CHEMISTRY I and II

Matter …………………………………………………………………. 3

Chemistry in our Life …………………………………………………… 4

The Atom………………………….……………………………………. 7

Study of the Atom ……………………………………….……………… 8

Carbon Living Element …………………………………………………….. 14

Phases or states matter ………………………………………………………. 15

Phase changes in Matter ………………………………………..………. 16

Chemical solutions …………………………………………………….. 17

The element ……………………………………………………………… 18

Classification of elements ………………………………………………… 22

The Periodic table of elements …………………………………………… 26

CAS and IUPAC ………………………….……………………………. 28

Table Groups of Family …………………………………………………… 29

The Periodic System…………………………………………………….. 40

Acids and Bases ………………………………………………………… 41

Atoms and Bonding ……………………………………………………….. 48

Types of Covalent bonds …………………………………………………… 55

The Electron configurations ……………………………………………… 59

The Lewis Theory…………………………………………………….. ….. 62

Atomic Number …………………………………………………………… 68

Valence……….……………………………………………………………. 71

1
Chemical formula ……………………………………………………….. 74

Molecular mass ………………………………………………………….. 79

Chemical Reactions ………………………………………………………… 81

Balancing Chemical Equations…………………………………………… 88

Concentration, Volume and Moles ……………………………………….. 93

Gas Laws ……………………………………………………………..… 97

Boyle’s Law……………………………………………………………… 102

Charles’ Law…………………………………………………………….. 103

Gay-Lussac’s Law…………………………………………….………… 105

The Ideal Law…………………………………………………………….. 106

2
Matter
Matter is defined as anything that has mass and inertia. Matter possesses energy and is
manifested in space and time.

We can also call matter a ‘body’ or a ‘substance’ referring to a particular portion.

The matter that we encounter is made up of molecules composed of atoms.

We can group matter into two main groups: organic matter and inorganic matter.

Organic matter is referred to all living things. Inorganic matter is referred to all inanimate
objects or non-living things.

Matter can be measured. To measure matter we use a magnitude to determine the unit of
measurement.

3
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
1. Name the two types of mixtures?

2. Name the two main types of substances?

3. What is the main difference between a compound substance and an element?

4. What is a homogeneous mixture?

5. What is a heterogeneous mixture?

6. Tell if the following are homogenous or heterogeneous mixtures:

4
Chemistry in our life
In every human body we can find a certain amount of chemicals: carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sodium, among others. These elements are
essential to all of our vital functions.
What Are the Elements in the Human Body?
Most of the human body is made up of water, H 2O, with cells consisting of 65-90% water
by weight. Therefore, it isn't surprising that most of a human body's mass is oxygen.
Carbon, the basic unit for organic molecules, comes in second. 99% of the mass of the
human body is made up of just six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
calcium, and phosphorus. You may also wish to view the element composition of an
average human body by mass.
Oxygen (65%)
Carbon (18%)
Hydrogen (10%)
Nitrogen (3%)
Calcium (1.5%)
Phosphorus (1.0%)
Potassium (0.35%)
Sulfur (0.25%)
Sodium (0.15%)
Magnesium (0.05%)
Copper, Zinc, Selenium,
Molybdenum, Fluorine,
Chlorine, Iodine,
Manganese, Cobalt, Iron
(0.70%)
Lithium, Strontium,
Aluminum, Silicon, Lead,
Vanadium, Arsenic,
Bromine (trace amounts)
Humans, animals and
plants are made up of material we call organic material or living substances. Rocks, soil,
water, sunlight and other types of materials are called inorganic material or non-living
substances.

5
To better understand the study of chemicals in our body we classify these substances into
the following groups, subdivisions or branches:
- Inorganic chemistry
- Organic chemistry
- Analytical chemistry
- Bio-chemistry
- Physic-chemistry
- Materials Chemistry
- Theoretical Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry: is the study of the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and
organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad
organic compounds (carbon based compounds, usually containing C-H bonds), which are
the subjects of organic chemistry.
Organic chemistry: is a chemistry sub discipline involving the scientific study of the
structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e.,
matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms. It relates to the study of the
chemical substances in living organisms.
Analytical chemistry: is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of
the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Qualitative analysis gives an
indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample, and quantitative analysis
determines the amount of certain components in the substance.
Bio-chemistry: it is sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical
processes within and relating to, living organisms. By controlling information flow
through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism,
biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life. It studies the chemistry in living
organisms.
Physical-chemistry: is the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate
phenomena in chemical systems in terms of laws and concepts of physics. It applies the
principles, practices and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time,
thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and dynamics, equilibrium.
Theoretical Chemistry: is the examination of the structural and dynamic properties of
molecules and molecular materials using the tools of quantum chemistry, equilibrium and
non-equilibrium statistical mechanics and dynamics. Some examples are molecular
docking, protein-protein docking, drug design, and combinatorial chemistry.

