. do the job.
From the above equation of the Voltage Divider formula, we A typical requirement is to convert a 5V signal from a
can confirm that the scaling factor for the output voltageis Microcontroller to a 3.3V signal for the sensor. We can do
deterined by the ratio R2/(R1+R2). this by simple using two resistors of 10KΩ and 20 KΩ as
R1 and R2.
Deriving voltage divider equation
2 Potentiometers
The basis for the voltage divider circuit is the Ohm’s Law.
in fact, we can derive the voltage divider equation simply Potentiometer or simply a POT is a variable resistor with
by using the Ohm’s Law. We know according to Ohm’s law three terminals. Using a potentiometer, you can implement
that current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the a voltage divider circuit with variable output voltage. you can
voltage to potential different across the circuit. achieve this by connecting the input voltage across the
extreme pins of the potentiometer and taking the output
In the above statement, the proportionality constant is the across the wiper terminal.
resistance of the circuit (or component).
By adjusting the position of the wiper of hte potentiometer,
Using Ohm’s Law in the above circuit, we can calculate the the output voltage also varies.
input voltage as
3 Resistive sensors (LDR and Thermistor)
VIN = I * R1 + I * R2 = I * (R1 +R2)
Two of the commnly used sensors in DIY Projects are LDR
Similarly, the output voltage is (Light Dependent Resistor) and Thermistor. Both these
VOUT = I * R2 sensors are of resistive type. But the problem is that a
Microcontroller like arduino for example, will only read
If we observe the above two equations, it is clear that the voltages at the input.
current is same in both the equations and hence we can
re-write the above equations as follows: By connecting the resistive sensors (LDR or Thermistor) in
a voltage divider circuit, you can obain the voltage across
I = VIN / (R1 +R2) and the sensor and program the microcontroller to scale teh
I = VOUT / R2 value accordingly.
Instrument Mechanic - Semiconductors, Transistors & power supply circuits
Voltage regulators
• state the need of regulators in power supplies
• state the formula to calculate the % load regulation factor
• explain the important specifications of a zener diode
• explain working characteristic, application and specification of varactor diode.
Voltage regulators Because of this property, zener diodes are also known as
voltage regulators or voltage reference diodes. Fig 1 shows
The DC output voltage level of power supplies such as, full-
the symbol used for zener diodes.
wave and bridge rectifiers, tend to decrease or increase,
The difference between a rectifier diode and a zener diode
– when the load current increases or decreases
are listed below;
– when the AC input voltage level decreases or increases.
Such variations in the output DC voltage level of power
supply is not acceptable for most of the electronic circuits.
Hence, it is required to regulate the DC output of power
supplies so as to keep the DC output level constant, inspite
of variations in the DC load current or the AC input voltage.
Circuits or components used to keep the DC output voltage
of a power supply constant are called voltage regulators.
Regulation factor – Compared to normal rectifier diodes, zener diodes are

The ability of a power supply to maintain a constant DC heavily doped.
output voltage for variations in the load current is referred to – Unlike ordinary diodes which do not work in the break-
as load regulation. Load regulation of a power supply is down region, zener diodes work only in the breakdown
generally given as a percentage. region.
VNL  VFL – Generally rectifier diodes are used in forward-biased
Load regulation factor % = x 100
VNL condition, whereas zeners are always used in reverse-
biased condition.
where,
– The reverse breakdown voltage of zener diodes is very
VNL = DC output at no load or open circuit much less (3 to 18V) compared to rectifier diodes
and VFL↔ = DC output at rated full load. (minimum 50V).
It should be noted that lower the percentage of load The similarities of a zener diode with those of general
regulation factor, better is the voltage regulation. purpose rectifier diodes are listed below;
Example: The DC output of a power supply is 12 volts at – Zener diodes are also PN junction diodes, which are
no-load and 11 volts at full load. also generally made of silicon.
– Zener diodes also have two terminals (anode and
12 – 11 cathode).
% Load regulation = x 100 = 8.33%
12
– In physical appearance, the zener diodes and ordinary
In practice the load regulation of a good power supply diodes look alike.
should be less than 0.1 %.
– Like rectifier diodes, zener diodes are also available
Regulating the DC output voltage for variations in the input with glass, plastic and metal casing.
AC level is termed as line regulation. This is discussed in
further units. – The anode and cathode marking technique on the body
is same for both zener and rectifier diodes.
The zener diode – The zener can be tested with an ohmmeter in the same
In a power supply one of the simplest ways of regulating the way as in rectifier diodes.
DC output voltage (keeping the output voltage constant) is – Zener requires approximately the same voltage for it to
by using a zener diode. With zener in reverse breakdown be forward-biased into conduction as that of an ordinary
condition, the voltage across the zener diode remains diode.
constant for a wide range of input and load variations.
157
Fig 2 shows the conduction characteristics of a typical Application of zener diodes
zener diode. Because of the nature and heavy doping in a
The most popular use of zener diodes is as voltage
zener, its characteristics are different compared to a
regulators in DC power supplies. Fig 3 illustrates a simple
rectifier diode.
zener regulated power supply.
In the circuit at Fig 3, the zener diode is in parallel with the

output or load of the power supply. It is very important to
note that the zener is connected in the reverse-biased
condition. Such a parallel circuit connection is often called
a shunt. When used in this way, the zener is said to be a
shunt regulator.
In Fig 3, the zener begins to conduct in the reverse-biased
Note that, the zener diode acts as a rectifier diode when condition as the voltage across it reaches the zener voltage
forward biased. It also behaves as a rectifier diode when VZ. The voltage across the zener remains constant imma-
reverse-biased, till the voltage across it reaches the break- terial of the input DC voltage. Since the load is in parallel
down voltage. As can be seen from Fig 2, even the reverse with the zener, the voltage across the load VOUT will be
or leakage current remains almost negligible and constant same as the voltage across the zener VZ (VOUT = VZ).
despite the increase in the reverse-biased voltage till the
break down voltage, also called zener voltage is reached. If the input DC voltage to the zener increases, as can be
But, Once the zener breakdown voltage is reached, the seen from its characteristics in Fig 2, the current IZ
diode current begins to increase rapidly and the zener through the zener increases but the voltage across the
suddenly begins to conduct. In the case of a normal rectifier zener remains the same due to avalanche effect. Be-
diode, once the break down voltage is reached the diode cause the zener voltage, V Z does not change, the
gets punctured and starts conducting heavily whereas, in output voltage V OUT, does not change and so the
a zener diode, the diode does not get punctured even voltage across the load is constant. Thus, the output
though it conducts current in the reverse biased condition. is said to be regulated.
The cause for this reverse conduction is referred to as the Referring to Fig 4, the zener can be looked at as an
avalanche effect. The avalanche effect cause, the electrons automatically changing resistance. Total current through
to be knocked loose from their bonds in the crystal the resistance RS is given by,
structure. As more electrons are loosened, they in turn
knock others and current builds quickly. This action
causes the voltage drop across the zener to remain
constant regardless of the zener current. As shown in
Fig 2, once the zener voltage is reached, very small voltage
changes create much greater current changes. It is this
characteristic, which makes the zener useful as a constant
voltage source or as a voltage regulator.
Unlike in a rectifier diode, the reverse current through the
zener is not destructive. If the current is kept within the
specified limits depending upon the wattage rating of the
zener, using a suitable series resistance, no harm is done
to the zener diode.
IT = IZ+ IL
Because the zener diode is designed to operate as a
breakdown device, the zener can be brought out of condi- Thus the voltage across RS is,
tion easily. A zener is brought out of its zener conduction
VR = (IZ+ IL) RS
by lowering the reverse-biased voltage below the zener
voltage or by reversing the polarity of the applied voltage.
If the input DC voltage VIN increases, output voltage VOUT, – Impedance (ZZ): The impedance of the zener while
tends to increase. In the meantime, the zener conducts conducting in zener mode.
more heavily, causing more current (more IZ) to flow through – Maximum operating temperature : The highest
RS. Hence, more voltage drop occurs across RS. This temperature at which the device will operate reliably.
increase in drop across RS offsets the increase in the
output voltage VOUT, thus retaining the voltage across load These specifications of zener diodes are given in diode data
RL at its original value. Likewise, if the value of RL is books.
decreased (increased IL), current through the zener IZ The example given below enables to interpret the specifi-
decreases, retaining the value of IT through RS. This cations of certain types of zener diodes without the need
ensures sufficient load current through the load RL without to refer diode data book:
decrease in the level of VOUT.
Example 1: The type-code printed on a zener is BZ C9V1.
Zener specifications
BZ C9V1
Like in rectifier diodes, the type-code number is marked
generally on the body of the zener. From the type-code B Z C 9V1
marked, detailed specifications of the zener can be found
referring to any standard diode data manual. silicon zener 5% tolerance 9.1V
Important zener diode specifications are listed below; Example 2: The type-code printed on a zener is 1Z 12.
– Nominal Zener voltage, VZ:: This is the reverse
biased voltage at which the diode begins to conduct in 1Z 12
reverse bias.
1 Z 12
– Zener voltage tolerance: Like the tolerance of a
resistor, this indicates the percentage above or below
Means a semiconductor zener No tolerance 12V
VZ. For example, 6.3 V ± 5 percent.
with one PN junction code means,
– Maximum zener current, I Z,max: This is the 10% tolerance
maximum current that the zener can safely withstand
while in its reverse-biased conduction (zener) mode. Other popular zener diode type-codes are, 1N750, 1N4000,
– Maximum power dissipation, P Z is the maximum ZF27, ZP30, DZ12, BZ148, Z6, etc.
power the zener can dissipate without getting
damaged.
Series regulators and shunt regulators

• state the disadvantages of a zener regulator
• state the working of a simple series regulator
• design a simple series regulator for a required dc output voltage
• write the blocks of a series regulator with voltage feedback and explain their functions
• design a series regulator for a given input-output specification
• design a shunt regulator and explain their functions.
Disadvantages of a zener regulator These two disadvantages of zener regulators are overcome
in a simple series regulator shown in Fig 1a.
Voltage regulated power supply using zener diode discussed
in previous Lesson is the simplest form of voltage regulator. The simple series regulator shown in Fig 1a, redrawn in Fig
But, zener voltage regulators have two main disadvantages: 1b is nothing but a zener regulator followed by an emitter
follower. A circuit like this can hold the load voltage almost
1 When the load current requirement is higher, say of the
constant, thus working as a voltage regulator.
order of a few amperes, the zener regulator requires a
very high wattage zener diode capable of handling high The advantages of this circuit are listed below;
current.
1 Less load on the zener diode
2 In a zener regulator, the load resistor sees an output
In this circuit Fig 1a or 1b the base current is very much
impedance of approximately the zener impedance, RZ
smaller than the emitter current or the load current, a very
which ranges from a few ohms to a few tens of ohms
small wattage zener diode itself is sufficient.
(typically 5Ω to 25Ω). This is a considerably high output
impedance because the output impedance of a ideal For instance for a load of say 1 amp, if the bdc of the
power supply should be zero ohms. transistor is 100, then the zener diode need to handle only,
20mA for a typical Iz(min) of 5 to 10mA.
Since the collector and emitter of the transistor in Fig 1b is
in series with the input and output terminals, and carries all
the load current and this type of regulators are known as
series voltage regulators. Hence the transistor is referred
to as the pass transistor.
Because of the fact, that all the load current must flow
through the pass transistor and that the value of VCE
increases when Vin increases, the wattage rating of the
pass transistor should be high enough to handle the
dissipation.
For instance, while supplying a load current of 300 mA, with
Vin at 20 V and Vout at 12V, VCE will be 8 V. Therefore, the
dissipation at the transistor will be,
PD = VCE x IL = 8 x 300 mA = 2400 mw = 2.4 watts
To accommodate this, the wattage rating of the chosen
pass transistor should be greater than 2.4 watts.
TIP: Allow at least 20% higher rating. For the example
above, choose a transistor of rating 2.4 + 0.48 watts 3
watts.
Because there will be quite a high dissipation depending on
load current requirement, medium to high power transistors
are used as pass transistors.
Temperature effect on output voltage
2 Lower output impedance When temperature increases, VBE decreases. Therefore,

Vout increases by the change of current in VBE.
This circuit also offers a lower output impedance of 0.07W
which is close to the ideal output impedance of zero Data sheets of transistors usually give information about
required for a power supply. For further information, refer how much VBE changes with temperature.
IMP of Electronic Mechanic Ist year. For all practical purposes, an approximate of 2 mV
Working of a simple series regulator decreases in VBE for each degree rise in temperature. For
instance when the temperature of the transistor rises from
In Fig 1b, the current through RSZ should be atleast equal 25°C (room temperature) to 75°C (due to power dissipation
to zener breakdown current, plus, base current for the at the transistor), VBE decreases approximately 100 mV.
transistor Q. Hence, the output will increases by 100 mV. This is
The voltage across the zener, VZ drives the base of the relatively small, and hence, can be neglected.
emitter follower. Therefore, the dc output voltage is Temperature also has an effect on the voltage across the
bootstrapped to within one VBE drop of the zener voltage. zener. Any increase or decrease in the voltage across the
The regulated dc output voltage will be, zener is reflected at the output. Hence, while choosing the
Vout = VZ - VBE ........[1] zener, it is equally important to know the temperature
coefficient of the zener, specially when the power supply is
connected to higher loads of the order of a few amperes.
The collector - emitter voltage across the transistor will be Zener based shut regulator
the difference in the voltage between the input and output.
zener diode is used as a voltage regulator that provides a
VCE = Vin - Vout constant voltage from a source whose voltage varies
If the input voltage Vin increases, the output voltage Vout substantially.
remains constant due to the bootstrapped zener voltage. As the supply voltage Vs is increased, in this case, the
Therefore, the drop across the collector-emitter, VCE of the voltage drop across RL will be more as compared to the
transistor increases compensating the rise in the input zener diode breakdown voltage. Thus, causing zener diode
voltage Vi. to conduct in its breakdown region.
For example, in the series regulator shown in Fig 1b, if Vin The zener current lz is limited by the series Rs from
is 15 V and Vout is 12 volts, then, VCE will be, exceeding rated max value Izmax.
VCE = Vin - Vout = 15-12 = 3 V. Is = Vs - Vz
If Vin increases to say 20 V, then VCE increases to 20-12=8 Rs
V, thus keeping the output voltage unaltered at 12 volts.
Current through Rs is given by- Source current gets split into lz and IL at the junction-
Is = Iz + IL
The voltage across zener diode Vz remains constant until
it is operating in breakdown region through the zener
current ID may vary condiserably.
If here, the input voltage is increased further, the current
through the diode and load increases. As the resistance
across the diode decrease this will cause more current to
flow through the diode.
As a result, the voltage drop across Rs will be more thus
the voltage at the output will be a value that is close to the
input or supply voltage.
Hence we can say, the zener diode maintains a uniform
voltage across the load unless the supply voltage is more
than zener voltage.
IC voltage regulators and variable regulators

• explain the dual power supply
• list a few variable regulator 3-pin ICs
• explain feedback and error amplification.
Dual power supply such ± regulated DC supply using 7812 (+ve regulator) and
Most electronic circuits generally need either a +ve DC 7912 (-ve regulator) is shown in Fig 3.
supply or a -ve DC supply for its working. However, there are
circuits which are designed to work using both +ve and -Ve
supplies. An example of circuits which require both +ve and
-ve supply are the OP-AMPs. OP-AMPs are integrated
circuit amplifiers which need, +ve supply, -ve supply and
ground. A typical OP-AMP circuit is shown in Fig 1.
Therefore, for circuits which require both +ve and -ve DC
supplies, a single power supply which can deliver both ± DC
is required to be designed. Power supplies which can
deliver both ± DC are generally referred to as Dual Power
Supply.
To design a ± or dual regulated power supply, as a first step

it is required to design a ± unregulated DC supply. Fig 2
shows a simple method of obtaining ± unregulated DC
supply.
Once, a ± unregulated DC supply is available, one each of The +ve and -ve regulator circuits shown in Fig 3. The
+ve regulator 3-terminal IC and a -ve regulator 3-terminal IC function of diodes is very important. If these diodes D1 and
can be attached, to obtain a ± regulated DC supply. One D2 are not used, the regulator ICs may get damaged due to
common load problems. The term common load means, a and R2 as shown in Fig 5. With this the regulated output
load connected across the +ve and -ve outputs of the voltage is approximately given by
regulator as shown in Fig 4. Because of the fact that these
Vout = 1.2 V x (1 + (R2 /R1)) .......{1}
common leads does not make use of the ground (GND)
several problems occur when the supply is switch ON, in A practical version of the circuit at Fig 3 is shown in Fig 6.
case of over loads and so on. Hence to avoid the common This circuit uses a few bypass capacitors and protection
load problem in dual power supplies diodes D1 and D2 are diodes.
very essential. In Fig 6, capacitor C1 is used to prevent setting up of the
oscillations and should be connected as close to IC as
possible. Capacitor C2 is used to improve the ripple in the
output voltage. Note that the value of C3 should not be very
high (recall, surge current). Capacitor C2 is used to avoid
excess ringing.
Variable/adjustable output voltage regulators

A number of IC voltage regulators are available using which
an adjustable output voltage of 1.2V to 32 volts can be
obtained. Amongst these adjustable output voltage regula-
tors, there are two types: When external capacitors are used with any IC regulator,
3-Terminal variable output voltage regulators ICs it is necessary to add protection diodes to prevent the
capacitors from discharging through low current points into
Multi-terminal variable output voltage regulator ICs the regulator. Hence, diodes D1 and D2 are used. D1
3-Terminal variable output regulators ICs protects the IC against shorts due to C3 and D2 protects
against shorts due to C2.
These ICs look like 3-terminal fixed output voltage regula-
tors as shown in Fig 3. A few examples of 3-terminal The ICs LM317 and 338 have built in fold back current
adjusted output voltage regulator ICs are, limiting and thermal protection. These ICs are available in
both plastic and metal packages with current ratings from
• LM117 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 37 V 0.1A (LM317L) to 5A(LM338K).
• LM317 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 32 V
LM117, LM317 and LM338 are of the same
• LM338 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 32 V family ICs, and hence, are interchangeable.
• LM350 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 33 V
Multiple-pin-Variable voltage regulator ICs
These variable output voltage regulator ICs are designed for
adjustable output voltage, unlike the fixed output 3-pin Unlike 3-pin fixed output voltage regulators and 3-pin
regulators such as 7812, LM 340-5 etc which can be variable output voltage regulators, voltage regulator ICs
modified to get variable output voltage. having multiple pins are designed for versatility. These
multiple pin IC regulators can be used as a linear regulator
Fig 5 shows a basic variable output voltage regulator. (all the regulators discussed so far), or as a switching
regulator (to be discussed), or as a shunt regulator (to be
discussed) or as a current regulator (to be discussed).
Generally in multiple pin types of regulators, dissipation
limitation of the IC packages restrict the output current to
a few tens of milliamps. However, external transistors can
be added to obtain currents in excess of 5A.
Some of the multiple pin, versatile IC regulators are,
LM100, LM105, LM205, LM305, μA723, CA3085 and so
on.
In the circuit at Fig 3, if the adjustment terminal (ADJ) is Feedback and Error Amplification
grounded, the output of the regulator will be 1.2 volts. To To improve on the simple series regulator a feedback circuit
obtain a higher output voltage a small reference voltage is and error amplifier can be added to the basic series circuit.
given at ADJ using a voltage divider circuit consisting of R1
Fig 7 shows a block diagram of a series regulator circuit
with error amplification. In this system the reference
voltage Vz is compared with a feedback voltage VF, which
is a portion of the actual output voltage. The difference
between the two inputs produces an error voltage that is
used to vary the conduction of the control element,
correcting any error in the output voltage.
Error-correction power amp
Error correction looks at the difference between the amp
output and the amp input (taking into account of course the
amp gain). Any difference is returned to the input and added
to that input, in precisely the right amount to make the
output identical to the input. Because the output is now
identical to the input, distortion becomes ideally not just
smaller, but zero. In practice, this will not happen, as the
precision with which you can return the error and add it at
the input is always less than perfect. Also, whatever the
load, the output stays correct, so it looks as if the output
impedence is really zero (or close to it ) This technique
does not require that the amp (open loop) gain is very, very
high. It is enough if the amp has a gain close to the final
required gain, and then the ec fills in the missing fraction
in the signal.
Instrument Mechanic - Semiconductors, Transistors & power supply circuits
Switch Mode Power Supply

• state the need for SMPS
• describe the basic concept of SMPS
• compare between linear power supply and SMPS
• explain the working principles of different types of SMPS
• list out the advantages and disadvantages of SMPS
• state the applications and topologies of SMPS.
Switched-Mode Power Supply(SMPS)

The electronic power supply integrated with the switching
regulator for converting the Electronics power efficiently
from one form to another form with desired characteristics
is called as switched mode power supply. This is working
on the principle of switching regulation.
It is used to obtain regulated DC output voltage from
unregulated AC or DC input voltage.
Working principles of SMPS
Fig 3 shows the block diagram of SMPS with an AC input

and a regulated DC output.
The SMPS system is highly reliable, efficient, noiseless AC input section
and compact because the switching is done at very high
rate in the order of several KHz to MHz. Input filter
Need for switch-mode power supplies The AC input from the main supply goes to the input filter
to reduce EMI.
Many household Electronics devices require a supply of
voltage which is both constant and well regulated, but the Input filter is a protective circuit, which is used to suppress
voltage which comes from power outlets are noisy AC short pulses around the AC voltages. The circuit consists
voltages. The power from such outlet needs to be of inductor and high voltage capacitors. A MOV(Metal
managed by electronic circuits which are generally referred Oxide Vaistor) is connected across the AC supply to
to as power supplies, even though the power comes from prevent any surge or spikes in the voltages and also PFC
the outlets. circuit is used to correct the power factor.
Basically, the AC supply from the outlet has a sinusoidal Rectifier

wave shape, and it is rectified in order to produce a DC AC input is converted to DC voltage using a rectifier
voltage. The noisy high voltage need to be converted to a diodes. The rectifier consisting of a full wave bridge diode
regulated low voltage so that it can be used by low voltage or module and large filter capacitors to obtain a smoothed
electronic devices such as TV, DVD, Mobile, etc. high DC voltage around 300 V DC. The current is drawn
Basic concept of SMPS from the mains supply.
The basic concept of SMPS is the regulation by using a Power section

switching regulator. SMPS uses a series switching element The power section consists of high frequency ferrite core
that turns the current supply to a smoothing capacitor on transformer and switching power transistors (MOSFETs)
and off. to switch D.C Voltage across the transformer winding.
The switching element is turned on is controlled by the This section coverts the rectified high voltage DC into AC
voltage on the capacitor. If it is higher than required, the at a frequency of 20 KHz - 100 KHz. A current sense
series switching element is turned off, if it is lower than circuit is provided to sense overload current and to protect
required, it is turned on. In this way the voltage on the SMPS from overloading. Since the input voltage is
smoothing or reservoir capacitor is maintained at the chopped into an AC waveform and placed into a magnetic
required level. element additional winding can be added to provide for
more than one output voltage.
164
Comparison between linear power supply and SMPS
Linear power supply SMPS
1 Transformer size and Heatsinks for high power linear regulators Smaller transformer
weight add size and weight.
2 Operating frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz 15 KHz to1 MHz
3 Output voltage Limited voltage available. Voltage varies Any voltages available.
significantly with load. Voltage varies little with load.
4 Efficiency, heat, and If regulated: efficiency largely depends on Output is regulated using duty
power dissipation voltage difference between input and output; cycle control; the transistors are
output voltage is regulated by dissipating switched fully on or fully off,
excess power as heat resulting in a typical so very little resistive losses
efficiency of 30–40%. If unregulated, between input and the load.
transformer iron and copper losses may be The only heat generated is in the
the only significant sources of inefficiency. non-ideal aspects of the
components and quiescent current
in the control circuitry.
5 Circuit complexity Usually a simpler circuit; unregulated may be Consists of a controller IC, one
simply a diode and capacitor. Regulated or several power transistors and
has a voltage-regulating circuit and a noise- diodes as well as a pulse
filtering capacitor. transformer, inductors, and filter
capacitors. Some design
complexities present which are not
found in linear regulator circuits.
6 Radio frequency Mild high-frequency interference may be EMI/RFI produced due to the
interference generated by AC rectifier diodes under heavy current being switched on
current loading. and off sharply. Therefore, EMI
filters and RF shielding are needed
to reduce the disruptive
interference.
7 Electronic noise at the It can cause audible mains hum in audio Noisier due to the switching
output terminals equipment, brightness ripples in analog frequency of the SMPS.
security cameras.
8 Electronic noise at the Causes harmonic distortion to the input AC. Non power-factor-corrected
SMPSs input terminals cause harmonic distortion.
9 Power factor Low for a regulated supply because current is Ranging from very low to medium
drawn from the mains at the peaks of the since a simple SMPS without
sinusoidal voltage. PFC draws current spikes at the
peaks of the AC.
Output section Control section

The output section consists of rectifier and filter circuits for The controller consists of a feedback circuit PWM circuit
output above the volts ordinary silicon diodes are used. and isolation mechanism (opto - coupler). A feedback
Since the A/C output of the transformer at 20 KHz circuit monitors the output ref voltage of 2.5V and compares
schottky diodes are used, because of its fast recovery it with a reference voltage. Any change in 5V with respect
than silicon diodes to get lower voltages. For even lower to the load creates an error voltage. This error voltage
output voltages MOSFETs may be used as synchronous modifies the pulse width of the output pulses. The output
rectifiers. The filter circuit consists of an inductor and pulses inturn drives the power switching transistor. The
capacitor. output pulses are not directly connected to the power
switching transistor. For safety reasons, the output
section is isolated by an opto-coupler and transformer. down the power controller when an excess current is
Over current is sensed through a current transformer. The drawn.
output of current transformer is rectified and used to shut
166 Electronics & Hardware : Instrument Mechanic (NSQF : Revised 2022) R.T. Ex 1.8.100- 111
Different types of SMPS
Fig 6
Model 1 : SMPS
Fig 4
SMPS IN PC
ATX SMPS (Fig 7)

below A : input EMI filter and bridge rectifier;
Model 2 : SMPS used in PC
B : input filter capacitors
Fig 5 Between B and C : Primary side heat sink;
C : Pulse transformer
Between C and D : Secondary side heat sink;
D : Output filter coil;
E : Output filter capacitors.
The coil and large yellow capacitor below E are additional
input filtering components that are mounted directly on the
power input connector and are not part of the main circuit
board.
Fig 8
Fig 6
SMPS used in Laptop
Basic parts and their function

1 EMI/Transient filter : Suppress incoming and
SMPS IN PC
outcoming EMI/RFI and protects from voltage spikes.
2 Bridge rectifier : Rectifies the AC power stream to
DC.
3 APFC : Controls the current supplied to the PSU so 6 Output rectifiers & filters : Generate the DC outputs
that the current waveform is proportional to the mains and filter them.
voltage waveform.
7 Protection circuits : Shut down the PSU when
Fig 9 something goes wrong.
8 PWM controller : Adjusts the duty cycle of the main
switches, in order to keep steady output voltage under
all loads.
9 Isolator : Isolates the voltage feedback that comes
from the DC outputs and heads to the PWM controller.
10 The part of the SMPS before the pulse transformer is
called "primary" side and the part after it "secondary"
side.
Fig 12
SMPS in DVD player
Fig 10
SMPS in LED TV
Fig 13
SMPS in Home theature main board
Fig 11
SMPS in LCD monitor
Advantages & Disadvantages of SMPS

SMPS in Cell phone charger Advantages
4 Main switches: Chop the DC signal to very small 1 Higher efficiency, smaller size, lighter weight.
energy packets, with high frequency. 2 Heat dissipation is very low.
5 Transformer : Isolates primary from secondary side 3 Wide AC input voltage range. (Ex. 90V-270V)
and converts (steps down) the voltage.
4 High precision voltage regulation. Central power distribution
5 Low output noise ripple. Where integration of capacitors for stabilization and
batteries as an energy storage or AC hum and other
6 Strong protection function. (Ex. Short circuit in output)
interference needs to be avoided in the power distribution,
SMPS may be essential for efficient conversion of electric
Fig 14
DC energy. For AC applications where frequency and
voltage can't be produced by the primary source an SMPS
may be essential.
Vehicles
In automobile industry where ordinary trucks use nominal
24V DC but they need 12 V DC & SMPS. Cars use
nominal 12V DC and may need to convert this to drive
equipment using SMPS. Space vehicles use a lightweight
switched-mode power supplies to convert voltages produced
by solar panels and fuel cells to the voltages required by
equipment.
Consumer electronics
Television receivers, DVD players, Home theatres, Cordless
phone, uses a switch-mode power supply. When the A/
Din rail SMPS in control panel C voltage reduced to as low as 90 V and as high as 260V,
but the image has no alterations.
Lighting
Powering of LED circuits is accomplished with switched-
mode power supply setup as a constant current source
where efficiency is important.
Space station
The Electronics power system on the International Space
Station (ISS) uses multiple switch-mode power supplies
to convert between the voltage produced by the solar array
and battery system, and the voltages required by the
different modules. The eight solar panels generate 262 kW
at 160 V DC, used to charge nickel-hydrogen batteries
Disadvantages that provide power when the solar array is in shadow during
1 Complexity of the circuit. earth eclipse. A system voltage of 160 V DC is used for the
2 Line fitter is necessary to avoid EMI. main power distribution throughout the station.
3 Non-PFC SMPS cause harmonic distortion. The space shuttle uses three fuel cells generating
30–36V DC. Some is converted into 400 Hz AC power and
4 Serving of SMPS is very difficult. 28V DC power using SMPS.
Applications of SMPS Topologies of Switch Mode Power Supply
1 Personal computers There are different types of topologies for SMPS, among
2 Battery chargers those, a few are as follows
3 Central power distribution 1 DC to DC converter
4 Vehicles (Electric bike vehicle & space vehicles) 2 AC to DC converter
5 Consumer electronics 3 Fly back converter
6 Lighting 4 Forward converter
7 Space station 1 Working principle of DC to DC converter SMPS
Personal computers In a DC-to-DC converter, primarily a high-voltage DC power
is directly obtained from a DC power source. This high-
Personal computers have parts like Hard disk, Mother
voltage DC power is switched at a very high switching
board, CPU, CD Rom, etc. In order to run these devices
speed usually in the range of 15 kHz to 50 kHz.
switch mode power supply is used efficiently.
Then it is fed to a step-down transformer which is
Battery chargers (Mobile phone, Digital camera,
comparable to the weight and size characteristics of a
Laptop computer)
transformer unit of 50Hz. The output of the step-down
Due to their high volumes, mobile phone chargers uses transformer is further fed into the rectifier. This filtered and
effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology.
rectified output DC power is used as a source for loads, and it is very simple and low- cost circuit compared to
and a sample of this output power is used as a feedback other SMPS circuits. Hence, it is frequently used for low-
for controlling the output voltage.With this feedback voltage, power applications. The principle of operation is explained
the ON time of the oscillator is controlled, and a closed- using Fig 18.
loop regulator is formed.
The output of the switching-power supply is regulated by
using PWM (Pulse Width Modulation). As shown in the
circuit above, the switch is driven by the PWM oscillator,
such that the power fed to the step-down transformer is
controlled indirectly, and hence, the output is controlled
by the PWM, as this pulse width signal and the output
voltage are inversely proportional to each other.
If the duty cycle is 50%, then the maximum amount of
power is transferred through the step-down transformer,
and, if duty cycle decreases, then the amount of power
The unregulated input voltage with a constant magnitude
transferred will decrease by decreasing the power
is converted into a desired output voltage by fast switching
dissipation.
using a MOSFET; the switching frequency is around 100
2 Working principle of AC to DC converter SMPS kHz. The isolation of voltage can be achieved by using a
transformer. The switch operation can be controlled by
The block diagram of AC to DC converter SMPS is shown
using a PWM control while implementing a practical fly-
in Fig 17. AC input is converted into DC by rectification
back converter.
process using a rectifier and filter. This unregulated DC
voltage is fed to the large-filter capacitor or PFC (Power Fly-back transformer exhibits different characteristics
Factor Correction) circuits for correction of power factor as compared to general transformer. The two windings of the
it is affected. This is because around voltage peaks, the fly-back transformer act as magnetically coupled inductors.
rectifier draws short current pulses having significantly The output of this transformer is passed through a diode
high-frequency energy which affects the power factor to and a capacitor for rectification and filtering. As shown in
reduce. Fig 18, the voltage across this filter capacitor is taken as
the output voltage of the SMPS.
4 Working principle of forward converter type
SMPS
It is almost similar to the above discussed DC to DC

converter, but instead of direct DC power supply, here AC
input is used. So, the combination of the rectifier and filter,
shown in the block diagram is used for converting the AC
into DC and switching is done by using a power MOSFET Forward converter type SMPS is shown in Fig 19. It is
amplifier with which very high gain can be achieved. The almost similar to the Fly-back converter type SMPS, but
MOSFET transistor has low on-resistance and can in the forward converter type, a control is connected for
withstand high currents. The switching frequency is controlling the switch and at the output of the secondary
chosen such that it must be kept inaudible to normal winding of the transformer, and the rectification and
human beings (mostly above 20kHz) and switching action filtering circuit is complicated as compared to the fly-back
is controlled by a feedback utilizing the PWM oscillator. converter.
This AC voltage is again fed to the output transformer It can be called as a DC to DC buck converter, along with
shown in the figure to step down or step up the voltage a transformer used for isolation and scaling. In addition to
levels. Then, the output of this transformer is rectified and the diode D1 and capacitor C, a diode D2 and an inductor
smoothed by using the output rectifier and filter. A feedback L are connected at the output end. If switch S gets
circuit is used to control the output voltage by comparing switched ON, then the input is given to the primary winding
it with the reference voltage. of the transformer, and hence, a scaled voltage is generated
3 Working principle of Fly-back converter type at the secondary winding of the transformer.
SMPS
The SMPS circuit with very low output power of less than
100W (watts) is usually of Fly-back converter type SMPS,
Thus, the diode D1 gets forward biased and scaled voltage maintained with the presence of the large capacitive filter.
is passed through the low-pass filter preceding the load. It is frequently used for switching applications with a power
If the switch S is turned off, then the currents through the in the range of 100 W to 200 W.
primary and secondary winding reach to zero, but the Different types of topologies are there in which SMPS can
current through the inductive filter and load can not change be realized such as Buck converter, Boost converter, Self
abruptly, and a path is provided to this current by the Oscillating fly-back converter, Buck-boost converter, Boost-
freewheeling diode D2. By using the filter inductor, the buck, Cuk, Sepic. But only a few are discussed in this
required voltage across the diode D2 and to maintain the article, namely DC to DC converter, AC to DC converter,
EMF required for maintaining the continuity of the current Fly-back converter and Forward converter.
at inductive filter.
Even though the current is diminishing against the output
voltage, approximately the constant output voltage is
SMPS used in personal computers

• explain SMPS and different types of SMPS used in PC
• explain different types of connectors used in personal computer SMPS
• discuss the need of ATX SMPS in PC
• explain the functions of SMPS used in PC
• explain the working of PWM IC
• differentiate between AT and ATX type SMPS.
SMPS used in PC These three types of SMPS have different connectors and
Switch Mode Power Supply of a PC is housed in a metal each wire has different voltages.
box. It consists of an electronic circuit board, a fan, AC AT SMPS
power sockets, power supply interface connectors for AT stands for Advanced Technology. These are all old
motherboard, hard disk drive and floppy disk drive. AC SMPSs. They had 12pin power connector, this is called as
power switch is connected as an optional item to the AT power connector. They were used in Pentium-I, Pentium-
power cable from the SMPS. MMX, Pentium-II and Pentium-III CPUs as shown in Fig 2.
Fig 1
Fig 2
SMPS with its cables or connectors
ATX SMPS
Basic connectors in PC SMPS
ATX stands for Advanced Technology eXtended. They had
20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard connector
20pin Power connector, this is called as ATX power
CPU 4 + 4 Pin connector connector. They were used in Pentium-III, Pentium-IV and
SATA power connector AMD CPUs as shown in Fig 3.
Floppy 4 pin connector BTX SMPS
Peripheral 4 pin molex connector BTX stands for Balanced Technology eXtended. They have
PCI-e 6 pin/PCI-e 8 pin connector. 24pin Power connector, this is also called as ATX power
connector. It has 15pin SATA power connectors. They are
Types of SMPS used in PC
used in Dual core, core2duo, Quad core, i3, i5, i7 and
There are 3 types of SMPS latest AMD CPUs.
1 AT SMPS
2 ATX SMPS
3 BTX SMPS
Fig 3 Fig 5
Connectors
20/24 Pin ATX / Mother board connector
This is the connector that goes to the motherboard to
provide it with power. The connector has 20 or 24 pins. One
of the pins belongs to the PS-ON wire (it is usually green).
Fig 4 This connector is the largest of all the connectors. In older
AT power supplies, this connector was split in two: P8 and
P9. A power supply with a 24-pin connector can be used
on a motherboard with a 20-pin connector. In cases where
the motherboard has a 24-pin connector, some power
supplies come with two connectors (one with 20-pin and
other with 4-pin) which can be used together to form the 24-
pin connector as shown in Fig 6 and 7.
Fig 6
Voltages of power connector
SMPS AT ATX BTX
Red +5V +5V +5V

Yellow +12V +12V +12V
Blue -12V -12V -12V
Fig 7
White -5V -5V -5V
Black 0V 0V 0V
Orange +5V +3.3V +3.3V
Green --- +5V +5V
Gray or Brown --- +5V +5V
Purple --- +5V +5V
Red : It is used to provide stated voltage.

Yellow : It is used for motor running
Fig 8
White &Blue : It is used for backward compatibility
Black : It is used for grounding purpose
Orange : It is used to provide stated voltage
Green : It is used for power supply ON in ATX
Gray or Brown : It is used for power Good(Self-test OK)
signal in ATX
Purple : It is used to provide +5V whenever the
PSU is powered. Even when the green
wire is not connected to ground. Connected attached (24 pins)
(Stand by)
Uninterruptible Power Supply
• state the need of UPS
• differentiate inverter and UPS
• explain the block diagram of UPS.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that
allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time
when the primary power source is lost. It also provides
protection from power surges.
Need of UPS
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is used to protect
critical loads from mains supply problems, including
spikes, voltage drops, fluctuations and complete power
failures using a dedicated battery.
Block diagram of UPS
A surge protector (or surge suppressor or surge diverter)
is an appliance or device designed to protect Electronics The simplified block diagram of UPS is shown in Fig 1.
devices from voltage spikes. A surge protector attempts to In UPS, the AC from the mains power is tranformed to DC.
limit the voltage supplied to an electric device by either This DC is continuously charging the battery. The DC
blocking or shorting to ground any unwanted voltages output from the battery is fed to inverter that converts it into
above a safe threshold. AC output and supplies to the equipment.
Difference between Inverter and UPS (TABLE 1)
The differences between inverter and UPS under certain
important parameters are given in TABLE 1 below.
TABLE 1
Difference between Inverter and UPS
Sl. No. Parameters Inverter UPS
1. Back-up time In inverter, the back up time is In UPS, the back up time of
not rapid. So the computers may power supply is rapid. It will
break down or data loss. not make any computer crash
or loss of data.
2. Technical variation The power is consistently drawn The AC is changed into DC.
from battery. This DC helps to charge the
battery.
3. Time delay 500 ms 3 to 8 ms
4. Connection The inverter connected to main UPS directly connected to

power supply for providing different application such as
electricity to different applications computer, printers, etc.
such as fan, lights, etc.
5. Price Low High
Rectifier Battery
A rectifier is an Electronics device that converts alternating Battery is a device consisting of one or more
current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to electrochemical cells with external connections provided,
direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The to power Electronics devices.
process is known as rectification.
Inverter Static transfer switch
Inverter is an electronic circuit that converts low voltage Static transfer switches (STS) are such Electronics devices
DC into high voltage AC power. In solar-electric systems, which are used for very fast switching between Electronics
an inverter may take the 12, 24, or 48 volts DC and convert power sources. It is used in UPS immediatly switch main
to 230 volts AC, conventional household power. power supply, to its stored backup power.
The main power AC is supplied to the inverter, and it is They perform instantaneous switching operations and
transformed into DC simultaneously, which keeps charging thus supply immediate power to the load.
the battery continuously. There is a sensor and relay
structure that always monitors the ON or OFF status of the
main supply.
As soon as there is a power failure, the relayactuator
activates the inverter switch. Every other action is similar
to the UPS, but because of the sensor and relay process,
there is a delay while activating the switch.
Types of UPS
• list different types of UPS
• compare ON-line,OFF-line and line interactive types of UPS
• state specification of UPS, power factor, calculating battery back-up
• explain types of indications and protection.
Different types of UPS Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

(MOSFET) power transistors, Insulated Gate Bipolar
1 ON line UPS
Transistor (IGBT) devices, microprocessor ICs, Operational
2 OFF line UPS amplifier ICs, adjustable voltage regulator ICs, Oscillator
3 Line interactive UPS and pulse width modulator ICs, GATE ICs, timer etc. are
some the important components found in on line UPS.
ON line UPS
On line UPS offer the best power protection against all
ON line UPS are also known as double conversion UPS or types of disturbances. The output voltage of an On Line
True ON Line UPS. There are two stages in its operation. UPS is highly stabilized with typical value of tolerance of
In the first stage the mains AC is rectified to DC. There is 1 percent i.e. the output voltage is between 227 and 233
a DC bus. DC bus can get power from both the DC battery volt and frequency is between 49.95 Hz and 50.05 Hz. The
and DC obtained by rectifying the mains AC. In the second output waveform is purely sinusoidal. A typical modern on
stage DC power available from DC bus is converted to AC line UPS is equipped with protections against short
by the inverter and this AC is connected to the output. In circuit, over-voltage and under-voltage etc, MCB for input,
normal operation output comes from mains AC via rectifier output and battery, and has digital LCD display with facility
and inverter. When mains AC fail, output comes from DC for displaying input and output voltage and frequency,
battery via inverter. The changeover is instantaneous. battery status, output power delivered and error codes and
There is no power transfer switch and hence no time delay. messages.
When mains AC is available normal operation continues
and the rectifier recharges the battery. A bypass switch On line UPS models generally have capacity more than
connects mains AC directly to the output in case there is 5kVA. High capacity On Line UPS can be built for all
some problem with the UPS. (Fig 1) possible requirements and battery backup time can be
increased to suit particular need by adding batteries.
Sophisticated on Line UPS are available with many
advanced features and are highly reliable but are costlier.
OFF line UPS
An OFF line UPS is shown in Fig 2. It is also known as voltage regulator usually is an auto transformer with
stand by UPS or Backup UPS and supplies emergency number of tapping and stabilizes the mains input by
power when mains AC fail. The capacity of an off line UPS bucking or boosting as per requirement. A single unit
is generally below 1kVA. A very common application is called Inverter converter unit performs the functions of
with PC. In the event of sudden load shedding the off line battery charger and inverter. When mains AC is available
UPS supplies emergency power to the PC so that work inverter converter unit charges the battery. When mains
can be continued till normal power is restored or the PC AC fails it inverts DC to AC and supplies power to load. The
can be safely switched off. transition is not instantaneous and time delay of few
milliseconds is involved. Compared to Off line UPS, line
In normal mode mains AC is directly connected to the
interactive UPS performs better as the mains AC is
output through a filter unit. The filter unit filters noise
regulated. Line interactive UPS are generally available
present in the mains AC. When mains AC fails the inverter
with capacity between 750VA and 5KVA and are commonly
converts DC power of battery to AC and transfer switch
used for computer network with small group of computers.
connects this AC to the output. This changeover happens
very quickly but is not instantaneous and a time delay of Comparison between OFF-line, ON-line and LINE-
few milliseconds is involved. This time delay normally interactive UPS
does not affect ordinary load. Again when mains AC
OFF-Line UPS
comes, the transfer switch connects mains AC to output.
Thus the transfer switch keeps on changing connection of OFF-line UPS passes the input AC to the output sockets
output to between mains AC and AC output of inverter. if the AC power is available. It always monitor the voltage
When mains AC is available, the charger unit recharges level in the mains, and if there is a voltage drop or mains
the battery. An offline UPS does not have provision for failure, it switches ON the inverter to give AC power to the
stabilizing the mains AC. Under voltage and over voltage device until the mains supply returns to normal. The
of mains AC activates the power transfer switch and switch over time from AC to inverter AC is less than five
connects AC obtained from inverter to the output. Thus in milli seconds so that the functioning of the equipment is
case of off line UPS under voltage and over voltage of mains not affected.
AC has similar impact as absence of mains AC. ON-Line UPS
Line interactive UPS ON-Line UPS uses an inverter which always ON to give
sine wave AC to the output socket. The incoming AC is
first converted into DC to charge the battery as wll as to
give power to the inverter. The inverter converts the DC to
AC continuously to power the load. If power fails, the
battery backup circuit switches ON and takes the load.
Online UPS is more efficient than the Offline UPS and
uses a "constant duty inverter". It also has a "static
bypass" system that transfers the load to the AC power if
the inverter system fails. The advantage of the online UPS
In a line interactive UPS mains AC is connected to the is that, it clean up the AC waveform by converting it into DC
output through a filter and voltage regulating unit. The then reconverting this DC to fresh AC. ON-Line UPS
regulate voltage within ± 2-3%.
Specification of UPS
Sl. No. Parameter Details
1 Type of UPS TRUE ONLINE

2 CAPACITY 2 KVA/5 kVA
3 Technology The UPS shall be based on IGBT, and
microprocessor controlled for providing
better sine wave output.
4 AC input voltage range 175V to 275 V AC, single phase
5 Input frequency 47-53 Hz, (Suitable for working with
generator supply)
6 UPS power factor 0.9 or better
7 AC output voltage 230V AC, Single phase
8 Output frequency 50 Hz
9 Waveform Sinusoidal
10 Efficiency 90% (at rated output voltage and frequency)
11 Total harmonics distortion 2% maximum
12 Indications Standard visual indications for proper
function of UPS.
13 Protections Over & Under voltage cut-off, overload, and
short
14 Back up time 2kVA = 8 hour at 400 watt load, 5kVA = 8 hr
at 1000W load
15 Type of batteries Sealed maintenance free (SMF)
Lead Acid Battery
16 Remote monitoring SNMP based monitoring
Line-interactive UPS There are several solutions to reduce the THDI in a double-
conversion UPS:
Line-interactive UPS system use automatic voltage
regulation (AVR) to correct abnormal voltages without Passive power-factor correction
switching to battery. The UPS detects when voltag
Classic solutions such as passive filters reduce THDI to
crosses a preset low or high threshold value and uses
5%-10% at full load. They are reliable, but big and only
transformers to boost or lower the voltage by a set amount
work at full load.
to return it to the acceptable range. Line-interactive UPS
system typically regulate output within ± 8-15% of the Active power-factor correction
nominal voltage.
An alternative solution is an active filter. Through the use
Power factor of such a device, THDI can drop to 5% over the full power
range. The newest technology in double-conversion UPS
Power factor is a quantity which has important implications
units is a rectifier that does not use classic rectifier
when sizing a UPS system and power distribution
components (thyristors and diodes) but uses high-frequency
equipment. Power is a measure of the delivery rate of
components instead. A double-conversion UPS with an
energy and in DC (direct current). Electronics circuits is
insulated-gate bipolar transistor rectifier and inductor can
expressed as the mathematical product of Volts and
have a THDI as small as 2%.
Amps (Power = Volts x Amps). However, in AC (alternating
current) power system, a complication is introduced; Uninteruptible power supply (UPS) systems are rated in
namely that some AC current (Amps) may flow into and kilowatts (kW) and others in kilo-volt-amperes (kVA).
back out of the load without delivering energy. This current,
1 kW and kVA simply mean 1,000 watts or 1,000 volt-
called reactive or harmonic current, gives rise to an
amperes - the "kilo" prefix being used for larger numbers.
"apparent" power (Volt x Amps) which is larger than the
actual power consumed. This difference between the For large UPS systems have been designed based on a
apparent power and the actual power gives rise to the PF of 0.8, which means that a 100 kVA UPS will only
power factor. The power factor is equal to the ratio of the support 80 kW of "real" power load. Most UPS systems
actual power to the apparent power. The apparent power has power factors of 0.95 - 0.98.
is expressed as the Volt-Amp or VA rating. Therefore, the Neither the kW nor the kVA capacity of the UPS can be
actual power in any AC system is the VA rating multiplied exceeded, but because of the higher PF numbers, it is
by the power factor. usually the kW rating. There are some UPS systems on
"Watts = volts x amps x power factor". Unfortunately, the the market that are PF-corrected so that the kW and kVA
PF is rarely stated for most equipment, but it is always a ratings are the same.
number of 1.0 or less. Calculating UPS/Inverter battery backup
A double-conversion UPS gives voltage distortion problem Before calculating the Battery Backup, let us know a few
created by the UPS. The input of a double-conversion UPS factors that vary battery backup.
is essentially a big rectifier. The current drawn by the UPS
is non-sinusoidal. This can cause the voltage from the AC For UPS with 875VA we can use a maximum load of
mains also to become non-sinusoidal. The voltage distortion 640 watts.
can cause problems in all Electronics equipment connected 677VA we can use a maximum load of 540 watts.
to that power source, including the UPS itself. It will also
cause more power to be lost in the wiring supplying power
to the UPS due to the spikes in current flow. This level of
"noise" is measured as a percentage of "total harmonic
distortion of the current" (THDI). Classic UPS rectifiers
have a THDI level of around 25%-30%.
UPS circuit description and working
• describe working of UPS circuit
• explain controllor circuit
• explain the working of ON-Line UPS using PIC micro controller, charging circuit, alarm circuit and
indicator circuit
Uniterruptible power supply (UPS) : Circuit description Online - Supplies all or atleast a part of the output power.
and working (Fig 1)
Digital control of an UPS
The circuit drawn pertains to a regular industrial UPS
Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS) are necessary
(Uninterruptible Power Supply), which shows how the
for all applications where electronic systems have to work
batteries take control during an in Electronics supply
also in case of power failure (i.e. computer centers,
variation beyond the normal limits of the voltage line,
hospital equipment, communication equipment etc.). Many
without disruption on the operation providing a steady
mainframe computers are fed by UPS systems.
regulated output (5V by LM7805) and an unregulated
supply. (12V). UPS systems conventionally consist of a synchronous
generator, a fly-wheel for short-time energy storage and a
The input to the primary winding of the transformer (TR1)
battery powered motor or diesel engine.
is 240V. The secondary winding can be 15 volts if the value
is atleast 12 volts running 2 amp. The fuse(FS1) acts as By progress in power electronics static power converters
a mini circuit for protection against short circuits, or a can be realized, especially for mid-range output power (i.e.
defective battery cell. The presence of electricity will 5 - 50 kVA). In recent times there is increasing demand for
cause the LED 1 to light. The circuit is designed to offer UPS systems with low-distortion output voltages and
more flexible pattern wherein it can be customized by sinusoidal input currents. Even at non-linear loads producing
using different regulators and batteries to produce regulated output currents with high harmonic content, sinusoidal
and unregulated voltages. Utilizing two 12 volt batteries in output voltage is required. Due to this, even at
series and a positive input 7815 regulator, can control a unsymmetrical loads a static inverters can be better than
15V supply. rotary converters.
UPS are generally categorized as: Static UPS system hardware
Standby - battery backup and surge protection Static UPS systems consist of a rectifier with a single or
three-phase mains connection, a DC-link with a battery for
Line interactive - variable - voltage transformer and regulates
power storage and a single- or three-phase output converter.
the output AC voltage.
The bypass serves as an energy link in times of system Since output loads are not symmetrical, every output
failure or overload situations. (Fig 2) inverter is made up of four power switches building a
four-quadrant converter feeding the output transformer.
Static UPS system hardware
The stray filters the output voltage Inductance of the
Static UPS systems consist of a rectifier with a single or specially-designed transformer and the output capacitance.
three-phase mains connection, a DC-link with a battery for
The control scheme of the output inverter is shown in
power storage and a single- or three-phase Output
Fig 4. The Controlled quantity is the output voltage.
converter. The bypass serves as an energy link in times of
An underlying current control loop is implemented for
system failure or overload situations. (Fig 3)
protection of the power devices. The output value is
Output Inverter
transformed to switching signals by pulse width modulation
(PWM).
PI-controllers for AC quantities normally have phase and
amplitude errors, which are not tolerable. On the other
hand, PI-controllers provide predictable behavior at all
operating modes. To reduce undesired effects feed-forward
signals from the reference and output voltage are used. To
eliminate the influence of the changing DC link voltage on
the gain of the current controller the current control output
is multiplied with the reciprocal value of the DC voltage.
The reference for the current controller is taken from the
voltage controller. A modified PI-controller was chosen; special algorithms are implemented to cope with the saturation
problem of the output transformer. The output
Inverter and Converter

• describe the basic concept of inverter
• explain principle of operation of inverter
• explain the functional blocks of inverter
• state the installation procedure of inverter
• describe the basic concept of converter the driver section, which controls the duty cycle of the
• state the applications of inverter. semiconductor switches.
Definition
Thus, the inverter circuit produces AC supply and the
Converts DC to AC power by switching the DC input battery supplies the required DC for the standby operation
voltage (or current) in a pre-determined sequence so as to
generate AC voltage (or current) output.
Circuitry that performs the opposite function of rectifier,
converting DC to AC, is called an inverter.
The input voltage, output voltage, output frequency, and
overall power handling depends on the design of the
specific device or circuitry of inverter. The inverter does not
produce any power; it only converts the DC battery power
into AC power to load. to run the AC load.
Principle of operation Function of an inverter
Inverter unit converts AC mains supply into DC and stores The Function block diagram of the inverter is shown in
DC power in the battery. when AC mains present (Mains fig.3. The functioning of an inverter may be understood in
mode) the input AC power is directly passes to output load the following two situations.
through changeover relay. When the absence of AC mains a When the AC mains power supply is available.
(inverter mode), DC power stored in the battery is converted
b When the AC mains power supply is not available.
When the AC mains power supply is available - Main
mode
• When the AC mains supply is available, the AC mains
sensing circuit senses it and the supply goes to the
changeover relay, which provides,
i Mains supply to the battery charging section and
ii AC mains supply directly to the output socket/load.
• Battery charging section converts AC mains into 12/
into AC by the use of electronic circuits, inverter transformer, 24V DC voltage, then regulated and battery is charged
etc. and is supplied to the load as shown in fig.1. using it.
Block diagram representation • There are special circuits for sensing the battery
voltage and when the battery is fully charged the
The simplified block diagram of the inverter is shown in charging is stopped.
fig.2. AC mains supply is connected to the sensing
section, which senses the presence of AC input voltage • In some inverters there will be a trickel charging circuit
and activates the battery charging section through the which keeps the battery constantly at full charge.
solid-state relay. During the presence of AC mains, AC
When the AC mains power supply is not available -
supply directly goes to the output socket and to the
inverter mode
connected load.
Under the absence of the AC mains power supply, an
In the absence of AC mains supply, the AC mains sensing
oscillator circuit inside the inverter produces a 50Hz
section activates the changeover type solid-state relay in
trigger signal.
milli-seconds time and connects the battery supply to the
oscillator, driver and output chopper/switching sections to action of the MOSFETs or transistors produces 50Hz
produce the 50Hz sine wave. alternating signal at the primary of the inverter transformer.
The oscillator generates trigger pulses and amplified by • Thus a 220V AC supply is available at the secondary
Selection of location
The first thing is selection of suitable loaction for placing
the inverter. While choosing the loaction the following
points are to be considered for better opeartion;
• Make sure the inverter is not placed near any hazardous
or flammable materials.
• It must also not be exposed to moisture or water.
• The selected location must be away from direct sunlight
and is a dry area.
• It must be placed in an area near the main board of
house.
Mouting the inverter
of the inverter transformer.
An inverter can be mounted horizontally either on a vertical
• This secondary voltage is made available at the output surface or on or under a horizontal surface as well. Inverter
socket of the inverter by a changeover solid state realy. is always placed on the insulation material like wood, foam
Changeover period or hard broad.
The time required for an inverter to switch from AC mains Battery installation
power to battery power is known as changeover period. There are two main families of batteries used in inverters
This is in the range of 3-8 milli-seconds. • Nickel - cadmium batteries
Annuaciation and protection section
• Lead - acid batteries
Inverter contains various circuits to automatically sense
Most commonly liquid or pasted (SMF - Sealed
and tackle various situations that may occur when the
Maintenance Free) Lead-acid batteries are using.
inverter is running or in standby.
Before connecting the new battery to inverter, battery is to
This annunciation section monitor the abnormal situations
be charged fully, otherwise its life and backup time will be
such as overload, over heat, low battery, over chatge etc.
reduced.
and indicates by means of LED display/indicators and
buzzer alarm. While connecting the batteries the polarity of the battery
and the inverter terminals should exactly match i.e.
The overload protection circuit is used for the protection of
positive and negative to negative.
inverter and trips the unit and low battery cut-off circuit is
used to cut-off the load from the inverter. During charging/discharging of batteries, oxygen and
hydrogen gas produced due to chemical reactions in the
Installation of an inverter
batteries and hence a vent hole will be there in the top up
Power rating and calculation: Inverter power is rated in VA cap.
or KVA. Before purchasing the inverter, power consumption
For liquid type batteries, distilled or demineralised water
of load/appliances that is to be connected with inverter is
is to be added periodically with the electrolyte for
to be calculated as follows;
maintaining the specific gravity of electrolyte between
Power in VA (Volt ampere) = AC volts x Total load current. 1.260-1.280 (Fully charged battery).
Power in KVA (Volt ampere) = (AC volts x Total load Inverter wiring
current)/1000.
The input connector of the inverter is connected with the
Power in watts = AC voltage x Toatal load cuttent x P.F. AC mains supply and the AC output of the inverter is
where P.F = power factor (If not given assume approximate connected to the Electronics/electronics appliances which
value of 0.8. which is standard for homes) is called inverter load. Always the connected load should
Also power in watts = power in VA x P.F. be less than the VA capactiy of the inverter.
Example: Connected loads: Appliction of Inverter inverter used in many applications like
3 Nos. of ceiling fans = 2 x 75 watts = 150 watts UPS, speed controllers, electric motors etc.
3 Nos. of cfl light = 3 x 23 watts = 69 watts Voltage converter and output rectifier
1 No. of television = 1 x150 watts = 150 watts If the output is required to be isloted from the input. as is
Total = 369 watts usually the case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC
is used to drive the primary winding of a high-frequency
Therefore the connected load in wattage is 369 W. transformer. This converts teh voltage up or down to the
Considering approximate power factor of 0.8, the connected required output level on its secondary winding. The output
load in VA is 369/0.8 = 461.25VA as the connected load transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.
capacity comes to 462 VA, the required inverter capacity If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer
to be purchased is 500 VA. is rectified. For output voltages above ten volts or so,
ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower
voltages, schottky diodes are commonly used as the
rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster
recovery times than silicon diodes(allowing low-loss
operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage drop
when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs
may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to
schottky diodes, these have even lower conducting state
voltage drops.
The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting
of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching
frequencies, components with lower capacitance and
inductance are needed. Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor - diode voltage
Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor multiplier instead of inductors and transformers. These are
instead of a transformer. This type includes boost mostly used for generating high voltages at low current
converteres, buck converters and the buck-boost (cockcroft walton generator). The low voltage variant is
converters. These belong to the simplest class of single called charge pump.
input, single output converters which use one inductor and Switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic
one active switch. The buck converter reduces the input products such as personal computers often have universal
voltage in direct proporation to the ratio of conductive time inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains
to the total switching period, called the duty cycle. For supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage
example an ideal buck converter with a 10 V input operating range switch may be required. Switch-mode power supplies
at a 50% duty cycle will produce an average output voltage can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies and voltages.
of 5 V.A feedback control loop isemployed to regulate the
Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have
output voltage by varying the duty cycle to compensate for
always been particularly cost sensitive. The first chargers
variations in input voltage. The output voltage of a boost
were linear power supllies, but they quickly moved to the
converter but can be greater than, equal to or less than the
cost effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology,
magnitude of its input voltage. There are many variations
when new levels of effeciency were required. Recently the
and extensions to this class of converters but these three
demand for even lower no-load power requirements in the
form the basis of almost all isolated and non-isolated DC
application has meant that flyback topology is being used
to DC converters. By adding a second inductor the Cuk and
more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers are
SEPIC converters can be implemented or by adding
also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing
additional active switches, various bridge converters can
secondary-side sensing components such as optocouplers.
be realized.
(citation needed)
Switched-mode power supplies are used for DC to DC
conversion as well. In automobiles where heavy vehicles
use a nominal 24 VDC cranking supply, 12 V for accessories
may be furnished through a DC/DC switch-mode supply.
This has the advantage over tapping the battery at the 12
V position (using half the cells) that all the 12 V load is
evenly divided over all cells of the 24 V battery. In industrial
settings such as telecommunications racks, bulk power
may be distributed at a low DC voltage (from a battery back
up system, for example) and individual equipment items
will have DC/DC switched-mode converters to supply whatever voltages are needed.
A common use for switched-mode power supplies is as extra-low-voltage sources for lighting, and for this application they
are often called “electronic transformers”.
Printed Circuit Boards - etching, component side marking
Objectives : On completion of this lesson you shall be able solution of required quantity, with the painted surface of the
to laminate facing the top as shown in Fig 1, such that, as the
• state the types of etchants used for etching PCBs process of etching progresses, the extent of etching is
• state the method of preparing an etchant solution visible.
• list the advantages of marking component posi-
tions on PCBs.
Etching
Once the required portions on the copper foil side of the
laminate is painted/masked and dried, the next step is to
remove the copper present in the unmasked portions of the
laminate. This process is known as etching.
Only after etching the unwanted areas of the copper foil, the
metal side of the laminate gets the actual shape of the
circuit connection required.
Etching is done using any one of the following chemicals;
– Alkaline ammonia
– Sulphuric-hydrogen peroxide
– Ferric chloride To ensure speedy and uniform etching, the etchant solu-
– Cupric chloride tion is agitated lightly by shaking and tilting the tray as
shown in Fig 2. Too much of agitation of the solution should
The most popular amongst beginners and economical way
be avoided, as this may peel off the ends of the painted
of etching, is the manual etching process. This is done
tracks and remove those portions which were not intended
generally using a solution of ferric chloride. Ferric chloride
to be etched.
is available in liquid, powder and crystal forms.
As the etching progresses, the copper in the unwanted
While preparing the etching solution, concentrated ferric
portion is gradually removed. When the etching is com-
chloride solution/powder is mixed with lukewarm water(27°F)
plete, all the copper in the unwanted portion disappears
and stirred well using a glass rod. This forms a diluted acid
and the etched portion will have the colour of the insulator
(FeCl3) solution.
of the laminate board.
Once the unwanted portions of copper are completely
etched, the board is taken out of the solution and is cleaned
using fresh water to remove the remaining Fecl3 solution.
The ratio of ferric chloride and water decides the rate of

etching. The typical ratio is, 100mg of concentrated ferric
chloride powder/liquid for one litre of water. This Fecl3 is
This stops any further etching process.
prepared in a plastic tray of suitable size such that the
painted laminate to be etched can be fully immersed as After cleaning the board using water and drying, the etch-
shown in Fig 1. resistant ink/paint on the lay out pattern is removed using
solvents, such as, thinner or petrol. The cleaned board will
Since ferric chloride is an acid solution, although diluted,
then have bright copper stripes and pads, only in the
it is harmful to the skin. Hence, rubber gloves are to be used
required portions representing the circuit as shown in Fig 3.
while working with this solution.
The painted laminate to be etched is slid into the Fecl3 Drilling holes on PCBs
The next step after etching and removing the mask/paint is
to drill holes of required diameter at the pad centers for
inserting the components, input/output and V cc &
ground(Gnd) connections. Extra care is to be taken while
drilling holes because carelessness while drilling may peel
off the pad area of the copper. Some hints for drilling on
PCB’s are given below;
– If the point where drilling is to be made is not clear,
punch the point again such that the drill bit sits at the
punched point before starting the drilling.
– Use a high speed drill gun/machine.
– Use drill bits of the required size. If an exact size drill bit
is not available, use a drill bit one size smaller but never
one size larger.
– Fix the PCB firmly on a vice using wooden block so that
the PCB does not become loose while drilling and peel
of the pad area copper.
– Ensure that all the points required are drilled because, Component Code Specification
once the components are mounted, drilling holes on the Resistors R1 1K Ohms,1W, 5%
PCB may damage the mounted components due to R2,R3 680 Ohms,1/4W,10%
vibration.
Capacitors C1 1000uF, 50V, axial 0.01uF,
After drilling holes, clean the PCB such that it is free from C2 to C7 100V, ceramic disc
Diodes D1,D2, 1N4007
D3,D4
For circuits using less number of components, instead of a
separate component list the component values are marked
directly on the printed circuit board as shown in Fig 5.
To prepare manually the component side layout of the
PCB, the reverse of the pad positions of the PCB’s solder
side lay out is traced on to a graph sheet, and the
component positions and polarities indicated using stan-
dard symbols. The components are numbered and a
component list is prepared.
burr and dust. Apply varnish on the layout pattern, to The component side layout is then traced on to the
protect the copper pattern from corrosion. insulator side (component side) PC board using a carbon
Preparing and marking component lay out sheet and pencil. The traced portions on the board are
A typical component side of a PCB with the components redrawn/touched using a permanent marker pen or using
marked on it is shown in Fig 4. paint and a thin brush.
Marking the position of the components on the component The bare chip is adhered and wire bonded to the board,
side of the PCB has two main advantages, and an epoxy is poured over it to insulate and protect it.
– Increases the speed of mounting the components as For illustrative purposes only, this picture shows a clear
the need of searching for the correct place for mounting epoxy. This side view shows how the wires connect the
the component is eliminated. chip to the printed circuit board (PCB) as shown in fig.5.
– Polarities of the components’ terminals can be marked on Tape automated bounding
the board itself such that the possibility of polarity errors
Tape-automated bonding (TAB) is a process that places
committed while assembling the board is eliminated.
bare integrated circuits onto a printed circuit board (PCB)
The standard procedure of component marking is to mark by attaching them to fine conductors in a polyamide or
either the symbol of the component along with its code polyimide film, thus providing a to directly connect to
number or just the code number across the pads as shown external circuits as shown in fig.6.
in Fig 4.
Process that places bare chips onto a printed circuit board
A separate component list sheet, containing the compo-
(PCB) by first attaching them to a polyimide film, the film
nent code number along with its value as shown below, is
is moved to the target location, and the leads are cut and
prepared for reference while collecting the components and
soldered to the board. This is also called a "tape carrier
assembling the PCB.
package" (TCP), the bare chip is then encapsulated ("glob
topped") with epoxy or plastic.
Printed Circuit Board Types of PCBs
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and • Single side PCB
Electronicsly connects electronic components using
• Double side PCB
Fig 5
• Multi layer PCB
Single side PCB
Fig 7
CHIP ON BOARD SIDE VIEW OF PCB
Fig 6 CONSTRUCTION OF MULTI LAYER PCB
Fig 8
TAPE AUTOMATED BONDING
conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from

copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. SINGLE SIDE PCB
PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided
Single-sided printed circuit boards are easily designed
(two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers).
and quickly manufactured as shown in fig.8. Single sided
Multi-layer PCBs allow much higher component density.
boards are available with surface finishes including Organic
Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-
surface protectant (OSP), Immersion Silver, Tin, and Gold
through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain
plating along with both leaded and lead-free Hot Air Solder
components - capacitors, resistors or active devices -
Level (HASL).
embedded in the substrate.
Ex: Power supplies, Relays (automotive and industrial),
The PCBs are manufactured with "1 oz copper" (~35μm
Timing circuits, Sensor products
thick or 1.4 mils) on the outer layers. If there are inner
layers, they are almost always manufactured with "1/2 Double Side PCB
ounce copper"(~17.5μm thick or 0.7 mils)
Double Sided PCBs (also known as Double-Sided Plated
The thickness of the copper layer on the PCB measured Thru or DSPT) as shown in fig. 9 circuits are the gateway
in ounces per square foot or ounces. It can also be given
in micrometers, inches or mils. Fig 9
FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate upon

which the vast majority of rigid PCBs are produced. A thin
layer of copper foil is laminated to one or both sides of an
FR-4 panel. Circuitry interconnections are etched into
copper layers to produce printed circuit boards. Complex
circuits are produced in multiple layers as shown in
fig. 7.
Printed circuit boards are used in all electronic products. DOUBLE SIDE PCD BOARD
Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point
construction. PCBs require the additional design effort to to higher technology applications. DSPT the advantage
lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can of the plated through-hole is quickly adapted and allowed
be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is electronic designs to expand in capability and shrink in
cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as physical size. Today the double sided printed circuit board
components are mounted and wired with one single part. technology remains the workhorse of the assembly
Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.
industry. There are limitless applications for old and new 1 Silicone Resin (SR)
designs.
2 Epoxy Resin (ER)
Fig 10 3 Acrylic Resin (AR)
4 Poly para xylylene (XY).
5 Polyurethane(Urethene) Resin (UR)
Fig 12
MULTI LAYER PCB
Ex: Industrial controls, Power supplies, Converters,

Control relays
Multi- layer PCB
Multilayer printed circuit boards (PCBs) representes the
next major evolution in fabrication technology as shown
in fig. 10. From the base platform of double sided plated
thru came a very sophisticated and complex methodology
that would again allow circuit board designers a dynamic
range of interconnects and applications. Silicone
Multilayer circuit boards were essential in the advancement Fig 12 shows the silicon conformal coating pack
of modern computing. The multilayer PCB basic
construction and fabrication are similar to micro chip Silicone conformal coatings provide excellent protection
fabrication on a macro size. The range of material in high temperature environments. It has good moisture
combinations is extensive from basic epoxy glass to ,humidity, chemical résistance and salt-spray resistance.
exotic ceramic fills. Multilayer can be built on ceramic, It's typical temperature range is -65 °C to 200 °C. It is
copper, and aluminum. Blind and buried vias are very flexible. Removal of this coating requires specialized
commonly produced, along with pad on via technology. solvents and long soak time.
EX: Computers, File servers, Cell phone Epoxy
Test of PCB Fig 13a
Fig 11
TESTING OF PCB Fig 13b
In this blog some basic procedures for finding faults with

PCBs and fixing those faults. Though there are many
circuit testing programs and probes available in the market
for skilled technicians and test engineers there are no
general guidelines. If you face some problems like when
you end up removing an entire track (connection from
one component to another) on the PCB you can use a
simple piece of wire to imitate the connection. Solder the
two ends of the wire where you think the connection should
be present on the PCB as shown in fig. 11.
Types of Conformal Coating Epoxy coatings are available as a two part thermosetting
mixture. These conformal coatings are very hard and good
Conformal coatings can be classified in to five main humidity resistance, chemical resistance and high
categories by their chemical composition. abrasion. Epoxy coating is quite easy to apply but
Fig 14 Fig 16
impossible to remove without damaging the components.

Fig.13a shows SMD IC on PCB
Fig.13b shows how to apply epoxy coating on SMD IC’s
Fig. 14 Shows the epoxy applied COB (chip on board)
Acrylic
Acrylic coatings are solvent based. It provides Fair
Fig 15
deposition (CVD). These coatings provide excellent di-

electric strength and resistance to solvents.
Poly Urethene
Urethene coatings are hard and durable which has
excellent resistance to solvents. It has similar moisture
resistance to acrylic and silicon. It is difficult to apply and
elasticity and general protection. hard to be removed. Temperature range is quite similar to
acrylic.
They are low cost, easy to apply and remove. It exhibits
low moisture absorption and have short drying times. Fig 16 Shows as urethane containers.
These types of coating have high di-electric strength, Coating process
abrasion resistance. It typical dielectric withstand is The coating material can be applied by various methods,
greater than 1500 volts and has a temperature range of - from brushing, spraying and dipping.
59 °C to 132 °C.
Before coating a printed circuit board must be cleaned
Fig 15 Shows the acrylic type conformal coating. and de-moisturized.
Para - Xylylene The following steps are used for coating.
Paraxylene coatings are applied by chemical vapour
1 Board is cleaned.
2 Protected areas like terminal pins, connectors are masked off or removed.
3 Coating is applied using a spray process on both sides of the PCB and its edges.
4 Coating isto be cured according to the coating type.
( air dry, oven dry or UV light cure.)
5 Masking is removed and any removed parts are reassembled.
Characteristics Conformal Coating Type
Characteristics Conformal Coating Type
Epoxy Acrylic Polyurethane Silicone Paraxylylene
Hard   
Medium Hard  
Soft  
Heat Reaction   
Surface Bond, Very Strong   
Surface Bond, Strong  
Surface Bond, Meduim  

Surface Bond, Light 
Solvent Reaction 
Smooth Surface     
Nonporous Surface    
Glossy Surface   
Semi glossy Surface 

Dull Surface 
Rubbery Surface conductors by means of a small blob of solder. Once

 applied, openings must be made in the solder mask
wherever components to be soldered. This is done by
Brittle   photolithography. Solder mask is mostly green in color,
but is now available in many colors.
Introduction to rework and repair
concepts Fig 1a
Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the solder mask, solder joints, tracks, pads
and plated through hole.
Solder mask
Solder mask or solder stop mask or solder resist is a thin
layer of polymer applied to the copper traces of a printed
circuit board (PCB) for protection against oxidation short
circuits, corrosion, and other problems. Solder mask is
a thin layer of polymer and to prevent solder bridges from
closely spaced solder pads. A solder bridge is an
unintended Electronics connection between two
Fig 1b Fig.1a & 1b.
Solder mask as shown in fig. 2a & 2b comes in different
media depending upon the demands of the application.
The lowest-cost solder mask is epoxy liquid that is
Fig 3a
Fig 3b
• Green
Fig 2a
silkscreened through the pattern onto the PCB. Other

types are
Liquid photoimageable solder mask (LPSM) inks.
Dry film photoimageable solder mask (DFSM).
LPSM are silkscreened and sprayed on the PCB, then
exposed and developed.
Fig 2b Fig 4
SOLDER MASK COVERS UP THE SIGNAL TRACES BUT LEAVES

THE PADS TO SOLDER.
• Matte Green
• Red
• Blue
• Yellow DFSM is vacuum laminated on the PCB then exposed
• White and developed.
• Black All three processes go through a thermal cure after the
pattern is defined.
• Matte Black
Solder joints
Mostly Green colours used as solder mask as shown in
Fig 5 Fig 6c
The solder joints are very much important in construction

of PCB as shown in Fig.3a & 3b.
Fig 6a
Poor solder joints

Too much solder on a joint may lead to poor joints as
Fig 7a
Fig 6b
Fig 7b
• If the solder joints are poor

• It will cause the equipment to not to work.
• There is a possibility that the solder joint could fail
intermittently.
• It will introduce noise into the circuit.
Fig.4 Shows the method of solder joints or PCB
Good solder joint shown in fig. 6a, 6b, 6c
Most solder joints are good and do not cause any Excess solder on joints
problems. A good solder joint will have a shiny finish to it,
and it should not have too much solder as shown in fig.5. On printed circuit boards if too much solder is used then
it could spill over onto another track, causing a short circuit
The contour of the solder around the joint should be slightly
as shown in fig.7a & 7b.
concave.
Dry joints and the spacing between tracks, or pads, or any part of
tracks are the copper, can not be less than 8 thou. Always
Dry joints are the main problem of solder joint. These
quoted in thou’s, with track width first and then spacing.
solder joints may be completely open circuit, or they may
IPC standard recommands 4 thou as being a lower limit.
be intermittent, high resistance or noisy. Therefore it is
essential that no dry solder joints are present in any Fig 9
electronics equipment.
It is easy to identify dry joints as shown in fig.8a & 8b.
Good solder joints are shiny, where as dry joints have a
dull or matt finish.
Fig 8a
Fig 10
Fig 8b
Fig 11
When a dry joint is found, the solder on the joint should

be removed and care to be taken when re-soldering it, to
ensure that a good joint is made.
Tracks
Commonly there is no recommended standard for track
sizes. Size of track will depend upon the requirements of
the design, the routing space and clearance. Every design
will have a different set of Electronics requirements which
can vary between tracks on the board. As a general rule
bigger the track width is better. Bigger tracks have lower
A “thou” is 1/1000th of an inch = 1 thou (0.001 inch)
DC resistance, lower inductance, can be easier and
cheaper for the manufacturer to etch, and also easier to Fig.9 shows the tracks on the PCB.
inpsect and rework. The lower limit of track width will
Fig. 10 shows the damaged track on PCB which is to be
depend upon the “track/space” resolution. For example,
repaired.
a manufacturer may quote a 10/8 track /space. This
means that tracks can not be less than 10 thou wide, Pads
Fig. 11 shows the pads of PCB
Pad sizes, shapes and dimensions will depend upon the Fig 13
component used to assemble the board. There is an
important parameter known as the pad/hole ratio. This is
the ratio of the pad size to the hole size. The pad should
be at least 1.8 times the diameter of the hole, or at least
0.5 mm larger. This is to allow for alignment tolerances
on the drill and the artwork on top and bottom layers.
Fig 12
Plated-through holes are used to make the components

contact with required conductive layers and making
interconnections between the layers called vias.
In PTH electrolysis deposition are done after the holes
are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the
thickness, Finally the boards are screened, and plated
with metal.The amount of plating used in the hole depends
on the number of layers in the printed circuit board, however
only the least amount of metal is used for this process.
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with
This ratio gets more important the smaller the pad and small-diameter, drill bits are made up of solid coated
hole become, and particularly relevant to vias. Pads for tungsten carbide. Fig 14 shows the eyelets, which can
components like resistors, capacitors and diodes should be used to repair if PTH or vias are damaged.
be round, with around 70 thou. diameter being common.
Dual in line (DIL) components like IC’s are oval shaped Fig 14
pads.
Pin.1 of the chip should be rectangular shape and other
pins are circular or oval.
Fig12 shows the damaged pad which is to be reworked.
Plated-Through Hole
"Through-hole technology", refers the mounting system
used for electronic components inserted into holes in PCBs
and soldered to pads on the opposite side either by manual
assembly or automated insertion mount machines. PCBs
are initially had tracks printed on one side only. Later two
sides are used, and then multi-layer boards are using
now a days. Similarly, through holes became plated-
through holes (PTH), Fig 13. is a Plated-Through Hole in
a ten layer board.
Instrument Mechanic - Oscillators
Oscillators and its working principles

Objectives: At the the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the function of an oscillator
• name the two main classifications of oscillators
• explain the principle of oscillation in a tank circuit
• state the Barkhausen criterion
• list the basic requirements for an oscillator
• list the feed back requirement for an amplifier to take-off and have sustained oscillations
• explain the working of parallel-fed Hartley oscillator with the help of a circuit
• calculate frequency of oscillations, for the given values of L & C.
Oscillator has the property of opposing any sudden change in current

An oscillator is a circuit for producing voltages that vary in through it, the current builds up slowly.
a regular fashion with respect to time. The output wave
forms of oscillators are repeated exactly in equal successive
intervals of time as shown in Fig 1a and Fig 1b.
Once the capacitor gets fully discharged, the magnetic

field around L begins to collapse. The collapsing magnetic
field, induces a voltage (back-emf) in L. This back emf
tends to maintain the electron flow through L in the same
The output wave-form of an oscillator may be sinusoidal as
direction as when C was discharging. Hence, this back emf
shown in Fig 1a. Such oscillators are known as sine wave
in the inductor starts charging the capacitor with opposite
oscillators or harmonic oscillators.
polarity as shown in Fig 2c. After the magnetic field has
The output of oscillators may be square, triangular or saw- totally collapsed, C would have got charged in the opposite
tooth waveform as shown in Fig 1b. Such oscillators are direction as shown in Fig 2c.
known as non-sinusoidal oscillators or relaxation
Again capacitor C discharges through the inductor in the
oscillators.
opposite direction. An expanding magnetic field appears
Principle of sinusoidal or harmonic oscillations around L but in the opposite direction.
Fig 2a shows an inductor and a capacitor connected in This process continues back and forth, causing the
parallel as a parallel LC resonant circuit. A parallel LC electrons to oscillate in the tuned tank circuit. If the
circuit is also known as tuned circuit or tank circuit. inductor was ideal( zero resistance) and the capacitor was
In Fig 2a, when switch S is put into position A, the capacitor totally loss-free, this process would have continued
gets charged with the bottom plate being negative and the indefinitely, and would have resulted in a continuous
top plate positive. This means, energy is stored in the sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig 1a. However, owing
capacitor in the form of an electric charge. to the resistance in an practical inductor, and the losses
When switch S is put into position B, as in Fig 2b, the in the capacitor due to the resulting I2 R (heat loss), the
capacitor starts discharging through the inductor, creating amplitude of the oscillation decreases gradually (damped)
an expanding magnetic field around L. Since the inductor and ultimately the oscillations die down as shown in
Fig 2d.
192
The frequency of oscillation produced by the resonant the product of A  is less than 1 (A  < 1), then the
frequency is given by, output signal will be a damped oscillations which will
1
die down as is shown in Fig 5a.
f=
2 LC
Overcoming losses in tank circuit for sustained
oscillations
To avoid the damping of oscillations, when the energy fed
into the circuit has been used up, it is necessary to supply
more energy by charging the capacitor again. As shown in
Fig 2a, by switching S between A and B at proper time, the
oscillations can be maintained thus obtaining sinusoidal
waveform of constant amplitude and frequency.
In Fig 4 a transistor amplifier connected in such a way that

it will cause undamped oscillations without requiring any
external signal. Such a circuit is known as an oscillator.
The oscillator circuit at Fig 4 is known as tickler-coil
oscillator. Here L1 is inductively coupled to L. When power
is first switched ON to the circuit, current flows in the
transistor. As the current flows through L, it induces a
voltage in L1 which is coupled to the base of the transistor
and is amplified. If the phase of the feedback voltage is
aiding, then there is an increase in the collector current.
This action builds up a large current pulse which excites
the LC tank into oscillations. The signal fed by L1 to the
base of the transistor is a sine wave of the same frequency
as that in the LC circuit and of proper phase to sustain the
oscillations. The signal induced in the base thus eliminates
the need for an external input to the oscillator and the LC
tank will oscillate as long as the DC power to the circuit is
ON.
The feedback given to the amplifier in Fig 4 in the proper
phase so as to sustain(keep going) oscillations is referred – if A  > 1, the output voltage builds up as shown in
to as positive feedback or regenerative feedback. Fig 5b. Such oscillations are called growing
oscillations.
BARKHAUSEN CRITERION
– If A  = 1, the output amplitude of oscillations
The mathematical analysis for an amplifier to oscillate on
remains constant as in Fig 5c.
its own is given below:
When the feedback is positive(regenerative), the overall
– In the amplifier shown in Fig 4, assume that the gain
gain of the amplifier with feedback(Af) is given by,
of the amplifier is A and the feedback factor is  . If
A oscillations.
Af =
1 – A Fig 6b is parallel-fed Hartley oscillator commonly used in
radio receivers. Parallel-fed Hartley oscillators are known
When A  = 1, the denominator of the equation will be zero, for their high stability of oscillations.
and hence Af=Infinity. The gain becoming infinity means,
The circuit at Fig 6b is actually an amplifier with positive
there is output without any input. i.e. the amplifier becomes
(regenerative) feedback to have sustained oscillations. The
an oscillator. This condition A  =1, is known as capacitor C2 and inductor L2 form the path for RF current in
Barkhausen criterion for oscillations. the collector to ground circuit.
Summarizing, the basic requirements for an oscillator are; RF current through L2 induces a voltage in L1 in proper
1 A stable DC power supply source phase and amplitude to sustain oscillations.
2 An amplifier The position of the tap at the junction of L1 and L2

determines how much signal is fed back to the base circuit.
3 A regenerative (positive) feedback from output to input
The capacitor C and the inductors L1 + L2 forms the
4 A LC tank circuit to determine the frequency of resonant tank circuit of the oscillator which determines the
oscillations. frequency of oscillations. Capacitor C can be made as a
Starting signal for oscillators variable capacitor for tuning the oscillator to different
frequencies. C1 and R1 form the RC circuit which develops
As discussed above an oscillator gives alternating output the bias voltage at the base.
voltage without an input signal once the amplifier is given
a regenerative feedback. But in a practical oscillator circuit,
to start off oscillations, no starting input signal is provided.
However, the starting signal of an oscillator is generated by
the noise voltage while switching on the oscillator circuit.
Such noise voltages are produced due to the random
motion of electrons in resistors used in the circuit.
Noise voltage contains almost all the sinusoidal frequencies
of small amplitude. However, it gets amplified and appears
at the output terminals. The amplified noise now drives the
feedback network, which is a resonant tank circuit. Because
of this tuned tank circuit, the feedback voltage A  is
maximum at a particular frequency fr, which will be the
frequency of oscillations. Furthermore, the phase shift
required for positive feedback is correct at this frequency fr
only. Thus although the noise voltage contains several
frequency components, the output of the oscillator will
contain a single sinusoidal frequency fr the resonant
frequency of the tank circuit.
To summarize, the following are the requirements of an
oscillator circuit to take-off with oscillations and have
sustained oscillations;
– There must be positive feedback.
– Initially the loop gain product A  must be > 1.
– After the circuit starts oscillating, the loop gain product
A  must decrease to 1 and remain at 1.
Hartley Oscillator
One of the simplest of sinusoidal oscillators is the Hartley
oscillator shown in Figs 6a and 6b.
Shown in Fig 6a is a series-fed Hartley oscillator. This
circuit is similar to the ticker-coil oscillator shown in Fig 4, The RF choke at the collector keeps the high frequency AC
but the tickler circuit coil L1 is physically connected to L, signal out of the VCC supply. In cheaper oscillator circuits
and is hence a part of L(like an auto-transformer). This the RF choke is omitted and is replaced by a resistor.
oscillator is called series-fed because, the high frequency
oscillations generated and the DC paths are the same, just Resistor R2 connected in the emitter provides DC
as they would be in a series circuit. Series-fed Hartley stabilization. R2 is bypassed by C3 to prevent AC
oscillators are not preferred due to their poor stability of degeneration.
The Hartley oscillator coil has three connections. These
are usually coded on the coil. If they are not, it is generally
possible to identify them by a resistance check. The
resistance between the taps T and P as shown in Fig 6b,
is small compared with the resistance between T and G. If
the coil connections are not made properly, the oscillator
will not work.
Checking Oscillator Frequency
The frequency of an oscillator can be computed if the values
of L (L = L1 + L2) and C are known using the formula,
1
f=
2 LC
where, f is in hertz, L in henrys, and C in farads.
The frequency of an oscillator may be measured in two
ways,
– Using a direct read-out frequency meter also known
as frequency counter which is most accurate, popular The divider biasing is provided to make the DC conditions
and easy to use. such that the amplifier works as Class A. With the heavy
feedback (large ß), the large feedback signal drives the
– Using an oscilloscope with a calibrated time base base of the transistor into saturation and cut-off. This large
to measure the period of the wave-form. From the feedback signal produces negative DC clamping at the
measured period, t frequency is calculated using base, changing the operation from Class A to Class C. The
the formula negative clamping automatically adjusts the value of Aß to
1 1. If the feedback is too large, it may result in loss of some
f= of the output voltage because of the stray power loses.
t
When you build an oscillator, you can adjust the amount
where, f is the frequency in Hz and t the time period in
of feedback to maximize the output voltage. The trick is to
seconds.
use enough feedback to start under all conditions (different
A practical Hartley Oscillator circuit using medium-wave transistors, temperature, voltage etc.), but not so much
oscillator coil as L is shown in Fig 7. that you lose more output than necessary.
The advantage of using a medium wave oscillator coil for L The frequency of oscillations of the oscillator circuit at Fig
is that the output can be taken out of the secondary winding 7 can be varied by varying the position of the shaft of the
(4 and 5) of the coil. gang of the gang capacitor (C4).
The transistor used is a silicon high frequency transistor
(BF series) as the oscillator frequency is in the range of 1
MHz.
Colpitt’s and Crystal Oscillator

• state the difference in the feed back method in a Colpitt’s oscillator compared to Hartley oscillator
• calculate frequency of oscillations for the given the values of L and C
• state the main disadvantage of LC oscillators and give reasons
• describe the piezo electric property of crystals
• explain the AC equivalent circuit of piezo electric crystals
• describe the circuit of a crystal oscillator and explain the function of the components.
COLPITT’S Oscillator The parallel-fed or shunt-fed Colpitt’s oscillator shown in

Fig1, uses the common emitter configuration. The capaci-
Colpitts oscillator is another type of sinusoidal oscillator or
tors C1A & C1B form the voltage divider used to provide the
harmonic oscillator which uses a tank circuit for oscilla-
feedback signal. The voltage drop across C1B determines
tions. Colpitts oscillators are very popular and are widely
the feedback voltage. All other components in this circuit
used in commercial signal generators and communication
have the same function as in the Hartley circuit.
receivers.
The frequency of oscillations of the Colpitt’s oscillator is
A typical Colpitt’s oscillator shown in Fig 1 is similar to a
given by,
Hartley oscillator. The only difference is that the Colpitts
1
oscillator uses a split capacitor for the tank instead of a f=
split inductor used in Hartley oscillators. 2 LC
where, Piezo Electric Effect
f is the frequency of oscillation in hertz, It was discovered that certain crystals such as quartz
and Rochelle, exhibit a special property known as piezo-
L is the inductance of the coil in henry electric property. A quartz crystal looks like a piece of thin
C is the total capacitance in farads given by, frosted glass usually cut into 1/4 to 1 inch squares as
shown in Fig 3.
C 1A .C 1B
C 
C 1A  C 1B
The frequency of oscillations can be changed by using a

miniature ganged capacitor for C1A & C1B.
By varying the shaft of the ganged capacitor, both the
capacitances C1A and C1B get varied, and hence, the
frequency of oscillations of the oscillator varies.
Colpitts oscillators are generally used for generating
frequencies above 1 MHz.
A practical Hartley Oscillator circuit using a ganged
capacitor for C1A and C1B and a medium wave oscillator coil
for L is shown in Fig 2.
Crystal Oscillators
The LC oscillator circuits such as Hartley and Colpitts have
the problem of frequency in-stability. The most important
reason for the frequency drift in LC oscillators is, the
change in value of capacitance and inductance of the tank
circuit that occurs when temperature changes. As the
temperature increases or decreases, the values of L and
C deviate causing the circuit to oscillate at a frequency
When such a crystal is held between two flat metal plates
different from the desired resonant frequency. Other rea-
and pressed together, a small emf will be developed
sons for frequency deviation are, the leads of transistor,
between the plates as if the crystal became a battery for an
inter electrode and wiring capacitances.
instant. When the plates are released, the crystal springs
The problem of frequency drift can be largely overcome by back to its original shape and an emf of opposite polarity
using high Q coils and good quality capacitors. But, with is developed between the two plates. In this way, mechani-
ordinary inductors and capacitors, Q-values in excess of a cal energy/force is converted to Electronics energy by the
few hundred is very difficult or impossible to achieve. crystal. This property is made use of in the pick-ups for
gramophone records. In a gramophone record, small
Large improvements in frequency stability can be achieved mechanical vibrations are produced when the stylus tracks
by using a quartz crystal in the place of the conventional the groove on the gramaphone plate. This vibrating force
tuned circuit. Such oscillator circuits are referred to as gives rise to corresponding voltages representing the
crystal controlled oscillators. recorded sound at the pick-up terminals.
In addition to the above property of the crystal, when an emf
is applied across the two plates of the crystal, the crystal
will distort from its normal shape. If an opposite polarity emf
is applied, the crystal will reverse its physical distorted
shape. In this way, these crystals also convert Electronics
energy into mechanical energy.
The above two reciprocal actions of a crystal are known as
piezo-electric effect. Such crystals are housed in crystal
holders as shown in Fig 3.
Amongst several crystals having this piezo-electric prop-
erty, the quartz crystal is most popular because, this
material is almost perfectly elastic. If mechanical oscilla-
To get an usable crystal out of this, a rectangular slab is cut
tions are started in this crystal it takes a long time for the
out of the natural crystal as shown in Fig 5b. Depending
oscillations to die away. Quartz crystals therefore, have a
upon the angle of the cut and the thickness of the slab, the
very high mechanical Q.
fundamental frequency of vibration of the crystal varies. The
So far as the Electronics properties are concerned, a resonant frequency of a crystal is usually between 0.5 and
quartz crystal is equivalent to the LC resonant circuit 30 MHz.
shown in Fig.4. Pierce crystal oscillator
The pierce crystal controlled oscillator shown in Fig 6 is
often used because it requires very few components and
has good frequency stability.
The pierce crystal oscillator is similar to the Colpitts
oscillator but for the inductance coil replaced by a crystal.
Here the crystal across the collector and the base terminals
of the transistor determines the oscillating frequency. As
in a Colpitts oscillator, capacitors C1 and C2 form a
capacitive voltage divider for feedback. The AC voltage
across C2 provides the necessary positive feedback to the
base.
The values of L, R, C and Cm depend upon the physical size

of the crystal and how the crystal is cut from the original
mass. Capacitance Cm represents the mounting capaci-
tance. For using the crystal in electronic circuits, two
conducting electrodes are placed on to its two faces.
Connecting leads are then joined to these electrodes.
When the leads are connected to a source of oscillating
voltage, mechanical vibrations are set up within the crystal.
If the frequency of the oscillating voltage is close to a
resonant frequency of the crystal, then the crystal forces
the oscillating voltage to coincide with the oscillating In Fig 6, the crystal acts like an inductor that resonates with
frequency of the crystal. Hence, in an oscillator, by using C1 and C2. In the base circuit, the R1R2 divider supplies
the crystal in the place of an LC resonant circuit, the forward bias voltage from the Vcc. Bias stabilization is
frequency of oscillation is determined almost entirely by provided by the RE CE combination in the emitter circuit.
the crystal. Q values in excess of 20,000 are easily In Fig 6, if the crystal resonant frequency is, say 3579.545
obtained with readily available crystals resulting in highly Hz, then the oscillator oscillates at the same frequency
stable oscillating frequency. and gives a sinusoidal output of 3579.545 Hz.
Hence, when accuracy and stability of the oscillation Crystal oscillators are generally used in,
frequency are important, a quartz crystal oscillator is used – mobile radio transmitters and receivers
instead of Hartley or Colpitts oscillators. – broadcast transmitters
Crystal cuts – test equipments such as signal generators where
exact frequency and very high frequency stability are of
The natural shape of a quartz crystal is a hexagonal prism utmost importance. The frequency drift in crystal controlled
with pyramids at the ends as shown in Fig 5a. oscillators will be less than 1 Hz per 106 Hz.
RC time Constant
• explain the importance of RC time constant
• state the need of universal time constant curve
• list a few applications of RC time delay circuits
• explain the use of oscilloscope in measuring time delay.
RC time constant τ while charging Hence, the capacitor is considered to be fully charged only
after a period of more than five time constants or atleast five
When a capacitor is connected across a battery or a time constants.
source of dc voltage as shown in Fig 1a, it charges almost
instantaneously. This is because there is no resistance in
the charging circuit to limit the charging current. On the
other hand, if a resistor is connected in series with the
capacitor, as shown in Fig 1b, the resistance limits the
maximum current that can flow in the series circuit. This
limiting of charging current causes delay in the time
required for the capacitor to charge up-to the source
voltage.
Even if a resistor were not connected in the circuit , the
resistance due to connecting wires, leads internal re-
sistance of the supply source acts as a lumped resistance
to delay the charging. The exact time required for the
capacitor to charge depends on both the resistance (R) in
the charging circuit, and the capacitance (C) of the
capacitor(recall higher capacitance value allows higher
current in the circuit, I = CV/t).
This relationship between resistance, capacitance and the
RC time constant while discharging
charging time is expressed by the equation,
As in charging, while a capacitor is discharging, there is
t = RC
time delay in discharging the stored charges depending
where t (spelled as tow) is the capacitive time constant or upon the value of resistance and capacitance. This
RC time constant, representing the time required for the discharge time constant t, is also given by RC. This time
capacitor to charge to 63.2% of its full charge voltage. constant gives the time required for the voltage across a
discharging capacitor to drop to various percentages of its
It is interesting to note that, in each succeeding time
maximum value as shown in graph at Fig 3.
constant t , the voltage across the capacitor increases by
an additional 63.2 % of the remaining voltage. Thus, after
the second time constant (2t ) the capacitor would have
charged to 86.4 % of its maximum voltage,
– after 3t, 94.9 percent, of its maximum voltage,