6
Materials Chemistry: involves the use of chemistry for the design and synthesis of
materials with interesting or potentially useful physical characteristics, such as magnetic,
optical, structural or catalytic properties. Materials chemistry is unique in providing the
intellectual foundation to design, create, and understand new forms of matter, let it be
organic, inorganic or hybrid materials.

Why is Chemistry important?

Understanding chemistry helps you to understand the world around you. Cooking is
chemistry. Everything you can touch or taste or smell is a chemical. When you study
chemistry, you come to understand a bit about how things work. Chemistry isn't secret
knowledge, useless to anyone but a scientist. It's the explanation for everyday things, like
why laundry detergent works better in hot water or how baking soda works or why not all
pain relievers work equally well on a headache. If you know some chemistry, you can
make educated choices about everyday products that you use.
You could use chemistry in most fields, but it's commonly seen in the sciences and in
medicine. Chemists, physicists, biologists, and engineers study chemistry. Doctors,
nurses, dentists, pharmacists, physical therapists, and veterinarians all take chemistry
courses. Science teachers study chemistry. Fire fighters and people who make fireworks

7
learn about chemistry. So do truck drivers, plumbers, artists, hairdressers, chefs... the list
is extensive.
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
1. What elements make up 99% of the Human body?

2. What compound substance makes up most of the human cells?

3. Name the 7 main sub-divisions of chemistry?

4. What is the main difference in the study of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry?

5. What other sub-studies is Physic-chemistry related to?

.

6. Name some other careers or fields that also must study Chemistry in order to
work?

8
7. Discuss the above careers and how does it affect their jobs.

Define:

1. polymers:

2. pharmaceuticals:

3. forensic science:

4. patents:

9
The Atom
The atom is the basic unit of all structures. It is the basic form of all the chemical
elements.
History of the atom
Knowledge of the atom has resulted in a long process in investigation. The Greeks were
the ones that first acquired knowledge of this at approximately 450 B.C.
The first scientist that defended the existence of the atomic nature in matter was
Leucippus; a Greek philosopher. But it was his disciple Democritus that was the first
scientist to actually use the word ‘atom’ that meant that it was the smallest particle in
nature that could not be divided any smaller. He referred to them as the last particle in
matter and the smallest or basic part of nature.
Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BCE) was an Ancient Greek
philosopher born in Abdera, Thrace, Greece. A pupil of
Leucippus, he was an influential pre-Socratic philosopher who
formulated an atomic theory for the universe.
His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from those of
his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in
texts. Their speculation on atoms, taken from Leucippus, bears a
passing and partial resemblance to the nineteenth-century
understanding of atomic structure that has led some to regard Democritus as more of a
scientist than other Greek philosophers; however, their ideas rested on very different
bases. Largely ignored in ancient Athens, Democritus was nevertheless well known to his
fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle. Plato is said to have disliked him so much
that he wished all his books burned. Many consider Democritus to be the "father of
modern science".

10
Study of the Atom
John Dalton
John Dalton (1766-1844) reintroduced the idea of the atom in the XIX
century. He describes the atom as a minute solid sphere, compact and
undividable; he also stated that all elements are made up of atoms.
Brief Biography
John Dalton FRS (Fellow of the Royal Society) (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was
an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist. He is best known for his pioneering
work in the development of modern atomic theory, and his research into colour blindness
(sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour).
Five main points of Dalton's atomic theory

1. Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of
different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical
compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Dalton proposed an additional "rule of greatest simplicity" that created controversy, since it
could not be independently confirmed.
When atoms combine in only one ratio, "...it must be presumed to be a binary one, unless some
cause appears to the contrary".