– after 4t, 98.1 percent, of its maximum voltage Notice the similarity between the capacitive time constant
and – after 5t, more than 99 percent of its maximum and the inductive time constant, discussed in previous
voltage. lessons. The similarity is that, the voltage across a
capacitor and the current through an inductor builds up/
Fig 2 shows the charging curve of the resistor - capacitor rises and drops off/falls exactly in the same way.
(RC) circuit shown in Fig 1 and its relationship with RC time
constant, t.
Instrument Mechanic - Operational amplifier
Operational amplifiers and their applications

• state the base material used in making ICs
• state the most important considerations in designing ICs
• state the meaning of operational amplifier
• state the two basic modes of operation of Op- Amps
• list ideal and typical characteristics of Op-Amps
• explain a simple summing and differential amplifier
• state the meaning of slew rate and its importance.
Integrated circuits that, inductors can be connected external to the IC. Most
ICs are designed to be used for more than one application
An integrated circuit (IC), as its name implies, is an
by making small changes in external circuitry. For example,
integrated (put together) form of several components of a
an IC may be used as an amplifier or as an oscillator and
circuit on a single chip or wafer of a semiconductor
so on.
material, generally silicon. ICs may have hundreds of
active components (transistors, diodes) and passive The commonly used OP-AMP ICs are  A741-single op-
components (resistors, capacitors etc.,).
amp and LM 324 - having four op-amp. They come in DIP
and having larger input voltage range no latch up, high gain
short circuit protection, no frequency compensation required.
Input voltage range from -15v to +15v while common mode
input is from -12v to +12v supply current is 1.7mA power
consumption is 50 mV.
The leading IC manufactures are signetics, texas
instruments, fair child and national semi conductors limited.
Advantages of integrated circuits
• Although the circuit inside an IC is complex consisting
The active and passive components are deposited or of a large number of components, the overall physical
diffused on this minute sized silicon substrate. The substrate size of the IC is extremely small resulting in
is then mounted on a ceramic or a insulated metal base miniaturization of the electronic gadgets size.
called header as shown in Fig. 1. Aluminum or gold wires • Drastic decrease in the overall weight of the gadget due
of about one-third thickness of a human hair are bonded to miniaturised size of the circuit.
between the IC contacts called pads and the header leads.
• Low power requirement.
ICs are made by a complex photographic process on a very
• Increased reliability due to less number of solder
small sized surface. This process is known as micro
connections.
photolithographic process
• Greater flexibility in use of the same IC for different
The base material of ICs is a highly refined silicon chip (also
circuit configurations.
known as substrate) as shown in Fig 1. Generally the size
of the silicon substrate is of the size of a pin head. • Better functioning under wide range of temperatures.
The number of pins each IC has depends on the complexity • Low cost per IC due to large scale production of ICs.
of the circuit built into the IC. However, any IC will have
Limitation of integrated circuits
minuimum of 3 pins as in any voltage regulator ICs, to more
than 64 pins in computer ICs. • Large value capacitors and resistors cannot be
fabricated.
In IC, fabrication of active components such as transistors
and diodes take much less space on the chip than • Chokes, inductors and transformers cannot be
resistors and capacitors. fabricated.
Direct coupling between transistor stages are used in ICs. • If any one stage inside the IC circuit becomes defective,
Also transistors are used as resistors instead of fabricating the complete IC has to be discarded.
resistors themselves. Components like chokes, coils and
• Handling is very delicate.
transformers cannot be fabricated in ICs because of its
physical bulkiness. Therefore, wherever inductors are
necessary for a circuit leads are brought out of the ICs such
199
Basic linear integrated circuit-‘Operational Amplifiers’ Common-mode operation
(Op- Amps)
In Fig 4, since both sides of the differential amplifier circuit
An operational amplifier, often referred as op-Amp, is a high are identical, if an identical signal (same level and phase)
gain, direct coupled differential amplifier, designed to is applied to both the inputs(transistors), the same output
amplify both DC and AC signals. signal results from both collectors. If a meter is connected
across the outputs the voltage difference will be zero. Thus,
The term operational is used with these amplifiers because,
the output is equal to the gain times the difference between
in early days these amplifiers were used in analog computers
the input voltages. Mathematically, this is expressed as,
to perform mathematical operations such as addition,
multiplication etc.,
Symbol used to represent an Op-Amp and the functional
blocks inside it are shown in Fig 2.
V out (com) = A(V1 V2)

As can be seen from Fig 3, operational amplifiers will have
two inputs and one output. The reason for having two input Where,
points is that Op Amps have a special type of amplifier A is the grain of each transistor
configuration known as Differential amplifier as its first
stage. V1 and V2 are the base input voltages measured to ground.
A typical differential amplifier stage is shown in Fig 3. A This mode of operation is called Common-mode operation.
differential amplifier stage consists of two transistors with In common-mode operation, a differential amplifier
an input to each transistor. The output is taken between the theoretically rejects the common mode signals (signal that
collectors of the transistors as shown in Fig. The most is identical at each input) and hence the output will be zero
important point to note is, both the transistors haveimportant as shown below,
point to note is, both the transistors have identical
characteristics, load resistors, input resistors and a single If both the magnitude and phase of V1 and V2 are the same,
emitter resistor. Dual power supply(+ve,-ve and Gnd) is then,
required for differential amplifiers (single supply can also be V out = A(V1 V2) = A (V1 - V1) = A (0)
used with a few extra components). If a dual supply is used
In practice, since the two halves of the circuit cannot be
and if the amplifier is properly balanced (symmetrical
perfectly identical, instead of zero output there will be a very
values), the output voltage across the collectors will be
small output. For example, a differential amplifier with a 0.5
equal to the difference of the two input voltages. Hence, this
V common-mode input signal may give an output of 0.025
amplifier is called differential amplifier.
V instead of zero. This 0.025V is because of the slight
Modes of operation of differential amplifiers mismatch between the two half of the differential amplifier
Any operational amplifier can be operated in two modes. circuit.
They are, Differential-mode operation
• Common-mode operation Fig 5 shows the differential-mode operation. When the two
• Differential-mode operation. input signals are out of phase by 180°, the amplifier
amplifies the difference of the input signals. Since the input
signals are of equal in amplitude, but out of phase by 1 80°
the output signal is equal to, twice the gain times the input
signal. This can be mathematically written as,If magnitude
of V1 = V2 then,
Vout (Dif)
= A [ V1- ( - V2 )] = A [ (2V1)] = ..2A (V1)
Common-mode rejection ratio
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a differential
amplifier (or other device) is the rejection by the device of
unwanted input signals common to both input leads,
relative to the wanted difference signal. An ideal differential
amplifier would have infinite CMRR; this is not achievable
in practice. A high CMRR is required when a differential
signal must be amplified in the presence of a possibly large
common-mode input. An example is audio transmission
over balanced lines.
Ideally, a differential amplifier takes the voltages, V+ and V-
on its two inputs and produces an output voltage V=Ad(V+-
V-) where Ad is the differential gain. However, the output of
a real differential amplifier is better described as
Vo =Ad(V+-V-)+1/2Acm(V+-V-),
Where is the common-mode gain, which is typically much
smaller than the differential gain.
Recall that the two transistors of a push-pull amplifiers need
The CMRR is defined as the ratio of the powers of the signal of some amplitude but out-of-phase by 180°.
differential gain over the common-mode gain, measured
Differential input:
in positive decibels (thus using the 20 log rule):
As differential gain should exceed common-mode gain, The two inputs given are signals having opposite
this will be a positive number, and the higher the better. polarity(180° out of phase). The input is similar to input to
The CMRR is a very important specification, as it a push-pull amplifier.
indicates how much of the common-mode signal will
Differential output: The output is taken across the two
appear in your measurement. The value of the CMRR
collectors which is nothing but the difference between the
often depends on signal frequency as well, and must be
two collector voltages. The difference will be zero when the
specified as a function thereof.
input voltages are equal and are of the same polarity. The
It is often important in reducing noise on transmission
input signals add up if they have opposite polarities.
lines. For example, when measuring the resistance of a
thermocouple in a noisy environment, the noise from the Practical Op-Amps and applications
environment appears as an offset on both input leads,
Most of the commercially available Op-Amp ICs will
making it a common-mode voltage signal. The CMRR of
usually have two input terminals and only one output
the measurement instrument determines the attenuation
terminal as shown in Fig 7. The two inputs of the Op-Amp
applied to the offset or noise.
are called, INVERTING(-) and NON-IN-VERTING(+) inputs.
Methods of giving input and taking output in
This is because, a signal applied to the inverting (-) input,
differential amplifiers
produces output which will be 180° out of phase with the
A differential amplifier is normally used with a double ended input. Whereas a signal applied, to the NON-INVERTING
input and double ended output. But this is not a compulsion. (+) input produces an output which will be in-phase with
A differential amplifier can also be used as single ended the input.
input and with single ended output.
Gain of Op-Amps
Single-ended input: The input signal is applied to only
The gain and other characteristics of the operational
one input and the other input is grounded as shown in
amplifier depends upon the external components
Fig.6a.
connected externally to the Op-Amp.
Single-ended output:
The theoretical gain of Op-Amps is very high, of the order
The output can be taken from the collector of Q1 to Gnd or of 100,000 or more. In practical amplifiers using Op-Amp,
Q2 to Gnd or from both collectors to ground as shown in a resistor is used to provide an external negative feed back
Fig 6b. when the output is taken from both collectors to to the Op-Amp. The negative feedback resistor is generally
Gnd the two signals provide a push-pull output as shown connected between the output terminal to either of the input
in Fig 6b. terminals as shown in Fig 8. Although the negative feed
back reduces the gain of the amplifier drastically (10 to
1000), the negative feed back makes the amplifier stable, OP Amp non inverting amplifier
prevents it from going into oscillations and increases the In the Fig. 9 shows a typical amplifier using OP-Amp. In this
frequency response range of the amplifiers. non-inverting amplifier, the input signal is applied to the
The gain of Op-Amp without negative feedback is referred non-inverting (NON) terminal. The output signal of amplifier
to as OPEN LOOP GAIN whereas, the gain of Op-Amp with is same polarity (inphase) of applied input signal. The
feed back is referred to as CLOSED LOOP GAIN. resistor RF between output and input providing necessary
Op - AMP as inverting amplifier feedback. The amount of feedback provided by amplifier
depends on value of RF and Rin.
Fig 8 shows a typical inverting amplifier using an Op-AMP.
In this inverting amplifier, the input signal is applied to the
INVERTING (INV)terminal. The NON-INVERTING (NON)
terminal which is grounded the input signal is applied at the
INV terminal, the output of the amplifier will be an amplified
signal of opposite polarity. The resistor RF between the
output and input provides necessary negative feedback.
The amount of negative feedback provided depends on the
values of resistors RF and Rln.
Gain-bandwidth product(GBP)
Typical frequency response of an Op-Amp is from direct
current, or 0 Hz, to more than 1 MHz. However, because
of internal shunt capacitances, the amplifier gain drops off
sharply as the frequency is increased Therefore to specify
the gain of an Op-Amp at different frequencies, a term
called as Gain-Bandwidth-Product(GBP) is specified. For
Negative sign indicates inverting of output signal generally,
example, if the GBP of an Op-Amp is given as 1MHz, it
amplifier gain can also be written as
means that the gain of the Op-Amp becomes unity at an
input signal of 1 MHz. It is always useful to know the gain-
bandwidth product (GBP), of the Op-Amp being used.
Example: The GBP of an Op-AMP is specified as 1 MHz.
What is the maximum gain that can be obtained using this
As an example, let us calculate the closed-loop voltage
Op- Amp at 1 kHz GBP of 1 MHz means, gain = 1 at 1 MHz.
gain, for the inverting amplifier at Fig 8. Assume values of
Therefore, at 1 kHz more gain will be,
RF = 470 KΩ and Rin = 47 KΩ. Assume an input signal
voltage of 0.5V.
GEP 1MHz
The closed-loop gain of an inverting amplifier is given by, Gain at1kHz = = = 1000
1kHz 1kHz
This means, at 1 kHz an OpAmp with GPB of 1 MHz

provides a maximum gain of 1000. This is shown in curve
A of Fig 10.
Curve A of Fig 10 shows the open loop frequency response
of an Op-Amp with a constant GBP of 1 MHz. As can be
seen from curve A, for the same Op-Amp, the gain is 100
at 10 kHz, 10 at 100 kHz and becomes unity at 1 MHz.:
Since RF/Rin = A (inv), equation can also be written as, This huge variation in open loop gain A(OPEN), can be made
The out put voltage of the non – inverting amplifier is given almost constant using negative feedback.
by, As shown in curve B of Fig 10, using suitable value of
Vout(inv) = A(inv) . Vin resistor RF and Rin, if the closed loop gain A(ClOSED) of the Op-
Amp is set at say 10, then the frequency response of; the
in the given example,
Op-Amp becomes almost flat upto 100kMz. This is one of
VOUT ( NON) = 10x0.5 v the major advantages of negative feed back in Op-Amps.
= 5.0 Volts
Then, the output is given by,
Vout=V1+V2+V3
TIP: The lower you set the gain of the amplifier, the higher Vout=(1x1V)+(1x2V)+(1x3V)
will be the bandwidth of the amplifier. Vout=1V+2V+3V=6Volts
Characteristics of Op-Amps The output of 6V is equal to the sum of the three input
An ideal operational amplifier will have the following voltages. Note that the value of resistor R4 (3K) at the NON
characteristics: terminal of Op-Amp is made equal to the parallel combination
Voltage gain AV = ∞ of three 9 K resistors at the INV terminal. This resistor is
required to balance the inputs of the differential amplifier in
Bandwidth BW = ∞ the Op-Amp.
Input resistance Rin= ∞ Slew rate in Op-Amps
Output resistance R0 = 0. Slew rate is an important characteristic of Op-Amps. The
In practice such ideal characteristics cannot be achieved. term slew refers to the rate of change of the output voltage.
However, in many practical situations, Op-Amps come As an example, a slew rate of 1 volt per microsecond (V/
close to these characteristics. Typical specifications of an μS) means, the amplitude of output voltage can change by
Op-Amp is given below: a maximum of 1 V in 1μS. Fast slew rate or high slew rate
Voltage gain, AV < 100, 000 is desirable for high frequency amplifiers, especially those
with non-sinusoidal input signal wave shapes.
Bandwidth, BW ≈ 1 MHz (unity gain)
DC supply voltage for Op–Amps
Input resistance, Rin 2 MΩ
Op-Amps generally need dual (+ Ve, com,-Ve) DC supply.
Output resistance R0 < 50 Ω Typical values of DC supply voltages are + 9 V + 15 V and
Typical Op-Amp applications + 12V. Note that both positive and negative voltages of
Application of Op-Amps are innumerable. This is because, same amplitude is required for Op-Amps. The V+ is used
of the flexibility that is built into the internal circuit of the Op- as the collector voltage, and the V- is used as the emitter
Amp. In addition to its basic function of amplification, Op- supply voltage of the first differential amplifier stage of the
Amp are used as comparators, adders, subtracters, Op Amp as shown in Fig.4
differentiator, integrators and so on. The DC load current drawn from the power supply for an Op-
Application of Op-Amp as a summing amplifier Amp is generally less than a few milliamps. Typical power
rating of Op-Amps is around 500 mW.
Fig 11 is the circuit of a Op-Amp summing amplifier or in
simple terms an adder. Here, the Op-Amp is used as an Commercial Op-Amp ICs
inverting amplifier to do the summing operation. In Fig 11, The earliest and most popular commercial Op-Amp is the
three input signals are applied to the INV terminal of the Op- 741 IC. This Op-Amp IC is manufactured by several
Amp through resistors R1 R2 and R3. The amount of negative manufacturers, and hence, carries along with it tags such
feedback given to the Op-Amp is dependent on the value of as uA 741(Fairchild), LM 741 (National semiconductor)
RF divided by each resistor in the feedback path. As a and so on. Commercially several other types of Op-Amp
result, the output voltage of the Op-Amp is given by, ICs having different type numbers are available in the
market. Some IC packages may consist of more than one
Op-Amp built-in a single package. For instance, LM324
(National semiconductors) is a quad-operational amplifier.
The term quad means it has four Op-Amp in one package.
If, R1 = R2 = R3 = RF, then RF/R becomes 1 in each signal Some of the popular Op-Amps and its specifications
path. manufactured by National Semiconductors)
supplies, many Op-Amp circuits are made to work using
single supply. The method of making Op-Amps to work
with single-supply is shown in Figs 12a and 12b.
Noise in operational amplifiers
Undesired Electronics signals present in the output of an
amplifier is referred to as noise. Noise in the output of a
circuit may be due to the noise generated in the circuit
(internal) or noise getting into the circuit from external
sources. External noise can be minimised by adopting
proper construction techniques. A few tips to reduce
external noise is listed below;
1 Shorten the interconnecting wire lengths. Mount
components as close to the Op-Amp as possible.
Keep the output circuit components away from the
input components (this avoids unwanted feedback).
2 Bypass the Op-Amp +VCC supply pins using 0.01
to 0.1 uF disc capacitors.
Even if there is no significantly visible/audible noise at the
output, there will be some noise in the output of Op-Amp
due to internal noise. This internal noise can be minimised
by avoiding large values of Rin and RF. This internally
generated noise due to resistors can be reduced to a large
extent by connecting a small capacitor in the range of 3 to
56 pF across feedback resistor RF. This will reduce internal
noise, specially the high frequency noise.
Single supply operation of Op-Amps
Most Op-Amp circuits are designed to work using dual (±)
DC power supply. Due to some inconvenience of dual
Op-Amp applications - comparators, differentiator

• explain the zero crossing detector circuit using Op Amp IC uA 741
• describe op-amp as comparator, differentiator.
Applications of op-amp: The output of an op-amp is + V sat = (+V cc )

Op-amp is a building block of linear or analog systems. It and -Vsat (-Vcc ) in the ideal transfer characteristics and
has countless applications. commercial transfer characteristics is shown in Fig 1.
(i) It is used in non linear analog systems- the non

linear applications are comparator, rectifer, clipper,
clamper, log and antilog amplifier, multiplier etc.
(ii) It is used in linear circuits, the output varies with
input signal in a linear manner.The linear
applications are adder, subtractor, voltage to current
converter, current to voltage converter,differentiator,
integrator, differential amplifier, instrumentation
amplifier and etc.
Comparator :
An operational amplifier in the open loop configuration
operates in a non linear manner. Comparator, detector,
Non -inverting comparator :
limiters and converters work in this mode.
If the fixed reference voltage is applied to the (-) input, and
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage
the time varying signal voltage Vin is applied to the (+)
at one input of an op-amp with the known reference voltage
input, then the arrangement is called non inverting amplifier.
at the other input. There are two types of comparator
The output voltage is at -Vsat for the applied input voltage
i non - inverting comparator
less than the reference voltage (Vi< Vref). And goes to
ii inverting comparator
+Vsat for (Vi >Vref) the input voltage greater than the Zero Crossing Detector using 741 IC is shown in Fig
reference voltage. The circuit diagram,input and output 4.The zero crossing detector circuit is an important
waveforms are shown in Fig 2. application of the Op-Amp comparator circuit. It can
also be called as the sine to square wave converter. Anyone
of the inverting or non-inverting comparators can be used
as a zero-crossing detector. The only change to be brought
in is the reference voltage with which the input voltage is
to be compared, must be made zero (Vref = 0V). An input
sine wave is given as Vin. These are shown in the circuit
diagram and input and output waveforms of an inverting
comparator with a 0V reference voltage.
Differentiator : Zero-Crossing Detector Using UA741 op-amp IC

One of the simplest of the op-amp circuit that contain As shown in Fig 5 the waveform, for a reference voltage of
capacitor is the differentiator. It performs mathematical 0V, when the input sine wave passes through zero and
operation of differentiation, that is the output waveform is goes in positive direction, the output voltage Vout is driven
the derivative of input waveform. It produces an output signal into negative saturation. Similarly, when the input voltage
proportional to the rate of change of its input signal. passes through zero and goes in the negative direction,
Analysis : the output voltage is driven to positive saturation. The diodes
D1 and D2 are also called clamp diodes. They are used to
The node N is at virtual ground potential (i.e) V =0. The
N
protect the op-amp from damage due to increase in input
current through the feedback resistor is V0/Rf and there is voltage. They clamp the differential input voltages to either
no current through the op-amp. Therefore the nodal +0.7V or -0.7V.
equation at node N is
C1dV1/dt + Vo/Rf = 0 (or) Vo = -RfC dVi/dt.
In certain applications, the input voltage may be a low

Thus the output voltage Vo is a constant (-RfC1) times the
frequency waveform. This means that the waveform only
derivative of the input voltage V1 and circuit is known as
changes slowly. This causes a delay in time for the input
differentiator which is shown in Fig 3. The minus sign
voltage to cross the zero-level. This causes further delay
indicates a 180 phase shift of the output waveform Vo with
for the output voltage to switch between the upper and
respect to the input signal. The output is the time derivative
lower saturation levels. At the same time, the input noises
of the input signal, if Vi = sin wt.So the output of the op-
in the op-amp may cause the output voltage to switch
amp varies with frequency and will vary high at high
between the saturation levels. Thus zero crossing are
frequency. Hence it is also known as “High Pass filter
detected for noise voltages in addition to the input voltage.
circuit’.
These difficulties can be removed by using a regenerative
Adding the input resistor Rin inseries to the capacitor will
feedback circuit with a positive feedback that causes
increase the gain by RF/Rin and it will act as a differenctiator
the output voltage to change faster thereby eliminating
at low frequencies. the possibility of any false zero crossing due to noise
voltages at the op-amp input
Integrator Using Operational Amplifier
• explain the performance of circuit using Op-Amp integrator
• how to reduce the output offset voltage in Op-integrator.
An integrator is a circuit that performs the mathematical By inserting a resistor in parallel with capacitor as shown
operation of integration since it produces an output voltage in Fig 2, we can reduce the effect of input offsets. This
that is proportional to the integral of the input. With an Op- resistor should be atleast 10 times larger than the input
amp, we can build an integrator, a circuit that produces a resistor i.e., if the added resistance equals 10R, the closed
well defined ramp output for a rectangular constant input. loop voltage gain is -10 and the output offset voltage is
greatly reduced.
The Fig 1 shown is an Op-Amp integrator. The typical input
to an integrator is a rectangular pulse. As shown in Fig 1b,
the Vin represents a constant voltage during pulse time T
and it is applied to the left end of R. Because of virtual
ground, the input current is constant and equals. Iin = Vin
/ R. Approximately all this current goes to the capacitor.
The basic capacitor law says that
C = Q/V or V = Q/C ..................... (1)
The change Q increases linearly since a constant current
is flowing into the capacitor. This means that the capacitor
voltage increases linearly with the polarity. The output
voltage is a negative ramp because of the phase reversal of
the Op-Amp as shown in Fig 1C. At the end of the pulse
period, the input voltage returns to zero, and the charging
current stops. Since the capacitor hold its charge, the
different voltage remains constant at a negative level.
For output voltage divide eq.(1) by T
V/T = Q/T
C
Since the charging is constant, we can write
V/T = I/C
or V = IT/C ................. (2)
Where V = capacitor voltage
I = charging current, Vin / R
T = charging time
C = capacitance.
This is the voltage across the capacitors. Because of the
phase reversal, Vout = - V.
For Example: If I = 4mA, T = 2msec and C = 1 F, then the
capacitor voltage at the end of the charging period is (4mA)
(2ms)/1uF = 8V because of the phase reversal, the output
voltage is -2V after 2ms.
In Fig 1, since the capacitor acts like an open to DC
signals, the closed-loop voltage gain equals to the open-
loop voltage gain at zero frequency. This will produce too
much output offset voltage without negative feed back at
zero frequency, the circuit will treat the input offsets as a
valid input signal. The input offsets will eventually charge
the capacitor and drive the output into positive or negative
saturation.
Op-Amp Applications - Differential & Instrumentation Amplifiers
• describe the working of differential amplifier
• describe the operation of Instrumentation amplifier.
Differential amplifier
The easiest way to construct fully-differential circuit is to
think of the inverting op-amp feedback topology. In
fully-differential op-amp circuits, there are two inverting
feedback paths:
1 Inverting input to noninverting output
2 Noninverting input to inverting output
Both feedback paths must be closed for the fully -
differential op-amp to operate properly.
The differential amplifier has a unique feature that many
circuits don’t have - two inputs. This circuit amplifies the
difference between its input terminals. Other circuits with
one input actually have another input – the ground
potential. But, in cases where a signal source (like a Instrumentation amplifier
sensor) has both of its terminals biased at several volts
above ground, you need to amplify the difference between An instrumentation system is used to measure the output
the terminals. What about noise that adds an unwanted singal produced by a transducer. The input stage is
voltage equally to both terminals of a sensor? The composed of a transducer, depending on the physical
differential amplifier reject the noise and rescue the quantity to be measured.
signal. The output stage may use devices such as meters,
A new pin oscilloscopes and display circuits. The signal source of
Fully-differential op-amps have an extra input pin (VCOM). instrumentation amplifier is the output of the transducer.
The purpose of this pin is to provide a place to input a To amplify the low level output signal of the transducer,
potentially noisy signal that will appear simultaneously instrumentation amplifier is used in the middle.
on both inputs – i.e. common mode noise. The fully- Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of differential amplifier
differential op-amp can then reject the common mode with additional input buffer stages. The addition of input
noise. buffer stages makes it easy to match impedance with the
The VCOM pin can be connected to a data converter preceding amplifier stage. Instrumentation amplifier is
reference voltage pin to achieve tight tracking between commonly used in industrial test and measurement
the op-amp common mode voltage and the data converter applications. They are generally used in situations where
common mode voltage. In this application, the data high sensitivity, accuracy and stability are required.The
converter also provides a free dc level conversion for single instrumentation amplifier also has some useful features
supply circuits. The common mode voltage of the data like low offset voltage, high CMRR (Common mode
converter is also the dc operating point of the single-supply rejection ratio), high input resistance, high gain etc.
circuit. The designer should take care, however, that the The circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier
dc operating point of the circuit is within the common using three op-amps is shown in Fig 2.
mode range of the op-amp + and – inputs. This can most
easily be achieved by summing a dc level into the inputs
equal or close to the common mode voltage.
Gain
A gain stage is a basic op-amp circuit. Nothing has really
changed from the single-ended design, except that two
feedback pathways have been closed. The differential gain
is still Rf /Rin a familier concept to analog designers.
Fig 1 shows the differential amplifier circuit.
This circuit can be converted to a single-ended input by
connecting either of the signal inputs to ground. The gain
equation remains unchanged, because the gain is the
differential gain.
ut of A3 to its non-inverting input is the feedback resistor.
R2 is the input resistor.
The voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier can be
expressed by using the equation below:Voltage gain (Av)=
Vo/(V2-V1) = (1 + 2R1/Rg) x R3/R2. For varying the gain,
replace Rg with a suitable potentiometer. A simplified
instrumentation amplifier design isshown in Fig 3.
Once the circuit is built, set the function generator to a

500mVp-p Sine wave at 1 kHz and input it to V1, as shown
in figure 3 andground the other input terminal (V2).
In order to test the gain of the instrumentation amplifier,
place the oscilloscope probe of Channel-1 on the function
generator and another probe on the output of
instrumentation amplifier. With the power supplied to the
circuit and a proper waveform as an input, one should see
Here the resistances labelled R1 are shorted and Rg is an output similar to Fig 5.
removed. This results in a full series negative feedback
path and the gain of A1 and A2 will be unity. The removal Fig 5 displays the input and the output on the same time
of R1 and Rg simplifies the equation to Av = R3/R2.The scale, but different voltage scales. To ensure the gain is
output impedance is also low, being in the range of about 10, take the output voltage and divide it by the input
milliohms. The input bias current of the instrumentation voltage. This example has Vout/Vin = 5.046 V/513.66 mV
amplifier is determined by the op-amps A1 and A2. = 9.82.
Practical instrumentation amplifier using op-amp. Instrumentation amplifiers are easy to design and can be
used in many applications.The simplicity of the design
A practical instrumentation amplifier circuit designed using depends on the selection of the resistor values. Ifchosen
uA741 op amp is shown in Fig 4. The amplifier operates correctly, the gain can be calculated and changed only
from +/-12V DC and has a gain 10. If you need a variable with one resistor value.
gain, then replace Rg with a 5K POT. Instead of using
uA741 you can use any op-amp but the power supply
voltage must be changed according to the op amp. A single
LM324 op amp IC is a good choice. Out of the four op-
amps inside the LM324, three can be used for IC1, IC2,
IC3 and the remaining one can be left alone. This reduces
the PCB size a lot and makesthe circuit compact. Supply
voltage for LM324 can be up to +/-15V DC Fig 4.
A high gain accuracy can be achieved by using precision
metal film resistors for all the resistances. Because of
large negative feedback employed, the amplifier has good
linearity, typically about 0.01% for a gain less than 10.
Converters
• explain voltage-to-current converter and current-to-voltage converter.
Voltage-to-current converter Current to voltage converter

Fig 1 shows a feedback circuit. Since the returning voltage Fig 2 shows current-to-voltage converter of negative feed-
opposes the input voltage the feedback is negative, from back. From Fig 2.
Fig 1.
Vout = R x Iin ...... (1)
Iout = Vin/R ...... (1)
Zin = 0 ...... (2)
Zin = ∞ ...... (2)
Zout = 0 ...... (3)
Zout = ∞ ...... (3)
In a perfect current-to-voltage converter the output voltage
In a perfect voltage-to-current convertor, the output current depends only on the input current and the value of R.
depends only on the input voltage and the value of R.
The zero input impedence means the converter looks like
The infinite input impedance means the voltage-to-current a perfect current sink (ground). A current-to-voltage
converter will not load down the circuit driving it. Also, the converter will not load down the circuit driving it and also its
infinite output impedence implies the circuit acts like a output voltage is unaffected by small load resistance.
current source. A voltage-to-current converter has a high
A current-to-voltage converter has a low input impedance
input impedence and a high output impedence. One of the
and a low output impedance. One of the application of the
application of voltage-to-current converter is in building an
current -to-voltage converter is in building an electronic
electronic voltmeter.
ammeter.
Timer IC and its applications

• list the features that make 555 a popular integrated circuit
• name the functional blocks of a IC555
• describe the principle of operation of a IC555
• list different types of packaging of IC555
• explain the schematic of an astable multi-vibrator using IC 555
• find the ON-time and OFF-time of a given astable multi-vibrator using 555
• explain the term PRF
• list a few applications of astable multi-vibrator
• describe the working of VCO using IC 555.
Timer intervals is the 555. This IC is popularly known as 555

timer. Similar to operational amplifiers, 555 IC is reliable,
Applications such as square wave, ramp, pulse genera-
easy to use in a variety of applications, and at low cost. The
tors, and one-shot multi-vibrators etc. require a circuit
555 IC can operate from a wide range of supply voltages of
essentially capable of producing timing intervals. Due to
+ 5 V to +18 V. This makes 555 compatible with standard
the circuit components count and the delicacy in using
digital circuits whose voltage levels(0-state = 0V, 1-state =
transistors, integrated circuits(ICs) are preferred. One
5 V) are known as TTL (transistor-transistor logic) levels.
such most suitable and popular IC for producing timing
The 555 timer Modes of operation
The functional blocks in 555 timer is shown in Fig 1. The 555 IC timer has two modes of operation:
– as an astable(free-running) multi-vibrator
– as a mono-stable (one-shot) multi-vibrator.
Principle of 555 operation
Referring to the block diagram of IC 555 in Fig 1, at the input
there are two comparators connected to an internal resis-
tive voltage divider. Both comparators have a reference
input tied to the voltage divider. The threshold compara-
tor is referenced to as 2(VCC/3), and the trigger compa-
rator is referenced to as VCC/3. Comparator outputs are
connected to a set-reset flip-flop. If the trigger voltage
input falls below VCC/3, its associated comparator resets
the flip-flop output low.
For using the 555 IC, certain external components are
required to be connected as shown in Fig 3.
As can be seen from Fig 1, the 555 IC contains two

comparators, one transistor, three equal value resistors, a
flip-flop, and an output stage. Timer find application in
precision timing, pulse generator, sequential timing, time
delay circuits, pulse width modulation, pulse position
modulation and linear ramp generator circuits, time period
is adjustable from micro seconds to hours. Output source
or sink current 200 mA, output and supply TTL compatible
temperature stability each better than 0.005% per degree
centigrate. Normally ON and normally OFF output they are
available in 8 and 16 pin package.
A comparator is a circuit having two inputs and a single
output. It compares the signal voltage given at one input
with a reference voltage on the other input as shown in Fig
2. Comparators are essentially made using Op-Amps.
Types of 555 timer IC packages The threshold input is usually connected to an external RC
The 555 timer IC is available in two package styles metal timing circuit. If the capacitor charge(threshold input)
can (TO) and DIP as shown in Fig 2. exceeds the 2/3 VCC reference on the threshold compara-
tor, the comparator is triggered and the flip-flop is set.
When the flip-flop is set, the discharge transistor is turned-
on and the capacitor discharges.
IC 555 as an astable multi-vibrator
Fig 5 shows 555 connected for astable operation.
– The reset input is connected to VCC. If it were connected
to ground, 555 will get disabled.
– Cf provides noise filtering for the control voltage input.
– When the discharge transistor is off, capacitor C is
charging through RA and RB. Thus the circuit time
Source and Sink current capacity constant is given by,
The internal circuitry of 555 requires about 0.7mA per t = (RA + RB)C
supply volt (7 mA for VCC = +10V) to set up internal bias – As capacitor C charges, the threshold input voltage will
currents. Maximum power a 555 IC can dissipate is around soon reach 2VCC/3. At this point the flip-flop changes
600 mW. states, causing the discharge transistor Q1 to turn on.
Transistor Q1 saturates and discharges C through
The maximum current that can be drawn from the output
resistor RB and Q1. The discharge time constant is
terminal(pin No.3) of 555(called source current) or the
therefore given by,
maximum current that can be forced through the output
terminal(called sink current) is around 40 mA. t = RBC
– Since the threshold and trigger inputs are tied together, cycle can be calculated as follows:
as C discharges, at some point it falls to a value below
R A +R B
1/3 VCC and activates the trigger comparator. This Duty cycle(D) = x 100%
resets the RS flip-flop, turning OFF Q1 and allowing C R A +2R B
to start charging again. So, 555 operates as an astable From the above equation,
multi-vibrator by causing C to continuously charge and
discharge between 1/3 VCC and 2/3VCC. Wave-forms at – if RB is made much greater than RA, the duty cycle will
the capacitor(trigger input) and at the output 555 are approach 50 %.
shown in Fig 4c. – for higher duty cycle, RA should be made greater than
It is important to note that, because the charging path for RB.
C is through RA + RB and the discharge path is through only Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRF)
RB, the output is not symmetrical. In other words, the ON-
The term frequency is generally used with repetitive wave-
time and the OFF-time of the output pulses are not equal.
forms which are symmetrical such as sine wave form. For
The ratio of the ON-time of the pulse to the OFF-time of the
repetitive wave-forms which are non-symmetrical such as
pulse is known as duty cycle. The duty cycle of 555
the output of an astable multi-vibrator, instead of the term
astable circuit range from near 50% to near 100%. The duty
frequency the term Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRF) is
used. PRF can be calculated as follows:
If tON is the ON-time of the pulse
and, if tOFF is the OFF-time of the pulse,
then, Time period, T = tON + tOFF
1
Hence, PRF =
T
Application of astable multi-vibrators
Application of astable multi-vibrators are almost innumer-
able: some general applications are listed below;
– In electronic pianos : different frequencies are gener-
ated by astable with different RC values.
– Signal injectors : used as a testing instrument by
service technicians.
– Flashing light : if lamps or LEDs are connected at the
output of the astable, the lamp/LED flashes at the rate
set by the values of RC.
– As Voltage Controlled Oscillator(VCO): The oscillator
frequency is controlled by the input control voltage. A
VCO circuit is shown in Fig 6.
IC 555 Timer as VCO
A Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) changes its output
frequency in relation to the input voltage at the control input
of the threshold comparator(pin No.5). The voltage at pin 5
is normally 2/3VCC owing to the internal resistive voltage
divider. However, by connecting an external component or
voltage source as shown in Fig 6a, the voltage at pin 5 can
be changed. If the voltage on pin 5 is raised, the capacitor
must charge to a higher value, which decreases the output
frequency. With pin 5 elevated in voltage, a greater time is
required for C to discharge to 1/3VCC as well.
Voltage controlled oscillator circuit can be used in digital
circuits where, data are converted to tones for recording or
transmission on telephone lines. Such a circuit may
produce a tone of 2400 Hz when a low is applied to pin 5
and a tone of 1200 Hz when a high is applied. Fig 5b shows
a typical VCO whose output frequency is in relationship to
the voice input amplitude.
Working ofMonostable Mutlivibrator with 555 Timer Circuit operte systems. When the input is triggered, then the will
go to high state and comes back to its original state.
• The output of the monotablemultivibrator using 555
timer remains in its stable until it gets a trigger. 555 timer Example
• In monostaable 555 multivibrator, when both the A 555 Timer IC in a Monostablemultivibrator in needed to
transistor and capacitor are shorted then this state produce a time delap in a circuit. If a 10 mF timing capacitor
is called as a stable state. is used, then calculate the value of the resistor required to
poduce a minimum output time delay of 500ms.
• When the voltage goes below at the second pin of R=t/1.1C
the 555 IC, the o/p becomes high. This high state is
called quasi stable state. when the circuit activates Where,t=0.5,C=10mF
then the transistion from a stable to quasi stable Insert these values in the above formula
state.
• Then the discharge transistor is cut off and capacitor
starts charging to VCC. Charging of the capacitor is
done via the resistor R1 with a time constant R1C1
R=0.5/1.1x10x10- 6
=45.5kilo Ohms
Applications of 555 timer in Monostable Mode
The applications of the 555 timer circuits mainly involve in
various 555 timer based projects in monostable mode.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) circuit using the 555
timer IC as the main component as shown in Fig 7(a). As
expected, the 555 timer is configured as an astable multi
vibrator to be able to serve as an oscillator. An astable
multi vibrator is just a timing circuit whose output oscil-
lates between ‘low’ and ‘high’ continuously, in effect gen-
erating a train of pulses, as shown in the Fig 7(b) of the
circuit.
1 The difference of this circuit with the basic 555 astable

circuit is that its 555’s pin 5 is tied to an external voltage
source.
2 Pin 5 is the 555’s control voltage pin, which allows the
user to directly adjust the threshold voltages to which
the pin 2/pin 6 input voltages are compared by the 555’s
internal comparators. Since the outputs of these
comparators control the internal flip-flop that toggles
• Hence, the voltage of the capacitor increases and the output of the 555, adjusting the pin 5 control voltage
finally exceeds 2/3 VCC, it will chane the internal also adjusts the frequency at which the 555 toggles its
control flip flop, thereby turning off the 555 timer IC output.
• Thus the o/p goes back to its stable state from an 3 Increasing the input voltage at pin 5 decreases the
unstable state. output oscillation frequency while decreasing the input
voltage increases the output oscillation frequency.
Finally we can conclude that,in themonostablemultivibrator
using 555 timer, the output stays in a low state until it gets
a trigger input. This type of operation is used in push to
Application of VCO
• Phase locked loop.
• Function generator.
• Frequency synthesizers, used in communication
circuits.
• Production of electronic music/different types of
noise.
• Electronic jamming equipment.
Monostable multivibrator
Objectives : On completion of this lesson you shalll be able to
• monostable multivibrator circuit using timer IC 555
• find values of R and C for a required output pulse width
• name the most popular application of mono-shot
• explain pulse width modulator using timer IC 555
IC 555 as a Monostable multivibrator If the value of R is increased to R =100K and C =0.01F,

Fig 1, shows the circuit connections of a monostable the mono-stable output pulse width will be,
multivibrator using 555 timer IC. It is also called as mono
W=1.1 x 100 x 103 x 0.01 x 10-6
shot multi.
= 1.1 m sec.
In Fig 1, unlike in an astable multi-vibrator, the trigger input
is held at voltage near VCC. When the monosatable timer is In Fig 1,notice that pin 5 is bypassed to ground by a small-
to be made to change to its state, the trigger input must be value capacitor. The value of this capacitor is typically
made to fall to less than 1/3VCC . about 0.01F, an dits purpose is to provide noise filtering for
the contorl voltage.Pin 4 is alos tied high (+ VCC) agin.
When a trigger input is given i.e when the level at the trigger
Recall that, if pin 4 is tied low, the 555 will not operate and
input is brought below 1/3VCC, the flip-flop is reset, therefore
will be in the reset state.
Q1 goes to cut-off, and C begins to charge.
Applications of 555 Mono-shot
When the charge on C increases to 2/3 VCC, the flip-flop is
made to set by the threshold comparator. Thus Q1 is Applications of 555 timer as mono- shot are as numerous
turned ON and C is discharged. The timer stays in this or even more than that of astable multivibnrator. Amongst
stable state, and nothing happens tills the trigger input is the applications of 555 as mono- shot, the most popular
brought to less than 1/3VCC. uses are in the time delay or timer circuits. Fig 2 shows
a 555 used as a time-delay device.
The time during which the output stays in the high state is
determined by the RC time constant. The larger Ror C is, In the circuit at Fig 2, the output changes states after a
the wider the output pulse. The formula for pulse width is delay period once the input trigger pulse is received.The
given by, duration of delay in the output is decided by the values of
the circuit components R and C.
Pulse width (W) = 1.1RC
In the circuit at Fig 2, assume that the transistor is ON and
For exmple, if R= 10K and C=0.01F, the mono-stable
hence pin 2 of 555 is at ground. Because of this, capacitor
output pulse width will be,
C is unable to charge.
W=1.1 x 10 x 103 x 0.01 x 10-6
When negative trigger input pluse is applied to the base of
= 0.11 m sec. transistor Q1,Q1 is turned off. On cut-off of Q1, capacitor
C begins to charge until it reaches 2(VCC/3).Once the
charge on C goes slightly above 2(VCC/3), the 555 output Security alarm circuit using Mono-shot and Astable
is made to change state. Fig 3 shows a security alarm circuit, which gives and
audible alarm when an intruder happens to toch the trigger
touch plate.
The circuit consists of a mono-shot coupled to a astable
multivibrator.When the touch plate is touched by hand the
monoshot makes its output go high for some duration (set
by RC).This high level is coupled, to the reset pin (pin4) of
the astable. Recall that the output of the astable will be
present only when the reset pin is help high. Therefore, as
long as the reset pin of astable is high, astable gives a
repetitive output pulses(PRF set by RC values) which
makes the speakergive an audible alarm calling the attention
of the security.
The circuit at Fig 3 can be modified to suit several other
applications such as,
– water level indicator
– smoke detector
– fire detector and so on.
For further reading on 555 applications refer reference
bools listed at the end of this book.
Pulse Width Modulation
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is one of the circuits for
controlling many electronics devices. PWM is a digital
signal which is most commonly used in control circuitry.
PWM is widely used for motor controlling, lighting controlling
etc. Sometime we do not use microcontroller in our
applications and if we need to generate PWM without
microcontroller then we prefer some general purpose ICs
like op-amp, timers, pulse generators etc. 555 Timer IC is
a very useful and general purpose IC which can be used as
Pulse Width Modulator.The circuit using a 555 timer IC for
generating PWM is shown in Fig 4.
In this circuit,the output frequency of PWM signal is
controlled by selecting resistor RV1 and capacitor C1. A
variable resistor is usedin place of fixed resistor for changing
duty cycle of the output signal. Capacitor Charging through
D1 diode and Discharge through D2 diode generates PWM
signal at 555 timer's output pin. The frequency of PWM
signal is calculated using the formula:
F = 0.693*RV1*C1
This signal is set high (5v) and low (0v) in a predefined time
and speed. The time during which the signal stays high is
The delay in the change of state at output is due to th eRC called the "on time" and the time during which the signal
time constant.Simple time delay circuit shown in Fig 2 is stays low is called the "off time". There are two important
used where a short time delay is required.One application parameters for a PWM as discussed below:
of such a delay circuit is in disk drives in
computers.Computer users should not keep floppy disks 1 Frequency of a PWM: The frequency of a PWM signal
in the drives when the computer is turned on. This is determines how fast a PWM completes one period.
beacause, the power surge can damge the written One Period is complete ON and OFF of a PWM signal
information on the disk and make it non-readable. If the as shown in Fig 5.
user happens to have kept the floppy disk unknowingly, 2 Duty cycle of the PWM:The percentage of time in
then, using a time delay circuit if the disk electronics are which the PWM signal remains HIGH (on time) is called
turned on a fraction of a second after the power has been as duty cycle. If the signal is always ON it is in 100%
turned on, the surge would not exist, and therefore, there duty cycle and if it is always off it is 0% duty cycle. Duty
is no danger of the information on the disk getting corrupted Cycle =Turn ON time / (Turn ON time + Turn OFF time).
(damaged).
Different duty cycle of PWM waveforms are shown in
Fig 6.
3 Pulse Width Modulation, or PWM, is a technique for

getting analog results with digital means. Digital control
is used to create a square wave, a signal switched
between ON and OFF.
Instrument Mechanic - Logic circuits
Number systems
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shalll be able to
• differentiate between different number systems like decimal, octal, binary and hexadecimal and conversion
between them and different types of codes
• explain NOT gate using transistor
• explain the characteristics of TTL NOT gate IC 7404, list commercially available NOT gate IC
• explain logic probe based on CMOS NOT gate IC.
Introduction In a similar way, binary number can be written in terms of

weightage.
When we hear the word 'number' immediately we recall the
decimal digits 0,1,2....9 and their combinations. Modern To get the decimal equivalent, then the positional weightage
computers do not process decimal numbers. Instead, they should be written as follows.
work with binary numbers which use the digits '0' and '1'
[1010]2 = 1(23) + 0(22) + 1(21) + 0(20)
only. The binary number system and digital codes are
fundamental to digital electronics. But people do not like =8+0+2+0
working with binary numbers because they are very long [1010]2 = [10]10
when representing larger decimal quantities. Therefore Any binary number can be converted into decimal number
digital codes like octal, hexadecimal and binary coded by the above said positional weightage method.
decimal are widely used to compress long strings of binary
numbers. Decimal to Binary conversion
Binary number systems consists of 1s and 0s. Hence this Divide the given decimal number by 2 as shown below and
number system is well suited for adopting it to the digital note down the remainder till you get the quotient - zero.
electronics. Example
The decimal number system is the most commonly used 0
number system in the world. It uses 10 different characters
to show the values of numbers. Because this number 2 1 1 MSB
system uses 10 different characters it is called base-10 2 2 0
system. The base of a number system tells you how many
2 4 0
different characters are used. The mathematical term for
the base of a number system is radix. 2 8 0
The 10 characters used in the decimal number systems 2 17 1
are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
2 34 0 LSB
Positional notation and weightage
The remainder generated by each division form the binary
A decimal integer value can be expressed in units, tens, number. The first remainder becomes the LSB and the last
hundreds, thousands and so on. For example decimal remainder becomes the MSB of binary number.
number 1967 can be written as 1967 = 1000 + 900 + 60 +
Therefore, [34]10 = [100010]2
7. In powers of 10, this becomes
Counting binary number
————————————— 1 x 103 = 1000
103 102 101 100 9 x 102 = 900 To understand how to count with binary numbers, let us see
how an odometer (Km indicator of a car) counts with
—————————————— 6 x 101 = 60
decimal numbers,
1 9 6 7 7 x 100 = 7
The odometer of a new car starts with the reading 0000.
—————————————— ———
1967 After traveling 1km, reading becomes 0001.
i.e. [1967]10 = 1(10 ) + 9(10 ) + 6(10 ) + 7(10 )
3 2 1 0 Successive km produces 0002, 0003 and so on upto 0009
This decimal number system is an example of positional At the end of 10th km, the units wheel turns back from 9 to
notation. Each digit position has a weightage. The positional 0, a tab on this wheel forces the tens wheel to advance by
weightage for each digit varies in the sequence 100, 101, 1. That is why the number changed from 0009 to 0010. That
102, 103 etc starting from the least significant digit. is, the units wheel is reset to 0 and sent a carry to the tens
The sum of the digits multiplied by their weightage gives the wheel. Let us call this familiar action as reset and carry.
total amount being represented as shown above. The other wheels of odometer also reset and carry. For
instance, after covering 999km, the odometer shows 0999.
216
After the next km, the unit wheel resets and carries, the 0
tens wheel resets and carries, the hundreds wheel resets
16 1 1 MSB
and carries and the thousands wheel advances by 1 to get
the reading 01000. 16 27 11 or B
Binary odometer 16 432 0 LSB
Visualize a binary odometer, a device whose wheels have [432]10 = [1B0]16
only two digits 0 and 1. When each wheel turns, it displays Hexadecimal to Decimal
0 then 1 and then back to 0 and the cycle repeats. A four
digit binary odometer starts with 0000. This conversion can be done by putting it into the positional
notation.
After 1km, it indicates - 0001.
Ex: 223A16 = 2 x 163 + 2 x 162 + 3 x 161 + A x 160
The next km forces the units wheel to reset and sends
carry. So the number changes to 0010. = 2 x 4096 + 2 x 256 + 3 x 16 + 10 x 1
= 8192 + 512 + 48 + 10
The third km results in 0011.
= 876210
After 4km, the units wheel resets and sends carry, the
Octal number
second wheel resets and sends carry and the third wheel
advances by 1. Hence it indicates 0100. The octal number system provides a convenient way to
express binary numbers. It is used less frequently compared
Table below shows all the binary numbers from 0000 to
to hexadecimal in conjunction with computers and
1111 equivalent to decimal 0 to 15.
microprocessors to express binary quantities for input and
Decimal Binary output purposes.
0 0000 The octal number system is compared of digit symbols
1 0001 such as right symbols such as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
2 0010 Since there are 8-symbols, radix or base is 8. Positional
3 0011 weightage is .........83, 82, 81, 80.
4 0100 To distinguish octal numbers from other number systems
5 0101 subscript 8 is used as follows:
6 0110 Ex: (15)8 ˜ (13)10
7 0111 Octal Decimal
8 1000
Octal to Decimal conversion
9 1001
10 1010 0
11 1011 8 1 1 MSB
12 1100 8 13 5 LSB
13 1101
As in other number systems, each digit should be multiplied
14 1110 by its positional weightage and added to get decimal
15 1111 equivalent.
Hexadecimal number system: In hexadecimal system Convert (2374)8 into decimal number
there are 16 characters. They are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
A,B,C,D,E,F where A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, Positional weightage : 83, 82, 81, 80
F=15 in decimal. In this system, the base is 16. This Octal number 2 3 7 4
system is mainly used to develop programmes for
(2374)8 = (2 x 8 )+(3 x 82)+(7 x 81)+(4 x 80)
3
computers.
= (2 x 512)+(3 x 64)+(7 x 8)+(4 x 1)
For Example
= 1024 + 192 + 56 + 4
[23]16 = [35]10 ; 161 X 2 + 160 X 3 = 32 + 3 = 35; (2374)8 = (1276)10
Decimal to octal conversion
[2C]16 = [44]10 ;161 x 2 + 160 x 12 = 32 + 12 = 44;
A method of converting a decimal number to an octal
Decimal to hexadecimal conversions
number is the repeated division by 8, each successive
The conversion of decimal to hexadecimal is similar to division by 8 yields a remainder that becomes a digit in the
binary conversion. Only difference is that divide the decimal equivalent octal number. The first remainder generated is
number successively by 16, and note down the remainder. the least significant digit (LSD).
(359)10 = (547)8
0 The 8421 code is the pre-dominant BCD code, and when
8 5 5  MSB we refer to BCD, we always mean the 8421 code unless
otherwise stated.
8 44 4 or B
Invalid code
8 359 7 LSB
You should realize that with four bits, sixteen numbers
Octal to binary
(0000 through 1111) can be represented, but in the 8421
Each octal digit can be represented by a 3-bit binary code only ten of these are used. The six code combinations
number, because of this it is very easy to convert from octal that are not used 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 and 1111
to binary. Each octal digit is represented by three bits as are invalid in the 8421 BCD code.
shown in the table.
To express any decimal number in BCD, simply replace
Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 each decimal digit with the approximate 4-bit binary code.
digit Example
Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 1 (35)10 = (? ) 8421 code
To convert each octal number to a binary, simply replace 3 5
each octal digits with the corresponding binary bits.
0011 0101 = 00110101
Example
2 (2458)10 = (?) 8421 code
1 (25)8 = ( )2
2 4 5 8
2 5
0010 0100 0101 1000 = 0010010001011000
010 101
There are many specialized codes used in digital system
(25)8 = (010101)2 other than BCD code. Some codes are strictly numeric,
2 (7526)8 = ( )2 like BCD and others are alphanumeric which are used to
7 5 2 6 represent numbers, letters, symbols and instructions.
111 101 010 110 The commonly used codes other than BCD codes are
(7526)8 = (111101010110)2 1 Gray code
Binary to octal 2 Excess 3 code
Conversion of a binary number to an octal number is the 3 ASCII code - American, Standard code for Information
reverse of the octal-to-binary conversion. The procedure is interchange
as follows. 4 Alphanumeric code
1 Start with the right most group of three bits and moving Inverters (NOT Gate)
from right to left, convert each 3-bit group to the An inverter is a gate with only one input signal and one
equivalent octal digit. output signal. The output state is always the opposite of the
2 If there are not three bits available for the left most group, input state. Logic symbol is shown in Fig 1.
add either one or two zero’s to make complete group.
These leading zero’s will not affect the value of the
binary number.
Example
(110101)2 =( )8
Transistor inverter
110 101
The above circuit shows the transistor inverter circuit. The
6 5 = (65)8 circuit is a common emitter amplifier which works in
(11010000100)2 =( ) saturation or in cut off region depending upon the input
011 010 000 100 = (3204)8 voltage. When Vin is in low level, say less than the transistor
cut in voltage 0.6V in silicon type, the transistor goes to cut
3 2 0 4
off condition and the collector current is zero. Therefore,
BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) Vout = +5V which is taken as high logic level. On the other
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) is a way to express each of hand, when Vin is in high level, the transistor saturates and
the decimal digits with a binary code, since there are only Vout = Vsat = 0.3V i.e low level.
ten code groups in the BCD system, it is very easy to The table summarizes the operation
convert between decimal and BCD. Because decimal
system is used for read and write, BCD code provides an —————————
excellent interface to binary systems. Examples of such Vin Vout
interfaces are keypad inputs and digital readouts. —————————
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Low(0) High(1)
digit —————————
BCD 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 High(1) Low(0)
1000 1001
—————————
The logic expression for the inverter is as follows: If the input
variable is ‘A’ and the output variable is called Y, then the
output Y = A.
Logic gates and logic probes

• explain the funtion of logie gates
• explain the AND gate using diode and its truth table
• explain the OR gate using diode and its truth table
• explain a NOT gate using transisteor and its truth table
• explain the NAND,NOR gate and their truth table
• explain the EX-OR and EX - NOR gates and their truth table.
Introduction Electronics equivalent circuit of an AND gate

Lagic gates are electcronic circuits used in digital circuits
The Electronics equivalent of AND gate and AND gate
for the purpose of decisions. Logic circuits are basically
using diodes are shown in Fig 2a and 2b.
of two types namely decision making circuits and memory
circuits. Their functioning depends on the binary inputs
they receive and produce binary output which are a function
of the input as well as the characteristics of the logic circuit
they implemented.All logic gates have a single output and
they may have two or more inputs. For specific decision
making function there are several types of logic gates are
used. Basic Logic gates are a group of the logic gates
spcifically called as AND,OR and NOT gates.All these
gates have their own identical,logical function. By the
combination of these gates we can obtain any Boolean or Two input AND gate using diode
logical functions or any logical function.
Condition-1
AND gates
The AND gate has two or more inputs but only one output. A=0, B=0, Y=0 as shown in Fig 3.
All input signals must be held high to get a high output.
Even if one of the inputs is low, the output becomes low.
The schematic symbols for 2 input and 3 input AND gates
are shown in Fig 1a and 1b.
During the above condition inputs A and B are connected

to ground to make logic low inputs. During this condition,
both the diodes conduct, and pulls the output Y to logic0.
Truth table
Two input AND gate Condition-2
A B Y=A.B A=0, B=1, Y=0 as shown in Fig 4.
0 0 0 In the condition shown in Fig 4, diode D1 is connected to
0 1 0 logic-0 input and diode D2 is connected to +5V [Logic high].
1 0 0 Diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts. Diode D2 is having
equal potential (+5V) at anode and cathode. So potential
1 1 1 difference between anode and cathode is 0. Hence diode
D2 does not conduct. The output Y is pulled down to logic Truth table for OR gate
zero, since D1 is conducting. A B Y=A + B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Electronics equivalent circuit
The Fig 8a shows the Electronics equivalent circuit of an
Condition- 3 OR gate. It is evident that if any one of the switch is closed,
there will be output.
A=1, B=0, Y=0 as shown in Fig 5.
The condition-3 is similar to the condition-2. D2 is forward

biased. D1 is reverse biased. Hence, output Y is pulled to
logic-0.
Condition- 4
2 in-put OR gate using diode
A=1, B=1, Y=1 as shown in Fig 6.
The Fig 8b shows one way to build a 2-input OR gate, using
diodes. The inputs are labeled as A and B, while the output
is Y.
Assume logic 0 = 0V (low)
logic 1 = +5V (high)
Since this is a 2 input OR gate, there are only four possible
cases,
In this condition both the diodes are reverse biased. So Condition:1 A is low and B is low. With both the input
both the diodes act as open circuit. Therefore, output Y is voltage low, both the diodes are not conducting. Therefore
+5V i.e y is in logic1 condition. the output Y is in low level.
For pin diagram refer to the data sheet of the IC. Condition:2 A is low and B is high, The high B input voltage
A. For example, if 1000 pulses pass through the gate in the (+5V) forward biases the lower diode, producing an output
1 second interval of the enabled pulse, there are 1000 voltage that is ideally +5V (actually +4.3V taking the diode
pulses/sec. That is, frequency is 1000Hz. voltage drop 0.7V into consideration). That is, the output is
in high level. During this condition, the diode connected to
AND gates are available in the form of IC.IC7408 is a TTL
input A is under reverse bias or OFF condition.
type AND gate IC having 4 numbers of AND gates in side
it. Condition:3 A is high and B is low, the condition is similar
OR gate to case 2. Input A diode is ON and Input B diode is OFF and
The OR gate has two or more inputs,but only one output. Y is in high level.
The output of an OR gate will be in 1 state if one or more Condition:4 A is high, B is high. With both the inputs at
of the inputs is in 1 state. Only when all the inputs are in +5V, both diodes are forward biased, since the input
0-state, the output will go to 0-state. Fig 7 shows the voltages are in parallel, the output voltage is +5V ideally
schematic Symbol of an OR Gate [+4.3V to a second approximation]. That is, the output Y-
is in high level.
OR gates are available in the IC form. IC7432 is a TTL OR
gate IC having 4 OR gates inside it. For pin diagram refer
to the data sheet of the IC.
The boolean expression for OR gate is Y=A+B. Simple application of OR gate

The equation is to be read as Y equals A ORed B. Two-input Intrusion detection
truth table given below is equivalent to the definition of the
Simplified portion of an intrusion detection and alarm
OR operation. system is two windows and a door. The sensors are
magnetic switches that produce a high(1) output when complement opertaion is performed on th eoutput of the
windows and doors are opened and a low(0) output when OR gate.
closed. As long as the windows and the door are secured,
The schematic symbol and the truth table of NOR gate is
the switches are closed and all three of the OR gate inputs
shown in the figure 11.
are in low(0). When one of the windows or the door is
opened, a high(1) output is produced on that input of the OR
gate and the gate output goes high. It then activities an
alarm circuit to warn of the intrusion.
NOT gate
The NOT gate has only one input and one output as per the
schematic symbol shown in Fig 9a and the circuit to Truth table
construct the NOT gate using descrete comporents in Fig
Input Output
9b.
A B Y=A+B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
The output of NOR gate is ‘0’ even if one of the input is in
logic1. Only when both the inputs are in logic ‘0’,the output
is in logic ‘1’.
The IC 7402 is a TTL type NOR gate IC.It contains 4 NOR
gates. For pin details of the IC refer to the data sheet of the
IC.
The NOT gate inverts the logic stage of a binary signal EX-OR gate
input. The small circle (bubble) at the output of the symbol
is formally called a negation indicator and designates the Exclusive-OR gate
logical complement. Exclusive OR gate is actually formed by a combination of
NAND gate other gates already discussed. However, because of their
fundamental importance in many applications, these gates
The NAND gate is the complement of the AND operation.Its are treated as basic logic elements with their own unique
name is an abbreviation of NOT AND. symbols.
The schematic symbol for the NAND gate consists of an The EX-OR gate has only two inputs unlike the other gates,
AND symbol with a bubble on the output, denoting that that it never has more than two inputs.
a complement operation is performed on the output of the
AND gate. The schematic symbols of Exclusive-OR (XOR for short) is
gate shown in Fig 12.
The schematic symbol and truth table of NAND gate is
shown in Fig 10a &b. The truth table of EX-OR gate is given below.
Truth Table
A B Q=AÅB
0 0 0
0 1 1
Truth table
1 0 1
A B Y=A.B
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 Using 2-input EX-OR gates as building blocks, an EX-OR
1 0 0 gate with more than two inputs can be built as shown in
Fig 13
1 1 0
The truth table cleary shows that the NAND gate opertion
is the complement of the AND gate.
NOR gate:
The NOR gate is the complement of the OR operation. ITS
name is an abbreviation of NOT OR.
The schematic symbol for the NOR gate consists of an OR
symbol with a bubble on the output, denoting that a
Four input EX-OR gate
Y = A+B+C+D
Truth Table
A B C D Y Remarks for input The schematic symbols for the EX-NOR (XNOR) gate is
0 0 0 0 0 Even shown in Fig 14. Like the XOR gate, XNOR has only two
inputs. The bubble on the output of the XNOR symbol
0 0 0 1 1 Odd indicates that its output is opposite that of the XOR gate.
0 0 1 0 1 Odd In an exclusive-NOR gate operation, “Output Q is LOW’ if
0 0 1 1 0 Even input A is LOW and input B is HIGH or if A is HIGH and B
0 1 0 0 1 Odd is LOW, Q is HIGH if A and B are both HIGH or both LOW.
0 1 0 1 0 Even Application
0 1 1 0 0 Even EX-OR gate can be used as a controlled inverter. One of its
inputs can be used to control whether the signal at the other
0 1 1 1 1 Odd input will be inverted or not. This property will be useful in
1 0 0 0 1 Odd certain application.
1 0 0 1 0 Even Logic probe
1 0 1 0 0 Even A logic probe is used to monitor the logic level activity at
1 0 1 1 1 Odd an IC pin or any other accessible point in a logic circuit.
Logic probe normally has one or more indicator LEDs that
1 1 0 0 0 Even
indicate the various conditions of the logic signal. The
1 1 0 1 1 Odd indication may be related to logic HIGH, LOW, Intermediate
1 1 1 0 1 Odd & Pulsing states that are present at that point in the circuit
which the probe tip is touching. Fig 15 shows how a logic
1 1 1 1 0 Even
probe is connected to an IC pin.
To summarizes the action by referring truth table of 4-input
XOR gate, each input word with an odd number of 1’s
produces a logic HIGH(1) output and for words with an even
number of 1’s it produces logic-Low(0) output. Because of
this reason the EX-OR gate is used for parity check, IC
7486 is an quad 2 input EX-OR gate which is available both
in TTL and CMOS family.
Application of EX- OR gate as a parity checker.
Parity is the term used to mention the number of 1’s in a
binary word. Even parity means an n-bit input has even
number of 1s. For instance, 110011 has even parity
because it contain four 1s. Odd parity means an n-bit input
has an odd no. of 1s. For example, 110001 has odd parity
because it contains three 1s.
A logic probe is used as a troubleshooting tool of digital
Parity checker systems. The most common internal failures of digital ICs
Exclusive-OR gates are ideal for checking the parity of a are as follows
binary number because they produce an output 1 when the 1 Malfunction in the internal circuitry.
input has an odd no. of 1s. Therefore an even parity
2 Inputs or Outputs open circuited.
input to an Exclusive-OR gate produces a low output, while
3 Inputs or Outputs shorted to ground or Vcc.
an odd parity input produce a high output.
4 Short between two pins (other than ground or Vcc).
Exclusive-NOR gate
Malfunction in the internal circuitry
Inputs Output
This is usually caused by one of the internal components
A B Q= A + B
failing completely or operating outside its specifications.
0 0 1 When this happens the IC do not respond properly to the
0 1 0 IC inputs. The behaviour of outputs cannot be predicted
1 0 0 because it depends on what internal component has failed.
This type of internal IC failure is not as common as other
1 1 1 three.
Inputs shorted to ground or Vcc
This type of internal failure will cause the input to be struck
in the LOW or HIGHstate. This kind of faults result short
circuiting either with Vcc or ground depending on the state number appears at the o/ps. LED1 to LED6 indicate the
of input. status of inputs QF to QA. Logic 1 on any of the inverter
Outputs shorted to ground or Vcc inputs QF to QA, will make the output low causing
corresponding LED to glow. If the LED glows, input to that
This type of internal failure will cause the output to be stuck particular inverter gate is high. In this matter the above
in the LOW or HIGHstate. This type of failure has no effect circuit works as logic level indicator.Logic probe
on othe logic signals at the inputs.
Open circuited input or output
Sometimes very fine conducting wire that connects an IC
pin to the ICs internal circuitry will break, producing an open
circuit. The open gate will be in the floating state and this
state will be assumed by TTL devices as a valid logic 1 and
CMOS devices will respond erratically and may even
become damaged from overheating.
Short between two pins
An internal short between two pins of an IC will force the
logic signals at those pins always be identical. Whenever
two signals that are supposed to be different show the An universal gate is a that can be used to implement any
same logic-level variatiions, there is a good possiblility that Boolean function without the need to use any other type of
the signals are shorted together. gate.
In most of the cases discussed above, a logic probe acts The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates.
as a good troubleshooting tool to diagonise faulty circuits.
Among other things, the logic probe is useful for locating In actual practice, teh NAND and NOR gates are used to
short circuits that occur in manufacturing. For example fabricate all the basic gates required in IC digital logic
during the stuffing and soldering of printed circuit boards, famillies.
an undesirable splash of solder may connect two adjacent In practcie, an AND gate is typically implemented as a
tracks. Known as solder bridge, this kind of trouble can NAND gate followed by an inverter not the other way
short-circuit a node to the ground or to the supply voltage. around.
The node is then stuck in a low or high state. The probe
helps you to find short-circuited nodes because it stays in In the some way an OR gate is typically implemented as
one state, no matter how the inputs are changing. a NOR gate followed by a NOT gate.
Logic probe circuit using inverters Now let us discuss how to implement the NOT,AND,and
OR gates using universal gate.
A simple circuit for indicating the logic levels using NOT
gates is shown in Fig 16. The circuit consists of two NAND gate as a universal gate:
inverters biased in the linear region. If the logic probe is To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented
connected to a ‘low’ level input, the ‘high’ going output of usinmg only NAND gates,we will show that the AND,OR,
NOT gates makes LED-1 to glow. On the other hand, if the and NOT operations can be performed using only these
input probe is connected to a high level, the low going gates.
output of NOT gate makes LED-2 to glow. The two back to
back connected LEDs protect each other against excessive NAND gate implemented as NOT gate.
reverse voltage. As the input impedance is very high, a In the following circuit NAND gate is used as an inverter
shielded wire is required to connect the probe to the input (NOT gate).
of IC.
All input pins of NAND gates are connected to the input
signal A gives an output A as shown in Fig 18.
NAND gate implemented as AND gate. An AND gate can

be implemented by NAND gate as shown in fig 19. (The
7404 is a TTL IC having six inverters inside, CD4011 is a
AND is replaced by a NAND gate with its output
CMOS IC having six inverters, refer table book for IC pin
complemented by a NAND gate inverter).
configuration.
1s complement circuit using inverter (Fig 17)
The Fig 17 shows a circuit for producing the 1s complement
of an 6-bit binary number. The bits of the binary number are
applied to the inverter inputs and the 1s complement of the
NAND gates implemented as OR gate. An OR gate can be
implemented by NAND gates as shown in figure20. (The
OR gate is replaced by a NAND gate with all its inputs
complemented by NAND gate inverters).
Thus it is proved that the NOR gate is a universal gate since

it can implement the AND, OR and NOT logic functions.
Heat Sink used in Electronics and electronic
component
Thus it is proved that the NAND gate is auniversal gate In any Electronics circuit some amount of heat while the
since it can implement the AND, OR and NOT logic circuit is functioning.Typically power handling
functions. semiconducter devices like power transistors and the opto
electronics such as light emitting diodes, lasers generate
NOR gate as a universal gate. In the following paragraphs
heat in considerable amounts and these components are
the NOR gate is used to prove that any Boolean function
inadequate to dissipate heat,as their dissipation capability
can be implemented only with NOR gates.NOR to replace
is signnificantly low.
the AND,OR and NOT opertaions .
Due to this, heating up of the components leads to
NOR gate implemented as NOT gate.In the following circuit
malfuncting problems and may cause failure of the entire
a NOR gate is used as an inverter (NOT gate).
circuit or system’s performance.So,to solve these problems,
All input pins of NOR gate is connected to the input signal heat sinks are the solution that must be provided to those
semiconductor devices for cooling purpose.
A gives an output A as shown in Fig 21.
Heat sink is a device made of aluminium metal attached of
an electronic circuit , that dissipates heat mainly from the
power transistors of a circuit into the surrounding medium
and cools them for improving their performance, reliability
and also avoids the damage to the components. For the
NOR gate implemented as AND gate. cooling purpose, it incorporates a fan or cooling device.
An OR gate can be implemented by NOR gates as shown Whenever two objects with different teperature come into
in fig 22.(The OR is replaced by a NOR gate with its output contact with each oher, conduction occurs causing the
complemented by a NOR gate inverter) fast- moving molecules of the high - heat object to collide
with the slow- moving molecules of the cooler objects, and
thus, transfers thermal energy to the cooler object, and this
is termed as thermal conductivity.
Similarly, heat sink transfers the heat or thermal energy
NOR gate implemented as AND gate from a high- temperature component to a low- temperature
medium like air.
An AND gate can be implemented by NOR gates as shown
in the fig 23.(The AND gate is replaced by a NOR gate with The heat sinks are classified into different categories
all its inputs complemented by NOR gate inverters) based on different criteria. Let us consider the major
types,namely active heat sinks and passive heat sinks.
Binary arithmetic
• define binary arithmetic
• perform binary addition
• perform binary subtraction using 1’s compliment and 2’s compliment
• explain half adder circuit, full adder circuit
• explain 4 bit parallel adder circuit using IC 74LS83
• explain IC 74LS83 4 bit parallel adder can be used for subtraction.
Binary arithmetic is essential in all digital computers and binary numbers. Addition is a key process to perform
in many other types of digital systems. To understand subtraction, multiplication and division. The four basic
digital systems, you must know the basics of binary cases for adding binary digits are as follows.
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
0 + 0 = 0; Sum is 0 with a carry of 0.
Binary addition
Physical quantities are represented by numbers. Addition
represents combining of physical quantities. Digital
computers do not process decimal numbers, they process 1 + 1 = 10; Sum is 0 with a carry of 1.
Notice that the first three cases result in a single bit and in Sign-magnitude system
the forth case the addition of two 1’s yields a binary two i.e.
The left most bit in a signed binary number is the sign bit,
10. When binary numbers are added, the last condition
which tells you whether the number is +ve or -ve, A zero in
creates a sum of 0 in a given column and a carry of 1 over
the left most position represents +ve number and a ONE
to the next column to the left, as illustrated in the following
represents -ve number. The remaining bits are the magnitude
addition of 11 + 01.
bits. The magnitude bits are in true (uncomplimented)
carry 1 1 binary form for both +ve and -ve numbers.
0 1 1 Example:
+ 0 0 1
+25 is expressed as an 8 bit signed binary number using
———————— the sign magnitude system as
1 0 0
+ 25 = 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
————————
Sign bit Magnitude bit
In the right most column, 1+1=0 with a carry of 1 to the next
left column. In the middle column, 1+1+0=0 with a carry of - 25 = 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
1(one) to the next left column. In the left most column, 1 Notice that the only difference between +25 and -25 is with
remains as final carry of the 2 bit addition. Hence the result the sign bit because the magnitude bits are same for both
is 100. +ve and -ve numbers.
Example: “In the sign-magnitude system, a -ve number has the same
1 carry 1110 magnitude bits as the corresponding +ve number but the
sign bit is a 1.” Although sign magnitude system is straight
14 1110
forward, calculators and computers do not use it, because
10 1010 circuit implementation is more complex than other systems.
––– ———
1’s complement system
24 11000
Positive numbers in the 1’s complement system are
––– ———
represented the same way as the positive sign magnitude
2 10 + 12 numbers. In the 1’s complement system, a negative
10 1010 number is the 1’s compliment of the corresponding +ve
12 + 1100 number.
—– ———– Example:
22 10110 The decimal number -25 is expressed as the 1’s compliment
—– ———– of +25 (00011001) as 11100110.
The above process is column-by-column addition which i.e 1’s compliment of 00011001 (+25) = 11100110 (-25)
can be applied to find the sum of two binary numbers of any
length. The following example shows 8-bit arithmetic (The 1’s compliment of a binary number is obtained by
addition operation. simply changing each 0 to a 1 and each 1 to a 0).
A7A6A5A4A3A2A1A0 Example:
B7B6B5B4B3B2B1B0 Determine the decimal value of the signed binary numbers

expressed in 1’s compliment.
————————
11101000
?
———————— The bits and their powers of two weights for the -ve number
are as follows.
The most significant bit (MSB) of each number is on the left
side and least significant bit is on the right side. For the first Notice that the -ve sign bit has a weight of -27 or -128
number, A7 is the MSB and A0 is the LSB, similarly for the - 2+7 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
2nd number B7 and B0 are the MSB and LSB respectively.
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
Signed numbers
Summing the weights where there are 1s.
Digital systems such as the computer, must be able to
1 x -27 (128)
= -128
handle both +ve and -ve numbers, A signed binary numbers
consists of both sign and magnitude information. The sign 1 x 26 (64)
= +64
indicates whether a number is +ve or -ve and the magnitude 1 x 25 (32)
= +32
is the value number. There are three ways in which signed 1 x 23 (8)
= +8
numbers can be represented in binary form: sign
————————
magnitudes, 1s compliment, and 2’s compliment.
= -128+104
= -24
Adding 1 to the result, the final number is = -24 + 1 = -23. The 2’s complement system is preferred for representing
The decimal value of the signed number 11101000 expressed signed numbers as it requires a summation weights
in 1’s compliment is = - 23. regardless of whether the number is +ve or -ve. It is used
in most computers because it makes arithmetic operations
2’s compliment system earier.
Positive numbers in the 2’s complement system are also Basic Adder
represented the same way as in sign magnitude and 1’s
complement system. Negative numbers are 2’s complement Adders are used in many types of digital systems in which
of the corresponding positive no’s. numerical data are processed. Computers and calculators
perform binary operations on two binary numbers at a time,
2’s compliment of a binary number is found by adding where each number can have several binary digits. The
ONE(1) to the LSB of the 1’s compliment. logic symbol for a half adder is shown in Fig 1. There are
2’s Compliment = (1’s compliment) + 1 two basic categories of adders.
Example: 1 Half adder
Find the 2’s compliment of 1011011 2 Full adder
Solution Half adder
1011011 - Binary number The half-adder accept two binary digits on its inputs and
produces two binary digits on its outputs, a sum bit and a
0100100 - 1’s compliment
carry bit.
1 - Add 1
————————
+ 0100101
————————
For example, the decimal number -25 can be expressed in
binary form by writing 2’s complement for +25.
+25 = 00011001 - Binary number Table 1 (Truth table)
11100111 - 2’s compliment ———————————————————
Example: A B Sum Carry
Express the decimal -39 as an 8 bit number in sign- S=A + B Cout = AB
magnitude using 2’s compliment system.
———————————————————
Solution
0 0 0 0
In the 2’s compliment system, -39 is produced by taking
the 2’s compliment of +39 (00100111) as follows. 0 1 1 0
+39 = 00100111 Binary number 1 0 1 0
11011000 1’s compliment 1 1 0 1
+ 1 ———————————————————
————— From the logic operation of the half-adder as stated in the

Table 1, expression can be derived for the sum and the
11011001 2’s compliment output carry as functions of the inputs, notice that the
————— output carry is a 1 only when both A and B are 1s. Therefore
carry (Cout) can be expressed as the AND of the input
-39 = 11011001
variables.
Cout = A.B ——> 1
Verification =
The sum output(S) is a 1 only if the input variables, A and
-27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 B are not equal. The sum can therefore be expressed as the
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 exclusive -OR of the input variables.
——————————————————————— Sum(S) = A + B ——> 2
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 From equation 1 and 2 the logic implementation required for
the half-adder function can be developed. The output carry
———————————————————————
is produced with an AND gate with ‘A’ and ‘B’ on the inputs
Since the MSB of the binary equivalent is one so, 27 should and the sum outputs is generated with an Ex-OR gate, as
be taken as -ve sign. shown in Fig 2.
-128+64+16+8+1 = -128+89
= -39
Full adder
The full adder accepts three inputs including an input carry

and generates a sum output and an output carry.
The basic difference between a full-adder and a half-adder
is that the full-adder accepts an input carry. A logic symbol
for a full-adder is shown in Fig 3 and the truth table in the
Table 2 shows the operation of a full-adder.
Table 2
———————————————— 2 Bit parallel adder (para)
A B Cin Cout S
Cout = AB + (A + B) Cin
————————————————
The Fig 5, shows there are two half-adders, connected as
0 0 0 0 0
shown in block diagram to form full-adder.
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
————————————————
The full-adder must add the two input bits alongwith the
input carry. From the truth-table of the half-adder we know
that the sum of the input bits A and B is A + B. To get the
sum output of the full edder the input carry (Cin) must be Four bit parallel adder
exclusive-ORed with A + B. Then the sum A basic 4-bit parallel adder is implemented with four full-
S = (A + B) + Cin adders as shown in the Fig 6.
This means that to implement the full-adder sum function, Block diagram of 4 bit parallel adder
two exclusive-Or gates can be used. The first must The LSB, (A1 and B1) in each number being added into the
generate the term A + B, and the second has the inputs right most full-adder; the higher order bits are applied as
from the output of the XOR gate and the input carry, as shown to the successively higher order adders, with MSBs
shown in Fig 4. (A4 and B4) in each number being applied to the left most
The output carry of the full-adder is therefore produced by full adder. The carry output of each adder is connected to
the inputs A, ANDed with B and A + B ANDed with Cin. the carry input of the next higher order adder as indicated.
These two terms are ORed, and expressed in equation In the manufacturer’s data sheets the input labeled C0 is the
shown below and this function is implemented and combined input carry to the least significant bit adder, C4 is the output
with the sum logic to form a complete full-adder circuits, as carry of the most significant bit adder, and S1(LSB) through
shown in Fig 4. S4(MSB) are the sum outputs.
74LS83 4 bit parallel adder to the minuend. The result of a subtraction is called the
difference.
4-bit parallel adders that are available as Medium-Scale
Integrated(MSI) circuits are the 74LS83A and the 74LS283 9 - 6 = 9+(-6)
low-power Schottky TTL devices. These devices are also
The sign of a positive or negative binary number is changed
available in other logic families such as standard TTL
by taking its 2’s compliment.
(7483A and 74283) and CMOS (74HC283). The 74LS83A
and the 74LS283 are functionally identical to each other but Example:
not pin compatible, that is the pin numbers for the inputs The result of 2’s compliment of the positive number
0110(+6) is 1’s compliment of the number + 1
i.e 1001 + 1 = 1010
1010 is 2’s compliment of 0110(+6), which is equal to -
6 in decimal system, as shown below.
1 0 1 0
-8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = -6
Example:
Subtract 6 from 9 in 2’s compliment method
9-6 = 3 normal method
9+(-6) = 3 2’s compliment method
Binary form
9 = 1001 (minuend) 1001 - 0110 = 0011
6 = 0110 (subtrahend)
2’s compliment method
I step: 2’s compliment of subtrahend 0110 is
1’s compliment of subtrahend + 1
i.e 1001 + 1 = 1010 (equal to -6 in decimal system)
II step: Add minuend with 2’s compliment of subtrahend
i.e 1001 + 1010 = 10011
and outputs are different due to different power and ground

pin connections. For the 74LS83A, VCC is pin 5 and ground
is pin 12 on the 16-pin package. For the 74LS283, VCC is Discard the carry 1, then the result is 0011.
pin 16 and ground is pin-8, which is a more standard
Half subtractor circuit using nand gate
configuration. Logic symbols for both of these devices are
shown in Fig 7 with pin numbers in parenthesis. The desiging of the subtractor can be done by using logic
gates like the NAND gate & Ex-OR gate. In order to design
The 4 bit parallel adder can be expanded to handle the
this half subtractor circuit, we have to know the two
addition of higher bit numbers by a process called cascad-
concepts namely difference and borrow.
ing. In this process, the carry output of the lower-order
adder is connected to carry input of the higher-order adder Subtractor circuit using nand gate
being cascaded.
If we monitor cautiously, it is fairly clear that the variety of
Binary subtraction operation executed by this circuit which is accurately
related to the Ex-OR gate operation. Therefore, we can
Subtraction is a special case of addition. For example
simply use the EX-OR gate for making difference. In the
Subtracting +6 (the subtrahend) from +9 (the minuend) is
same way, the borrow produced by half added circuit can
equivalent to adding -6 to +9. Basically the subtraction
operation changes the sign of the subtrahend and adds it
be simply attained by using the blend of logic gates like AND - gate and NOT -gate.
First Bit Second Bit Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
This HS can also be designed by using NOR gates where

it requires 5 NOR gates for the construction. The circuit
diagram half subtractor using NOR gates is shown as:
Truthe Table
Full Subtractor using half subtractor
A full subtractor is a combinational device that operates the
subraction functionality by using two bits and is minuend
Inputs Outputs
X Y Yin FS_Diff FS_Borrow
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
and subtrahend. The circuit considers the borrow the With the above truth table, the logical diagram and circuits
previous output and it has three inputs with two outputs. diagram for the implementation of full subtractor using hald
The three inputs are the minuend, subtrahend and the input subtractors is shown below:
received from the previous output which is borrow and the The truth tabe for full subtractor is
two outputs are the difference and borrow.
Advantages and limitations of half subtractor Applications of half subtractor
The advantages of half subtractor are: The applications of half subtractor include the following.
• The implementation and construction of this circuit is • Half subtractor is used to reduce the force of audio or
simple and easy radio signals
• It can be used in amplifers to reduce the sound
• This circuit consumes minimal power in digital signal
distortion
processing
• Half subtractor is used in ALU of processor
• computational functionalities can be performed at
improved speed rates • It can be used to increase and decrease operators and
The limitations of this combinational circuit are: also calculates the addresses
Even though there are extensive applications of half • Half subtractor is used to subtract the least significant
subtractor in many operations and functionalities, there are column numbers. For the subtraction of multi-digit
few limitations and those are: numbers, it can be used for the LSB.
• The half subtractor circuits will not accept “Borrow-in” Therefore, from the above half subtractor theory, at last, we
from the previous outpts where this is the crucial can close that by using this circuit we can subtract from
drawback of this circuit one binary bit from another to provide the outputs like
difference and borrow. Similarly, we can design half
• As many real-time applications operate on the
subtractor using nand gates circuit as well as NOR gates.
subtraction of number of bits, half subtractors devices
do not hold any capability of subtracting many bits.
PIN DIAGRAM OF LOGIC ICs
• Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.
• Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital
circuits if we use the binary codes.
• Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation
becomes easy.
Classification of binary codes : The codes are broadly
categorized into following four categories.
• Weighted codes
• Non-weighted codes
• Binary coded decimal code
• Alphanumeric codes
• Error detecting codes
• Error correcting codes
Weighted codes : Weighted binary codes are those
binary codes which obey the positional weight principle.
Each position of the number represents a specific weight.
Several systems of the codes are used to express the
decimal digital 0 through 9. In these codes each decimal
digital is represented by a group of four bits.
Non-Weighted codes : In this type of binary codes, the
positional weights are not assigned. The examples of non-
Binary codes : In the coding, when numbers, letters or weighted codes are Excess-3 code and Gray code.
words are represented by a specific group of symbols, it is
Excess-3 code : The Excess-3 code is also called as XS-
said that the number, letter or word is being encoded. The
3 code. It is non-weighted code used to express decimal
group of symbols is called as a code. The digital data is
numbers. The Excess-3 code words are derived from the
represented, stored and transmitted as group of binary
8421 BCD code words adding (0011)2 or (3) 10 to each
bits. This group is also called as binary code. The binary
code word in 8421. The excess -3 codes are obtained as
code is represented by the number as well as alphanumeric
follows-
letter.
Exmple
Advantages of binary code : Following is the list of
advantages that binary code offers. Add
Decimal Number  8421 BCD  Excess -3
• Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications. 0011
Decimal BCD Excess-3

8421 BCD + 0011
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
Gray code : It is the non-weighted code and it is not that, only one bit will change each time the decimal number
arithmetic codes. That means there are no specific weights is incremented as shown in fig. As only one bit changes at
assigned to the bit position. It has a very special feature a time, the gray code is called as a unit.
Decimal BCD Gray Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code : In this code each
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 is a way to express each of the decimal digits with a binary
code. In the BCD, with four bits we can represent sixteen
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only first ten of
3 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 these are used (0000 to 1001). The remaining six code
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 combinations i.e 1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.
5 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 Advantages of BCD codes
6 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 • It is very similar to decimal system.
7 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
• We need to remember binary equivalent of decimal
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
number s 0 to 9 only.
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Disadvantages of BCD codes
Application of gray code
• The addtion and subtraction of BCD have different rules.
• Gray code is popularly used in the shaft position • The BCD arithmetic is little more complicated.
encoders.
• BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent
• A shaft position encoder produces a code word which the decimal number. So BCD is less efficient than
represents the angular position of the shaft. binary.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BCD 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001
Alphanumeric codes • American Standard code for information Interchange

A binary digit or bit can represent only two symbols as it (ASCII)
has only two states ‘0’ or ‘1’. But this is not enough for • Extended Binary coded decimal interchange code
communication between two computers because there we (EBCDIC)
need many more symbols for communication. These
symbols are required to represent 26 alphabets with capital
• Five bit Baudot code
and small letters, number from 0 to 9, punctuation marks ASCII code is a 7-bit code whereas EBCDIC is an 8-bit
and other symbols. code. ASCII code is more commonly used worldwide while
The alphanumeric codes are the codes are the codes that EBCDIC is used primarily in large IBM computers.
represent numbers and alphabetic characters.Mostly such Error codes
codes also represent other characters such as symbol and There are binary code techniques available to detect and
various instructions necessary for conveying information. correct data during data transmission.
An alphanumeric code should at least represent 10 digits Error code Description
and 26 letters of alphabet i.e total 36 items. The following Error Detection and Error detection and correction
three three alphanumeric codes are very commonly used correction code techniques
for the data representation.
Flip flop and its types

• explain RS flipflop and its truth table
• Explain JK flip flop and its truth table.
Introduction : A flip-flop is a digital circuit that has two NOR gate latch and NAND gate latch both are shown in
stable states. It remains in one of these states until Fig 2 and Fig 3 respectively.
triggered into the other.
NOR latch :From Fig 2, the two NOR gates are cross-
Flip-flops are used to store binary information. Digital coupled so that out of one NOR gate is connected to other
memory circuits that can store bits of data are an essential NOR gate input and vice versa.
part of any computer system.
RS flip flops : The most basic type of flip flop is the reset/
set type, hence it is known as RS flip flop.
The basic RS flip-flop can be constructed from either two
NOR gates or two NAND gates. The circuit symbols is
shown in Fig 1. Fig 1a shows RSF/F with active HIGH
inputs. Fig 1b shows RSF/F with active LOW inputs. The
Condition 3
Truth table for NOR latch R=1 S=0, this condition cause to go to the Q=0 state where
the output remain even after S returns HIGH. This is called
resetting the latch.
R S Q Comment
Condition 4
0 0 NC No change R=1 S=1, this condition produce a race condition. Therefore

avoid R=1 and S=1 condition while using a NOR latch.
0 1 1 Set
1 0 0 Reset NAND latch
1 1 * Race From the NAND gate latch as shown in Fig 3. The two
NAND gates are cross-coupled so that output of one NAND
Truth table for NAND latch is connected to other NAND gate input and vice versa. The
NAND latch outputs are labelled as Q and Q. These
R S Q Comment outputs will always be the inverse of each other.
From the truth table, it can be summarized as follows.
0 0 * Race Condition 1
0 1 1 Set
R=0, S=0. This condition produce ambiguous results. It
1 0 0 Reset should not be used.
1 1 NC No change
Condition 2
The NOR latch output are labelled as Q and Q. The outputs R=0, S=1. This condition cause the output to go the Q=1
will always be the inverse of each other. From the truth table state where it will remain after R returns high. This is known
of NOR latch, it can be summarised as follows. as setting the latch.
Condition 1 Condition 3
R=0 S=0, this condition produce the inactive state. Output R=1, S=0. This condition cause the output to go the Q=0
`Q' will remain with no change. state, where the output will remain even after S returns
Condition 2 HIGH. This is called clearing or resetting the latch.
R=0 S=1, this condition cause to go to the Q=1 state where
it always remain after R returns high. This is known as
setting the latch.
Condition 4 a result when the arm is moved form one stable position to
R=1, S=1. This condition is the normal resting state and it the other, the arm bounces as much as hard ball bounces
has no effect on the output state. The Q and Q outputs will when dropped on a hard surface. The number of bounces
remain in whatever state they were prior to this input that occurs and the period of the bounce differ for each
condition. switching device.
Clocked RS flip-flop
It is possible to strobe or clock the flip-flop in order to store
information (set it or reset it) at any time, and then hold the
stored information for any desired period of time. This flip-
flop is called a clocked RS flip-flop and is shown in Fig 4a
and the circuit symbol in 4b.
In digital system there will be occasions to use mechanical
contacts for the purpose of conveying an Electronics
signal, for example the keyboard of computer. In each case
the intent is to apply a high logic level usually [+5V dc] or
a low logic level (0 volts DC).
Truth Table
Clock R S Q
0 0 0 NC
0 0 1 NC
0 1 0 NC
As shown in the Fig 6 above, when the SPST switch is
0 1 1 NC
open, the voltage at point ‘A’ is +5V DC when the switch is
1 0 0 NC closed the voltage at point ‘A’ is 0 volts.
1 0 1 1 Ideally the voltage waveform at ‘A’ should appear as shown
1 1 0 0 in the waveform 6b as the switch is moved from open to
1 1 1 Illegal closed, or vice-versa.
For the flip-flop to operate properly there must be a In actuality, the waveform at point ‘A’ will appear more or
transition form low to high on the clock input, while clock less as shown in waveform(C), as a result of contact
is high, the information on R and S causes the latch to set bounce. Notice carefully that in this particular instance,
or reset. Then when clock transitions back to low, this eventhough actual physical contact bounce occurs each
information is retained in the latch. When this high to low time the switch is opened or closed, contact bounce
transition occurred both R and S inputs were low(0) and appears in the voltage level at point ‘A’ only when the switch
thus there was no change of state. is closed.
D-flip-flop If the voltage at point ‘A’ is applied to the input of a T.T.L
circuit, the circuit will respond properly when the switch is
The RS flip-flop has two data inputs, R and S. To store a
opened, since no contact bounce occurs. However when
high bit, you need a high S and to store a low bit, you need
the switch is closed, the circuit will respond as if multiple
a high R. Generation of two signals to drive a flip-flop is a
signals were applied, rather than the single-switch closer-
disadvantage in many applications. Further more the RS
intended.
flip-flop is susceptible to a race condition. We will modify
the design to eliminate the possibility of a race condition, R.S.Latches are often used as switch debouncers.
to overcome the above disadvantage, R.S flip is slightly Whenever a switch is thrown from open to the closed
modified as shown in Fig 5 to have a single input called D- position.
flip-flop. Bounce less switch
Unclocked D latch Clock D latch Floating T.T.L inputs are equivalent to high inputs. With the
switch in the start position, Pin 1 is low and pin 5 is high
D Q CLK D Q therefore (pin no.3) is high and Q (pin no.6) is low. When
0 0 0 X NC the switch is thrown to the clear position, pin no.1 goes
1 1 1 0 0 high, as shown in Fig 7. Because of contact bounce, pin 5
goes alternately low and high for a few milliseconds before
1 1 1
sets in the low state. The first time pin 5 goes low, the latch
Contact bounce circuit sets, Q going high and going low. Subsequent bounces
Any mechanical switching device consists of a moving have no effect on Q and Q because the latch stays set.
contact arm restrained by some sort of spring system. As
When the switch is thrown back to start, pin 1 bounces low Edge triggering versus level clocking
and high for a while. The first time pin 1 goes low, Q goes
When a circuit is edge triggered, the output can change
to low and going high, later bounces have no effect on only on the rising or falling edge of the clock. Edge triggered
Q and . D - F/F using discrete gate is shown in Fig 9a and the circuit
symbol is shown in Fig 9b.
The Fig 8 shows one way to build a D, latch because of

theinverter databit ‘D’ drives the ‘S’ input of a NAND latch
and the complement of D, drives the ‘R’ input. Therefore a
high ‘D’ sets the flip-flop, low ‘D’ resets the flip-flop. Most
important thing is no race condition.
Truth table for D-latch
D Q Q When the circuit is level clocked, the output can change

while the clock is high or low.
1 1 0
0 0 1 With the edge triggering, the output can change only at one
instant during the clock cycle. With level clocking, the
Clocked D-flip-flop
output can change during the entire period the level of the
The Fig 8a shows the level clocked D type flip-flop. A low clock is maintained.
clock disables the input gates and prevents the latch from
Edge triggered D-flip-flops
changing states, in other words, while clock is low, the
latch is in the inactive state D controls the output, A high Boolean algebra is convenient and systematic way of
D sets the latch, while a low D resets it. expressing and analysing the operation of logic circuits.
Truth table
Edge triggered D-Flip-flop
CLK D Q
0 X NC
1 X NC
↓ X NC
↑ 0 0
↑ 1 1
Variable
A variable is a symbol (usually an Italic uppercase letter)
used to represent a logical quantity. Any single variable
can have a 1 or 0 value.
Ex: A,B,C,D or X,Y,Z etc
Truth table for level clocked D flip flop Complements
Clk D Q The complement is the inverse of a variable and is indicated
0 X NC by a bar over the variable.
1 0 0
Ex: The complement of A is , the complement of A is
1 1 1 read as “A bar”.
The truth table summarizes the operation ‘X’ represents a
Literal
don’t care condition, it stands for either 0 or 1, while clock
is low the output can’t change, no matter what ‘D’ is, when A literal is a variable or the complement of a variable.
clock is high, the output equals the input. Q = D.
Boolean addition A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
0+0=0 The associative law of multiplication is written as follows for
three variables Fig 13.
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 with carry 1
In Boolean algebra, a sum term is a sum of literals. In logic
circuits, a sum term is produced by an OR operation with
NAND operation involved.
A(BC) = (AB)C
Ex: A+B, A+ , +B This law states that it makes no difference in what order the
A sum term is equal to 1 when one or more of the literals variables are grouped when ORing/ANDing more than two
in the term are 1. A sum term is equal to 0 if and only if each variables.
of the literal is 0. Distributive law
Boolean multiplication The distributive law is written for three variables as follows.
Boolean multiplication is equivalent to the AND operation A(B+C) = AB + AC
and the basic rules are as follows.
This law states that ORing two or more variables and
0.0 = 0 ANDing the result with a single variable is equivalent to
1.0 = 0 ANDing the single variable with each of the two or more
variables and then ORing the products as shown in Fig 14.
0.1 = 0
The distributive law also express the process of factoring
1.1 = 1 in which the common variable ‘A’ is factored out of the
product terms.
In Boolean algebra a product term is the product of literals.
In logic circuits a product term is produced by an AND Ex: AB + AC = A(B+C)
operation with NO OR operations involved.
Ex: AB, B, A ,
A product term is equal to 1 if and only if each of the literals
in the term is one(1). A product term is equal to 0 when one
or more of the literal are 0.
Laws of Boolean algebra Boolean Algebra Rules
Commutative law
The commutative law for addition for two variables is written
algebraically A + B = B + A as shown in Fig 10.
The commutative law for two variable multiplication is AB