11
Joseph Thomson
Around the year 1906, Thomson came up with an interesting model of the
atom to substitute the earlier model of Dalton. He suggested that this
compact sphere constituted of a positive charge and around this were other
particles with a negative charge. He called the particles of positive charge
protons (p+) and the particles of negative charge electrons (e-).
Sir Joseph John "J. J." Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 – 30
August 1940) was a British physicist. In 1897, Thomson showed that
cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged
particle, and thus is credited with the discovery and
identification of the electron. Thomson is also
credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of
a stable (non-radioactive) element in 1913 as part of
his exploration into the composition of canal rays
(positive ions) and with the invention of the mass
spectrometer. Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel
Prize in Physics for the discovery of the electron and
for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases.

Ernest Rutherford
In 1911, Rutherford atomic model consisted of a small nucleus with a
positive charge and electrons around the nucleus revolved at a relatively
long distance from the nucleus. Rutherford had a theory in which he
basically briefly explained:
1.) All the atoms present the same general structure constituted of
two parts: the nucleus and the crown.
2.) The positive charge of the atom is particularly the mass of the atom which is
located in the nucleus, which occupies the center of the atom. He called these
positive charged particles the protons. The particles with negative charge
electrons; which generally revolved around the nucleus of the positively charged
part of the atom.
3.) The volume occupied by an atom in its major part is empty space.
4.) The atom is electrically neutral
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM FRS (30 August 1871 – 19
October 1937) was a New Zealand-born physicist who became known as the father of
nuclear physics.

12
In 1911, although he could not prove that it was positive or negative, he theorized that
atoms have their charge concentrated in a very
small nucleus, and thereby pioneered the
Rutherford model of the atom, through his
discovery and interpretation of Rutherford
scattering in his gold foil experiment. He is
widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in
1917 in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen and
alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and
named) the proton.

After his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of
the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical
element Rutherfordium (element 104) was named after him in 1997.

James Chadwick
In 1932, Chadwick identified and isolated a particle in the atom that had
no charge. He named this part of the atom a neutron (n). The neutron he
said is found in the nucleus of the atom.
Sir James Chadwick CH FRS (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was an
English physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in physics for
his discovery of the neutron in 1932. He was the head of the British
scientists who worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. He
was knighted in England in 1945 for achievements in physics.

He was Rutherford's Assistant Director of Research at the Cavendish

Laboratory for over a decade studying physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman
Feather, and Mark Oliphant. In 1932, Chadwick pursued a line
of research that led to his discovery of the neutron. He went on
to measure its mass.

13
Niels Böhr
Niels Bohr was a Danish physicist that modified the model of Rutherford.
He explained the changes of energy that can occur in the atoms.
Bohr’s fundamental theory relates:
1.) The electrons of an atom are found in the orbits or levels of energy
around the nucleus.
2.) The electrons that are found in the orbitals or levels closer to the
nucleus have less energy than those that are further away from it.
3.) The electrons can move from one energy orbit with less energy to another level with
higher energy or vice-versa. This is due to the orbits or energy level can win or lose an
exact amount of energy.
Niels Henrik David Bohr ( 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who
made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for
which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a
promoter of scientific research.

Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons
are discrete, and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around
the atomic nucleus, but can jump from one energy level (or orbit)
to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other
models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the
principle of complementarity: those items could be separately
analyzed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a
wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity
dominated Bohr's thinking on both science and philosophy.

14
Arnold Sommerfeld
In 1915, Somerfield introduced a model of the atom that modified the
theory of Bohr. The orbits in which there are electrons are formed by
sub-levels of energy.
Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld, FRS (5 December 1868 – 26
April 1951) was a German theoretical physicist who pioneered
developments in atomic and quantum physics, and also educated and
groomed a large number of students for the new era of theoretical
physics. He served as PhD supervisor for more Nobel Prize winners in
physics than any other supervisor before or since. He
introduced the 2nd quantum number (azimuthal
quantum number) and the 4th quantum number (spin
quantum number). He also introduced the fine-
structure constant, and pioneered X-ray wave theory.

15
Quantum Mechanics Model
The Quantum Mechanics Theory was introduced
around the year 1928. It was a very complex model
that resulted from the integration of a mixed number
of theories.
The theory stated that every electron in four quantum
numbers: n
n= being the principal quantum number that also
represents its energy level. It becomes synonymous of the electron orbits or caps.