= BA as shown in Fig 11.
This law states that the order in which the variables are
ORed/ANDed make no difference.
Associative law
The associative law of addition is written algebraically as
follows for three variables as shown in Fig 12.
De-Morgans theorem
Theorem I : The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complements of the variables.
AB  A  B
The complement of two or more variables ANDed is = A + BC
equivalent to the OR of the complements of the individual Simplification of logic circuit using Boolean Equation
variables. The related figure is shown in Fig 15.
AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C)
I step: Simplify the Boolean equations
AB + AB + AC + BB + BC (Distributive law)
AB + AC + B + BC Since BB=B
Theorem II AB + B + AC ( A+ A = A, A.A =A)
The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the B(A + 1) + AC ( 1+A=1)
product of the complements of the variables. B + AC
II step write logic diagram for the equations
AB=A.B AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C) = B + AC
The complement of two ore more variables ORed is Circuit before simplification is shown in Fig 17a. Circuit
equivalent to the AND of the complements of the individual after simplification is shown in Fig 17b.
variables as shown in Fig 16.
The above logic diagram and corresponding Boolean

Simplify the equation using De-Morgan’s theorem equations show how one can use Boolean Algebra for
simplification of logic circuits for the desired logic output.
1 ( A + B + C) D = A + B+ C D ( AB = A + B) From the above example it is proved that how the logic
circuit gates can be reduced for the same set of output
= A .B.C.D ( A + B = A . B) result, using Boolean Algebra. The reduced logic circuit
consumes less power and propagation delay time is also
2 ABC + DEF = ABC . DEF ( A + B = A . B ) reduced, in other words the speed of the circuit increases.
= ( A + B + C ) . (D + E + F ) Example
2 Simplify the Boolean expression, and write logic diagram
Simplification of Boolean equations for the given equation and for simplified equation.
Prove that A  AB  A  B
LHS
A BC  AB C  A B C  AB C  ABC  Y
Logic diagram for the given equation is shown in Fig 18.
Prove that (A+B) (A+C) = A + BC

LHS = (A+B) (A+C)
= AA + AB + AC + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1+C) + AB + BC
= A + AB + BC
= A(1+B) + BC
J K Flip-flop circuits
• explain construction of JK flip-flop using NAND gates
• state the function of Preset and clear inputs
• define the meaning active low and active high
• explain the working function of JK master slave flip-flop
• explain frequency division using flip flops.
Operation of J-K flip flop Reset

When J is low and K is high the upper output gate is
Truth table
disabled. So there is no way to set the flip flop. The only
CLK J K Q possibility is reset. When Q is high, the lower gate passes
0 x x NC a reset trigger as soon as the +ve clock edge arrives. This
↓ x x NC forces Q to become low. Therefore J=0 and k=1 means that
a rising clock edge resets the flip-flop.
↓ x x NC
x 0 0 NC Set
↑ 0 1 0 Reset When J is high and K is low, the lower output gate is
↑ 1 0 1 Set disabled. So it is impossible to reset the flip-flop. But flip-
flop can be set, when Q is low, Q is high, the gate 1 passes
↑ 1 1 Toggle Toggle
a set trigger on the positive clock edge. This drives Q into
The Fig 1 shows one way to build a JK flip-flop. The
the high state. That is J=1 and K=0 means that the next
variables J and K are called control inputs. An R.C circuit
positive clock edge sets the flip flop.
with a short time constant, converts the rectangular clock
pulse to narrow spikes. Because of the double inversion Toggle
through the NAND gates, the circuit is +ve edge triggered.
When J and K are both high, it is possible to set or reset
In other words, the input gates are enabled only on the
the flip flop depending on the current state of the output if
rising edge of the clock as shown in truth table.
Q is high, the lower gate passes a reset trigger on the next
positive clock edge on the other hand. When Q is low the
upper gate passes a set trigger on the next positive clock
edge. Either way Q changes to the complement of the last
state. Therefore J=1 and K=1 means that the flip-flop will
toggle on the next positive clock edge.
To summarize the operation of the JK.flip-flop, the circuit is
inactive when the clock is low, high or on its -ve edge.
Likewise the circuit is inactive when J and K are both low.
Output changes occur only on the rising edge of the clock
as indicated by the last three entries of the table. The o/p
either resets, sets or toggles.
Racing
Toggling more than once during a clock cycle is called
Racing. Assume that the circuit is level clocked. In other
words, assume that RC circuit has been removed and run
the clock straight, into the gates, with a high J, high K and
high clock, the output toggles. New outputs are then fed
Toggling more than once during a clock cycle is called
Racing. Assume that the circuit is level clocked. In other
words, assume that RC circuit has been removed and run
the clock straight, into the gates, with a high J, high K and
high clock, the output toggles. New outputs are then fed
back to the input gates. After two propagation times (input
and output gates), the output toggles again. And once
more new outputs return to the input gates. In this way the
output can toggle repeatedly as long as the clock is high.
To overcome this racing problem, JK master slave flip-flop
has been developed.
Clear Truth table for positive edge triggered JK flip flop
When power is first applied, flip-flops come up in random PR CLR CLK J K Q
states. To get some computers started, an operator has to 0 0 X X X Race
push a master reset button, this sends a clear (reset) 0 1 X X X 1
signal to all flip-flops, normally clear signal will be active
1 0 X X X 0
low, (i.e) logic zero should be applied for clear the output.
When clear is applied to gate-4 as shown in Fig 1a then the 1 1 X 0 0 NC
Q will be forced to Logic-0, then automatically will go to 1 1 ↑ 0 1 0
logic-1 condition. This signal, J and K signals have no 1 1 ↑ 1 0 1
control over output Q, when clear is set. 1 1 ↑ 1 1 Toggle
Low J & Low K produces an inactive state regardless of the
Pre-set
what the clock is doing. If K goes high by itself, the next
Like clear preset is an active low input. This input also clock pulse resets the flip-flop. If J goes high by itself, the
independent of CLK, J & K inputs. When preset is made next clock pulse sets the flip-flop when J & K are both high,
logic-0, the output Q is set to logic one. It is necessary in each clock pulse toggle the state of flip flop.
some digital system to preset the output before the system Frequency division using flip flops
actually runs.
Flip-flops are used as frequency dividers of a periodic
Master Slave Flip-flop waveform. When a pulse waveform is applied to the clock
input of a J.K flip-flop which is wired for toggle operation,
The Fig 2 shows the JK.Master Slave Flip-flop. It provides provides square wave output with one half the frequency of
another way to avoid racing. A master slave flip-flop is a the clock input. Thus a single flip-flop can be used for divide
combination of two clocked flip-flops connected in cascade. by -2 operation as illustrated in Fig 3. The flip-flop changes
Master flip-flop is positive edge triggered, slave flip-flop is state on each triggering clock edge. This results in an
negative edge-triggered flip-flop. output which is at half the frequency of the clock waveform.
Further division of clock frequency can be achieved by
using the output of one flip-flop as the clock input to a
second flip-flop as shown in Fig 3. The frequency of the QA
output is divided by 2 by flip-flop B. The QB output is
therefore, one fourth the frequency of the original clock
input.
By connecting flip-flops in this way, a frequency division of
2n is achieved, where n is the number of flip-flops. For
example, three flip-flops divide the clock frequency by 23 =
8. Four flip-flops divide the clock frequency by 24 = 16; and
so on.
– While the clock is high, the master is active and the

slave is inactive.
– While the clock is low, the master is inactive and the
slave is active.
The J.K master slave flip-flop is used as the main counting
device. The popular IC 54LS/74LS76 is a dual JK master
slave flip-flop.
Look at the Summarized truth table of J.K master slave flip-
flop. A low PR and LOWCLR produces a race condition
therefore, PR and CLR are normally kept at a high voltage
when inactive. To clear, the flip flop make clear low, to
preset the F/F make preset low.
Counter Circuits
• state basic types of counters
• explain the circuit of a ripple counter
• explain a down counter using J-K Flip Flops
• explain synchronous and asynchronous decade counters
• explain module 10 and module 12 counter circuits.
Counter The remaining flip-flops toggle less often because they

receive their negative edges from the preceding flip-flop
A counter is one of the most useful and versatile subsystems
outputs(Q). The triggers move through the flip-flops like a
in a digital system. A counter driven by a clock can be used
ripple in water, that is why this type of counter is called
to count the number of clock cycles. Since the clock
ripple counter.
pulses occur at known intervals, the counter can be used
as an instrument for measuring time and therefore period
or frequency.
Basically there are two types of counters
1 Synchronous counter
2 Asynchronous counter
Synchronous counter
In this counter every flip-flop is triggered by the clock
parallely (synchronously) and thus settling time is simply
equal to the delay time of a single flip-flop. The increase in
speed is usually obtained at the price of increased hardware.
Asynchronous counter
Asynchronous counters are simple and straight forward in
operation and construction and usually requires a minimum
of hardware, however have a speed limitation. Each flip-flop
is triggered by the previous flip-flop, [i.e., clock is applied Counting sequence
serially] and thus the counter has a cumulative settling When CLR goes from low to high, the Q output of all flip-
time. Counters such as these are also called as serial flops become zeroes.
counters or ripple counters.
Q = Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
Serial and parallel counters are used in combination to
compromise between speed of operation and hardware Q = 0000
count. Serial, parallel or combination counters can be When the first clock pulse triggered the LSB flip-flop, its
designed such that each clock pulse advances the contents output Q0 becomes 1, so the first output word is Q=0001.
of the counter by one, it is then operating in a count-up
mode. The opposite is also possible; the counter then When the second clock pulse arrives, Q0 resets to zero,
operates in the count-down mode. Furthermore, many and this negative falling edge sets next flip-flop output Q1
counters can be either ‘cleared’ so that every flip-flop to 1 as shown in the timing diagram. Therefore, the next
contains a zero, or preset such that the contents of the flip- output word is Q=0010.
flops represent any desired binary number. The third clock pulse advances Q0 to 1, at this stage Q0 is
Ripple counter having +ve rising edge, so Q1 output will not change then
the counter output is Q=0011.
The Fig 1a shows a counter built with JK flip-flops since the
J&K inputs are tied to a high voltage, each flip-flop will The fourth clock pulse forces the Q0 flip-flop to reset and
toggle, when its clock input receives a negative edge. carry. In turn, the Q1 flip-flop resets and carry, in turn, the
Q1 flip-flop resets and carry.
Visualize the Q outputs as a binary word.
The resulting output word is Q = 0100.
Q = Q3Q2Q1Q0
The fifth clock pulse gives Q = 0101.
Q3 is the most significant bit (MSB) and Q0 is the least
significant bit (LSB). When CLR goes low, all flip-flops The sixth clock pulse gives Q = 0110.
reset, this results in a digital word of Q = 0000. and the seventh pulse gives Q = 0111.
When clear returns to high, the counter is ready to go, ON the eighth clock pulse Q0 resets and carrier, Q1 resets
since the LSB flip-flop receives each clock pulse, Q0 and carrier, Q2 resets and carry, and Q3 advances to 1. So
toggles once per negative clock edge, as shown in Fig 1b. the output word becomes Q = 1000.
The ninth clock pulses gives Q = 1001. Modulo -10 Counter
The tenth gives Q = 1010 and so on Asynchronous Decade counters
at the 15th clock pulse Q = 1111 Regular binary counters have a maximum modulus, which
means they progress through all of their possible states.
The 16th clock pulse resets all flip-flops. Therefore the
The maximum possible number of states (maximum
counter resets to Q = 0000 and the cycle repeats.
modulus) of a counter is 2n, where n is the number of flip-
By adding more flip-flops to the left end of the counter flops in the counter.
circuit, the counter length can be extended. Eight flip-flops
Counters can also be designed to have a number of states
gives an 8 bit ripple counter, twelve flip-flops result in a 12
in their sequence that is less than the maximum of 2". The
bit ripple counter and so on. The timing diagram is shown
resulting sequence is called a truncated sequence.
in Fig 1b.
One common modulus for counters with truncated sequence
Down counter
is ten. Counters with ten states in their sequence (modulus-
The counter discussed above is an up counter, counts from 10) are called decade counters. A decade counter with a
0 to 15 [0000 to 1111]. If a counter counts from 1111 to 0000 count sequence of zero (0000) through nine (1001) is a
then it is called DOWN counter. In a down counter Q output BCD decade counter because its ten-state sequence is
as shown in Fig 2 is connected to the clock input of the next the BCD code. This type of counter is useful in display
flip-flop. Each flip-flop toggles when its clock input goes applications in which BCD is required for conversion to a
from 1 to 0. Flip flop Q0 toggles with each negative clock decimal readout.
transition as before. But flip flop Q1 will toggle each time Q0
To obtain a truncated sequence, it is necessary to force the
goes high. Notice that each time Q0 goes high, Q0 goes low,
counter to recycle before going through all of its normal
and it is this negative transition on Q0 that triggers Q1. The
states. For example, the BCD decade counter must
timing diagram is in Fig 2b.
recycle back to the 0000 state after the 1001 state. A
decade counter requires four flip-flops (three flip-flops are
insufficient because 23 = 8).
We will use a 4-bit asynchronous counter such as the one
in Fig 3 and modify its sequence to illustrate the principle
of truncated counters. One way to make the counter
recycle after the count of nine (1001) is to decode count ten
(1010) with a NAND gate and connect the output of the
NAND gate to the clear ( ) inputs of the flip-flops, as
shown in Fig 3.
A low preset signal sets all output, producing an output

word of Q = 1111.
When pre goes high, the action starts.
The first clock pulse produces a negative toggle in Q0,
nothing else happens. Q = 1110
The second clock pulse produces a positive toggle in Q0,
which produces a negative toggle in Q1. Q = 1101
On the third clock pulse Q0 toggles negatively and Q = 1100
On the fourth clock pulse, Q0 toggles positively Q1 toggles
positively and Q2 toggles negatively. Q = 1011.
Notice in Fig 3 that only Q1 and Q3 are connected to the
Likewise counting down from 15-0 takes place, when count NAND gate inputs. This arrangement is an example of
reaches 0, i.e.Q=0000, on the next clock pulse, all flip- partial decoding, in which the two unique states (Q1=1 and
flops toggles positively to get Q=1111 and the cycle Q3=1) are sufficient to decode the count of ten, because
repeats. none of the other states (zero through nine) have both Q1
and Q3 HIGH at the same time. When the counter goes into Modulo-12 counter
count ten (1010), the decoding gate output goes LOW and An asynchronous counter can be implemented having a
asynchronously resets all the flip-flops. modulus of twelve with a straight binary sequence from
The resulting timing diagram is shown in Fig 3. Notice that 0000 through 1011 as shown in Fig 4a.
there is a glitch on the Q1 waveform. The reason for this Since three flip-flops can produce a maximum of eight
glitch is that Q1 must first go HIGH before the count of ten states, four flip-flops are required to produce any modulus
can be decoded. Not until several nanoseconds after the greater then eight but less than or equal to sixteen.
counter goes to the count of ten does the output of the
decoding gate go LOW (both inputs are HIGH) . Thus, the When the counter gets to its last state, 1011, it must
counter is in the 1010 state for a short time before it is reset recycle back to 0000 rather than going to its normal next
to 0000, thus producing the glitch on Q1 and the resulting state of 1100, as illustrated in the following sequence
glitch on the CLR line which resets the counter. chart:
Other truncated sequences can be implemented in a Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
similar way.
0 0 0 0
. . . .
. . . . Recycles
. . . .
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 Normal next state
Observe that Q0 and Q1 both go to 0 anyway, but Q2 and

Q3 must be forced to 0 on the twelfth clock pulse. Fig 4a
shows the modulus-12 counter. The NAND gate partially
decodes count twelve (1100) and resets flip-flop 2 and flip-
flop 3. Thus, on the twelfth clock pulse, the counter is
forced to recycle from count eleven to count zero, as
shown in the timing diagram of Fig 4b. (It is in count twelve
for only a few nanoseconds before it is reset by the glitch
on CLR)
Up/down Counters
• explain the basic operation of an up/down counter
• explain the 74LS190 up/down decade counter.
UP/DOWN SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS movement of the counter for both its UP and its DOWN
An up/down counter is one that is capable of progressing modes of operation. An examination of Q0 of Fig 1 for both
in either direction through a certain sequence. An up/down the up and down sequences shows that FFO toggles on
counter, sometimes called a bidirectional counter, can each clock pulse. So the J0 and K0 inputs of FFO are
have any specified sequence of states. A 3-bit binary J0 = K0 =1
counter that advances upward through its sequence
For the up sequence, Q1 changes state on the next clock
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) and then can be reversed so that it goes
pulse when Q0 =1. For the down sequence, Q1 changes on
through the sequence in the opposite direction
the next clock pulse when Q0=0. Thus, the J1 and K1 inputs
(7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0) is an illustration of up/down sequential
of FFI must equal 1 under the conditions expressed by the
operation.
following equation:
In general, most up/down counters can be reversed at any
point in their sequence. For instance, the 3-bit binary J1 = K1 = (Q0 .UP) + (Q0 .DOWN)
counter can be made to go through the following sequence: For the up sequence, Q2 changes state on the next clock
UP UP pulse when Q0 = Q1 = 1.For the down sequence, Q2
changes on the next clock pulse when Q0 =Q1 =0. Thus,
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 6, 5,etc. the J2 and K2 inputs of FF2 must equal 1 under the
DOWN DOWN conditions expressed by the following equation:
Table 1 shows the complete up/down sequence for a 3-bit J2 =K2 = (Q0 . Q1 . UP) + (Q0 . Q1 . DOWN)
binary counter. The arrows indicate the state-to-state
The timing diagram showing the Q outputs is shown in Fig
2b. From these waveforms, the counter sequnce is as
shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 Operation
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 UP
Each of the conditions for the J and K inputs of each flip- 0 0 1 1
flop produces a toggle at the appropriate point in the 0 1 0 0
counter sequence.
0 0 1 1
A synchronous 4-bit binary up/down counter 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 DOWN
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
UP
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 DOWN
0 0 0 0
The 74LS190 Up/down decade counter

Fig 3 shows a logic diagram for the 74LS190, a good
example of an integrated circuit up/down counter. The
direction of the count is determined by the level of the up/
down input (D/ ). When this input is HIGH, the counter
counts down; when it is LOW, the counter counts up. Also,
this device can be preset to any desired BCD digit as
determined by the states of the data inputs when the LOAD
A timing diagram and the sequence of a synchronous 4-bit input is LOW.
binary up/down counter if the clock and UP/DOWN control The MAX/MIN output produces a HIGH pulse when the
inputs have waveforms as shown in Fig 2. The coutner terminal count nine (1001) is reached in the UP mode or
starts in the all 0s state and is positive edge-triggered. when the terminal count zero (0000) is reached in the
Table 1 DOWN mode. This MAX/MIN output, along with the ripple
clock output ( ) and the count enable input ( )
Up/Down sequence for a 3-bit binary counter
is used when cascading counters.
Clock pulse UP Q2 Q1 Q0 Down
Fig 4 is an example timing diagram showing the 74LS190
0 0 0 0 counter preset to seven (0111) and then going through a
→
count-up sequence followed by a count-down sequence.
1 0 0 1 The MAX/MIN output is HIGH when the counter is in either
the all-0s state (MIN) or the 1001 state (MAX).
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1 ←
Shift Registers and their Applications
• state the basic functions of a shift register
• list and define the different configurations of shift register
• explain the function of IC7495 in different configurations.
Introduction to shift registers alphanumeric keyboard and then present this data at the
input of a microprocessor chip. Similarly, shift registers are
A shift register is a very important digital building block.
often used to momentarily store binary data at the output
Registers are often used to momentarily store binary
of a decoder. For instance, a register could be used to
information appearing at the output of an encoding matrix.
accept output data from a microprocessor chip and then
A register might be used to accept input data from an
present this data to the circuitry used to drive the display The shifting capability of a register permits the movement
on a CRT screen. Thus registers form a very important link of data from stage to stage within the register or into or out
between the main digital system and the input-output of the register upon application of clock pulses. Fig 2a to
channels. 2g illustrate the types of data movement in shift registers.
The block represents any arbitrary 4-bit register and the
A binary register also forms the basis for some very
arrow indicate the direction of data movement.
important arithmetic operations. For example, the
operations of complementation, multiplication, and division
are frequently implemented by means of a register. A shift
register can also be connected to form a number of different
types of counters. These counters offer some very distinct
advantages.
Types of registers
A register is simply a group of flip-flops that can be used to
store a binary number. There must be one flip-flop for each
bit in the binary number. For instance, a register used to
store an 8-bit binary number must have eight flip-flops.
Naturally the flip-flops must be connected such that the
binary number can be entered (shifted) into the register and
possibly shifted out. A group of flip-flops connected to
provide either or both of these functions is called a shift
register.
The bits in a binary number (let's call them the data) can be
moved form one place to another in either of two ways. The
first method involves shifting the data 1 bit at a time in a
serial fashion, beginning with either the MSB or the LSB.
This technique is referred to as serial shifting. The second
method involves shifting all the data bits simultaneously
and is referred to as parallel shifting. Serial in - serial out operation
There are two ways to shift data into a register (serial or The flip-flops used to construct registers ar usually either
parallel) and similarly two ways to shift the data out of the JK or D types. So let's begin by summarizing the operation
register. This leads to the construction of four basic register of JK flip-flop.
types as shown in Fig 1 -serial in - serial out, serial in -
For a JK flip-flop, the data bit to be shifted into the flip-flop
parallel out, parallel in - serial out, and parallel in - parallel
must be present at the J and K inputs when the clock
out. All of these configurations are commercially available
transitions (low or high). Since the data bit is either a 1 or
as TTL MSI/LSI circuits. For instance:
a 0, there are two cases:
Serial in - serial out - 54/74L91, 8 bits
– To shift a 0 into the flip-flop, J=0 and K=1.
Serial in - parallel out - 54/74164, 8 bits
– To shift a 1 into the flip-flop, J=1 and K=0.
Parallel in - serial out - 54/75165, 8 bits
The important point to note is that the J and K inputs must
Parallel in - parallel out - 54/74194, 4 bits be controlled to provide the correct input data. The J and K
logic levels may be changing while the clock is high (or
Parallel in - parallel out - 54/74198, 8 bits
low), but they must be steady from just before until just after
the clock transition (remember, setup time and hold time).
For our discussion we shall use JK master-slave flip-flops
having clock inputs that are sensitive to negative clock
transitions. Incidentally, this negative transition of the
clock is frequently referred to as a shift pulse.
The waveforms in Fig 3 illustrate these ideas. At time A, Q
is reset low (a 0 is shifted into the flip-flop). At time B, Q
does not change since the flip-flop had a 0 in it and another
0 is shifted in. At time C, the flip-flop is set (a 1 is shifted
into it). At time D, another 0 is shifted into the flip-flop. In
essence, we have shifted 4 data bits into this flip-flop in a
time sequence: a 0 at time A, another 0 at time B, a 1 at
time C, and a 0 at time D.
Now, consider adding three more flip-flops connected as
shown in Fig 4. Let's begin with all the flip-flops reset and
then apply the exact same input signals to flip-flop Q as we The serial data input for the register shwon in Fig 4 requires
did in Fig 3. Here's what happens: two input signals J and K. But look carefully at the
waveforms. Clearly, K = J, or J=K. In other words, one
signal is always the complement of the other. If we were to
connect an inverter between J and K on flip-flop Q with the
input at J, therefore, we would need to have only one data
input signal - the one required for J. But this is precisely a
D-type flip-flop as shown in Fig 5. Remember the rules for
a type D flip-flop; on the negative clock transition, the data
present at the D input (either a 1 or a 0) will shift into the flip-
flop.
Thus the 4-bit serial input shift register shown in Fig 5 can
be constructed by replacing the JK flip-flops wth type D flip-
flops.
At time A: All the flip-flops are reset, so all J inputs are low
and all K inputs are high. Then T is reset (the 0 in S is shifted
into T). Similarly, the 0 in R is shifted S, the 0 in Q is shifted
into R, and the 0 at the data input is shifted into Q. The flip-
flop outputs just after time A are QRST = 0000. Serial In Parallel Out (SIPO)
At time B: The flip-flops all contain 0s. Thus the 0 in S is Data is entered serially into this type of register, and data
shifted into T, the 0 in R shifts into S, the 0 in Q shifts into bits are taken out of the register parallel from the output of
R, and the 0 at the data input shifted into Q. The flip-flop each stage. Once the data bits are stored, each bit appears
outputs are QRST = 0000. on its respective output line, and all bits are available
simultaneously, rather than on a bit-by-bit basis as with the
At time C: The flip-flops still all contain 0s. The 0 in S shifts
serial output.
into T, the 0 in R shifts into S, and the 0 in Q shifts into R,
but a 1 at the data input now shifts into Q. The flip-flop The Fig 6a shows the SIPO shift register using J.K.flip-
outputs are QRST = 1000. flops. All the inputs are tied to the compliment of J-inputs.
The clock, preset and clear inputs are -ve edge triggered.
At time D: The 0 in S shifts into T, the 0 in R shifts into S,
the 1 in Q shifts into R (the J input to R is high and the K Initially all the flip-flops are cleared to logic-0 state by
input is low), and the 0 at the data input shifts into Q. The applying logic-0 pulse to the clear inputs.
flip-flop outputs are QRST = 0100. The sequence of shifting logic information is shown in Fig
To summarize, we have shifted 4 data bits in a serial 6b which gives waveform diagrams of data input, data
fashion into four flip-flops. These 4 data bits could represent output and clock input.
a 4-bit binary number 0100, assuming that we began 4-bit right-shift left-shift register IC7495
shifting with the LSB first. Notice that the LSB is in T and The Fig 7 shows the internal logic diagram of 4 bit shift
the MSB is in Q. These four flip-flops could be defined as register with parallel load capability, and with all flip-flop
a 4-bit shift register; thus this is the technique used to outputs available. This makes it possible to perform the
construct a serial-input shift register. right shift or left shift operation under control of the mode
control input. For greater flexibility, the mode control
selects clock-1 for the right shift mode and clock 2 for the
parallel load (left shift) mode. The clock 1 and clock 2 inputs
are tied together if only one clock source is required. Data
transfer occurs once the -ve going edge of the clock pulse
occurs.
Parallel In Parallel Out (PIPO)
The Fig 8 shows the pins to be used for parallel in parallel
out operation in IC7495. For this operation mode control
should be kept at logic high. Clock 2 should selected for
applying clock pulse, data inputs are to be connected to
the A,B,C & D parallel inputs, data output can be taken
simultaneously from QA, QB, QC and QD.
When mode control is at logic high, inverter 1 output will be
at logic-0. Hence AND gates 1,3,5,7 and 9 are disabled
because one of the inputs of those gates will be at logic-0.
Therefore clock 1 and serial inputs will be disconnected
from the flip-flops. At the same time AND gates 2,4,6,8 and
10 are enabled because, both the AND gate inputs of
enabled gates will have high inputs simultaneously, when flip-flop 4 clock pulses are required to transfer data from
clock is high. Hence only clock 2 and parallel inputs are input to output of the shift register.
routed to the flip-flop inputs. Falling edge of the clock pulse,
transmits the data information from parallel inputs to
parallel outputs, simultaneously.
This type of register requires very less time (i.e one clock
pulse) for transfer 1 set of parallel data information.
Serial In Serial Out (SISO)
The Fig 9 shows the pins to be used for SISO operation in
IC 7495. When the mode control input is at logic-0
condition inverter 1 (refer functional diagram of 7495 for inter
blocks) output will be at logic-1 and that enables AND
gates 3,5,7,9 and 1. AND gate-1 selects clock-1 status for
triggering flip-flops through OR gate. AND gates 3,5,7,9
selects serial input data. At the same time inverter-2 output
will be at logic-0 that disables AND gates 4,6,8,10 thus
disconnecting all parallel inputs A,B,C and D reaching
If the outputs are taken from all the outputs QA, QB, QC and Data input is applied to the parallel input-D remaining
QD, then this register works like serial in parallel out (shift parallel inputs A, B and C receives signals from the outputs
right) register. QB, QC and QD respectively as shown in Fig 10.
Serial In Parallel Out (shift left) When mode control signal is at logic-1 AND gate 2 is
enabled and AND gate 1 is disabled. Hence all the flip-flops
The Fig 10 shows external wiring diagram for serial in
get triggering pulse from clock 2. At the same time AND
parallel out shift left register. For shift left operation mode
gates 3,5,7 and 9 are disabled and AND gates 4,6,8 and 10
control signal level should be logic-1.
are enabled, therefore parallel inputs A,B,C and D routed
to the flip-flops inputs, and serial input is disabled from the
flip-flops. The data input given at the D input is shifted left
as the clock pulse progress. To move data from QD to QA,
4 clock pulses are required.
Multiplexers & Demultiplexers

• state the need of multiplexers and demultiplexers in digital circuits
• explain the function of a multiplexer with an example
• state the relationship between number of input lines and required number of control lines
• list a few commercially available multiplexer and demultiplexer ICs
• explain the application of a multiplexer & demultiplexer in data transmission
• explain Four to One line multiplexer and its working
• explain One to Four Demultiplexer and its working.
Many applications in digital logic requires circuit with

multiple input and single output, single input and multiple
outputs. The output of such circuits should however be
uniquely determined by a set of control signals. Such
circuits find immense application in computer and data
transmission. Such circuits that have one or more input
Truth Table
lines and give one or more output which are uniquely
determined by the inputs are called Combinational cir-
INPUTs Control Output
cuits. Two of the most important combinational circuits are
the Multiplexers and Decoders. A B
Multiplexers
1 0 0 1 (A -->output)
A multiplexer having 2n data inputs, one data output and an
1 0 1 0 (B -->output)
n-bit control input which selects one of the input and routes
it to the output is shown in Fig 1.
Demultiplexer
In Fig 1, the multiplexer has two inputs ( 2n = 21=2, hence The inverse of a Multiplexer is a Demultiplexer as shown in
n=1). It has 1-bit control signal (because, n=1) which selects Fig-2. This has n input ( in this case, n=1), 2n output (in this
A or B as the output as given in the Truth Table 1.
case, 2n=21=2 outputs) and n number of control signals (in
this case n=1, hence control line=1). The single input is
routed to one of the 2n outputs, depending on the value of
the n control lines. The truth table for the demultilexer at Fig
2 is given in Table 2.
Table 2
INPUT Control Output
1 0 Input --> A ( Therefore, A=1)

1 1 Input --> B ( Therefore, B=1)
Demultiplexer
The inverse of a multiplexer is a demultiplexer. A
demultiplexer routes its single input signal to one of 2n
8-line Multiplexer outputs, depending on the values of the n control lines. For
As discussed in earlier paragraphs, a multiplexer is a instance, if the binary value on the control signal is all
circuit with 2n data inputs, one data output and n control zeros, the 0th output line is selected and if the binary value
inputs. The selected data is gated or routed to the output. on the control lines is k, then, the kth output line is selected
Fig 3 shows the schematic of an eight-input or eight-line for routing the input signal. Such demultiplexers are also
multiplexer. available in IC package. One such IC is the 1line to 8 line
demultiplexer 74LS138 as shown in Fig 5.
As can be seen in Fig 3, the three control lines A,B and C

encode a 3-bit number that specifies which of the eight Application of Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
input lines is gated to the OR gate and then to the output.
There are almost innumerable applications of multiplexers
Immaterial of what value is on the control lines, seven of the
and demultiplexers. Just to list a few are in implementing
AND gate will always output 0, the other one may output
a multiplexed display, parallel to serial data converter etc.,
0 or 1 depending on the value of the selected input line.
Each gate is enables by a different combination of the The application of multiplexer and demultiplexer can be
control inputs. appreciated in data transmission as shown in Fig 6.
Such a eight-line multiplexer is available as a MSI chip. In Fig 6, the eight inputs could be eight signals coming from
With 8 input lines, 3 control lines, one output, may be an different transducers measuring eight different type of data
additional compliment output line and power supply and (say, temperature, pressure,...) in a industrial environment.
ground lines is implemented as a 16 pin package. One At the other end the output of the demultiplexer may be fed
such package is the 74LS151 , 8-line multiplexer IC shown to eight different measuring instruments meant for measuring
in Fig 4. the individual parameters.
If the control lines of the multiplexer and demultiplexer are intervals of time. This is known as Time division multiplexing.
simultaneously fed with binary signals sequentially from 000 Hence, multiplexers and demultiplexers are invariably
to 111, then each of the parameter of the input at any given used in such communication. The three control lines
time is communicated over the line to the demultiplxer which shown in Fig 6 could even be generated at sending and
in-turn routes it to meter which is meant for displaying the receiving station independently using one of the input line
value of the value of the parameter. as the synchronizing input.
Observe from Fig 6, that only one transmission line is used

for communicating all the eight parameters at different
Multiplexed Displays
• explain the constructional details and working of LED type seven segment display
• state the need and advantages of multiplexing
• explain the process of multiplexing and four digit multiplexed display .
7-segment display
7 segment displays are used with logic circuits that decode
a binary coded decimal (BCD) number and activate the
appropriate digits on the display.
The Fig 1 shows a common display format composed of
seven elements or segments. Energising certain
combinations of these segments can cause each of the ten
decimal digits to be displayed. The Fig-b shows the
method of digital display for each of the ten digits by using
a block segment to represent one that is energized. To
produce decimal ‘one’ on display, segments b and c are
energized, to produce ‘two’ segments a1,b1,g1,e1 and d1 are
used and so on.
LED display
One common type of 7-segment display consists of light- The Fig 2 (a) is common anode arrangement requires the
emitting diodes (LED) arranged as shown in Fig 2. Each driving circuit to provide a low-level voltage in order to
segment is an LED that emits light when there is current activate a given segment, when a low is applied to a
through it.
segment input, the LED is turned ON and there is current
through it.
In Fig 2(b)the common cathode arrangement requires the
driver to provide a high level voltage to activate a segment.
When a high is applied to a segment input. The LED is
turned ON and there is current through it.
LCD display
Another common type of 7 segment display is the liquid
crystal display (LCD), LCDs operate by polarizing light so
that a non activated segment reflects incident light and
thus appears invisible against its back ground. An activated
segment does not reflect incident light and thus appears
dark. LCDs consume much less power than LEDs but can’t
be seen in the dark, while LEDs can.
Basic structure of an LCD

Fig 4 shows a liquid crystal cell censist of a thin lager
(about 10 mm) of a liquid crystal sandwiched between two
glass sheets with transperent electrodls deposited on their
inside faues. With born glass sheets transpement the cell
is known as transmittine type cell. When one glass is
transperent and the other has a refledctine coating, the cell
is called refleume tyhpe. The LCD does not produce any
illumination of its own. It in fact depends entitely on
illumination falling on it from an external source for its visual
effect.
Digital meters : Displays
Cathode ray tube
Fig 5 shows cathode ray tube is a vacum tube containing
one or more electon guns, the beams of which are
LCDs operate from a low frequency signal voltage (30 Hz maniputlated to display images on a phosphorescent
to 60 Hz) applied between the segment and a common screen. The image may represent Electronics waveforms
element called the back plane (bp). (oscilloscope) pictures (television set, computer monitor),
radar targets or other phenomena. A CRT on a television
The Fig 3 shows a square wave used as the source signal. set is commonly called a picture tube. CRT have also been
Each segment in the display is driven by an Ex-OR gate used as memory devices in which case the screen is not
with one input connected to an output of the seven segment intended to be visible to an observer.
decoder/driver and the other input connected to the signal
source. When the decoder/driver output is high the Ex-OR
output is a square wave that is 180° out of phase with the
source signal. The resulting voltage between the LCD
segment and back plane is also a square wave because
when Vseg = 1, Vbp=0, and vice-versa. The voltage difference
turns the segmnet ON.
Basics of LCD Displays
The liquid crystal display has the distrint advantage of
having a low power consumption than the LED. It is In television and computer monitor the entire front area of
typically of the order of microwatts for the display in the tube is scanned repeatedly and systematically in a
comparison to the same order of milliwatts for LEDS. Low fixed pattern called radar.
power consumption requirement has made it compatible In modern CRT monitors and television the beams are bent
win MOS inhegrahed logic circuit. Its other advantages are by magnetic deflection using a deslection yoke. Electrons
its low cost and good contrast. The main drawbacks of take dejlection is commonly used in oscillo scope.
LCDs are additional requirement of light source, a limited
temperature range of operation (between 0 and 60C) low
reliability, short operating life, poor visibility in low ambient
lighting. Slow speed and the need for an ac drive.
Eleuro luminescent display
electrodes are, that they are transparent, which allows
The most widely used types of electro luminescent display viewing of the light through the glass substrate at the
is one, which is made by a stack of this lagers of different bottom. The upper electrode is often made from a material,
materials. As can be seen in fig 6 the typical thicknesses which absorps light rather than reflecting it. This is done to
of the individual lagers is a few thousand angstorms and insure, that the light, which propagates backwards towards
therefore such a deoue is named a thin film this electrode, will not be reflected at some angle and then
electroluminesscent (TIEFL) device. The central largest is be directed out of the display though one of the other pixels,
called the phospher layer and it is sand wiched between since this would lower the contrast properties of the
two insulating layers on top is placed metal elecrroder and display.
at the bottom electrodes made from indium, tin oxide (ITO)
Working principle
are placed. The two types of electrodes are placed
perpendicular to each other there byh forming a matrix. At Electrophoretic displays use microcapsules filled with a
the very bottom a transperent substrate placed. most often suspension of changed pigment particles. The
glass but plastic materials have also been tried. microcapasules are sandwiched between two parallel
conducting electrode panels. At least one of these pannels
has to be transparent, so the microcapsules are exposed
to visible light (Fig 7).
Dependent on the charge given to the panels the charged
particals move to the top or bottom. This makes either the
white or black particles visible. In this way, the visible light
that hits the top of the microcapsule is either scattered
(creating white) or absorbed (creating black).
A color display is made using a color filter. This filter divides
each pixel into different colors. Either red, green and blue
(RGB) or red, green blue and white (RGBW). This method
is not very efficient: with RGB the filter absorbs roughly two-
thirds of the light, with the RGBW roughly half of the light
The phosphor layer will emit light when a large enough Liquid vapour display (LVD)
electric field is applied across it. This phenomenon is
known as electroluminescence, which is explained in the Liquid vapour display are the latest in economical display
scientific principle section. Typically the necessary value technology. They employ a new reflective passive display
is in the order of 1.5 MV/cm. This electric field is established principle and depend on the presence of ambient lights for
by the electrodes, while the function of the two insulating their operation. Fig 8 gives the structure of a typical LVD
layers is to prevent a large current from flowing, which could cell.
otherwise destroy the device. It consists of a transparent volatile liquid encased between
The matrix formed by the electrodes makes up the different two glass plates and ise spacers. The rear glass plate has
pixels of the display. The special property of the ITO a black background and the front glass surface in contact
with the liquid is roughened, so that the liquid wets it, i.e in refractive index as that of the glass. The rear surface is
its simplest form, an LVD consists of a roughened glass blackened.
surface wetted with a transparent volatile liquid of the same
refractive index of vapour is approximately 1, there is a

discontinuity established at the interface between the front
glass plate and the liquid, which gives rise to light scattering.
This makes it a simple display device.
Dot matrix display
A dot-matrix display is an electronic digital display device
that displays information on machines such as clocks and
watches, public transport departure indicators, and many
other devices requiring a simple alphanumeric (and/or
graphic) display device of limited resoultion.
The display consists of a dot matrix of lights or mechanical
indicators arranged in a rectangular configuration (other
shapes are also possible, although not common) such that
The transparent electrode is heated by using a voltage by switching on or off selected lights text or graphics can
drive, which is the basis for the display function. be displayed. A dot matrix controller converts instructions
In the OFF condition of display with no voltage applied from a processor into signals that turn on or off indicator
across the transparent electrode, the viewer sees the black elements in the matrix so that the required display is
background through the front transparent glass electrode produced.
and the liquid. tructure and operation of LED dot matrix displays in a LED
To achieve an ON condition of the display, a voltage is dot matrix display the LEDs are located at the column and
applied to the transparent electrode. This causes sufficient row intersections of the matrix. LEDs in the same row are
heat in the electrode, which evaporates the liquid in contact connected together as are LEDs in the same column.
with it, and a combination of vapour film and vapour bubbles Fig 9 shows two common configurations for LED matrix
is formed around the roughened glass surface. As the displays.
Instrument Mechanic - A/D and D/A Converters
Digital -to- Analog converter

• explain the function of digital to analog converter
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) is a device that transforms 2mA and pin 15 is grounded through a resistor R15 is the
digital data into an analog signal. A DAC can reconstruct same size as R14; this compensates for drift in the input
sampled data into an analog signal with precision. The stage of the converter. Notice that Iout drives the inverting
digital data may be produced from a microprocessor, input of an op-amp; therefore the final output ranges from
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), or Field 0 to +2V. Pin 1 is unused, pin 2 is chip ground, pin 3 (VEE)
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), but ultimately the data is -5V, pin 4 is the ground return for the current out of the
requires the conversion to an analog signal in order to ladder; this pin usually connects to an op-amp, pin 5 to 12
interact with the real world. The block diagram of Basic are for the 8 bits of input data, Pin 13(VCC) is +5V. Finally
Digital to Analog Converter is shown in Fig1. a capacitor between pin 16 and pin 3 frequency-compensates
the device.
Grounding and bypassing
D/A Converter Architectures: There are two methods

commonly used for digital to analog conversion: Weighted
Resistors method and the other one is using the R-2R
ladder network method.
DAC 0808 Digital to Analog converter
The DAC 0808 series is an 8 bit monolithic digital-to-analog
converter (DAC) featuring a full scale output current setting
time of 150ns while dissipating only 33mw with ±5V
supplies. No reference current (Iref) trimming is required for D/A and A/D converter IC(s) require correct grounding and
most applications since the full scale output current is capacitive bypassing in order to operate according to
typically ±1 LSB of 255 Iref/256. Relative accuracies of performance specifications. The digital signals can severely
better than ±0.19% assure 8-bit monotonicity and linearity, impair analog signals to contact the electromagnetic
while zero level output current of less than 4μA provides 8- interference caused by the digital signals, the analog and
bit zero accuracy for Iref = 2mA, the power supply currents digital grounds should be kept separate and should have
of the DAC 0808 series are independent of bit codes and only one common point on the circuit board. Bypass
exhibits essentially constant device characteristics over capacitors are required at the power connections to the IC,
the entire supply voltage range. the reference signal inputs and the analog inputs to
minimize noise that is induced by the digital signals.
The DAC 0808 will interface directly with popular TTL, DTL Manufacturer specifies the recommended bypass capacitor
or CMOS logic levels, and is a direct replacement for the locations and values in the data sheet.
MC1508/MC1408.
The typical DAC 0808 Digital to Analog converter is shown
The Fig 1 shows the data bits of a DAC0808 connected to
in Fig 2 and its working is explained below:
port 22H of minimum system. Pin 2 of the DAC0808 is
grounded, and a 15pF compensating capacitor is between Applications of Digital to Analog Converter
pins 16 and 3, +5V supply sets up a reference current for
DACs are used in many digital signal processing
the R-2R ladder, pin 14 is connected to a positive supply
applications and many more applications. Some of the
through a resistor (trimmer) R14 allows you to adjust this to
important applications are discussed below.
255
• Audio Amplifier DACs are used to produce DC voltage Binary weighted resistor DAC
gain with Microcontroller commands. Often, the DAC A binary weighted resistor ladder D/A converter is shown
will be incorporated into an entire audio codec which in fig 3
includes signal processing features.
It consists of the following four major components.
• Video Encoder the video encoder system will process
1 switches one for each bit applied to the input
a video signal and send digital signals to a variety of
DACs to produce analog video signals of various
formats, along with optimizing of output levels. As with
audio codecs, these ICs may have integrated DACs.
• Display Electronics the graphic controller will typically
use a lookup table to generate data signals sent to a
video DAC for analog outputs such as Red, Green,
Blue (RGB) signals to drive a display.
• Data Acquisition Systems data to be measured is
digitized by an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) and
then sent to a processor. The data acquisition will also
include a process control end, in which the processor
sends feedback data to a DAC for converting to analog 2 a weighted resistor ladder network. where the
signals. reesistance are inversely proportional to the numerical
significance of the corresponding binary digital
• Calibration the DAC provides dynamic calibration for
gain and voltage offset for accuracy in test and 3 a reference voltage Vref and
measurement systems. 4 a summing amplifier that adds teh current flowing in the
• Motor Control many motor controls require voltage resistive network to develop a signal that is proportional
control signals, and a DAC is ideal for this application to the digital input.
which may be driven by a processor or controller. The behavior of the circuit may be analyzed easily by using
“Millman’s theorem”. It state that “the voltage appearing at
• Digital Potentiometer almost all digital
any node in a resistive network is equal to the summation
potentiometers are based on the string DAC
of the current entering the node (assuming the node voltage
architecture. With some reorganization of the resistor/
is zero) divided by the summation of the conductance
switch array, and the addition of an I2C compatible
connected to the mode
interface, a fully digital potentiometer can be
implemented. Mathematically we can write
Digital to Analog converter (DAC)
V1 V 2 V 3 Vn
Digital to analog converters is used to convert digital    .....
quantity into analog quantity. DAC converter produces an V0 = R 2R 4R (2n  1) R
output current of voltage proportional to digital quantity
(binary word) applied to its input. Today microcomputers 1 1 1 1 
are widely used for industrial control. The output of the
 R  2 R  4 R  ... (2n  1) R 
 
microcomputer is a digital quantity. In many applications
the digital output of the microcomputer has to be converted Assume that the resistor R1, R2, R3 ..........Rn are binary
into analog quantity which is used for the control of relay, weighted resistors, thus
small motor, actuator e.t.c. In communication system R1 = R
digital transmission is faster and convenient but the digital
signals have to be converted back to analog signals at the R2 = 2R
receiving terminal. DAC converters are also used as a part R3 = 4R
of the circuitry of several ADC converters. ...............
There are several ways of making a digital to analog ...............
converter. Some of them are given as under. ...............
1 Binary weighted resistor DAC Rn = (2n-1)R
2 R-2R Ladder network
V1 V 2 V 3
3 Serial DAC converter  
R1 R 2 R3
4 BCD DAC Vo =  1 1 1 
5 Bipolar DAC  R1  R 2  R3 
A Resistor ladder network, can delivers a binary number through the 2R equivalent resistance because the inverting
say number of n bits input is at virtual ground.
When ai = 1, then bit is ON and when ai = 0 then bit is OFF
The reference voltage source VR is considered to have
zerol internal impedance. The resistor that the are connected
to the switches have value such as to make the current flow
proportion to the binary weight of the respective input. But
the resistor in the MSB position has the value R, the next
has the value 2R etc. The resistor of the LSB have the value
of (2n-1) R.
The current flowing in the summing amplifier is
 n  1VR  n  2VR 1VR