KLMNOPQ
1 2 3 4 5 67
The closest level to the nucleus n=1has the least quantity of energy.

The quantum orbital number or azimuthal

Principal levels of Sub-levels or sub- Number of e- per Total e- in the level
Energy orbitals sub-levels or orbitals or orbital

1 s 2 2
2 sp 26 8
3 spd 2 6 10 18
4 spdf 2 6 10 14 32
5 spdf 2 6 10 14 32
6 spd 2 6 10 18
7 sp 26 8

Possible numbers of orbits

Sub-levels or sub-orbitals Possible numbers of orbits

s one possible orbit s (sharp)

p three possible orbits p (principal)
d five possible orbits d (diffuse)

16
 f seven possible orbits f (fundamental)

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
1. Name a scientist that studied the atom. Tell where he was from and what
contributions did he do in the study of the atom.

2. Which scientist said that atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed?

3. Who discovered the neutron in an atom?

4. In quantum mechanics what does the s-p-d-f stand for?

5. How many levels of energy are there in the periodic table?

6. Investigate:

(1) Atom

(2) Molecule

(3) Compound

17
Parts of an atom
The main divisions of an atom are the nucleus and the
crown.
The main parts of an atom are the neutron, the proton and
the electron.

Sub-atomic particles of an atom

Particle Symbol Mass Electric charge Location

Electron e- 9.1 x 10-28 -1 Out of the nucleus (crown)

Proton p+ 1.7 x 10-24 +1 Nucleus
Positron 1+b+ 9.1 x 10-28 +1 Nucleus
Neutron n 1.7 x 10-24 0 Nucleus
Neutrino v+0+ 0 0 Nucleus

Classwork
1. What is an atom?
2. Define:
-monoatomic element:
-diatomic atom:

3. What is a chemical element?

4. How many elements are found in the Periodic table of elements?

5. How are the elements placed on the Periodic table of Elements?

- Groups:

- Periods:

- Family:
18
Carbon as element in living organisms

Life on earth depends on the chemical element carbon, which is present in every living
thing. Carbon is so important; it forms the basis for two branches of chemistry, organic
chemistry and biochemistry. The following are terms that you should be familiar with:

Hydrocarbons - molecules that only contain the elements carbon and hydrogen (e.g.,
CH4 is a hydrocarbon while CO2 is not)

Organic Chemistry- refers to the chemistry of living things, all of which contain the
element carbon

Organic Chemistry - study of the chemistry of carbon compounds involved in life (so,
studying diamond, which is a crystalline form of carbon, isn't included in organic
chemistry, but studying how methane is produced is covered by organic chemistry)

Organic Molecules - molecules that have carbon atoms linked together in a straight line
(carbon chain) or in a circular ring (carbon ring)

Polymer - hydrocarbons which have chained together.

19
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
1. What is an atom?

2. What is the difference between an atom and a cell?

3. What element is present in all living things?

4. What is a hydrocarbon?

5. What is organic chemistry?

6. What is inorganic chemistry?

7. What is a polymer?

8. What is the symbol for carbon?

9. Write the condense electron configuration for carbon.

10. Write the extensive electron configuration for carbon.

20
Phases or states of Matter

Each phase of matter has its own chemical and physical properties. The phases of
matter you need to know are:

Solid - a solid has a definite shape and volume

Liquid - a liquid has a definite volume, but can change shape

Gaseous - the shape and volume of a gas can change

Plasma is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the Universe, most of
which is in the rarefied intergalactic regions, particularly the intra-cluster
medium, and in stars, including the Sun.

21
Phase Changes in Matter

These phases of matter can change from one to another. Remember the
definitions of the following phase changes:

Melting-melting occurs when a substance changes from a solid to a liquid (fusion)

Boiling - boiling is when a substance changes

from a liquid to a gas (evaporation)

Condensing - condensation is when a gas

changes to a liquid

Freezing - freezing is when a liquid changes

to a solid (solidification)

Sublimation - is the process through which a solid changes into the gaseous state
without passing through a liquid phase.

Deposition – is the process where a gas changes to the solid phase without
passing through a liquid phase.

Physical & Chemical Changes

The changes that take place in substances may be categorized in two classes:

Physical Change - does not produce a new substance (e.g., phase changes,
crushing a can…)

Chemical Change - produces a new substance (e.g., burning, rusting,

photosynthesis…)

Classwork

1. Discuss each of the physical states that matter has on Earth.

2. What state of matter is not seen here on Earth? Where can it be seen?
3. What is plasma?

22
Chemical Solutions
A solution results from combining two or more substances. Making a solution can
produce either a physical or chemical change. You can tell them apart this way:

The original substances can be separated from one another if the solution
produces only a physical change.

The original substances cannot be separated from one another if a chemical

change took place.

A chemical reaction is the process that occurs when two or more substances
combine to produce a chemical change. The important terms to remember are:

Chemical equation - name given to the shorthand used to describe the steps of a
chemical reaction

Reactants - the starting materials for a chemical reaction; the substances that
combine in the reaction

Products - the substances that are formed as a result of a chemical reaction

Chemical reaction rate - the speed at which a chemical reaction occurs

Activation energy - the external energy that has to be added in

order for a chemical reaction to occur

Catalyst - a substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur

(lowers the activation energy), but does not participate in the
reaction itself.

Law of Conservation of Mass - this Law

states that matter is neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction. The
number of reactant atoms of a chemical
reaction will be the same as the number of
product atoms.

23
The Element
Refers to all simple substances in which the atoms have the same atomic number. Every
element receives a specific name with specific properties that makes them different from
any other element. This element is represented by a symbol. The symbol consists of an
abbreviation of its name being in English, Spanish or of any other language.
The symbol consists of two or three letters; the first letter a capital letter followed by a
common letter or letters. The first letter is usually the letter of its name, the other the
second or third letter.
The names and symbols of the elements are universal.
The names of these elements are obtained using the following four criteria:
1. The property of the element
2. In homage to a continent, country, state or city
3. In remembrance of a celestial body
4. In recognition of a scientist
 Property of the element
According to the characteristics of the element, a name was given to some of them.
Some examples would be: Mercury whose symbol is Hg referring to “Hydrogenum”.
 In homage of a country
Some elements have the name of some known countries of cities such as: Polonium
which receives its name from Poland, Germanium from Germany, and Gallium from
France whose original Latin name was Gallia. The city of Itterby in Sweden receives
homage with the elements Yttrium, Ytterbium, Erbium and Terbium.
 In remembrance of a celestial body
Astronomical bodies include stars, planets and satellites. Elements have also received
names from many astronomical bodies among those are: Helium named after the Sun
(a star), Tellurium named after planet Earth, Selenium named after the Moon, earths
only satellite and Plutonium after the dwarf planet Pluto.
 In recognition of scientist
Many scientists have contributed to the now well recognized Periodic table of Elements.
Many of them have been recognized for their work and honoured. Some of these
elements are: Mendelevium in honour of Dmitri Mendeleev, Einsteinium in honour of
Albert Einstein and Hafnium in honour of Otto Hahn.

24
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (8 February 1834 – 2
February 1907 O.S. 27 January 1834 – 20 January 1907)
was a Russian chemist and inventor. Dmitri Mendeleev
was born at Tobolsk, Siberia in 1834. He formulated the
Periodic Law, created his own version of the periodic
table of elements, and used it to correct the properties of
some already discovered elements and also to predict the
properties of elements yet to be discovered.

Mendeleev studied science at St. Petersburg and

graduated in 1856. In 1863 Mendeleev was appointed to a professorship and in 1866 he
succeeded to the Chair in the University. Mendeleev then worked on the periodic table;
arranging the 63 known elements into a Periodic Table based on atomic mass, which he
published in Principles of Chemistry in 1869. His first Periodic Table was compiled on
the basis of arranging the elements in ascending order of atomic weight and grouping
them by similarity of properties. He predicted the existence and properties of new
elements and pointed out
accepted atomic weights that
were in error.

In 1905, Mendeleev was elected

a member of the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences. The
following year the Nobel Committee for Chemistry recommended to the Swedish
Academy to award the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1906 to Mendeleev for his discovery
of the periodic system. The Chemistry Section of the Swedish Academy supported this
recommendation.