I   .......
R 2R 2n 1 R
Above relation shows that output voltage of the D/A

converter is proportional to a number represented by the
switch that are connected to VR i.e ai = 1
When all the bits of digital word have value of 1, then the
output current of D/A converter is termed the full scale Thus all of the current (I=5V/2R) through R7 also goes
output current and is an important design parameter. through Rf, and the output voltage is -5V. The operational
On the other hand, if all switches are open i.e all ai amplifier keeps the inverting (-) input near zero volts (˜0V)
ocefficients are zero then the output voltage (current) is because of -ve feedback. Therefore all current goes through
zero Rf rather than into the inverting input.
The maximum output voltage V0 = Ri depends on the When the D2 input is at +5V and the others are at ground.
feedback resistor Rf. As the operational amplifier is operated This condition represents 0100. Thevanize the R2/2R
in the negative feedback mode for the purpose of summing ladder network looking from R8, results in a current through
so that it performs as can excellent current to voltage Rf of I=2.5V/2R, which gives an output voltage of-2.5V.
converter. Keep in mind that there is no current into the Op-Amp
inverting input and that there is no current through the
Disadvantages / Limitations equivalent resistance to ground because it has zero volts
1 Resistors used in the network have a wide range of across it, due to the virtual ground.
values, so it is very difficult to ensure the absolute When the input is 0010
accuracy and stability of all the resistors.
When D1 input is at +5V and the others are at ground, this
2 It is very difficult to match teh temperature coefficients condition represents 0010, again thevanizing the R2/2R
of all the resistors. This factor is specially important in ladder network looking from R8, results in a current through
D/A converters operation over a wide temperature Rf of I=1.25V/2R, which gives an output voltage of -1.25
range. volts.
3 When n is so large, the resistance corresponding to When the input is 0001
LBS can asuume a large value, which may be
comparable with the input resistance of the amplifier. When D0 input is at +5V and the others are at ground, this
This leads to erronerous results. condition represents 0001, again thevanizing the R/2R
ladder network looking from R8, results in a current through
4 As the switches represent finite impedance that are Rf of I=0.625V/2R, which gives an output voltage of -
connected in series with the weighted resistors and 0.625V.
their magnitudes and variations have to be taken in to
account in a D/A converter design. Notice that each successively lower weighted input produces
an o/p voltage that is halved, so that the output voltage is
R/2R ladder digital-to-analog converter : The Fig 4 proportional to the binary weight of the input bits.
shows another method of DA conversion using R/2R ladder
resistor network, for four bits. It overcomes one of the In equation form the o/p voltage is given by
problems in the binary-weighted input DAC. In this type D020 + D121 + D222 + D323 + ........Dn-12n-1
DAC only two values of resistors are required R and 2R.
Vout = ——————————————————
Assuming that the D3 input is HIGH (+5V) and the others
are LOW (ground 0V). This condition represents the binary 2n
1000. A circuit analysis will show that this reduces to the where D0, D1, D2, D3........Dn-1 are the digital input levels.
equivalent form shown in Fig 5. Essentially no current goes
Performance characteristics of digital-to-analog output voltage is (10V) (0.001)=10mV, ideally, the accuracy
converter should be, at most ±1/2 of an LSB. For an 8-bit converter,
1 LSB is 1/256 = 0.0039 (0.39% of full scale), the accuracy
Resolution
should be approximately ±0.2%.
The resolution of a DAC is the reciprocal of the number of
Linearity
discrete steps in the output. This of course, is dependent
on the number of input bits. A linear error is a deviation from the ideal straight-line
output of a DAC. A special case is an offset error, which is
For example: A 4-bit DAC has a resolution of one part in 2 -4
the amount of output voltage when the input bits are all
1 (one part in fifteen) expressed as a percentage, this is (1/
zeros.
15)x 100 = 6.67%. The total number of discrete steps
equals 2n-1, where n is the number of bits. Resolution can Monotonicity : A DAC is monotonic if it doesn’t take any
also be expressed as the number of bits that are converted. reverse steps when it is sequenced over its entire range of
input bits.
Accuracy
Settling time
Accuracy is a comparison of the actual output of a DAC
with the expected output. It is expressed as a percentage Settling time is normally defined as the time it takes a DAC
of a full-scale, or maximum output voltage. to settle within ±1/2 LSB of its final value when a change
occurs in the input code.
Example: If a converter has a full-scale output of 10V and
the accuracy is ±0.1%, then the maximum error for any
Analog-to-Digital Converter
• explain the function of A to D converter and its types
• explain successive-approximation method of A/D converter
• state the characteristic of ADC0809 IC.
• list the application of ADC
In electronics there are several circuit designed according Types of Analog to Digital Converter
to requirements. An analog-to-digital converter is a circuit
that converts an analog signal from a microphone or a • Successive Approximation ADC: This converter
digital camera, into a digital signal.The schematic compares the input signal with the output of an internal
representation of ADC is shown in Fig 1. DAC at each successive step. It is the most expensive
type.
• Dual Slope ADC: It has high accuracy but very slow
in operation.
• Pipeline ADC: It is same as that of two step Flash
ADC.
This electronic circuit directly converts the continuous
• Delta-Sigma ADC: It has high resolution but slow due
form of signal to discrete form is also expressed as A/D or
to over sampling.
A-to-D or ADC .
Analog to digital conversion is necessary when measured • Flash ADC: It is the fastest ADC but very expensive.
quantities must be in digital form for processing in a • Other: Staircase ramp, Voltage-to-Frequency,
computer for display or storage. This A/D converter is a Switched capacitor, tracking, Charge balancing, and
linkage between the analog (linear) world of transducers resolver.
measuring parameter like temperature, pressure, vibration
etc into equivalent digital signals for discrete world of Successive-approximation A/D converter
processing the signal and handling the data. Successive approximation is perhaps the most widely
The major factors that determine the quality performance used method of A/D conversion. It has a much shorter
of A/D converter are resolution, sampling rate, speed and conversion time, it also has fixed conversion time that is the
linearity. The resolution is the smallest change in voltage same for any value of the analog input.
that can be detected by the system and that can produce The Fig 2 shows basic block diagram of a 4 bit successive
a change in the digital code. approximation ADC. It consists of a DAC, a successive-
The speed of a A/D converter is determined by the time it approximation register (SAR), and a comparator.
takes to perform the conversion process. Analog signal The basic operation is as follows:
can be converted to digital codes by many methods of
which successive approximation and flash A/D conversion The input bits of the DAC are enabled (made equal to
methods are most common logic-1) one at a time, starting with MSB, as each bit is
enabled, the comparator produces an output that indicates
whether the analog input voltage is greater or less than the logic to interface to a variety of microprocessors with the
output of the DAC for the corresponding I/p. If the DAC addition of a minimum number of parts.
output is greater than the analog input, the comparator’s
output is low, causing the bit in the register to RESET. If the
DAC output is less than the analog input the ‘1’ bit is
retained in the SAR register. The system does this with the
MSB first, then the next most significant bit, then the next
and so on. After all the bits of the DAC have been tried, the
conversion cycle is complete.
Fig 3 illustrates the step-by-step conversion of a constant

analog input voltage (5V in this case). Let us assume that
the DAC has the following output characteristic: Vout = 8V Functional description : The ADC0808/0809 shown in
for the 23 bit (MSB), Vout = 4V for the 22 bit, Vout = 2V for the the above Fig 4 can be functionally divided into 2 basic sub
21 bit and Vout = 1V for the 20 bit (LSB). circuits. These two sub circuits are an analog multiplexer
Fig 3a shows the first step in the conversion cycle with the and an A/D converter. The multiplexer uses 8-standard
MSB=1, the output of the DAC=8V. Since this is greater CMOS analog switches to provide for upto 8 analog inputs,
than the analog input of 5V, the output of the DAC is 8V. the switches are selectively turned on, depending on the
Since this is greater than the analog input of 5V, the output data latched into 3-bit multiplexer address register.
of the comparator is low, causing the MSB in the SAR to The second function block, the successive approximation
be reset to a logic-0. A/D converter transforms the analog output of the multiplexer
to an 8 bit digital word, the output of the multiplexer goes
Fig 3b shows the second step in the conversion cycle with
to one of two comparator inputs. The other input is derived
the 22 bit equal to a logic-1. The output of the DAC is 4V,
from a 256R resistor ladder, which is tapped by a MOSFET
since this is less than the analog input of 5V, the output of
transistor switch tree. The converter control logic controls
the comparator switches to a HIGH, causing this bit to be
the switch tree, funneling a particular tap voltage to the
retained in the SAR.
comparator, based on the result of this comparison, the
Fig 9c shows the third step in the conversion cycle with the control logic and the successive approximation register
21 bit equal to a logic-1. The output of the DAC is 6 volts (SAR) will decide whether the next tap to be selected
because there is a logic-1 on the 22 bit input and on the 21 should be higher or lower than the present tap on the
bit input 4V+2V=6V, since this is greater than the analog resistor ladder, this algorithm executed 8 times per
input of 5V, the output of the comparator. Switches to a conversion, once every 8 clock periods, yielding a total
LOW, causing this bit to be RESET to a logic-0. conversion time 64 clock period.
Fig 3d shows the fourth and final step in the conversion When the conversion cycle is complete the resulting data
cycle with the 20 bit equal to a logic-1. The output of the is loaded into the tristate output latch can then be read by
DAC is 5V because there is a logic-1 on the 22 bit input and the host system any time before the end of the next
on the 20 bit input 4V+1V=5V. conversion. The try state capability of the latch allows easy
interface no bus oriented systems
The four bits have all been tried, thus completing the
Applications of ADC
conversion cycle. At this point the binary code in the
register is 0101, which is the binary value of the analog • used together with the transducer
input of 5V. Another conversion cycle now begins and the • used is computer to convert the analog signal to digital
basic process is repeated. The SAR is cleared at the signal
beginning of each cycle.
• used in cell phones
Analogue to digital converter ADC0808/0809 8 bit
microprocessor compatible A/D converter • used in micro controllers
The ADC0808/0809 data acquisition device implement on • used in digital signal processing
a single chip most the elements of the standard data • used in digital storage osilloscopes
acquisition system. They contain an 8-bit A/D converter, 8
channel multiplexer with an address input latch and • used in scientific instruments
associated control logic. These device provide most of the • used in music repiroduction technology etc.
The counter-ramp A-D converter (Fig 5)
The counter-ramp converter makes use of a D-A converter
to perform A-D conversion. A block diagram of this
converter is shown in Fig 5 (a). At the start of the conversion
cycle the digital counter starts to count from zero. An
analog output of the D-A converter corresponding to the
digital count is compared with the analog input. When the
two analog voltages are equal (within one step of the ramp)
the output of the analog comparator changes its state. This
stops the count and outputs a conversion complete signal
indicating that the outputs of the counter now correspond
to a digital code representing the analog input. The A-D
conversion is thus completed and the counter is reset to
start another ramp.
The counter-ramp and successive approximation A-
D converter: (a) the block diagram of a counter-ramp and
a successive approximation A-D converter (10) (b) the
analog waveforms in a successive approximation A-D
converter.
Counter-ramp converters are simple and stable but slow. In
the worst case of an input equal to the maximum, the
counter has to count through the full range for a conversion.
Assuming a clock rate of 1 MHz and an 8 bit output code
the rate of conversion is 106/28 4kHz. This type of
converter is also susceptible to noise and interference
superimposed on the input signal. An erroneous conversion
is made if an interference peak occurs which is big enough
to trip the comparator.
GPIB (General purpose interface bus)
The GPIB or General purpose interface bus or IEEE 488
bus is still one of the more popular and vessatile interface
standards available today.
GPIB is widely used for enabling electronics test equipment
to be controlled remotely. It can be used to control test
equipments and any form of electronic test equipment.
Today most bench electronics test equipment has either a It is one of the standard interfaces available in many stand
GPIB option or are fitted with it as standard fig 6(a) & 6 (b) alone, general purpose, high performance instruements for
shows GPIB connector on rear of the instrument. data acquision and control employing PC.
GPIB Standards (Fig 7)
GPIB standards include IEEE - 488 and the higher level
protocol IEEE - 4888.2 which is currently used as
mainstream. IEEE 488.2 features syntax for text data and
numeric expressions, commands and queries that can be
used by all instrument Fig 8 shows.
IEEE - 488 cable
IEEE - 488 cable
The GPIB has the following features
a The GPIB reduces the hardware for interfacing several
instruments to one interface bus.
b It allows interfacing of wide variety of instruments.
c Communication between the devices is very fast and
reliable.
d It is easy to setup and reconfigure.Fig 9 shows IEEE -
4888 GPIB connector.
Characteristus of GPIB
The GPIB is an ideal interface for measurement automation
in laboratories. It forms an integrated measurement system
by linking several laboratory instruments through the bus
and by allowing a PC to control all the instruments. The
GPIB has the following characteristics.
a The GPIB allows parallel and multidrop connections of
up to 15 devices to the bus
b Each device on the bus is classified as talker, listener
or controller.
c Each device on the bus has a unique address in the
range 0-30.
d Total bus length may be up to 20 m and distance
between each device may be up to 2 m.
e GPIB transfers information as 8-bit parallel data GPIB system
f Ues hardware handshaking with special bus lines for Fig 10 shows the structure of the GPIB interface. Information
data transfer. carried by the bus is sent over 24-pin cable which connects
computer to each device on the bus. GPIB allows a
g The maximum data transfer rate on GPIB bus is
maximum of 15 devices to be connected to the GPIB bus.
1 MB/s.
Each device connected to the GPIB serves as listener,
talker or controller at any one time.
Talker: A device that sends data to the bus is a talker. accommondate a maximum of only 15 devices, the primary
Examples of talkers are digital voltmeter and frequency address can range from 0 to 30. The primary address for an
counter. A talker will be instructed to talk (send) by a instrument on the bus is assigned by setting the DIP
controller by sending a command called talk address switches / jumpers provided at the rear side of the
command. Only one device on the bus will be instructed to instrument. Some instruments allow setting of the address
talk at a time. from the fornt panel. The controller board in the PC also has
an address and it is set during installation or by initializing
Listener: A device that receives data from the bus is a
software. The controller sends commands to all other
listener. Examples of listeners are X-Y plotter, waveform
devices on the bus. Communication between the devices
generator and programmable power supply. Listeners will
on the bus is accomplished by instructing a talker to send
be instructed to listen (receive) by a controller by sending
information and instructing one or more listeners to receive
a command called listen address command. More than
the information. In a given instant, only one device is
one device on the bus can be instructed to listen at a time.
instructing one or more listeners to receive teh information.
There can be up to 14 listeners on the bus. Devices such
In a given instant, only one device is instructing one or more
as, magnetic storage device and spectrum analyzer perfom
listeners to receive the information. In a given instant, only
both talk and listen function but one function at a time.
one device is instructed to talk and several devices may be
Controller: A device that manages flow of information on instructed to listen. The maximum data transfer rate on
the bus by sending command messages to all devices is GPIB bus is 1 MB /s.
a controller. The controller generates and transmits
GPIB Implementation
command strings to control other devices and it also
receives and interprets message strings from other devices. The GPIB is implemented with a GPIB controller adapter,
A controller can perform talk, listen and control functions. associated driver software, and GPIB cables apart from PC
The controller specifies other devices on the bus as talker and high performance instruments supporting GPIB interface.
or listener for data or command transfer. The GPIB requires The GPIB controller adapters are available in various forms.
at least one device on the bus to serve as the controller, and Adapters that plug directly into the internal PC bus are
it is usually a Pc. A GPIB allows more than one controller popular and offer high performance at low cost. Adapters
to be on the bus.Though there can be more than on that connecft to SCSI, serial ports, or parallel ports are
controller, only one controller can be active on the bus at easy to move from one computer to another, because they
any one time. A non-active controller may request control are external to the computer. The driver software provides
and the active control to the others. an interface between the GPIB controller adapter hardware
and the PC operating system. Implementation of GPIB
To facilitate communication, each device on the bus is
takes the following steps.
assigned a unique GPIB address, which is referred to as
the primary address of the device. Though a GPIB bus can
a The GPIB controller hardware and driver software are The GPIB specifies that the length of a cable connecting
installed in the PC. the two devices on a GPIB bus cannot exceed 2 m and the
total cable length in the system cannot exceed 20 m. The
b The PC and all the instruments are powered down.
devices on the GPIB bus can be connected in different
c Unique address for each instrumetn on the bus is set. configurations. The devices may be connected in linear
d All the instruments and the PC are connected in a configuarion as shown in Fig 12 (a) in star configuarion as
linear, star or linear / star combination configuration shown in Fig 12 (b) or in combination of both configurations.
using standard GPIB cables.
e The PC and the instruments are powered up. It completes
the GPIB hardware implementation.
f Data transfer between the constituents of the GPIB
system is carried out by the software run on the
controller.
The components of the GPIB system are capable of talking
to each other. However, the intelligence of conversation
depends on the versatility of software controlling the
system.
GPIB connector and connection configurations : The
GPIB uses a 24-pin cable to carry GPIB signals between
the devices. The GPIB cable has both a male and a female
connector at each end. The pin configuraion of GPIB GPIB pins and signals : Table 1 lists the GPIB pins and
connector is shown in Fig 11 (a). The GPIB connectors can signals. The GPIB uses 16 lines for its signals and eight
be stacked as shown in Fig 11 (b). lines for ground. The signal lines are grouped as data lines,
control lines, and handshake lines. All lines on the GPIB
operate at the TTL levels, but the uses negative logic. The
negative logic means that voltage level less than 0.8 V
corresponds to logic 1 and voltage level greater than 2.0 V
corresponds to logic 0. The signal lines are driven by open-
collector or tri-state drivers. The standard bus termination
for the lines driven by open-collectors is a 3 k resistor
connected to +5 V in series with a 6.2 k resistor to
ground.
Pin Label Signal name Pin Label Signal name

1 DIOI Data 13 DIO5 Data
2 DIO2 Data 14 DIO6 Data
5 EOI End or identify 17 REN Remote enable
6 DAV Data valid 18 GND Twisted-pair ground with DAV
7 NRFD Not ready for data 19 GND Twisted pair ground with NRFD
8 NDAC Not data accepted 20 GND Twisted pair ground with NDAC
9 IFC Interface clear 21 GND Twisted pair ground with IFC
10 SRQ Service request 22 GND Twisted pair ground with SRQ
11 ATN Attention 23 GND Twisted pair ground with ATN
12 Shield Chassis ground 24 GND Signal ground
Data lines: The GPIB has 8-bit data bus and uses the eight Bus control lines: The GPIB has five bus control lines.
data lines for sending data and command bytes from a They are ATN, IFC, REN, EOI and SRQ line uses open
talker or the controller to one or more listeners. collector. The functions of the bus control lines are as
DIO8-DIO1: The GPIB Data input-output bus is an 8-bit, bi- follows.
directional bus operating at teh TTL voltage levels. The
GPIB uses the 7 LSB bits for the ASCII code. The one MSB
bit is used for parity or unused.
RS-232 : It telecommunications RS-232, Recommanded
standard 232 (1) is a standard originally introduced in 1960
(2) for serial communication transmisison of data. It formally
defines signals connecting between a DTE (data terminal
equipment) such as a computer terminal, and a DCE (data
circuit-terminating equipment or data communication
equipment), such as a modem. The standard defines the
Electronics characteristics and timing of signals, the
meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of
connectors. The RS-232 standard had been commonly
used in computer serial ports and is still widely used in
industrial communication devices.
Pin Assignment
A serial port complying with the RS-232 standard was once
a standard feature of many types of computers. Personal RS232 Pin configuration
computers used them for connections not only to modems, New RS232 has nine pins as mentioned earlier. These nine
but also to printers, computer mice, data storage, pins are arranged in the ports shown in RS232 connector
uninterruptible power supplies, and other peripheral devices. pinout. The DCE and DTE ports are exactly similar except
RS-232 when compared to later interfaces susch as RS- for the direction of data flow. These nine pins are roughly
422, RS-485 and Ethernet (Fig 13) has lower transmission divided in to three categories and we will discuss each
speed, short maximum cable length, large voltage swing, category below.
large standard connectors, no multipoint capability and RS232 features and specifications
limited multidrop capability. In modern personal computer,
USB has displaced RS-232 from most of its peripheral 1 RS232 uses asynchronous communication so no clock
interface roles. Few computers come equipped with RS- is shared between PC and MODEM.
232 ports today, so one must use either an external USB- 2 Logic ‘1’ on pin is stated by voltage of range ‘-15V to -
to-RS-232 converter or an internal expansion card with one 3V’ and Logic ‘0’ on pin is stated by voltge of range ‘+3V
or more serial ports to connect to RS-232 peripherals. to 15V’. The logic has wide voltage range giving
Neverthe less, thanks to their simplicity and past ubiquity, convenience for user.
RS-2323 interfaces are still used-particularly in industrial
machines, networking equipment, and scientific instruments 3 MAX232 IC can be installed easily to establish RS232
where a shortrange point-to-point, low-speed wired data interface with microcontrollers.
connection is fully adequate RS-232 used to have 25 pin 4 Full duplex interface of RS232 is very convenient.
(Fig 14) now it is shrunk to just 9 pin (Fig 15 & 16)
5 Two pin simplex RS232 interface can also be established
easily if required.
6 A maximum data transfer speed of 19 Kbps (Kilobits
per second) is possible through RS232.
7 A maximum current of 500 mA can be drawn from pins
of RS232
8 The interface can be estabilshed up to a distance of 50
feet.
Disadvantages of RS232
1 There is no pin dedicated for powering devices (No VCC)
2 More communications pins
3 Switching voltages between +15v and -15v is difficult at
higher speeds
4 A maximum speed of 19 Kbps
5 A maximum distance of 50 feet
6 More pins lead to higher noise
7 Only a single device can be connected to RS232
connector unlike 12C
8 Need hardware to convert high voltage logic of RS232 to
be compatible to TTL (controller and processor units)
Where RS232 is used ?
A few examples where RS232 are suitable to use: 3 Servers
1 When you want a simple communication interface 4 Memory devices
between two units. A two pin full duplex communication
5 Motor control units
can be establishes easily on RS232 port.
6 Printers and scanners
2 RS232 is used in systems where clock sharing is
difficult. RS232 is ASYNCHRONOUS so there will be 7 Telephone lines
no clock sharing between systems. All you need to do 8 Used basically where serial data transfer is required
is set data bit rate for each unit. Once baud rate is set
the units will sample the data according to set baud
rate.
3 RS232 is also used to control a single unit specifically
without delay or errors.
4 RS232 interface also delivers data with more accuracy
which is a requirement in some cases.
Applications
1 Personal computer
2 Modems
Pin name Pin name Description

DATA p;ins (Data flow takes through these pins)
2 RXD ReceiveData(Data is received though this pin)
3 TXD Transmit Data (Data is transmitted through this pin)
CONTROL pins (These pins are for estabilishing interface and to avoid data loss)
1 CD Carrier Detect (Set by MODEM when answer is received by remote MODEM
4 DTR Data Terminal Ready (Set by PC to prepare MODEM to be connected to telephone
circuit)
6 DSR Data set ready (set by MODEM to tell PC it is ready to receive and send data)
7 RTS Request to send (set by PC to tell MODEM that MODEM can begin sending data)
8 CTS Clear to send (Set by MODEM to tell PC that it is ready to receive data)
9 RI Set by MODEM to tell PC a ringing condition has been detected.
Reference
5 GND Grouund (Used as reference for all pin voltage pulses)
Instrument Mechanic - Digital meters & CRO
Working of frequency meter, phase measuring meter, time measuring

instrument and digital capacitary meter
• explain the digital instruments
• explain the working principle of frequency meter
• explain the working principle of phase measuring meter
• explain the working principle of time measuring instrument
• explain the working principle of digital capacitnce meter.
Digital Instrument Transducer - The transducer is used for converting the

Definition non-Electronics or physical quantities (temperature,
displacement etc.) into an Electronics quantity like voltage,
The instrument which represents the measurand value in current etc. which is easily measured by the meter. The
the form of the digital number is known as the digital transducer is not required for the Electronics input.
instruments. It works on the principle of quantization. The
quantization is the process of converting the continuous Signal modifier - It is used for modifying the input signal
input signal into a countable output signal. of very weak strength.
The construction of the digital instrument is very complex, Display device - The display device is used for showing
and their cost is also very high. The digital instruments the measurand quantities in the numeric form. Mostly LED
consume very less power as compared to analogue or LCD is used as digital display.
instruments. The digital multimeter, digital voltmeter, digital Advantages of digital instrument
frequency meter etc., are the examples of the digital 1 The digital instruments display the reading in the
instruments. numeric form which reduces the error.
Important characteristic of digital instruments 2 The digital output is obtained by the instrument which
The digital devices have following important features acts as an input for the memorable devices like floppy,
1 The accuracy of the digital electronic instrument is very recorder, printer etc.
much high. 3 The power consumption is less in the digital instruments.
2 The digital instrument consists sensitive elements Disadvantages of digital instruments
which are easily reacted with the surrrounding The follwing are the disadvantages of the digital electronics.
temperature and humidity.
1 The overloading capacity of the instrumetn is low.
3 The input impedance of the digital instrument is very
high because of which it can draw very less power. 2 It is a temperature sensitive device. The digital instrument
is made by the very delicate element which is easily
4 The digital instrument is less portable. affected by the atmospheric condition.
5 The cost of the instrument is high. 3 The effect of noise is more on digital electronics as
6 The instrument is free from the parallax error. compared to the analogue instruments.
In analogue instruments, the pointer is used for indicating Digital frequency meter circuit diagram and working
the measuring voltage becuase of which the parallax error principle :The frequency of periodic electric voltage or
occurs. While in digital instruments the output is display on cuurent can be determined directly by the use of a
the screen. Thus, the chances of errors are less on it. frequency meter or indirectly through a comparison with a
The Construction of digital instrument is shown in the known frequency. One of the many frequency meters that
fig below (Fig 1) directly indicates frequency is reed -type meter of the
following fig 2.
The transducer, signal modifier and the display devices are

the important part of the digital instrument.
266
Indicator Dial (Fig 3) flops. The signals to be fed must be of the same frequency.
First the signals must be shaped to a square waveform
without any change their phase positions, by the use of a
zero crossing detector. The process of measuring the
phase difference can be illustrated by the schematic
diagram shown in Fig 6.
In this type of meter, many reeds are mounted on a

common support, with their free ends visible on the meter
face. Each reed has its own natural requency of vibration.
When an internal electromagnet is excited by the current
of unknown frequency, an alternating magnetic field is
produced. If the frequency of the field corresponds to the Fig 6 show the block diagram consists of two paris of
vibration frequency of the reed, that particular reeds vibrate preamplifier’s, zero crossing detectors, J-K and a single
with consibderable amplitude. If two adjacent reeds bibrate control gate. Two signals having phases P0 and Px
with the same amplitude, the unknown frequency is halfway respectively are applied as inputs to the preamplifier and
between those indicated by the two vibrating reeds. The attenuation circuit. The frequency of the two inputs is the
reed-type meter is useful only at low frequencies and only same but their phases are different.
over a limited range of frequencies.
As the P0 input signal increase in the positive half cycle, the
Another type of frequency meter is the digital frequency zero crossing detector changes its state when the input
meter, which measures frequency up to about 100 MHZ crosses zero (0) giving a high (1) level at the output. This
and displays a digital readout of the measured frequency causes the J-KF/F-1 to be set 91) that is, the output (Q) of
as shown in fig 4. F/F-1 goes high. This high output from the F/F-1 enables
the AND gate, and pulses from the clock are fed directly to
the counter. The counter starts counting these pulses.
Also this high output level of F/F-1 is applied to the clear
input of F/F-2 which makes the output of hte F/F-2 go to
zero (0).
Now as the input P, which has a phase difference with
respect to P0, crosses zero (0) in the positive half cycle, the
zero detector is activated, causing its output to go high (1)
. This high input in turn toggles the J-KF/F-2, making its
output go high. This output (Q) of F/F-2 is connected to the
clear input of F/F-1 forcing the F/F-1 to reset. Hence the
output of F/F-1 goes to zero (0). The AND gate is thus
disabled and the counter stops counting fig 7 shows digital
phase measuring meter.
The digital frequency meter is commonly called a counter Digital capacitance meter
since it determines the frequency by electronically counting Digital capacitance meter - since the capacitance is
the number of cycles of an unknown signal in a standard linearly proportional to the time constant, when a capacitor
time interval, usually 1 second. The following figure describes is charged by a constrant current source and discharged
the basic working principle of digital frequnency meter. through a fixed resistance, we can use a 555 timer along
Working Principle of Digtial Frequency Meter (Fig 5) with some digital test equipment to measure capacitances.
In above figure 5 pulse conversion block converts the The way is to measure the time period of the oscillations.
sinusoidal signal into a discrete set of pulses. The train of By choosing the right size of charging resistance, can get
discrete pulses then then passes through the gate which a reading directly in microfarads or nanofards. Unlike many
remains open for a certain time. The electronic counter capacitance measuring schemes, this one easily handles
counts these pulses from gate output. The resultant value electrolytics up to the tens of thousands of microfarads.
is displayed on main meter screen. In addition to its basic A better way is to measure only the capacitor discharge
function of measuring frequency, the counter can count time, as shown in Fig 8. With this method, any leakage in
uniform or random pulses or events and displays the total. the capacitor under test will make the capacitor appear
Digital phase meter: The simplest technique to measure smaller in value than it actually is and is an effective
the phase difference between two signals employs two flip- indicator of how the test capacitor will behave in most
timing and by pass circuits.
Digital measurement of time
The principle of operation of digital measurement of time is
given by
The beginning of the time period is the start pulse originating
from input 1, and the end of the time period is the stop pulse
coming from input 2.
The oscillator runs continuously, but the oscillator pulses
In this circuit, the 555 timer is used as an astable reach the output only during the period when the control F/
multivibrator. At the peak of the charging curve, a digital F is in the 1 state. The number of output pulses counted is
counter is reset and a clock of 100 kHz pulses is turned on a measure of the time peirod.
and routed to the counter. When the discharge portion of Time base selector
the cycle is completed, the display is updated and the It is clear that in order to know the value of frequency of the
value of the capacitor is readout. By selecting the proper input signal, the time interval between the start and stop of
reference frequency and charging currents, one can obtain the gate must be accurately known. This is called time
a direct digital display of the value of the capacitance. base.
Be sure to properly shield the leads and keep them short The time base consist of a fixed frequency crystal oscillator,
for low capacity measurements, since the 50 Hz hum can called a clock oscillator, which has to be very accurate. In
cause some slight instability. order to ensure its accuracy, the crystal is enclosed in a
constant temperature oven. The output of this constant obtain good accuracy at low frequency. we should take
frequency oscillator is fed to a schmitt trigger, which measurements of the period, rather than make direct
converts the input sine wave to an output consisting of a frequency measurements. The circuit used for measuring
train of pulses at a rate equal to the frequency of the clock frequency can be used for the measurement of time peirod
oscillator. The train of pulses then passes through a series if the counted signal and gating signal are interchanged.
of frequency divider decade assemblies connected in The circuit for measurement of time period. The gating
cascade. Each decade divider consists of a decade signal is derived from the unknown input signal, which now
counter and divides the frequency by ten. Outputs are controls the enabling and disabling of the main gate. The
taken from each decade frequency divider by means of a number of pulses which occur during one peirod of the
selector switch; any output may be selected. unknown signal are counted and displayed by the decade
The circuit of fig 9 consists of a clock oscillator having a 1 counting assemblies. The only disadvantage is that for
MHz frequency. The output of the schmitt trigger is 106 measuring the frequency from the time by using the
pulses per secon and this point corresponds to a time of 1 equation f = 1/T.
microsecond. Hence by using a 6 decade frequency For example, when measuring the period of a 60 Hz
divider, a time base with a range of 1 us - 10 s - 100 s frequency, the electronic counter might display 16.6673
- 1 ms - 10 ms - 1 s can be selected using a selector switch. ms, whence the frequency is
f = 1/T = 1 = 59.9977 Hz
16.6673 x 10 -3
the accuracy of the period measurement and hence of

frequency can be greatly increased by using the multiple
period average mode of operation. In this mode, the main
gate is enabled for more than one period of the unknown
signal. This is obtained by passing the unknown signal
through one or more decade divider assemblies (DDAs) so
that the period is extended by a factor of 10,000 or more.
Hence, the digital display shows more digital of information,
thus increasing accuracy. However, the decimal point
Measurement of time (peirod measurement) location and measurement units are usually changed each
In some cases it is necessary to measure the time period time an additional decade is added, so that the display is
rather than the frequency. This is especially true in the always in terms of the period of one cycle of the input
measurement of frequency in the low frequency range. To signal, even through the mesurements may have lasted for
10,100 or more cycles.
Working principle of oscilloscopes

• list the five main functional blocks of a typical oscilloscope
• list the main parts of a CRT
• explain the need and method of post acceleration system
• explain the term Astigmatism
• explain the trigger and trigger method used in oscilloscopes
• explain how Lissajous figures can be used for frequency and Phase measurement
• explain the need of dual-beam oscilloscope and the main difference in the tube assembly used
• explain the need and principle of working of sampling oscilloscopes
• explain the working of storage tube in storage oscilloscope.
After using the Oscilloscopes in many of the previous Fig 1 illustrates the simplified functional block diagram of
exercises, you must be now familiar with the use of the internal parts of an oscilloscope.
Oscilloscope. Hence, this lesson will focus on the working
Referring to the block diagram of a general oscilloscope
principle and internal details of a typical oscilloscopes
shown in Fig 1, observe that there are Five main functional
used in laboratory tests.
units. These enable to display the input signal waveform.
Oscilloscope is an electrostatic measurement device. The
1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
movable pointer is composed of electrons being subjected
to applied electrostatic field to be measured. As electrons 2 The Vertical amplifier : This provide ample deflection of
are the lightest charged particles, they can directly respond the input signal.
to very fast changes of the Electronics field strength. The
3 The Horizontal amplifier combined with the Sweep
heart of a Oscilloscope is the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
oscillator/time-base: This provide suitable time base
which makes the signal visible by the actio of an electronic
deflection in synchronism with the input signal.
beam.
Electron Optical lens: This does the compression of the
electron beam onto a thin line as shown in Fig 3.
The effect of the electron optical system quite similar to the

effect of a convex lens on visible light. By changing the
potential of G2 towards A with the help of P2, the focal
4 The Power supply: This is made-up of a low voltage length of the lens can be set to produce a depiction which
section and a high voltage section. This supplies the is well in focus on the screen. After having passed the
required power to all the internal parts of the oscillo- electron optical lens, a parallel beam is obtained having a
scope. circular cross-section of a very small diameter.
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Anode: It is the last electrode of the beam generating
system. It is supplied by a voltage which may range
All the parts of the cathode ray tube is housed inside an between 1 and 5KV with respect to cathode. This high
evacuated glass enclosure as shown in Fig 2. CRT produces potential accelerates the electrons to a considerable high
a narrow beam of electrons from an electron gun assembly,. speed. This high speed (kinetic energy) is converted into a
This beam is than accelerated and impinges at high speed visual trace on the screen. The center of the anode is
on the phosphorescent coating (screen) of the tube face. designed as a hole, hence the electrons are channelled
The impact of the narrow beam of electrons on the through it and continue to travel with a constant velocity
phosphor produces a single small spot of light on the before hitting the phosphor material behind the face of the
screen. It is this small round spot of light that traces out the screen of CRT.
pattern of the wave form as it is moved by the vertical and
horizontal deflecting plates of the CRT. Deflection Plates: After having passed the anode opening,
the electrons approach the uniform fields of the deflection
plates. First they reach the Y-plates which deflect the
beam in vertical direction. After that they pass the X-plates
designed quite the same way as the Y-plates but turned 90
degrees towards the Y-plate. This way they deflect the
beam in horizontal direction. The voltage to be measured
is applied to the Y-plates, which deflects the beam by an
amount (say) S as shown in Fig 4. Further details of the
CRT is discussed later.
Cathode: The cathode is indirectly heated. Due to a

barium oxide layer on the cathode surface, a temperature
of around 800°C is needed to emit sufficient number of
electrons per unit of time. Vertical Amplifier
Wehnelt Cylinder: This is designed as an orifice plate. It The frequency response characteristics and sensitivity of
is connected to a negative voltage towards the cathode the oscilloscope are determined chiefly by the vertical
which controls the beam and intensity with the help of P1. amplifier. Greater the sensitivity means narrower bandwidth.
This way the brightness of the screen trace can be This is because, the product of gain times bandwidth is
adjusted. constant for a given amplifier.
Therefore the sensitivity of the oscilloscope is specified as a, the electrons have to pass the same difference of
so many volts/cm of vertical deflection at mid-band potential resulting in the same final velocity for each of
frequency. The 3db down response will also be specified at them. Eventually they hit the fluorescent screen with a very
some specific band edge frequencies. high speed thus producing a bright trace.
Sweep Oscillator Fluorescent screen
The sweep oscillator for generating the time base in a The screen of an oscilloscope is covered from inside with
typical general purpose oscilloscope has a frequency a fluorescent substance which consists of zinc compounds.
range from say from 10Hz to 30 KHz. It is controlled by a They differ from each other by different persistence and
coarse-frequency switch and a fine-frequency variable different colours. Once the electrons hit the fluorescent
control. The scope can thus display as many as 5 cycles material they excite it for visible light radiation as shown in
of a 50Hz input and 10 cycles of 300 KHz input. Fig 6.
Almost in all oscilloscopes the time base is synchronized,
allowing a choice between “internal” and “external”
synchronization. In the internal sync position, the fine-
frequency control is adjusted to set the sweep frequency
as close as possible to the desired sub multiple of the input
signal, then a small amount of the synchronizing voltage
from the input signal locks the pattern into a stationary
display. Further details about triggering is discussed in
subsequent paragraphs.
The high velocity electrons hit the atoms of the light
Horizontal Amplifier emitting substance and they lift their electrons to orbits
The horizontal amplifier serves two purposes. In ordinary (around the atom core) which are of a higher energy level.
waveform presentation, it amplifies the time-base voltage They stay there for a certain short time which is typical for
from the sweep oscillator. A control makes it possible to each substance. After that they fall back to their original
adjust the width of the resulting pattern. When switched out orbit of lower energy level. The energy difference is emitted
of the internal sync position, it accepts an external signal as a light quantum h.v (‘h’ being PLANCK’s natural constant
applied to the horizontal terminals and amplifies the and v, the frequency of the radiated light).
horizontal signal to the amount required for horizontal In order to avoid a negative charging of the screen trace (due
deflection. More details about the x -deflection is discussed to the charges of the arriving electrons) a thin metal layer
in further paragraphs. of the thickness of only a few molecules is deposited on the
Post acceleration system screen from inside. It is transparent and grounded in order
to draw out the incoming charge.
A high velocity of the electrons would certainly a cause
bright appearance of the depicted spot on the screen. A Astigmatism
high speed is obtained from a high anode voltage, which The cross section area of the beam should be a narrow
unfortunately would spoil a good deflection S. But both circle, and so should the light spot on the screen. For this
good deflection and a bright depiction need be coped up purpose the electric fields of the beam generating
with. components need be extremely symmetrical and the
To achieve this a post acceleration system is introduced. deflection fields should be homogenous. Because of this
This system does not effect the deflection angle a, but only condition the potentials right in the middle between the y-
provides additional acceleration to the electrons. For this and the x- plates need to be the one of the anode as well
purpose concentric rings made from graphite or a spiral are as the one of the orifice plate between them which serves
introduced into the conical part of the glass bulb as shown shielding purposes. The symmetry is set to its necessary
in Fig 5. amount with the help of potentiometer P3. In case P3 is not
properly adjusted the horizontally deflected beam may be
depicted well in focus but the vertically deflected one may
produce a wide screen appearance as shown in Fig 7.
Modern scopes provide low tolerances for all components.
So there is no need for any astigmatism potentiometer. But
older types may still have it.
Their potential rises up to 5 kV. The rings provide areas of

equal potential which are ball sections, having their centre
at the locus of deflection. This design allows a post
acceleration independently of the deflection angle. For any
Time base Power supply
In order to deflect the beam horizontally proportional to time Different voltages required for the oscilloscope is obtained
a voltage Vx is needed which rises linearly with time. It is from this unit. The exact value of voltages required for each
used to control the position of the light spot on the screen model of the oscilloscope depends on the type of CRT
in x-direction. Its lowest value Vx min should set the beam used, the type of circuit components used and so..on.
to the left edge of the screen and its highest one Vx max However essentially any CRO need a high voltage supply
to the right edge. The whole run should be provided for the CRT and low voltage supply for the electronic
repeatedly. The switching back from the right to the left circuits.
edge should be effected as fast as possible. So, a saw
Lissajous figures
tooth X-deflection voltage as shown in Fig 8 serves this
purpose. For trace 2 the deflection is slower than for Lissajous figures are depictions of two voltages applied to
trace 1. the Y- and X- plates which are periodical time functions. But
the depiction on the screen is independent of the time.
Whether the frequencies of Vx and Vy change fast or slow is
not decisive. The trace will be the same in any case.
Frequency measurements
Lissajous figures can be obtained from independent voltages
Vx and Vy.In this case they are usually used for frequency
measurements. The unknown frequency can be determined
if the other one is known. Consider Fig 10a, the first graph
Trigger method depicts a voltage Vx of frequency fx and a voltage Vy of the
frequency fy = 2fx. The Lissajous figure can be sketched with
The trigger instant of the saw tooth is linked to a certain the help of the voltage pairs Vx, Vy for the 9 sample points.
instantaneous value of the measurand, the trigger level,
and its slope. Once the trigger level is reached by Vm at a The same result for the frequency fy is obtained from the
positive slope as shown in Fig 9, the beam starts at the left second and third illustrations at Fig 10b and Fig 10c. But
edge, for at that instant VST = Vx min. The light spot travels here the Lissajous figure appears quite different due to the
with a certain speed in x-direction across the screen phase shifted Uy. By these figures, if one frequency is
according to the slope of VST and finally reaches the right known the other can be determined. But the ratio of fy/fx
edge. needs to be a proper fraction in order to obtain a standing
screen depiction. This condition can be met with the help
of a tunable frequency generator for fx. As long as the
frequency condition is not fulfilled the depiction changes its
shape continuously.
VST is equal to Vx max then. Immediately after Vxmax was reached

the beam is switched back to the left edge where the trace
of the measurand during the positive slope of VST. No
depiction appears during the fly back time and the waiting
time of the spot.
The trigger “level” may be shifted throughout the whole
Frequency measurements employing the Lissajous method
voltage range between peak to peak value of the measured.
have lost importance because electronic frequency counters
Doing this the depiction appears to be shifted in x-direction.
provide easy handling possibilities and high accuracy.
The slope of the saw tooth voltage VST can be changed in
Phase measurements
wide range from very slow to very fast allowing to depict
many periods of the measurand on the screen but also only If the Lissajous figure is one continuous loop as in the third
part of it. depiction of Fig 10c. The frequencies fx and fy are equal. In
this case the figure can also be used to determine the min to Vxmax. In this way the beam is deflected in steps from
phase angle j between Vx and Vy. the left edge to the right edge. The step width is 1/10 of Vxmax
- Vx min. In this way the light emitting spot on the screen
ADVANCED OSCILLOSCOPES
leaps from one depicted dot to the other. A dotted trace
Dual Beam Oscilloscope occurs. It gives quite a good imagination of the actual
In circumstance while measuring high frequency signal a signal.
dual trace may not be fast enough to display in either its
“alternate mode” or “chopping mode”. For such application
the oscilloscope need to have two separate electron guns
in one tube assembly. Such oscilloscopes are more
expensive than general single beams oscilloscopes.
Sampling oscilloscopes
To extend the range of oscilloscopes to hundreds of
megahertz, a highly effective method is used called the
sampling method. This method looks at the successive
points with each sweep. In this way the sweep need recur
only in kilohertz range to investigate and display signals in
mega and gigahertz range. By this method even though the
display produced may be dotted in form, it is possible to The number of sampling pulses needed for a full depiction
visualize waveform patterns reasonably well. of one cycle, times the period duration of the measurand,
Measurands of very high frequencies (> 100 MHz) cannot equals the time for depicting the trace once. The screen
be directly depicted using the trigger method. But the shows a time expanded appearance of Vm. It is a
sampling method can cope up with such signals in case stroboscopic presentation of the measurand.
they are periodical. The measured voltage Vm is continuously Storage Oscilloscope
scanned by taking a sample, during each cycle. But the
The ability to store a display on the oscilloscope screen
time instant of measurement is slightly shifted consecutively
has great utility for observing the transients and other
for each new sample. The principle of the input circuit of a
phenomenon in cased where it is not practicable to relay
sampling scope is shown in Fig 11.
on photographic the trace at critical moments or in a rapidly
changing circumstances. The storage oscilloscopes makes
it possible to store repetitive signals from very low rates up
to several hundred kilohertz and also single transients.
Images of high contrast can be stored for several months
. Storage oscilloscopes can provide readout for computers,
printers and plotters such that leisurely examination of any
waveform is possible.
CRT of Storage Oscilloscopes
The sampling gate is periodically activated for a very short Storage tube: Light emitting fluorescent substances are
sample time, scanning the voltage Vm which is provided by available with wide ranges of their persistance. But
its source generator. During the sample time the capacitor fluorescent materials with a very long persistance cannot
C is charged. It takes over a voltage equal to the cope with non-repetitive measurement voltages, which are
instantaneous value of Vm during the sample time. After the available only once. The screen depiction may emerge too
sampling gate has opened, the charge of the capacitor fast for proper assessment. In such cases storage tubes
remains unchanged and so does its voltage. It is held are of good advantage. The principle of action is shown in
constant until the gate is switched-on again and another Vm Fig 12.
may change the capacitor voltage. This means: during the
Behind the screen there is additionally a storage layer,
pause between two sample pulses, the capacitor voltage
which is positively charged. Once the incoming electrons
stays constant and an amplifier provides it at a higher
reach this layer, they neutralize it at the location of the
(energy) level as Vy.
trace to be depicted (due to their own negative charge).
The rising signal Vm to be measured causes a trigger pulse According to the function y(t) which the electron ray marks,
periodically as shown in Fig 11. This in turn generate a neutral trace is left behind amidst the positively charged
sampling pulses with a delay as shown in Fig 12. Each area of the storage layer. This happens within the ‘writing’
sample pulse connects the capacitor C for a very short time mode of the scope which stores the information this way.
to the measurand and takes over its instantaneous voltage. For watching the trace a second source needs to be
Hence Vy changes in steps following Vm. If there are 10 employed which emits electrons in a diffused way with
sample pulses during 10 period durations of Vm, the voltage comparatively low kinetic energy. These electrons (uniformly
Vy has followed in steps only once. The x-plates are distributed) are sprayed at the storage layer. At the
supplied by a step voltage arising in equal steps from Vx location of the neutral trace they may pass and can excite
the fluorescent layer for light emission. The trace becomes when low-level signals are being examined with
visible. At the other positively charged area the electrons correspondingly high-gain settings on the scope. It is most
cannot pass. Their negative charge recombines with the effective in relatively low-frequency circuits, where cable
positive charges and this part of the field remains in dark. capacitance is not too important, and in such cases allows
At first a bright trace (or spot) appears within a dark the maximum sensitivity of the scope to be used. However,
surrounding producing a beautiful contrast. But gradually, the shunt capacitance of the probe and cable is added to
more incoming electrons discharge the positive area of the the input impedance and capacitance of the scope, and
surrounding field and finally they all manage to pass over lowers the scope’s response to high impedance and high-
to the screen thus exciting light emission everywhere. The frequency circuits being tested. Where this effect becomes
contrast emerges and the stored information disappears important, the isolation probe is used.
gradually, because the whole area gets neutralized
Isolation probe
eventually. This happens within the scope mode of ‘view’.
Usually a short time of viewing may be sufficient to assess To avoid the undesired circuit loading, the isolation probe
the measurand. So one should switch over to the mode is used to decrease the input capacitance and increase the
‘store’ in order to sustain the information. The storage time input resistance of the oscilloscope. The low-capacitance
ranges up to 60 hours for storage scopes these days, even probe attenuates the scope’s input capacitance usually by
for the switched off device. Advances in the technology of a 10:1 ratio, necessarily attenuating the input signal by the
insulation materials provide this feature. In case a new same ratio. To equalize the time constant, resistors are
trace should be stored, the whole layer needs be ‘erased’ commonly placed across the voltage-dividing capacitors.
first. This is effected by recharging its entire area positively. Where it is desired to measure signals of high enough
Storage tubes are expensive. The most recent oscilloscopes voltage to damage the scope’s input circuity, signal
store the information in digital memories. The most recent attenuation is desired, and a high-voltage probe is used.
of storage oscilloscopes are the digital storage Such a probe consists of a resistive or capacitive voltage-
oscilloscopes. Refer books listed at the end for information divider circuit as shown in Fig 13. These probes allows only
on digital storage oscilloscopes. a small portion of the input signal to reach the scope, but
preserves the waveform accurately. When isolation probes
General Accessories of Oscilloscopes are used to measure the magnitude of test voltages, the
Marker Generator attenuation factor by which the probe divides the input
signal voltage must obviously be known, and measurements
The marker generator provides visual time-interval or calculated accordingly.
frequency reference marks on the scope trace. Such
markers can select time intervals from 1 microsecond all
the way upto 5 seconds. These are particularly useful in
rise-time and pulse-duration measurements.
Electronic switch
The electronic switch displays two signals simultaneously
on single-trace scopes. It is essentially a square-wave
generator. The two signals which are viewed are each
connected to a separate grid of a dual-section amplifier Detector or Demodulator probe : The detector or
tube, operating with cutoff bias. The square wave is applied demodulator probe is used in analyzing response to high-
in such a fashion that is alternately unblanks each tube frequency modulated signals used in communication, as in
section, thus presenting each signal alternately to the the R-F section of AM, FM and TV receivers. By rectifying
vertical amplifier of the scope, with appropriate vertical and by-passing the radio frequency, the modulation envelope
spacing between the signals. When the switching rate is is displayed on the scope. This allows a scope capable of
high enough, each signal appears continuous, even though only audio-frequency response to trace communication
it is actually being periodically interrupted. Switching rates signals in the range of hundreds of megahertz a range
as high as 100 kilohertz are available. which would otherwise be far beyond the capabilities of all
but highly specialised scopes. The detector probe separates
Oscilloscope probes the audio-frequency modulation component from the radio-
The probe connects the test circuit to the testing instrument, frequency carrier.
without appreciably altering, loading, or otherwise disturbing The detector circuit of the probe is shown in Fig 14.
the test circuit. Although probes may be given many After being rectified by diode D, the audio signal
different names, they fall into three principle types: corresponding to the original modulation is passed on to
1 Direct probe (or test cable) the output terminals. The resulting display of the audio
signal can then be used to indicate the proper alignment
2 Circuit-isolation (or voltage-divider) probes and response of each tuned R-F circuit.
3 Detector (or demodulator) probe. Summary of major applications of oscilloscopes : It
would be inpractical even to attempt a complete listing of
Direct probe : This simplest probe is a shielded coaxial all the applications of the oscilloscope. However a few
cable. It avoids the stray pickup that can be troublesome major fields of application are listed below:
1 Measurements of instantaneous voltage and of current
(indirectly)
2 Amplifier gain, frequency response and phase relations
3 Rise time and duration of pulses
4 Modulation percentage
5 Distortion
6 Timing comparisons of pulse trains as in ignition
systems, vibration studies, telemetry and digital
techniques.
7 Response of tuned circuits
8 Industrial display of non-Electronics quantities, using
transducers for mechanical, thermal, optical, acoustic,
chemical, biological and nuclear properties.
Measurement using dual trace oscilloscope - 1