25
Classwork
Complete the following table using your periodic table or investigate.
Element Symbol Continent, Country, City

Americium
Californium
Europium
Gallium
Germanium
Ytterbium
Polonium

Element Symbol Celestial body

Helium
Selenium
Tellurium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium

Element Symbol Scientist

Curium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Bohrium
Lawrencium
Meiterium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Rutherfordium
Seaborgium

26
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Answer the following questions using the booklet based on the elements of the
Periodic Table

1. Element named after the country of Scandinavia.

2. Element named in honour of the continent of Europe.

3. Element named in honour of Stockholm.

4. Element named after the scientist Albert Einstein.

5. Element named after the rainbow.

6. Element used as a hardener for lead, plastic….

7. Name of this element means ‘stranger’

8. Main element used to manufacture expensive camera lenses.

9. Name of this element means ‘new twins’.

10.Element(s) used widely in electronics.

11.Element(s) used in the tips of gold pen points.

12.Element that serves as rat and ant poison.

13.Element used as fuel for a nuclear reactor.

14.Element used for smoke detectors.

15.Element formed from burning with insufficient oxygen.

27
Classification of Elements
Elements are classified according to their origin in two groups:
- Natural elements
- Artificial or Synthetic elements
Natural Elements
Atoms with up to 92 protons occur naturally on earth they are referred to as the
natural elements. They exist freely in nature or as part of a compound. The number
of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number. The sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus in an atom is called the atomic weight.
Examples of the elements that exist free in nature are: oxygen, nitrogen, etc….
Examples of elements that exist as a compound are: gold, lead, sodium, silver,
potassium, etc…
Some elements exist in very few quantities while others are abundant in nature in
many variable proportions.
Synthetic or Artificial Elements
The artificial or synthetic elements are those that are man-made. They are
produced in laboratories at the expense of other elements following a very strict
procedure.
Of the existing elements known 92 are natural and the remainders are artificial.
Some scientists argue that there are 94 elements that occur naturally.
Conventional wisdom says that the first 92 elements, from element 1, hydrogen, to
element 92, uranium, are all naturally occurring, but in fact, some of these
elements are highly unstable, and have only been observed when they have been
created artificially. Some people believe that elements 93 (neptunium) and 94
(plutonium) should also be included on a list of naturally occurring elements. As a
result, anywhere between 94 and 88 elements are “naturally occurring,” depending
on the definition one is using.
Elements are considered to be “naturally occurring” when they can be found in
nature, rather than needing to be created in a laboratory, and many representations
of the periodic table of the elements include a dividing line between natural and
artificially produced elements.

28
Classification of elements according to their characteristics
According to their characteristics the elements are classified in the following groups:
- Metals
- Non-metals
- Inert gases
Metals
Examples of Metals
Most of the elements on the periodic table are metals, including gold, silver, platinum,
mercury, uranium, aluminum, sodium and calcium. Alloys, such as brass and bronze, also
are metals.
Location on the Periodic Table
Metals are located on the left side and the
middle of the periodic table. Group IA and
Group IIA (the alkali metals) are the most active
metals. The transition elements, groups IB to
VIIIB, are also considered metals. The basic
metals are the element to the right of the
transition metals. The bottom two rows of
elements beneath the body of the periodic table
are the lanthanides and actinides, which are also
metals.
Properties
Metals are shiny solids are room temperature
(except mercury, which is a shiny liquid
element), with characteristic high melting points
and densities. Many of the properties of metals,
including large atomic radius, low ionization
energy, and low electronegativity, are due to the
fact that the electrons in the valence shell of
metal atoms can be removed easily. One
characteristic of metals is their ability to be
deformed without breaking. Malleability is the ability of a metal to be hammered into
shapes. Ductility is the ability of a metal to be drawn into wire. Because the valence
electrons can move freely, metals are good heat conductors and electrical conductors.

29
Summary of Common Properties
- Shiny 'metallic' appearance
- Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
- High melting points
- High densities
- Large atomic radii
- Low ionization energies
- Low electro negativities
- Usually, high deformation
- Malleable
- Ductile
- Thermal conductors
- Electrical conductors

Non-metals
Location on the Periodic Table
The nonmetals are located on the upper right side of the periodic table. Nonmetals are
separated from metals by a line that cuts diagonally through the region of the periodic
table containing elements with partially filled p orbitals. Technically the halogens and
inert gases are nonmetals, but the nonmetal element group usually is considered to consist
of Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Selenium.
Properties
Nonmetals have high ionization energies and electro negativities. They are generally poor
conductors of heat and electricity. Solid nonmetals are generally brittle, with little or no
metallic luster. Most nonmetals have the ability to gain electrons easily. Nonmetals
display a wide range of chemical properties and reactivity.
Summary of Common Properties
- High ionization energies
- High electro negativities
- Poor thermal conductors
- Poor electrical conductors
- Brittle solids
- Little or no metallic luster
- Gain electrons easily