• procedure to calibrate the given CRO using internal calibration signals
• procedure to measure frequency and phase of a signal using Lissajous waveform method
• procedure to measure the propagation delay in digital signals using a divide-eight-counter.
This class room session is expected to be highly interactive drafts and suitable correction to it. After discussing all the
and brainstorming. In this session, the instructor should drafts (4 drafts in a class of 16 trainees), the instructor
take-up each of the objective listed above separately and should generate a procedure taking all vital points from the
guide the trainees to develope a procedure for carrying out drafts. This shall be used as the final procedure for carrying
the task. For example, in this classroom session, the out the task in the laboratory.
instructor should first take-up the first objective “ procedure
The same procedure should be repeated for all the tasks
to calibrate the given CRO using internal calibration
given under the objectives for this lesson.
signals” and brief the trainees the nature of task (calibration
of CRO). NOTE TO TRAINEES
The instructor should then divide the class into 4 groups – Do not waste time in drawing beautiful/colourful sketches
and instruct them to draft the procedure to carry out the of the test setup. Just rough pencil sketches will do.
task in hand (“to calibrate the given CRO using internal
– Refer to books and or consult your instructor when you
calibration signals”). To aid the trainees work, they should
are in doubt.
be provided with copies of the oscilloscope manuals,
related reference books (available in the library) and advised – Give opportunity for every trainee in you batch to give his
to refer previous lessons on oscilloscope. With these idea.
reference materials in hand and the demonstration
– Jot down ideas given by the group members. This will
witnessed by them in the previous exercises, the trainee
help you finalize the draft more easily and in less time.
groups should draft the procedure for carrying out the task
in hand (each group should develop one draft).
Instructor to refer IG for more tips on conducting
The draft developed by each group should be discussed this brainstorming session.
with the entire class. During the discussion, the trainees
should be motivated to point out procedural errors in the
Controls and functions in oscilloscopes
• explain the use of X5 and X10 magnification of in the certical deflection factor control
• explain the use of different coupling modes of the vertical input.
• explain the use of CH1 and CH2 inputs of a dual trace oscilloscope effectively
• explain the use of Alternate and Choped modes for two inputs
• list the use of different triggring modes such as INT, EXT, EXT/5 orEXT/10
• list the use of different trigger source coupling modes such as LF reject, HF reject
• list the use of different sweep display modes
• explain the use of X-Y mode of operation
• explain the use of Z -axis input.
Introduction Horizontal and vertical position

In addition to the standard front panel controls of a general Horizontal position (indicated on some scopes as <--->
purpose oscilloscopes, certain of the controls and functions and vertical position (indicated on some scopes as ) are
which are essential while displaying the measurand clearly used to shift the trace horizontally and vertically respectively.
are discussed in this lesson. Also some tips while using There is usually a common horizontal position control in a
the oscilloscope are also discussed in this lesson. dual trace oscilloscope. The position control shifts both the
traces in the horizontal direction simultaneously. However,
Focus and Intensity
there are two separate vertical position controls for the two
When the oscilloscope is switched on with the power on channels.
switch, the first thing to do is to get a beam trace on the
Calibration
oscilloscope screen. Focus and intensity controls together
help to get a sharp, low intensity trace. Lower intensity not All oscilloscopes have a CAL output. The amplitude and
only allows to focus the display to a very fine trace, but also the frequency of the calibration signals are indicated on the
increases the life of the CRT of oscilloscope. The trace front panel by the side of the output. The calibration signal
intensity should never be so bright that it burns a hole in the can be used to check the amplitude and the time base
phosphor coating on the CRT screen. calibration of the oscilloscope.
The damage to the CRT with an extra bright trace is much Some oscilloscopes provide two calibration signals, both
more severse, particularly when you are working at slower having the same frequency but different amplitudes.
sweep speeds. Oscilloscope may have two calibration signal outputs i.e.
2Vp-p at 1 kHz and 200m Vp-p should be checked with
Astigmatism
both the signals. Scope’s calibration should be adjusted at
Some oscilloscopes have astigmatism control that should regular internals.
be so adjusted that the focus control is effective on the
In some oscilloscopes, the output of calibration is indicated
horizontal and vertical portions of the trace. Simultaneously,
by a glowing LED. You will find an LED near the time base
astigmatism control should be adjusted with a pulsed
setting and LEDs near the vertical deflection factor selector
waveform displayed on the screen.
switches of the vertical input channels. Calibration signal
Trace rotation is also employed to adjust the probe. The conditions of an
It can be used to make the beam trace perfectly horizontal under compensated or an overcompensated probe can be
in the absence of any input signal. It is usually a trimmer easily seen with the calibration signal used as a reference.
whose adjustment screw can be seen on the scope’s front Bandwidth limit
panel or on the rear panel.
Many high sensitivity, high bandwidth oscilloscopes have
Beam find bandwidth limit control. Though higher bandwidth capability
Often we come across a situation where we have switched lets you capture high frequency signals, the unwanted high
the oscilloscope on, increased the intensity level, selected frequency noise also creeps in. It is particularly troublesome
the auto sweep mode and tried to adjust the horizontal and when we are viewing a very low level signal (say a few
vertical position controls but still have not been able to see millivolts) of moderate frequency. Due to high bandwidth
the beam trace. Beam find control can be used to locate the capability of the scope, the desired signal is often seen
beam irrespective of where it is. Pressing this button accompanied by a lot of hash.
compresses the range of horizontal and vertical position Volts/div and time/div controls
controls and the result is a dot somewhere on the screen.
Volts/div and time/div are the controls that need frequent
Keeping the button pressed, adjust the two position
adjustment while viewing and analysing signals. While the
controls to bring the dot to the centre of your scope’s
former selects vertical sensitivity and is set as per the
screen. Release the button and you will see a trace right
amplitude of the signal to be viewed, the latter sets sweep
in the middle of the screen.
speed and its setting is governed by the signal frequency.
Both these controls have a selector switch setting and a 50 Hz signal from its power transformer and uses this for
fine control. The fine adjustment control in both cases producing trigger signal. It is suitable for getting a stable
should be kept in the calibrated position. The selectable display of signals having power line frequency like ripple on
positions in case of these controls are in the decades of 1- a power supply.
2-5.
In the EXT mode, the trigger signal is applied externally.
In most oscilloscopes, there is provision for X5 magnification The trigger signal amplitude requirements are specified by
in the vertical deflection factor control which makes the the manufacturer. Some scopes also have EXT/5 or EXT/
oscilloscope more sensitive by a factor of 5. That is, 5 mV/ 10 trigger inputs. The trigger signal applied to this input is
div to 5V/div range becomes 1mV/div to 1V/div. But then we alternated by the given factor before it is applied to the
must always remember that this enhancement in vertical trigger circuit. This mode is used when the external trigger
sensitivity is at the cost of reduced accuracy. Accuracy signal level is too high.
specification of typically ±3 percent may deteriorate to ±5
percent. This magnification is usually obtained by pulling Trigger source coupling mode : The coupling mode
the fine adjust control knob in the vertical deflection factor selector determines the way the trigger signal is coupled
selector switch. to the trigger amplifier. The available options on most of the
100 MHz oscilloscopes are DC, AC, Low Freq Rej (low
Similarly, a magnification of X10 is usually available in the
frequency reject), High Freq Rej (high frequency reject) and
time base setting, which means that sweep speed at any
TV. The Low Freq Rej coupling mode is usually not present
setting can be increased by a factor of 10 by using this
in lower band-width oscilloscopes (upto 50 MHz bandwidth).
feature. This enhancement is also at the expense of
degradations in sweep speed accuracy. The change in In DC coupling of trigger source, the trigger signal is directly
accuracy may again be from ±3 percent to ±5 percent. X10 coupled to the trigger circuitry. This mode is used when
magnification is also achieved by pulling the fine control triggering is required to be effected including the DC
adjust knob in the base selector switch. component of the trigger signal. It is suitable for viewing DC
In some oscilloscopes, the time base selector has two and low frequency signals.
switches and a fine adjust. One of the two switches, In AC coupling, the trigger signal is AC coupled to the
selectable by bigger of the two knobs, is used to select the trigger circuit. This is the most commonly used trigger
main sweep speed. There is another switch concentrically source coupling mode as stable triggering can be achieved
located with a smaller knob. This is used to choose the without being affected by the DC component of the input
delayed sweep speed. This second rotary switch is present signal.
only in oscilloscopes having delayed sweep facility. Also,
the two switches are so internally arranged that the In the Low Freq Rej mode any frequency component below
delayed sweep speed can never be set to be slower than a few kilo-hertz present in the trigger signal attenuated.
the main sweep speed. This mode should be used when low frequency components,
50 Hz hum for instance, is present in the trigger signal. High
Triggering modes and relevant controls : All modern Freq Rej mode is used when any high frequency components
oscilloscopes are triggered sweep oscilloscopes, i.e. each present in the triggering signal are creating problems in
sweep across the screen is initiated by a trigger signal getting a stable display. In this mode, high frequency
either generated inside the scope or supplied externally. components greater than 50 kHz present in the trigger
The source of trigger signal, the way it is coupled and the signal are attenuated.
controls like ‘trigger slope’, ‘trigger level’ and ‘trigger hold
off’ enable you to make full use of the equipment and get The TV coupling mode is used exclusively for viewing TV
a stable display of many a complex waveforms or triggeron video signals. The signal is AC coupled to the TV sync
the most elusive transient events. separator circuit. The sync separator picks up the sync
signal which is then used as the trigger signal. With this
Source of trigger signal : This first relevant control is the mode we can obtain a stable display of TV video signals.
one that selects the source of trigger signal. The available
options in most of the oscilloscope are internal (INT) line, Trigger slope and level : Trigger slope selection
external (EXT) determines the slope of the trigger signal that triggers the
sweep. When we select a (+) slope, the sweep is triggered
When we have selected the INT source of trigger, the trigger anywhere on positive going or low-to-high transition of the
signal is generated from the signal to be viewed. A small signal. In case of (-) slope, the sweep is triggered
part of the vertical input signal is taken off, amplified, anywhere on the negative going or high to low transition of
shaped and then treated as the trigger signal. In a dual the signal.
channel oscilloscope, where we have two vertical inputs, a
separate control decides whether it is a part of CH1 signal The trigger level decides the signal level (positive or
or CH2 signal that is to be used for generating the trigger negative) where the triggering takes place. If the signal has
signal. Here, if we select ALT, the trigger signal source is both positive as well as negative amplitudes, we can trigger
according to the vertical mode displayed. We should also on a positive slope and a negative level or a negative slope
remember that selection of CH1 signal or CH2 signal or ALT and a positive level as well. When we select a positive
trigger arises only when trigger source selection is on INT. slope, the waveform can be triggered anywhere on the
positive slope of this waveform, i.e. from negative peak
When the trigger source is line, the oscilloscope picks up towards positive peak. The level can be either negative or
positive. Similarly, when we select a (-) slope, the waveform Magnified sweep too has its own problems. First, the
can be triggered anywhere on the negative slope, i.e. from intensity of the sweep diminishes quite a bit on expansion
positive peak towards negative peak. The level can either and second, this expansion may not be sufficient to permit
be positive or negative. a view of very fast glitches, for instance, a few nanoseconds
wide glitch sitting somewhere on a waveform with a time
Trigger hold-off control : This control can be used to
period of a few milliseconds.
adjust the pause between initiation of two successive
sweeps and is particularly useful for viewing signals that do Delayed sweep is what comes to our rescue in such cases.
not repeat symmetrically. In the absence of trigger hold-off As mentioned earlier, we have at our disposal two
feature, it may be difficult to get a stable display of independent time base settings, one for the main sweep
waveform of this kind. The trigger hold-off control can be and the other for the delayed sweep. To make use of the
used to trigger the sweep at the right time. delayed sweep facility, set the delayed time base at a
much faster speed than the main time base. There is also
Sweep modes and relevant controls : The first selection
a delay time multiplier (a multiturn potentiometer) control
that we have got to do is that of the sweep triggering modes.
on the panel. Set that to the centre of its range. Engage the
Usually, three modes are available on almost all
intensified sweep button. We would notice a small portion
oscilloscopes. They are auto (automatic), normal and
of the waveform being viewed on main sweep getting
single sweep modes.
intensified. This implies that we have engaged the delayed
In the auto sweep mode, the sweep generator is a free- sweep. The width of this intensified portion depends upon
running oscillator if there is no triggering signal, internal or the time base setting of the delayed sweep.
external. That is, if the trigger source has been chosen to
The photograph is for a delayed sweep of 5ms/div. The
be INT, we will see a beam trace even in the absence of any
width becomes narrower as we make the sweep faster.
vertical input. When a triggering signal is applied, the
Thus, faster the delayed sweep, narrower is the intensified
scope becomes a triggered sweep one and the trigger
portion and larger is the magnification that we get. The
signal initiates the sweep as per slope and level settings.
position of this intensified portion is as per the part of the
The auto mode is quite convenient when we are interested
waveform we wish to expand.
in seeing DC voltages or simple waveforms.
After having adjusted the two things, engage the delayed
In the normal sweep mode, the triggering signal only
sweep mode. The intensified portion fills the entire screen.
initiates the sweep. In the absence of any trigger, we do not
In this mode, we can achieve much higher magnification
see any trace on the oscilloscope screen. In the normal
without sacrificing the intensity. In some scopes, there is
mode, we have to carefully select the slope and adjust the
a provision for viewing the main sweep signal and the
level to get a display of the signal. This mode is suitable for
intensified delayed signal simultaneously. Most of the 100
viewing complex waveforms and single shot events.
MHZ oscilloscopes have this facility. The availability of this
In the single sweep mode, when a triggering signal is feature is indicated by the ALT sweep display mode. To use
applied, the first genuine trigger initiates a sweep and after this facility, depress ALT sweep display instead of main
that all subsequent triggers are ignored. So there is only a sweep.
single sweep. When the single sweep mode is selected,
B Ends A mode : Sometimes it is observed that when the
the oscillosope gets ready to receive the trigger. This mode
delayed sweep to main sweep speed ratio is very high, the
is very useful for viewing single-shot events.
expanded display in the delayed sweep mode has somewhat
Sweep display modes : The second selection that needs reduced intensity. B Ends A mode can be used to increase
to be done is that of the sweep display mode. The available the intensity of delayed sweep display by ending the main
choices are the main sweep, delayed sweep, intensified sweep at the minimum required point and increasing the
sweep, triggered delayed sweep. These may be designated display time for the delayed sweep. This happens because
as A-sweep (mainsweep), B-delayed sweep (delayed the slow main sweep runs for the full screen and there is
sweep), A-intensified (intensified sweep) where the two very little time for the much faster delayed sweep.
input channels are referred to as A and B.
Some oscilloscopes also have triggered delayed sweep
The main sweep is what we have been referring to so far. facility. Operationally, it is similar to delayed sweep. In the
Its speed is set by the main time/div selector switch. It is delayed sweep mode, the delay time multiplier can be
suitable for most measurements. But what happens when adjusted to smoothly move the intensified portion on the
we want to view a small part of a comparatively lower screen. In the triggered delayed sweep, the intensified
frequency signal on an expanded scale to look for noise portion jumps from one level transition to the next as the
glitches? If we try to expand the time base, the desired adjustment is done. After selecting the desired transition
portion on the waveform is likely to go off the screen and all level where you want to trigger the delayed sweep and after
our efforts to bring it to the centre of the oscilloscope screen selecting a proper slope (+) for positive going and (-) for
with the horizontal position control are rendered unless. negative going transition - the delayed sweep is engaged.
One method to overcome this is to use X10 magnifier This mode gives a highly reduced display jitter as the
available with the main sweep. Engaging the magnifier sweep is triggered by a definite trigger signal level.
expands the time base by a factor of 10 around the centre
X-Y operation : In the X-Y mode, the horizontal axis of the
of the screen with the result that the desired portion stays
oscilloscope also represents a voltage rather than time as
on screen. This process is known as magnified sweep.
is the case in the usual oscilloscope operation. The time The input analogue signal is sampled and then converted
base circuitry gets bypassed. The signal to be represented into a digital record of the amplitude of the signal at each
on the horizontal or X-axis is applied to the horizontal sample time. The sampling frequency should be not less
deflection input available on the front panel of the oscilloscope than the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing. These digital values
having X-Y mode feature. are then turned back into an analogue signal for display on
a cathode ray tube (CRT), or transformed as needed for the
CH3 input is the horizontal input. It has two selectable
various possible types of output - liquid crystal display,
horizontal deflection factors of 100mV/div. and 1V/div. i.e.
chart recorder, plotter or network interface.
100mV signal (in case of 100mV/div. selection) and 1V
signal (in case of 1V/div. selection) will sweep the beam Comparison with analog storage : The principle
horizontally by one division. The other signal is applied to advantage over analog storage is the that the stored traces
the vertical input (one of the two vertical inputs in a dual are as bright, as sharply defined, and quickly as non-stored
channel oscilloscope). The result is the desired X-Y display. traces. Traces can be stored indefinitely or written out to
some external data storage device and reloaded. This
A major problem with this kind of X-Y mode of operation is
allows, for example, comparison of an acquired trace from
that it offers an uncalibrated fixe sweep speed. This
a system under test with a standard trace acquired from a
problem is, however, overcome in majority of modern dual
known-good system. Many models can display the waveform
channel scopes by letting one of the two vertical inputs to
prior to the tigger signal.
be used as a horizontal input in the X-Y mode. The
oscilloscopes having this provision will have the letters ‘X’ Digital oscilloscopes usually analyze waveforms and provide
and ‘Y’ written near the input connectors of the two numerical values as well as visual displays. These values
channels to indicate X and Y inputs when we select the X- typically include averages, maxima and minima, root mean
Y mode. Thus, both horizontal and vertical axes have square (RMS) and frequencies. They may be used to
variable calibrated deflection factors. capture transient signals when operated in a single sweep
mode, without the brightness and writing speed limitations
One can also notice that the vertical position control
of an analog storage oscilloscope.
corresponding to vertical channel being used for X-input in
X-Y mode can be used to deflect the X-Y display horizontally. The displayed trace can be manipulated after acquisition;
X-Y operational mode has numerous applications like a portion of the display can be magnified to make fine detail
plotting transfer characteristics of devices and circuits, more visible, or a long trace can be examined in a signle
measuring phase difference between two given signals display to identify areas of interest. Many instruments
having same frequency, measuring an unknown frequency allow a stored trace to be annotated by the user.
etc.
Many digital oscilloscopes use flat panel displays similar
Z-axis input : The oscilloscope display has three to those made in high volumes for computers and television
components: the horizontal component (X-axis component), displays.
the vertical component (Y-axis component) and the beam
Digitals storage oscilloscopes may include interfaces
intensity (Z-axis component). The intensity remains constant
such as a parallel port, RS-232 serial port IEEE-4888 bus,
for a particular setting of the intensity control during normal
USB port, or Ethernet, allowing remote or automatic
operation. Most of the scopes have an external Z axis input
control and transfer of captured waveforms to external
located on the rear panel. A signal fed to this input can be
display or storage.
used to modulate the intensity of the display. Use of this
input in conjunction with vertical inputs has many interesting
applications.
Digital storage oscilloscope : A digital storage
oscilloscope (DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores and
analyses the input signal digitally rather than using analog
techniques. It is now the most common type of oscilloscope
in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display
and measurement features which it typically provides.
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.14.147- 156
Instrument Mechanic - Computers
Computer, parts and their working

• explain the basics of computer
• identify various peripheral devices.
• identify and explain computer connection and ports
• explain the main components on the mother board
• explain the types of cables used in computer
• explain the CPU and memory.
What is a computer? computer itself cannot perform any task and is referred to
The term computer is used to describe a device made up as hardware.
of electronic and electro mechanical components. The A computer system consists of three elements.
1 Hardware different physical sizes, pocket pc’s, lap pc’s and desktop
2 Software pc’s. Pocket pc’s and lap pc’s belong to portable category.
Microcomputer is used in small businesses.
3 People
Ex : IBM compatible or IBM clone and Apple Macintosh
Hardware : The physical components which you can systems.
see, touch and feel in the computer system are called
hardware Eg monitor, keyboard, mouse etc. Multiuser microcomputers. Until recently
microcomputers were personal
Software : Software is used to describe the instructions
that tells the computer how to perform a task. Software is computers for individual use only. But now days several
categorized as microcomputers can be networked together for
simultaneous use by several people.
1 System softwares ( eg . operating systems, compilers,
editors, etc) Mini computers: Mini computer is simply a small
mainframe computer. It is a reduced version of mainframe.
2 Application softwares ( MS-word, excel, accounting Attached printers are not so fast. So it has less storage
packages, etc) capacity less processing speed of that of mainframe
People : People who operate the computer and also computers. They are usually used by small businesses.
create computer software instructions. For example research groups, engineering firms, colleges
etc. use mini computers.
Computer hardware
Mainframe computers: A mainframe computer is a large
Basic components in a computer system are central
expensive machine whose processing speed is very high
processing unit (CPU), memory, the input device and
and has large amount of secondary storage and fast
output device.
printers. A large mainframe computer may be used to
Computer systems – Micros, Minis and Mainframes. meet the data processing requirements of the entire
Micro computer : Micro computer is also called as organization.
personal computer or PC. It has a processor based on a Examples: airline booking systems, Railway booking
single silicon chip. Personal computers come in three systems , weather forecast etc.
280
System types 16 bit ISA bus
We can classify systems into the following categories : 16/32 bit Extended ISA(EISA) bus
8-bit, example : 8085 microprocessor 32/64 - bit card Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
bus.
16-bit, example : 8086, 286, 386 processor
The easiest way to identify a PC/XT system is by the 8-bit
32-bit , example : 486
ISA expansion slots regardless of the processor present in
64-bit, example : Pentium - II the system. AT systems can be similarly identified by
This gives us two basic system types or classes of having 16-bit of greater slots of any type (ISA, EISA, PCI)
hardware. slots.
8-bit ( PC/XT) class systems System components
16/32/64 (AT) class systems Component needed to assemble a basic modern PC

system.
PC stands for personal computers, XT stands for eXTended
PC, and AT stands for an advance technology PC. • Motherboard
• Processor
The XT basically was a PC system that included a hard disk
for storage in addition to the floppy drive found in the basic • Memory (Primary)
PC system. These systems has an 8-bit processor and an
• Hard disk
8-bit INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE
• CD-ROM
(ISA) bus for system expansion. Bus is the name given to
expansion slots in which additional plug in circuit board can • Floppy Drive
be installed.
• Keyboard
16-bit and greater systems are said to be AT class. 16-bit
• Mouse
(and latter 32 and 64 bit) processors and expansion slots
are included. The first AT class systems had a 16-bit • Monitor
version of the ISA bus which is an extension of the original • Power Supply
8-bit ISA bus found in the PC/XT class systems. Afterwards
several expansion slots were developed for AT class • Cabinet
systems.
Motherboard : Motherboard is the important component
Example of the computer as everything else is connected to it. And
it controls everything in the system. Motherboard are
16/32 bit PS/2 microchannel architecture (MCA) bus.
available in several different shapes. Motherboard usually
16-bit PC card (PCMCIA) bus contain the following individual components shown in
Fig 2.
Fig 2
1 Processor slot shown in Fig 4. The platters come in various sizes. The hard
drive with many different storage capacities can be created
2 Processor voltage regulators
depending upon the density, size and number of platters.
3 Motherboard chipset This is also called as Secondary memory. There can be
4 Level 2 cache several programs in the system, which cannot be stored in
RAM, so we need a very huge non-volatile memory, which
5 Memory SIMM or DIMM sockets can be used for storing all the programs, and data when the
6 Bus slots system is not in use are called as Hard disks.
7 ROM BIOS CD-ROM drive
8 Clock / CMOS battery CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory. It
consists of small disks similar to the gramophone records
9 Super I/O chips to hold digital information. As the name applies they are
Processor (Fig 3) read only medium. With the advancement in technology
writable CD’s are also available.
Fig 3
Floppy Disk Drive
Floppy disks are the slowest and the smallest form of
secondary storage. They provide a simple way to carry
information from one place to another, and backup small
amount of files. In modern days floppy drive component is
not as important as it was years ago. All PC’s made in the
last 10 years use a standard 3 ½ inch, 1.44 MB capacity
floppy drive.
Keyboard
The keyboard is the main input device for most computers.
The processor is often thought as the engine of the It is used to input text or enter commands into the PC.
computer shown in Fig 3. Then the processor reads the Nowadays keyboards with additional features are available
commands from the memory and then executes them. The like multimedia keyboard, wireless keyboard.
processor is one of the most expensive parts of the
computers and is also one of the smallest parts. Mouse
Primary Memory With the invention of graphical user interface mouse is
used to input information into the computer. Users simply
Memory: Is used to hold programs and data during point and click to enter information. The main advantage of
execution. mouse over keyboard is simplicity. And there are many
Primary memory is often called as RAM(Random Access operations that are much easier to perform with a mouse
Memory). It holds all the programs and data the processor than a keyboard.
is using at a given time. RAM is volatile because its Monitor :The monitor is the specialized high-resolution
contents are erased when power is switched off. The other screen similar to a television. The video card sends the
type of system memory is ROM(Read only Memory)which contents of its video memory to the monitor at a rate of 60
is permanent because it contents are not erased even or more time per second. The actual display screen is
when power is switched off. It is usually used to load an made up of red, green and blue dots that are illuminated by
operating system. electron beam from behind. The video card DAC chip
Hard disk drive (Fig 4) controls the movement of the electron beam, which then
controls what dots are turned on and how bright they are.
Which then determines the picture you see on the screen.
Power supply
SMPS(Switch Mode Power Supply): The power supply
provides power to every part in the PC. The main function
of the power supply is to convert the 230 V AC into 3.3 V,
5 V and 12 V DC power that the system requires for the
operations. In addition to supplying power to run the
system, the power supply also ensures that the system
does not run unless the power supplied is sufficient to
operate the system properly. The power supply completes
internal checks and tests before allowing the system to
start. If the tests are successful, the power supply sends
A hard drive consists of spinning platters made up of a special signal to the motherboard called Power Good.
aluminum or ceramic that is coated with magnetic media
If this signal is not present continuously, the computer male connector. The monitor cable gets plugged into the
does not run. Therefore, when the AC voltage dips and the back of the computer in this location.
power supply becomes stressed or overheated, the Power Keyboard Connector : The PS/2 Keyboard connector is
Good signal goes down and forces a system reset or where the keyboard gets connected to the computer. The
complete shutdown. keyboard cable, has a round connection with one flat side.
Cabinet : The box or outer shell that houses most of the Mouse Connector :The PS/2 Mouse connector is where
computers. The cabinet actually performs several important the mouse gets connected to the computer. Although the
functions for your PC including protection to the system keyboard connector and the mouse connector look the
components, directing cooling airflow, and allowing same, they are not interchangeable. In newer PC’s, the
installation access to the system components. The cabinet components are color coded and it is clear where the
often includes a matching power supply and must also be mouse and keyboard go. In older models, the keyboard
designed with shape of the motherboard and other system connector comes first.
components in mind.
Com Port 1 & 2 : Com Ports are usually have 9 pins and
Peripheral Devices : Any external device, which is not are male connectors. Com Port stands for communication
necessary to perform the basic operation of computer, is port and is how your computer talks to external devices
called as peripherals. They provide additional computing such as modems, scanners or digital cameras.
capabilities. For ex : Printers, Modems, Speakers etc.
Modem : Modem (Modulator and Demodulator) is typically Parallel Port :The parallel port is sometimes referred to
used to send digital data over a phone line . The sending as a printer port (or LPT1) because that is the typical
modem converts digital data into analog data, which can device that is attached to this port. The parallel port is a 25
be transmitted over telephone lines, and the receiving pin female connector. If you have a direct connect printer,
modem converts the analog data back into digital form. the male end of the printer cable (pictured later in this
This is used to connect to Internet. manual) is connected here.
Modems are available in different capacities. Game Stick Port :The game stick port is where you would
connect an external device like a game stick or joystick.
• 300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
It is a 15 pin female connector.
• 1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
Sound Card :Sound Card – Speaker Connector
• 2400 bps
Sound Card – Audio Out Connector
• 9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
Sound Card – Microphone Connector
• 19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
• 28.8 Kbps A sound card allows you to hear sounds from a CDROM
or audio file. The connectors allow you to attach speakers
• 33.6 Kbps microphones or headphones. If your computer does not
• 56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998 have these connectors, you will not be able to hear sound.
• ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits CPU Power Cord : The CPU power cord connects the
per second (Mbps) CPU to the Electronics supply.
Gained popularity in 1999
Keyboard :The illustration above shows two examples of
Printers : The capability to produce a printed version often keyboard connectors – the left is the larger connector and
called a hard copy of a document is the primary function the right is the smaller. On the larger connector, there is an
of a printer. Different types of printers are 1) Laser 2) Inkjet arrow that should face up when you are connecting it to the
3) Dot-Matrix. CPU. On the smaller connector, there is a flat side that
Network Connector : The Network Connector, also should face up when connecting it to the CPU.
referred to as a NIC card, is how your CPU talks to the
Mouse (Fig 5) : The illustrations above (Fig 5) show two
network. A network cable is plugged into the back of the
examples of mouse connectors. The left is a PS/2 mouse
computer in this location . The other end of the network
connector (circle) and the right is a serial connector that
cable is plugged into a network jack in the wall. If the wall
would plug into one of your com ports
jack is “live”, meaning it has been wired to talk to the
network, then your computer will connect to the network
USB Ports :The USB ports are present on newer machines
and most often require Windows 98 or higher. If you have
Windows95, the USB ports may not work. USB ports allow
you to connect an external device, such as a printer,
camera, scanner, or other device to your computer.
USB ports transfer information from the connected device Speakers (Fig 6) : The following cords are connected to a
to your computer. set of speakers
Monitor Connector :The monitor connector is a 15 pin The following cords are connected to a set of speakers
female connector. This is how the monitor is connected to shown in Fig 6
the computer. On the back of the monitor, there is a 15 pin
8 If you have a local printer, connect one end of the parallel
Fig 6
printer cable or USB Printer Cable to the back of the
CPU (location G or location B) and the other end to the
printer
9 Connect one end of the power cord to the back of the
CPU and the other end to the power source.
Mother board and CPU
1 Memory: This is the area used by the processor to
store raw data and instructions
2 Microprocessor: This is the CPU, which is the main
component in a computer that does all the processing
work of the data fed into the computer.
It contains three units viz.,
• Power cord – connecting one speaker to the power 1 Memory units (internal , called as registers)
source 2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Left to Right speaker connector – connecting one 3 Control Unit
speaker to the other Memory Unit: It is the nervous system of the computer. It
• Speaker to CPU connector – connecting speakers to controls arithmetic operations to be performed. These unit
the CPU co-ordinates the activities of all other units in the system.
Monitor : There are two cords attached to the back of the It has two main functions. They are:
monitor. The first is a power cord that connects the monitor 1 To control the transfer of data and information between
to the power source. The second is a monitor cable. various units
The monitor cable is a 9 pin male connector that gets 2 To indicate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit
connected to the monitor connector on the back of the CPU 3 Bus: These are the pathways through which data and
instructions pass from one area to another within the
Network Cable and Network Jack
computer. The bus carries the signals to various de-
The network cable can be blue, purple or off-white. One end vices that are attached to the computer. There are three
is connected to the back of the computer (in location A) and buses: Address bus, Control Bus and Data bus.
the other end is plugged into the network jack on the wall. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): This unit does arithmetic
Parallel Printer Cable calculations and logical operations involved in the program,
The parallel printer cable has one connector on each end. such as addition, multiplication, comparison etc.,
The 25 pin male connector gets connected to the back of The CPU uses the address bus to select the memory
the CPU in location G and the other end is connected to the address of the device in order to read and write data. The
local printer. actual data is sent using the data bus. Control bus carries
USB Printer Cable the control information like instructing the ALU which
Newer computers and printers will support the use of a USB operation to perform. Out of these buses the address and
printer cable. A USB cable will transfer information more control buses are unidirectional whereas the data bus is
quickly than a parallel cable. The flat end of the USB cable bidirectional.
gets connected to the back of the CPU in location B. The 4 Storage Devices: These are the floppy drives and hard
square end is connected to the local printer. disk drives, both of which we would discuss in detail in
The following should help you put the pieces together. the lesson on secondary memory devices.
1 Position the CPU in the desired location 5 Motherboard: The motherboard is the primary
component of the entire system. Without the support
2 Connect one end of the network cable to the back of
circuitry and functions that this device provides, even
the CPU (location A) and the other to the wall jack.
the CPU is unable to function. The detailed diagram of
3 Connect the keyboard to the back of the CPU (location a mother – board is given below.
D)
The various slots are provided to mount add- on cards like
4 Connect the mouse to the back of the CPU (location E) display cards, sound card, internal modem, hard disk
5 Connect the monitor cable to the back of the CPU controller cards etc. However, now- a –days most of these
(location C) cards come in built within the motherboard itself.
6 Connect the monitor power cable to the power source Tips for removing add- on cards from the mother board
7 If you have speakers, connect the speaker power cord 1 Put on antistatic wrist strap.
to the power source, connect the left and right speaker 2 Ensure that all the cables from the add- on card
and connect the speaker to the sound card on the back connected on to the mother board is removed. Label the
of the CPU (location J) – note, some speakers are color removed cable with suitable information. Before remov-
coded to assist in the set-up, if yours are, follow the ing, record to which slot on the motherboard it was
color codes. plugged.
3 Remove the boards mounting screw which fixes the
metal mounting bracket of the add- on card.
4 Hold the board along it’s edges and rock it up gently
using equal force at both holding ends and remove the
card.
After removing the card, avoid touching the edge connector
of the card.
5 Place the card preferably in an antistatic mat such that
the components on the card are visible to you.
6 Identify and record the jumper settings on the card.
7 Identify and record the switch setting if any on the
mother board.
8 Place the add-on card safely in anti-static pouch and
keep it safely in the drawer of your working table or in
a shelf.
Tips for removing the Mother board from the cabinet 5 Locate the plastic pinch spacers holding the motherboard
When all the cables and add- on board are taken out from on to the chassis of the cabinet.
the processor unit of PC, than it looks quite easy to work 6 slide the motherboard until the plastic pinch spacers
further 1 feel free of the motherboard using nose pliers
Ensure that all the cables from, the mother board is Make sure that you don’t accidentally remove
removed any jumper switches with rough handling.
2 Ensure that all the add-on cards connected on to the Correct jumper settings are crucial for proper
mother board is removed. operation of the motherboard.
3 Plan/determine your most likely exit route for the Most CPU’s of both types will generate have micro fan
mother board. mounted right on the chip.
4 Remove the two screws holding motherboard on the RAM Modules: These memory modules can be seen as
chassis of the cabinet.
small PCB strips(much smaller than add –on cards) will definitely have one PCI slot but generally more than
plugged into lengthy slots(DIMM-168-pin) (SIMM-72 pin) one.
(SIMM-30 pin) perpendicularly on the motherboard as AGP slots: AGP means Accelerated Graphics Port. This
shown in Fig 8.You may see only one RAM module strip slot is much more recent than the PCI slot and this slot
or more than one. Each RAM module strip may have holds the add-on graphic card to enhance the graphic
capacity ranging from 4 MB to more than 128 MB . capabilities of your PC. This slot is generally brown in color
You will generally see two small plastic card extractors on and there will be only one such slot on the mother board.
the edges of the connector. If the AGP control circuit is integrated on the mother board
7 Store the PC cabinet in a safe place. itself, then you may not find an AGP on the mother board.
8 Keep the working table clean and place the mother L2 Cache Slot: Some mother board will have small slots
board for studying. for placing cache memory chip modules. These slots are
generally white in color . Not all mother boards will have this
9 Record the jumper and switch setting on the
slot.
motherboard.
IDE/EIDE Connectors: Most motherboards will have two
Tips for identifying the major components on the such connectors, one slot marked as IDE1 or Primary and
mother board other as IDE2 or Secondary. Through these connectors
CPU: The Central Processing Unit or CPU ,is an integrated IDE/EIDE devices such as HDD’s and CD ROM drives are
Circuit(IC).This will be biggest IC which you can easily connected to the motherboard.
identify. This IC can be of two basic types: Floppy Diskette Drive Connector: This is a 34 pin mate
1 A super socket-7 or socket 370 types. black plastic connector. On most motherboards there will
2 A socket -1 type. be only one such connector. The cable used with connector
will have facility to connect two floppy diskette drivers.
3 ROM BIOS Chip: This means Read Only Memory
Basic input-output System. These Chips contain Power supply connector on the Motherboards: This
permanent code that the PC uses when the PC is first will generally be a plastic male Molex connector will be
turned-On. one connector strip of 12 pins in single line .In case of ATX
Most ROM Bios Chips will have a glass window at its models, there will two rows of 10 pin connectors.
center. Some times this window is closed using a adhesive Keyboard port, Mouse Port, On Board Serial and
glossy paper slip on which it would be marked the marker Parallel Port: Keyboard Port is one which is always on
of this Bios such as AWARD or AMI or PHOENIX and like. the Mother. The key board port can be of these types listed
On this glossy paper slip ,a few other details including the below.
year will be printed. This is an important data to be
recorded. 1 The olden type-5 pin –DIN connector
4 Battery: A round shining big coin like thing ,held in a 2 The more recent type -6 pin P/S -2 connector.
plastic enclosure with a ‘+’ mark can be seen on the 3 The most modern USB port
mother board. This is technically called as a button
cell. This is actually a Lithium ion battery. This provides These motherboards having only the 5-pin DIN port can
power supply to the CMOSRAM for maintenance of also use P/S 2-keyboards using a cross adapter cable.
Real Time Clock(RTC) and BIOS settings. Those motherboard not having USB(Universal Serial Bus)
Also shows a connector with lot of pins, generally in pairs. circuitry on board can place a USB adapter card in one of
These provide necessary signal for the LED’s and switches the PCI slots. Then use the USB connector for connecting
mounted on the front panel of the PC. Right by the sides a USB keyboard.
of this connectors, markings can be seen as to which it
Serial ports are generally a 9 pin male mini D shell
should be connected, such as, LED,SPK, RST, etc.
type(DB- 9) connector. Generally any motherboard will
5 ADD-ON Cards/Expansion Card SLOTS: There will have at least two serial ports. All motherboard may not
generally be three different types of slot female edge have the serial port connectors mounted right on the
connectors. motherboard at its edge as shown in figure above. But
ISA slots: ISA means Industry Standard Architecture. there will be a two 9 pin connector on the motherboard
This type of connector will be Black in color and is the some where, using which, you have to run 9 wire flat cables
longest of the three types. This slot is called as the ISA to the ports mounted on a metal plate and fixed at one of
slots. These are the old versions and hence your PC the metal slots found at the rear of the cabinet.
mother board may have just one slot of this type or more.
Some devices need a 25 pin serial port(DB-25). However
Note that your mother board may not have this type of slot
there will be only 9 pin connections at it. These DB-25
also. If so, don’t be worried as ISA is an old type and not
serial port can be easily identified because, this 25 pin slot
very essential.
is a male connector(Whereas a DB-25 pin female is a
PCI slots: PCI means Peripheral Component Interconnect. parallel port).
These are more recent type compared to ISA and are very
popular. These slots are generally white in color and Mouse is connected to any one of the DB-9 serial port or
smaller in size compared to ISA slots. A PC Motherboard a P/S-2.6 pin mini DIN connector or a USB port. Where is
the mouse to be connected depends upon the type of in computer where data to be processed and instructions
connector your mouse has. However, you can use cross required for processing are stored.
adapter cable to connect a mouse to a P/S-2 port or vice
The memory is divided into large number of small parts.
versa.
Each part is called cell. Each location or cell has a unique
CPU Architecture: The basic function performed by a address, which varies from zero to memory size minus
computer is execution of a program, which is a set of one.
instructions stored in memory. The processor does the
For example, if computer has 64k words, then this
actual work by executing instructions specified in the
memory unit has 64* 1024 = 65536 memory locations.
program. The instruction execution takes place in the
CPU registers, which are: Memory is primarily of three types:
Memory Address Register (MAR): It specifies the address 1 Cache Memory
of memory location from which data or instruction is to be 2 Primary Memory/Main Memory
accesses (for read operation) or to which the data is to be
stored (for write operation). 3 Secondary Memory
Program Counter (PC): It keeps track of the instruction Computer - RAM
which is to be executed next, after the execution of an on- A RAM consitutes the internal memory of the CPU for
going instruction. storing data, program result. It is read/write memory. It is
Instruction Register(IR): Here the instructions are loaded called random access memory (RAM).
before their execution. Since access time in RAM is independent of the address
Instruction Execution: The simplest model of instruction to the world that is, each storage location inside the
processing can be a two step process. The CPU reads memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the
(fetches) instructions (codes) from the memory one at a same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at
time, and executes or performs the operation specified by random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.
the instruction. Instruction fetches involves reading of an RAM is volatile i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch
instruction from a memory location to the CPU register. off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
The execution of this instruction may involve several backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used
operations depending on the nature of the instruction. with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
1 Static RAM (SRAM)
2 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
The processing needed for a single instruction (fetch and Computer - ROM
execution) is referred to as instruction cycle. The ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from
instruction cycle consist of the fetch cycle and the which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
execute cycle.Program execution terminates if the electric memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
power supply is discontinued or some sort of unrecoverable permanently in such memories during manufacture.
error occurs, or by a program itself.
A ROM stores such instructions as are required to start
Fetch Cycle: For fetch cycle, typically the program computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation
counter is used. Program counter keeps track of the is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in
instructions which is to be fetched next. The fetched the computer but also in other electronic items like
instructions is in the form of binary code and is loaded into washing machine and microwave oven.
an instruction register in the CPU.
Computer - Motherboard
Execute Cycle: The CPU interprets the instructions in the
instruction register and does the required action. In general, The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all
these action can be divided into the following categories. of the parts of a computer together. A mother board
connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video
1 Data may be transferred from processor to memory or card, sound card and other ports and expansion cards
from memory to processor. directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone
2 Data may be transferred to or from a peripheral device of a computer
and an I/O module. Following are few of the important Features
output devices, which are used in Computer Systems
1 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types
Computer - Memory of components
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data 2 Normally, a motherboard supports a single type of CPU
and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space and few types of memories
3 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to Computer - Ports
compatible with motherboard to function properly
1 A computer port is a physical docking point using
4 Mother boards, cases and power supplies must be which an external device can be connected to the
compatible to work properly together computer
Computer - Memory Units 2 A computer port can also be programmatic docking
point through which information flows from a program to
1 It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage
computer or over the internet.
unit.
2 The storage capacity are expressed in terms of Bytes
Different types of printers

• state different types of print technologies and printers
• explain the impact printers/dot matrix printers
• state non-impact printers, inkjet printers & laserjet printers.
Printers are electro-mechanical devices that enable a user printers. These have a matrix of pins on the print head of the
to print whatever is displayed by the monitor - letters, printer which form the character. The computer memory
contracts, business documents, images. sends one character at a time to be printed by the printer.
There is a carbon between the pins & the paper. The words
Print Technologies
get printed on the paper when the pin strikes the carbon.
A printer outputs data that is seen on the computer screen There are generally 24 pins.
on to a paper. Most printers are used through a parallel port,
Non-Impact Printers: These printers use non-Impact
but some newer ones use USB connections. The most
technology such as ink-jet or laser technology. These
crucial printer measurement is dots per inch rating. Printers
printers provide better quality of O/P at higher speed. These
are best chosen by actually seeing the quality of the printer
printers are of two types :
output. There are many types of print technologies like
Daisy wheel, Laser, Inkjet etc. Printers are normally Ink-Jet Printer: It prints characters by spraying patterns
categorized into impact and non-impact types. of ink on the paper from a nozzle or jet. It prints from nozzles
having very fine holes, from which a specially made ink is
Printers can be divided into two categories
pumped out to create various letters and shapes. The ink
• Impact comes out of the nozzle in a form of vapors. After passing
• Non-Impact through a reflecting plate, it forms the desired letter/shape
at the desired place.
Impact: The impact printers incorporate a built-in
mechanism to print images on paper using a series of pins Laser Printer is a type of printer that utilizes a laser beam
or hammers which strike on an inked ribbon to create the to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters
image. For Example: Dot matrix, Daisy Wheel, etc. the Electronics charge on the drum wherever it hits. The
drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is
Non-Impact: The non-impact printers include those printers picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the
that do not have any kind of contact with the paper while toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of
printing either text or image. For Example: Inkjet, Laser, heat and pressure.
Bubble Jet, etc.
This is also the way copy machines work. Because an
These printers use different technology to print an image. entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is
For Example, a laser printer uses heat to attach microscopic applied, laser printers are sometimes called page printers.
particles of dry toner to specific parts of the page. An Inkjet There are two other types of page printers that fall under the
printer has tiny nozzles through which it sprays droplets of category of laser printers even though they do not use
ink on to the page. lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum
Impact Printers: In this hammers or pins strike against a and the other uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged,
ribbon and paper to print the text. This mechanism is however, they both operate like a real laser printer. One of
known as electro-mechanical mechanism. They are of two the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution
types. - how many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down.
1 Character Printer The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end
to 1,200 dpi at the high end. In addition to text, laser printers
2 Line Printer are very adopt at printing graphics, so you need significant
Character Printer: It prints only one character at a time. amounts of memory in the printer to print high-resolution
It has relatively slower speed. Eg. Dot Matrix Printers graphics. To print a full-page graphic at 300 dpi, for
example, you need at least 1 MB (megabyte) of printer
Dot Matrix Printer: It prints characters as combination of RAM. For a 600 dpi graphic, you need at least 4 MB RAM.
dots. Dot matrix printers are the most popular among serial
Because laser printers are non-impact printers, they are ranges from about 4 to 20 pages of text per minute (ppm).
much quieter than dot-matrix or daisy-wheel printers. They A typical rate of 6ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters
are also relatively fast, although not as fast as some dot- per second (cps).
matrix or daisy-wheel printers. The speed of laser printers
Modem
• explain different types of modems
• explain modem functionality
• explain ethernet cable and connectors RJ-45/RJ-11.
Modem : Short for MODulator/DEModulator, the first by the cable modem with downstream transmission up to
Modem known as the Dataphone, which was first released 38 Mbits/s and an upstream transmission up to 1 Mbits/s.
by AT&T in 1960. It later became more common for home
users when Dennis Hayes and Dale Heatherington released Fig 2
the 80-103A Modem in 1977.
The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer
to send and receive information over telephone lines by
converting the digital data used by your computer into an
analog signal used on phone lines and then converting it
back once received on the other end. The figure below, is
an example of an internal expansion card modem.
The other computer's modem reconverts the analog signals
(that the computer cannot understand) into digital signals
(that it can). Conversion of one type of signals to another
is called modulation, their reconversion to the original type
is called demodulation. Modern modems work at 56
thousand bits per second (Kbps) or higher data transfer
speeds, perform automatic error correction, and allow
voice and fax communications. Cable modems offer 2
millionbits per second (Mbps) or higher speeds, whereas
advanced types of telephone services (such as ISBN) allow
Data can be transferred over cable lines much more quickly
very high speed data transfer without any modem.
than over traditional phone lines. Transmission rates are
typically around 1.5 megabits per second. Faster
Fig 1
transmission is actually possible, but speed is usually
restricted by the cable company's (typically slower)
connection to the Internet.
Unfortunately this transmission rate fluctuates with the
number of users because of the shared bandwidth on which
the cable technology is based.
DSL modem
Fig 3
Internal computer modem expansion

card
A type of modem that allows people to access the Internet

via their cable television service. Internal computer modem expansion card
The cable modem uses a coaxial cable television lines to DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modem is exclusively used
provide a greater bandwidth than the dial-up comuter for connections from a telephone switching office to the
modem. An extremely fast access to the Web is providing user. DSL modem is a device used to connect a single
computer or router to a DSL phone line, in order to use an 11 Power input: Connects the modem to an external
ADSL service. Like other modems it is a type of trans- power supply unit (electricity transformer) to your mo-
ceiver. It is also called a DSL Transceiver or ATU-R. The dem.
acronym NTBBA (network termination broad band adapter,
Modem functionality
network termination broadband access) is also common in
some countries. Some of the ADSL modems also manage Other than choosing a modem based on the type of internet
the connection and sharing of the ADSL service with a connection there are a few other variables or requirements
group of machines: in this case, the unit is termed a DSL that should be looked for before purchasing.
router or residential gateway. 1 Compatibility - Is the modem compatible with your
Parts inside a Modem computer (Windows, Mac, Linux, etc)? Furthermore, is
it compatible with your computer's software (7, Vista,
Lift the lid on a dialup modem and this is what you'll find
10.4, etc)?
inside:
2 Upload/download speeds - Check the "upstream"
Fig 4
and "downstream" speeds, as they'll differ from model
to model. Often times it'll even be different from one
direction (upload) to the next
(download).
3 Security - Does the modem support security features
such as WPS (WiFi Protected Setup), WPA/WPA2
Security Protocol and WEP, TKIP and AES (64/128 bit)
Encryption?
4 Size & mounting options - How big/small is the
modem? Will it fit well with the computer
equipment? Some modems can even be attached to
the wall.
5 Price - Modems vary in price from as little as Rs.1000
to as much as Rs 4000. The difference in price comes
down to the type of connection and speeds
1 On/off button: Spring-loaded switch turns the power ADSL Modem
on and off.
Short for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL is a
2 Capacitors: Have a variety of jobs to do in a modem, type of DSL broadband communications technology used
including smooth out current peaks. for connecting to the Internet. ADSL allows more data to be
3 Volume control: Controls the loudspeaker volume. sent over existing copper telephone lines (POTS), when
compared to traditional modem lines. A special filter,
4 Loudspeaker: Relays what's happening on the phone called a microfilter, is installed on a subscriber's telephone
line as your modem dials. line to allow both ADSL and regular voice (telephone)
5 Modem chip: Modulates (add digital information to the services to be used at the same time. ADSL requires a
outgoing telephone signal) and demodulates (separate special ADSL modem and subscribers must be in close
the digital information from the incoming signal). geographical locations to the provider's central office to
receive ADSL service. Typically this distance is within a
6 Other chips: Control modem chip and other radius of 2 to 2.5 miles. ADSL supports data rates of from
components. 1.5 to 9 Mbps when receiving data (known as the downstream
7 Microphone: Allows you to send your own voice down rate) and from 16 to 640 Kbps when sending data (known
the phone line. as the upstream rate).
8 Serial connection: Connects the modem to your Ethernet cable

computer's serial (RS-232) port. Newer modems connect An Ethernet cable is one of the most popular forms of
to the USB port instead. network cable used on wired networks. Ethernet cables
9 Microphone socket: Connects an external microphone connect devices on local area networks such as PCs,
so you can record messages in higher quality than if routers and switches.
you use the built-in microphone. Types of Ethernet cables
10 Telephone sockets: Connect your modem to a phone Ethernet cables normally support one or more industry
socket with a standard (RJ11) telephone cable. There's standards including Category 5 (CAT5) and Category 6
a second socket where you can plug a telephone (CAT6).
handset into your modem. This lets you to use your
phone through the modem when your computer's not A crossover cable is a special type of Ethernet cable
already using the line. specially designed for connecting two computers to each
other. By contrast, most Ethenet cables are designed to Data acquisition systems consider the following analog
connect one computer to a router or switch. signals
Ethernet cables are physically manufactured in two • Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct
basic forms called solid and stranded. Solid Ethernet measurement of Electronics quantities such as DC &
cables: AC voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.
1. offer slightly better performance plus improved protec- • Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers
tion against Electronics interference. such as LVDT, thermocouple & etc.
2. are more commonly used on business networks, wiring Types of data acquisition systems
inside office walls or under lab floors to fixed locations.
Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following
Stranded Ethernet cables two types.
1. are less prone to physical cracks and breaks making
them more suitable for travelers and
• Analog data acquisition systems
2. are more commonly used in home networking and by • Digital data acquisition systems
travelers. Now, let us discuss about these two types of data
Limitations of Ethernet cables acquisition systems one by one.
A single Ethernet cable, like an electric power cord, can Analog data acquisition systems
extend only limited distances due to their Electronics The data acquisition system, which can be operated with
transmission characteristics. analog signals are known as analog data acquisition
Several different types of RJ-45 connectors exist. One systems. Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition
type, designed for use with stranded cables, generally is systems.
incompatible with solid cable. Other types of RJ-45 Transducer - It converts physical quantities into Electronics
connectors may work with both stranded and solid cables. signals.
RJ-45 Signal conditioner - It performs the functions like
amplification and selection of desired portion of the signal.
Fig 5
Display device - It displays the input signals for monitoring
purpose.
Graphic recording instruments - These can be used to
make the record of input data permanently.
Magnetic tape instrumentation - It is used for acquiring,
storing & reproducing of input data.
Digital data acquisition systems
The data acquisition system, which can be operated with
digital signals are known as digital data acquisition systems.
So, they use digital components for storing or displaying
the information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data
RJ-45 Connector acquisition.
Short for Registered Jack-45, a RJ-45 is an 8-pin • Acquisition of analog signals

connection used for Ethernet network adapters. This
• Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or
connector resembles the RJ-11 or 6-pin connector used
digital data
with telephones, but they're completely different. The
picture is of a RJ-45 connector separated from the cable. • Processing of digital signals or digital data
This connector is most commonly connected to the end of Following are the blocks of digital data acquisition systems
Cat5 cable, which is connected between a computer
network card and a network device such as a network • Transducer - It converts physical quantities into
router. Electronics signals.
Data Acquisition systems : The systems, used for data • Signal conditioner - It performs the functions like
acquisition are known as data acquisition systems. These amplification and selection of desired portion of the
data acquisition systems will perform the tasks such as signal.
conversion of data, storage of data transmission of data
and processing of data. • Multiplexer - connects one of the multiple inputs to
output. So, it acts as parallel to serial converter.
• Analog to Digital converter - It converts the analog
input into its equivalent digital output.
• Display device - It displays the data in digital format.
• Digital recorder - It is used to record the data in digital
format.
Data acquisition systems are being used in various
applications such as biomedical and aerospace. So, we
can choose either analog data acquisition systems or
digital data acquisition systems based on the requirement.
Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by
software programs developed using various general purpose
programming languages such as assembly, BASIC, C,
C++, C#, Fortran, Java, LabVIEW, Lisp, Pascal, etc.
Stand-alone data acquisition systems are often called data
loggers.
There are also open-source software packages providing
all the necessary tools to acquire data from different,
typically specific, hardware equipment. These tools come
from the scientific community where complex experiment
requires fast, flexible and adaptable software. Those
packages are usually custom fit but more general DAQ
packages like the maximum integrated data acquisition
system can be easily tailored and is used in several
physics experiments worldwide.
Figs 6, 7 , 8 & 9 shows DAS connection in various
applications
Fig 6
Instrument Mechanic - Microprocessor 8085
Microprocessor - 8085 and its applications

• understand the architecture of 8085 microporcessor
• explain pin diagram of 8085
• write program for adding and subtracting two 8 bit numbers
• write program for ascending order and exchanging memory location
• explain instruction set of 8085
• explain pin diagram and block diagram of 8255
• explain the application of 8085.
Features of a microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of any
microprocessor
• Cost-effective : The microprocessor chips are available
at low prices and results its low cost.
• Size : The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence
is portable.
How does a microprocessor work? • Low power consumption : Microprocessors are
The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, decode, manufactured by using metal-oxide semiconductor
and execute. technology, which has low poer consumption.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a • Versatility : The microprocessors are versatile as we
sequential order. The microprocessor fetches those can use the same chip in a number of application by
instructions from the memory, then decodes it and configuring the software program.
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is • Reliability : The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors
reached. Later, it sends the result in binary to the output
is very low, hence it is reliable.
port. Between these processes, the register stores the
temporarily data and ALU performs the computing 3 8085 Architecture
functions. 8085 pronounced as “eighty-eighty-five” microprocessor. It
List of terms used in a microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977using
NMOS technology.
Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a
microprocessor It has the following configuration:
• Instruction set : It is the set of instructions that the • 8-bit data bus
microprocessor can understand.
• 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
• Bandwidth : It is the number of bits processed in a
signal instruction.
• A 16-bit program counter
• Clock speed: It determines the number of operations • A 16-bit stack pointer

per second the processor can perform. It is expressed • Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also
known as clock rate. • Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2.MHZ single
phase clock.
• Word length: It depends upon the width of internal
data bus, registers, ALU, etc. An 8-bit microprocessor It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile
can process 8-bit data at time. The word length ranges phones, etc.
from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the 8085 Microprocessor - funcation units
microcomputer.
8085 consists of the following fucnational units
• Data types : The microprocessor has multiple data
Accumulator
type formats like binary, BCD, ASCII, signed and
unsigned numbers. It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/
O & LOAD/STORE operations. It is connected to internal
data bus & ALU.
293
Arithmetic and logic unit Temporary register
As the name suggest, it performs arithmetic and logical It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of
operations like addition, subtraction, and or etc. on 8-bit arithmetic and logical operations.
data. Flag register
General purpose register It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds
There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, either 0 or 1 depending upon the result store in the
i.e B, C, D, E, H & L. Each register can hold & bit data. accumulator.
These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their These are the set of 5 flip-flops:
pairing combination is like B-C D-E & H-L.
• Sign (S)
Program counter
• Zero (Z)
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address
location of the next instruction to be executed. • Auxiliary carry (AC)
Microprocessor increments the program whenever an
• Parity (P)
instruction is being executed, so that the program counter
points to the memory address of the next instruction that • Carry (C)
is going to be executed.
Its bit position is shown in the following diagram:
Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always
incremented/decremented by 2 during push & pop
operations.
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
Instruction register and decoder Address buffer and address-data buffer

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from The content stored in the stack pointer and program
memory then it is stored in the instruction register. Instruction counter is loaded into the address buffer and address-data
decoder decodes the information present in the instruction buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory and I/O
register. chips are connected to these bues; the CPU can exchange
Timing and control unit the desired data with the memory and I/O chips.
Address bus and data bus
It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor
to perform operations. Following are the timing and control Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional,
signals, which control external and internal circuits: whereas address bus carries the location to where it should
be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to transfer the
• Control signals: READY, RD’ WR’, ALE data & address I/O devices.
• Status signals : S0, S1, IO/M’ 8085 Architecture (Fig 2)
• DMA signals: HOLD, HLDA 8085 Pin configuration (Fig 3)
Address bus
• RESET signals : RESET IN, RESET OUT
A15-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of memory/IO
Interrupt control address.
As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a Data bus
process. When a microprocessor is executing a main AD7-AD0, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and
program and whenever an interrupt occurs, the data bus.
microprocessor shifts the control from the main program to
Control and status signals
process the incoming request. After the request is
completed, the control goes back to the main program. These signals are used to identify the nature of operation.
There are 3 control signal and 3 status signals.
There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR,
RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP. Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.
Serial input/output control • RD : This signal indicates that the selected IO or

memory device is to be read and is ready for accepting
It controls the serial data communication by using these data available on the data bus.
two instruction: SID (serial input data) and SOD (serial
output data)
pulse goes high, it indicates address. When the pulse
goes down it indicates data.
Three status signals are IO/M, S0 & S1.
IO/M
This signal isused to differentiate between IO and Memory
operationss, i.e. when it is high indicates IO operation and
when it is low then it indicates memory operation.
S1 & S0
These signals are used to identify the type of current
operation.
Power supply
There are 2 power supply signals: VCC & VSS. VCC
indicates + 5v power supply and VSS indicates ground
signal.
Clock signals
There are 3 clock signals, i.e X1, X2, CLK OUT.
• X1,X2: A crystal (RC, LC N/W) is connected at these
pin and is used to set frequency of the internal clock
generator. This frequency is internally divided by 2.
• CLK OUT : This signal is used as the system clock for
devices connected with the microprocessor.
• WR: This signal indicates that the data on the data b us Intertupts & externally initiated signals
is to be written into a selected memory or IO location.
interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to
• ALE: It is a positive going pulse generated when a new request the microporcessor to perform a task. There are 5
operation is started by the microprocessor. When the interrupt signals, i.e TRAP, RST 7.5. REST 6.5, TST 5.5
and INTR. We will discuss interrups in detail in interrupts • SOD (Serial output data line): The output SOD is set/
section. reset as specified by the SIM instruction.
• INTA : It is an interrupt acknowledgment signal • SID (Serial input data line) : The data on this line sdis
• RESET IN : This signal is used to reset the loaded into accumulator whenever a RIM instruction is
microprocessor by setting the program counter to zero. executed.
• RESET OUT : This signal is used to reset all the Instruction sets are instruction codes to perform some
connected devices when the microprocessor is reset. task. It is classified into five categories.
• READY : This signal indicates that the device is ready S.No Instruction & Description
to send or receive data. If READY is low, then the CPU
hass towait for READY to go high. 1 Control Instrucitons
• HOLD : This signal indicates that another master is 2 Logical Instructions
requesting the use of the address and data buses.
• HLDA (Hold acknowledge): It indicates that CPU has 3 Branching Instrucitons
received the HOLD request and it will relinquish the bus
in the next clock cycle. HLDA is set to low after HOLD 4 Arithmetic Instructions
signal is removed.
5 Data Transfer Instruction
Serial I/O signals : There are 2 serial signals, i.e. SID and
SOD and these signals are used for serial communication.
Microprocessor - 8085 control instructions

Following is the table showing the list of control instructions with their meanings.
Opcode Operand Meaning Explanation
NOP None No operation No operation is performed. i.e., the instruction is fetched and
decoded
HLT None Halt and enter The CPU finishes executing the current instruction and stops further
wait state execution. An interrupt or reset is necessary to exit from the half
state.
DI None Disable interrupts The interrupt enable flip-flop is reset and all the interrupts are disabled
except TRAP
EI None Enable interrupts The interrupt enable flip-flop is set and all the interrupts are enabled.
RIM None Read interrupt This instruction is used to read the status of interrupts 7.5, 6.5, 5.5
mask and serial data input bit.
SIM None Set interrupt This instruction is used to implement the interrupts 7.5, 6.5, 5.5 and
mask serial data output.
Microprocessor - 8085 logical instructions

The following table shows the list of logical instruction with their meanings
CMP R Compare the The contents of the operand (register or memory) are M compared
M register or memory with the contents of the acccumulator.
with the accumulator
CPI 8-bit data Compare The second byte data is compared with the contents of the accumlator.
immediate with the
accumulator
ANA R Logical and register or The contents of the accumulator are logically and with M the
M memory with the contents of the register or memory, and the result is placed in the
accumulator accumulator.
ANI 8-bit data Logical and immediate The contents of the accumulator are logically and with the 8-bit data
with the accumulator and the result is placed in the accumulator.
XRA R Exclusive or register or The contents of the accumulator are exculsive or with M the contents
M memory with the of the register or memory, and the result is placed in the accumulator.
acuumulator
XRI 8-bit data Exclusive or immediate The contents of the accumulator are exclusive or with the 8-bit data
with the accumulator and the result isplaced in the accumulator.
ORA R Logical or register or The contents of the accumulators are logically or with M the contents
M memory with the of the register or memory and result is placed in the accumlator.
accumulator
ORI 8-bit data Logical or immediate The contents of the accumulator are logically or with the 8-bit data
with the accumulator and the result is placed in the accumulator.
RLC None Rotate the accumulator Each binary bit of the accumulator is rotated left by one position. Bit
left D7 is placed in the position of D0 as well as in the carry flag. CY is
modified according to bit D7.
RRC None Rotate the accumulator Each binary bit of the accumulator is rotated right by one position.
right Bit D0 is placed in the position of D7 as well as in the carry flag. CY
is modified according to bit D0.
RAL None Rotate the accumulator Each binary bit of the accumulator is rotated left by one position
left through carry through the carry flag. Bit D7 is placed in the carry flag, and the carry
flag is placed in the least significant position D0. CY is modified
according to bit D7.
RAR None Rotate the accumulator Each binary bit of the accumulator is rotated right by one position
right through carry through the carry flag. Bit D0 is placed in the carry flag, and the carry
flag is placed in the most significant position D7. CY is modified
according to bit D0.
CMA None Complement The contents of the accumulator are complemented. No flags are
accumulator affected.
CMC None Complement carry The carry flag is complemented. No other flags are affected.
STC None Set carry Set carry
Microprocessor - 8085 branching instructions
The following table shows the list of branching instruction with their meanings
JMP 16-bit address Jump unconditionally The programm sequence is transferred to

the memory address given in the operand.
opcode Description Flag 16-bit address Jump unconditionally The programm sequence is transferred to
status the memory address given in the operand
JC Jump on CY = 1 based on the specified flag of the PSW.
Carry
JNC Jump on CY = 0
no carry
JP Jump on S=0
positive
JM Jump on S=1
minus
JZ Jump on Z=1
zero
JNZ Jump on Z=0

no zero
JPE Jump on P=1

parity even
JPO Jump on P=0

parity odd
Opcode Description Flag

status
CC Call on CY = 1
carry
16-bit address Unconditional The program sequence is transferred to
CNC Call on no CY = 0 subroutine call the memory address given in the operand.
carry Before transferring, the address of the
next instruction after CALL is pushed onto
CP Call on S=0 the stack.
positive
CM Call on S=1
minus
CZ Call on Z=1
zero
CNZ Call on no Z = 0
zero
CPE Call on P=1

parity
even
CPO call on P=0
parity odd
RET None Return form subroutine The program sequence is transferred from
unconditionally the subroutine to the calling program.
Opcode Description Flag

status
RC Return on CY = 1
carry None Return from subroutine The program sequence is transferred from
conditionally the subroutine to the calling program based
RNC Return on CY = 0 on teh specified flag of the PSW and the
no carry program execution begins at the new
address
RP Return on S = 0
positive
RM Return on S = 1
minus
RZ Return on Z = 1
zero
RNZ Return on Z = 0
no zero
RPE Return on P = 1
parity even
RPO Return on
parity odd P = 0
PCHL None Load the program The contents of registers H& L are copied
counter with HL into the program counter. The contents of
contents H are placed as the high-ordre byte and
the contents of L as the loworder byte.
RST 0 -7 Restart The RST instruction is used as software

instructions in a program to transfer the
program execution to one of the following
eight locations.
Instruction Restart address
RST 0 0000H
RST 1 0008H
RST 2 0010H
RST 3 0018H
RST 4 0020H
RST 5 0028H
RST 6 0030H
RST 7 0038H
The 8085 has additionally 4 interrupts,

which can generate RST instructions
internally and doesn’t require any external
hardware. Following are those instructions
and their restart addresses.
Instruction Restart address
TRAP 0024H
RST 5.5 002CH
RST 6.5 0034H
RST 7.5 003CH
8085 Arithmetic Instrucitons

Following is the table showing the list of arithmetic instructions with their meanings.
ADD R Add register or memory The contents of the register or memory are
M to the accumulator addred to the contents of the accumulator
and the result is stored in the accumulator.
Example - ADD K.
ADC R Add register to the The contents of the register or memory & M
M accumulator with carry the carry flag are added to the contents of the
accumulator and the result is stored in the
accumulator
Example - ADC K
ADI 8-bit data Add the immediate The 8-bit data is added to the contents of the
to the accumulator accumulator and the result is stored in the
accumulator
Example - ADI 55K
ACI 8-bit data Add the immediate to the The 8-bit data and the carry flag are added to
accumulator with carry the contents of the accumulator and the result
is stored in the accumulator
Example - ACI 55K
LXI Reg.pair, 16 bit data Load the register pair The instruction stores 16-bit data into the
register pair designated in the operand.
Example - LXI K, 3025M
DAD Reg. pair Add the register pair to H and The 16-bit data of the specified register pair are
L registers added to the contents of the HL register
Example - DAD K
SUB R Subtract the register or the The contents of the register or the memory are
M memory from the accumulator subtracted from the contents of the
accumulator, and the result is stored in the
accumulator.
Example - SUB K
SBB R Subtract the source and The contents of the register or the memory &
M borrow from the accumulator M the borrow flag are subtracted from the
contents of the accumulator, and the result is
placed in the accumulator.
Example - SBB K
SUI 8-bit data Subtract the immediate The 8-bit data is subtracted from the contents
from the accumulator of the accumulator & the result is stored in the
accumulator.
Example - SUI 55K
XCHG None Exchange H and L with D The contents of register H are exchanged with
and E the contents of register D, and the contents of
register L are exchanged with the contents of
register E.
Example - XCHG
INR R Increment the register or the The contents of the designated register or the
M memory by 1 memory are incremented by 1 and their result
is stored at the same place.
Example - INR K
INX R Increment register pair by 1 The contents of the designated register pair
are incremented by 1 and their result is stored
at the same place.
Example - INX K
DCR R Decrement the register or the The contents of the designated register or
M memory by 1 memory are decremented by 1 and their result
is stored at the same place.
Example - DCR K
DCX R Decrement the register pair The contents of the designated register pair
by 1 are decremented by 1 and their result is stored
at the same place.
Example - DCX K
DAA None Decimal adjust accumulator The contents of the accumulator are changed
from a binary value to two 4-bit BCD digits.
If the value of the low-order 4-bits in the
accumulator is greater than 9 or if AC flag is
set, the instruction adds 6 to the low-order four
bits.
If the value of the high-order 4-bits in the
accumulator is greater than 9 or if the carry flag
is set, the instruction adds 6 to the high-order
four bits.
Example - DAA
8085 Data-transfer Instrucitons
Following is the table showing the list of Data-transfer sinstructions with their meanings.
MOV Rd, Sc Copy from the source (Sc) to This instruction copies the contents of the
M, Sc the destination (Dt) source register into the destination register
Dt, M into the destination register without any
alternation.
Example - MOV K, L
MVI Rd, data Move immediate 8-bit The 8-bit data is stored in the destination
M, data register or memory.
Example - MVI K, 55L
LDA 16-bit address Load the accumulator The contents of a meemory location, specified
by a 16-bit address in the operand, are copied
to the accumulator.
Example - LDA 2034K
LDAX B/D Reg. pair Load the accumulator indirect The contents of the designated register pair
point to a memory location. This instruction
copies the contents of that memory location
into the accumulator.
Example - LDAX K
LXI REf. pair 16-bit data Load the register pair This instruction loads 16-bit data in the register
immediate pair designated in the register or the memory.
Example - LXI K, 3225L
LHLD 16-bit address Load H and L register direct The instruction copies the contents of the
memory location pointed out by the address
into register L and copies the contents of the
next memory location into register H.
Example - LHLD 3225K
STA 16-bit address 16-bit address The contents of the accumulator are copied
into the memory loaction specified by the
operand.
This is a 3-byte instruction, the second byte
specifies the low-order address and the third
byte specifies the high-order address.
Example - STA 325K
STAX 16-bit address Store the accumulator indirect The contents of the accumulator are copied
into the memory location specified by the
contents of the operand.
Example - STAX K
SHLD 16-bit address Store H and L registers direct The contents of register L are stored in the
memory location specified by teh 16-bit
address in the operand and the content of H
register are stored into the next memory
location by incrementing the operand.
This is a 3-byte instruction, the second byte
specifies the low-order address and the third
byte specifies the high-order address.
Example - STA 325K
XCHG None Exchange H and L The contents of register H are exchanged
with D and E with the contents of register D, and the
contents of register L are exchanged with the
contents of register E.
Example - XCHG
SPHL None Copy H and L registers to the The instruction loads the contents of the H
stack pointer and L registers into the stack pointer register.
The contents of the H register provide the
high-order address and the contents of the L
register provide the low-order address.
Example - SPHL
XTHL None Exchange H and L with top The contents of the L register are exchanged
of stack with the stack location pointed out by the
contents of the stack location (SP+1)
Example - XTHL
PUSH Reg. pair Push the register pair onto The contents of the register pair designated in
the stack the operand are copied onto the stack in the
following sequence.
The stack pointer register is decremented
and the contents of the high order register
(B,D,H,A) are copied into that location.
The stack pointer register is decremented
again and teh contents of teh low-order register
(C,E,L flags) are copied to that location.
Example - PUSH K
POP Reg. pair Pop off stack to the register The stack pointer is incremented by 1 and the
contents of that memory location are copied
to the high-order register (B, D, H, A) of the
operand.
The stack pointer register is again incremented
by 1
Example - POPK
OUT 8-bit port address Output the data from the The contents of the accumulator are copied
into the I/O port specified by the operand.
Example - OUT K9L
IN 8-bit port address Input data to accumulator The contents of the input port designated in
the operand are read and loaded into the
accumulator.
Example - IN5KL
Program 4-8-bit addition 4103 47 MOV B, A
Objective 4104 3A LDA 4151
To add two 8-bit numbers in memory and store the result 4105 51
in memory.
4106 41
Theory
4107 80 ADD B
The first data is brought to accumulator A and the second
4108 32 STA 4152
one in any one in any one of the other registers say B. The
addition is done using ADD. The result is then stored at 4109 52
4152. The ADD instruction affects flags depending on 410A 41
result.
410B 76 HLT
Example (Program)
Object codes
The two data to be added are at 4150 and 4151. The result
is stored at 4152. Procedure
Data : (4150) = 23 1 Key in the opcodes from the address specified.
(4152) = 35 2 Enter data at 4150 and 4151 as specified in the
Example.
Result : (4152) = 58.
3 Execute the program and check for the result at 4152.
Micro - 85 Lc Lcd user / technical reference software
examples 4 Change data at 4150 and 4151 and execute each time
and check for result.
Flow chart
Discussion
Flow chart for addition
In the above example, the data were loaded from memory.
Note that the immediate addressing mode for load, add
would greatly cut-short the program size, but using only
specific data. The use of “DAA” instruction is essential for
writing decimal addition programs.
Program 5-8 bit subtraction
In this experiment, the HL register pair is first initialised to
the start address of memory at which the data is stored.
Then data is brought to accumulator a and the other one is
subtracted from memory itself. The result from A is then
stored into memory again using the HL register. The SUB
instruction sets and and clear flags according to result.
Example : Program
Let the data to be subtracted be 24 from 49
Program
Data : (4150) = 49
LDA 4150 ; (4150) ; ⇒ (A) = 23
(4152) = 24
MOV B,A ; (A) ⇒ (B)
Result : (4152) = 25.
LDA 4151 ; (4151) ⇒ (A) = 35
ADD B ; (A) + (B) ⇒ (A) Flow chart
STA 4152 (A) ⇒(4152) = 58

HLT
Micro - 85 LC LCD user / technical reference
software examples
Memory address Opcodes Mnemonies
4100 3A LDA 4150

4101 50
4102 41
Program 4103 7E MOV A, M
LXI H, 4150 ; Initialise memory pointer to 4150 4104 23 INX H
MOV A, M ; (4150) (A) = 49 4105 96 SUB M
INX H ; Point to next data. 4106 23 INX H
SUB M ; (4151) (A) 4107 77 MOV M, A
INX H ; Point to next location 4108 76 HLT
MOV M,A ; (A) (4152) Procedure
HLT 1 Key in the opcodes from the address specified.
Object codes 2 Enter data that is needed for execution at 4150 and
4151.
Memory address Opcodes Mnemonies
3 Execute the program and check for result at 4152.
4100 21 LXI H, 4150
4 Try changing data and check for result each time.
4101 50
Discussion : The above program for subtraction can be
4102 41
further reduced by using immediate instruction for load and
subtract.
Arrange numbers in an ascending order

Write a program to arrange first 10 numbes from address 3000H in an ascending order.
MVI B, 09 : “ Initialize counter ”

START : “ LXI H< 3000H : Initialize memory pointer ”
MVI C, 09 H : “ Initialize counter 2 ”
BACK : MOV A, M : “ Get the number ”
INX H : “ Increment memory pointer “
CMP M : “ Compare number with nex number “
JC SKIP : “ If less, don’t interchange “
JZ SKIP : “ If equal, don’t interchange “
MOV D, M
MOV M, A
DCX H
MOV M, D
INX H : “ Interchange two numbers “
SKIP:DCR C : “ Decrement counter 2 “
JNZ BACK : “ If not zero, repeat “
DCR B : “ Decrement counter 1 “
JNZ START
HLT : “ Terminate program execution “
Exchanging the memory locations
Write a program to exchange the data at 5000M & 6000M memory location.
LDA 5000 M : “ Getting the contents at 5000M location into accumulator “

MOV B, A : “ Save the contents into B register “
LDA 6000M : “ Getting the contents at 6000M location into accumulator “
STA 5000M : “ Store the contents of accumulator at address 5000M “
MOV A, B : “ Get the saved contents back into A register “
STA 6000M : “ Store the contents of accumulator at address 6000 M”
Instruction sets are instruction codes to perform some Microprocessor - 8085 control instructions
task. It is classified into five categories.
Following is the table showing the list of control instructions
S.No Instruction & Description with their meanings.
1 Control Instrucitons 8255 Pin diagram (Fig 6)
2 Logical Instructions Fig shows the 8255 pin diagram of microprocessor
3 Branching Instrucitons 8255 Block diagram
4 Arithmetic Instructions Fig shows the internal 8255 block diagram of 8255 pin
diagram microprocessor. It consists of data bus buffer,
5 Data Transfer Instruction
control logic and Group A and Group B controls.
NOP None No operation No operation is performed, i.e., the instruction

is fecthed and decoded.
HLT None Halt and enter wait state The CPU finishes executing the current
instruction and stops further execution. An
interrupt or reset is necessary to exit from the
halt state.
DI None Disable interrupts The interrupt enable flip-flop is reset and all the
interrupts are disabled except TRAP.
EI None Enable interrupts The interrupt enable flip-flop is set and all the
interrupts are enabled.
RIM None Read interrupt mask This instruction is used to read status of
interrups 7.5, 6.5, 5.5 and read serial data
input bit.
Data bus buffer : This tri-state bi-directional buffer is used signals to access the required data/control worrds or
to interface the interface teh internal data bus of 8255 pin status word. The input pins for the control logic section are
diagram to the system data bus. Input or ouput instructions described here.
executed by the CPU either read data from or write data into
the buffer. Output data from the CPU to the ports or control Group A and Group B controls
register, and input data to the CPU from the ports or status Each of the group A and group B controls blocks receives
register are all passed through the buffer. control words from the CPU and issues appropriate
Control logic : The control logic block accepts control bus commands to the ports associated with it. The group A
signals as well as inputs from the address bus and issues controls port A and PC-PC, while the group B control block
commands to the individual group control blocks (Group A controls port B and PC-PC.
control and Group B control). It issues appropriate enabling
Port A
This has an 8-bit latched and buffered output and an 8-bit
input latch. It can be programmed in three mode : mode 0,
mode 1 and mode 2.
Port B
This has an 8-bit data I/O latch/buffer and an 8-bit data input
buffer. It can be programmed in mode 0 and mode 1.
Port C
This has one 8-bit unlatched input buffer and an 8-bit output
latch/buffer. Port C can be splitted into two parts and each
can be used as control signals for ports A and B in the
handshake mode. It can be programmed for bit set/reset
operation.
Modes of operation of 8255 microprocessor
Bit set-reset (BSR) mode
The individual bits of port C can be set or reset by sending
out a single OUT instruction to the control register. When
Port C is used for control/status operation, this feature can
be used to set or reset individual bits.
Pin symbols Function
D0-D7 (Data bus) These bi-driectional, tri-state data bus lines are connected to the system data bus. They are
used to transfer data and control word from microprocessor (8085) to 8255 or to receive data
or status word from 8255 to the 8085.
PA0-PA7 (Port A) These 8-bit bi-directional I/O pins are used to send data to output device and to receive data
from input device. It functions as an 8-bit data output latch/buffer, when used in output mode
and an 8-bit data input buffer, when used in input mode.
PB0-PB7 (Port B) These 8-bit bi-directional I/O pins are used to send data to output device and to receive data
D0-D7 (Data bus) These bi-driectional, tri-state data bus lines are connected to the system data bus. They are
used to transfer data and control word from microprocessor (8085) to 8255 or to receive data
or status word from 8255 to the 8085
PA0-PA7 (Port A) These 8-bit bi-directional I/O pins are used to send data to output device and to receive data
PB0-PB7 (Port B) These 8-bit bi-directional I/O pins are used to send data to output device and to receive data
A1 A0 RD WR CS Operations
Input (Read) operations
0 0 0 1 0 Port A to data bus
0 0 0 1 0 Port B to data bus
1 0 0 1 0 Port C to data bus
Output (Write) operation
0 0 1 0 0 Data bus to Port A
0 1 1 0 0 Data bus to Port B
1 0 1 0 0 Data bus to Port C
1 1 1 0 0 Data bus to control register
Disable Function
X X X X 1 Data bus Tri-stated
1 1 0 1 0 Illegal condition
X X 1 1 0 Data bus Tri-stated
I/O Modes 1 Outputs are latched

Mode 0 : Simple input /output 2 Inputs are buffered, not latached
In this mode ports A and B are used as two simple 8-bit I/ 3 Ports do not have handshake or interrupt capability
O ports and Port C as two 4-bit ports. Each port (or half -
port, in case of C) can be programmed to function as simply Model 1 : Input/Output with handshake
an input port or an output port. The input/output features in In this mode, input or output data transfer is controlled by
mode 0 are as follows: handshaking signals. Handshaking signals are used to
transfer data between devices. whose data transfer speeds
are not same. For example computer can send data to the
printer with large speed but printer can’t accept data and
print data with this rate. So computer has to send data with
the speed with which printer can accept. This type of data
transfer is achieved by using handshaking signals along-
with data signals. Fig 14.3 shows data transfer between
computer and printer using handshaking signals.
These handshaking signals are used to tell computer
whether printer is ready to accept the data or not. If printer
is ready to accept the data then after sending data on data
bus, computer uses another handshaking signal (STB) to
tell printer that valid data is available on the data bus.
The 8255 pin diagram mode 1 which supports handshaking
has following features.
The eight possible combinations of the states of bits D3 -
1 Two ports (A and B) function as 8-bit I/O ports. They, D1 (B2 B1 B0) in the bit set-reset format (RSR) determine
can be configured eigther as input or output ports.. particular bit in PC0 - PC2 being set or reset as per the
status of bit D0. A BSR word is to be written for each bit that
2 Each port uses three lines from port C as handshake
is to be set or reset. For example, if bit PC3 is not be set and
signals. The remaining two lines of port C can be used
bit PC4 is to be reset, the appropriate BSR words that will
for simple I/O functions.
have to be loaded into the control register will be, 0XXXX0111
3 Input and output data are latched. and 0XXX1000, respectively, where x is don’t care.
4 Interrupt logic is supported. The BSR word can also be used for enabling or disabling
interrupt signals generated by Port C when the 8255 pin
5 Mode 2 Bi-directional I/O data transfer
diagram is programmed for Mode 1 or 2 operation. This is
This mode allows bi-directional data transfer (transmission done by setting or resetting the associated bit of the
and receiption) over a single 8-bit data bus using interrupts.
handshaking purpose. In this mode, both inputs and
For I/O mode
outputs are latched. Due to use of a single 8-bit data bus
for bi-directional data transfer, the data sent out by the CPU
through Port A appears on the bus connecting it to the
peripheral, only when the peripheral requests it. The
remaining lines of port C i.e PC0 - PC2 can be used for
simple I/O functions. The Port B can be programmed in
mode 0 or in mode 1. When port B is programmed in mode
1, PC0-PC2 lines of Port C are used as handshaking
signals.
Control word formats

A high on the RESET pin cause all 24 linesof the three 8-
bit ports to be in the input mode. All flip-flops are cleared
and the interrups are reset. This condition is maintained
even after the RESET goes low. The ports of the 8255 pin
diagram can then be programmed for any other mode by The mode definiation format I/O mode is shown in Fig. The
writing asingle control word into the control register, when control words for both. mode definition and Bit set -reset
required. loaded into the same control register, with bit D7 used for
specifying whether the world loaded into the control register
For bit set/reset mode is a mode definition word or bit set-reset word. If D7 is high,
Fig shows bit set/reset control word format the word is taken as a mode definiation words, and if it is
low, it is taken as a bit set-rest word. The appropriate bits • VCRs, television and gaming platforms also contain
are set or reset depending on the type of operation desired, microprocessor for executing complex instructions and
and loaded into the control register. tasks.
Microporcessor applications In Medicals
A microprocessor makes daily life easier because of its low • Many medical devices, like an insulin pump, are typically
cost, low power, small weight, and vast application in every controlled by a microprocessor. The microprocessors
field. There are several applications of microprocessors. perform various functions, such as processing data
Some of the important applications are: from bio-sensors, storing measurement, and analyzing
Household devices results.
• The programmable thermostat allows the control of Instrumentation

temperature at homes. In this system, a microporcessor • Microprocessor is also very useful in the field of
works with the temperature sensor to determine and instrumentation. Function generators, frequency
adjuist the temperature accordingly. counter, frequency synthesizers, spectrum analyses
• High-end coffee makers, washing machines and radio and many other instruments are available, when
clocks contain mrcroprocessor technology. microprocessor are used as controller.
• Some other home items that contain microprocessor Entertainment

are microwaves, toaster, television technology. DVD • The use of microprocessor in entertainment equipment,
players, overns, stoves, clothes washers, stereo toys and home entertaining applications is making
systems, home compers, alarm clocks hand -held them more useful and full of features.
game devices, theromostats, video game system,
bread macchines, diswashers, home lighting systems Embedded systems at home
and even some refrigerators with digital temperature • A number of modern devices in the home are
control. microprocessor based i.e camera; washing machines;
Industrial appliactions of microprocessor calculators; hi-fi systems; telephones; microwave ovens;
burglar alarms etc. The input are usually simple numeric
• Som industrial items which use microprocessor keyboards, sensors, buttons or while the output include
technology include cars, boats, planes, trucks heavy lights, simple LCD sceens displays, motors and relays,
machinery, elevators, gasoline pumps, credit-card LEDs, buzzers etc.
processing units, traffic control devices, computer
servers, most high tech medical devices, surveillance Office automation and publication
systems, security systems and even some doors with • Microprocessor based system with software packages
automatic entry. has changed the office environment. Microprocessor
Transportation industry based systems are being used for spread sheet
operations, word processing, storage etc.
• Automobiles, trains and planes also use microprocessor
technology. • The publication technology has revolutionized by the
microporcessor.
• Consumer vehicle-buses, cars, trucks-integrate
microprocessors to communicate important information Communication
throughout the vehicle E.g navigation systems provide • In communication the telephone industry is most
information using microprocessors and global important. In this industry, microprocessors are used in
positioning systems (GPS) technology. digital telephone sets, telephone exchanges and modem
Computers and electronics etc.
• Microprocessor-drives technology is the brain of the • The use of microprocessor in satellite communication,
computer. They are used in all type of computers television has made teleconferencing possible.
ranging from microcomputers to supercomputers.
• Railway reservation and airline reservation system also
• A cell phone or mobile device executes game instructions uses microprocessor technology. WAN (wide area
by way of the microprocessor. network) and LAN (local area network) for communication
of vertical information through computer network.

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INSTRUMENT MECHANIC

SECTOR: Electronics & Hardware

(As per revised syllabus July 2022 - 1200 of hrs)

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Developed & Published by

National Instructional Media Institute

Copyright © 2022 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

All rights reserved.

Addl.Secretary / Director General (Training)

New Delhi - 110 001

Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Smt. D. Chitra - Training Officer,

Shri. Nirmalya Nath - Deputy Director,

Shri. S. Gopalakrishnan - Assistant Manager

Module 1 : Basic Safety

On completion of this book you shall be able to

Sl. Learning Outcome Ref.Ex.No

Professional Plan and organize the 1. Importance of trade training, List

10. Demonstration and uses of hand Basic hand tools, types,

Professional Identify, Test various analog Oscillators Oscillator’s oscillations, oscillation

Familiar with industrial Training Institute (ITI)

Introduction : Directorate General of training: To give • 31 Central institute

Training institute under DGT

• 13350 Industrial Training institute in India

Familiarise with the working of Industrial Training Institute including store

Personal Protective equipment (PPE)

First aid is (abbreviated - means) as ABC – airway, • Take swift action

Method of waste disposal (Fig 2) • Reduce environmental pollution

Recycling: In waste disposal management, recycling the

Sign Shape Colour Object Example

Operation Electronics mains/ circuit breakers and Electronics safety

Safety practice - Fire extinguishers

Fuel Method of extinguishing

Health and environmental guidelines

Lifting and handling of loads

Preparing to lift: Prepare your selves before lifting heavy

Crushing of feet or hand (Fig 2): The load should be

Basic hand tools

Combination plier (Fig 1)

Combination plier is made of forged steel and specified by

Electronics knife (Fig 7) : This tool is made of steel and

Flat nose plier (Fig 3) : This plier is to hold thin flat

It is used to remove insulation and clean the surfaces of

It is used to tighten and loosen the bolt and nut.

Types: Solid, Adjustable and master try squares

Material : Caliper is made of high carbon steel or medium

2 Spring joint caliper (Fig 21)

Hammer is used to striking, cutting, chipping, forging,

Pliers (Fig 24) : Plier is made of steel and specified by

Parts Insulated plier is used for Electronics works

3 Face or side, 4 Heal,

The two types of surface gauges are

1 Plain solid angle plate

Bolts (Fig 35) : Bolts are used to join as well as dismantle

Specification : Bolts are specified by its head shape,

Vernier bevel protractor

Least count = 2 msp – 1 vsd

Material: Frame is made of malleable cast iron. Anvil ,