30
Metalloids
The metalloids or semimetals are located along the line between the metals and
nonmetals in the periodic table. The metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium. Polonium is often considered a metalloid, too.
Properties
The electro negativities and ionization energies of the metalloids are between those of the
metals and nonmetals, so the metalloids exhibit characteristics of both classes. Silicon,
for example, possesses a metallic luster, yet it is an inefficient conductor and is brittle.
The reactivity of the metalloids depends on the element with which they are reacting. For
example, boron acts as a nonmetal when reacting with sodium yet as a metal when
reacting with fluorine. The boiling points, melting points, and densities of the metalloids
vary widely. The intermediate conductivity of metalloids means they tend to make good
semiconductors.
Metalloids have properties of both metals and non-metals. Some of the metalloids, such
as silicon and germanium, are semi-conductors. This means that they can carry an
electrical charge under special conditions. This property makes metalloids useful in
computers and calculators.
Summary of Common Properties
- Electro negativities between those of metals and nonmetals
- Ionization energies between those of metals and nonmetals
- Possess some characteristics of metals/some of nonmetals
- Reactivity depends on properties of other elements in reaction
- Often make good semiconductors

B C N O F
Fluorin
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen
e
Al Si P S Cl
Aluminiu Phosphor Chlorin
Silicon Sulfur
m us e
Ga Ge As Se Br
Germaniu Seleniu Bromin
Gallium Arsenic
m m e
In Sn Sb Te I
Telluriu
Indium Tin Antimony Iodine
m
Tl Pb Bi Po At
Poloniu Astatin
Thallium Lead Bismuth
m e

31
The Periodic table of Chemical Elements
The modern Periodic table of Elements is a product of many scientists especially Meyer,
Mendeleev, Werner and Moseley.
The idea of ordering is based on the atomic number of the existing elements. The new
system of ordering the elements is based on ‘The modern Periodic law’ which states ‘the
properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers’.
Moreover, the symbols of the element, the atomic number, the atomic mass, the Periodic
Table also contain other information such as:
- Name of the element
- Boiling point
- Freezing point
- Valence
- Atomic ratio
- Density
- Electromagnetism
- Electron configuration
- State of element
- Point of aggregation
Certain chemical elements present properties being metals and non-metals. The zigzag
diagonal line separates the metals from the non-metals. We call these metals amphoteric
or metalloids. These include Barium, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Selenium, Antimony
and Tellurium. Other scientists add Polonium and Bismuth.
The positions of Hydrogen (H) within the metals have been highly disputed. Comparing
the number of metallic elements with the non-metallic elements, we see that the metals
are more in number.
The liquid elements at environmental temperature are: Mercury, Brome, Gallium,
Cesium, and Francium.
Additionally to the Inert gases; Oxygen, Nitrogen, Fluor, Chlorine and Hydrogen are
gaseous elements. The last two exist in nature abundantly in diatomic molecules.

32
In the Periodic table of chemical elements we find a guide to understand the how to
interpret or read the table:

Group or Family
In chemistry, a group (also known as a family) is a column of elements in the periodic
table of the chemical elements. There are 18 numbered groups in the periodic table, but
the f-block columns (between groups 2 and 3) are not numbered. The elements in a group
have similar physical or chemical characteristic of the outermost electron shells of their
atoms (i.e., the same core charge), as most chemical properties are dominated by the
orbital location of the outermost electron. There are three systems of group numbering.
The modern numbering group 1 to group 18 is recommended by the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It replaces two older naming schemes that were
mutually confusing. Also, groups may be identified by their topmost element or have a
specific name. For example, group 16 is variously described as oxygen group and
chalcogen.

33
CAS and IUPAC
Two earlier group number systems exist: CAS (Chemical Abstracts Service) and
old IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). Both use
numerals (Arabic or Roman) and letters A and B. Both systems agree on the
numbers. The numbers indicate approximately the highest oxidation number of the
elements in that group, and so indicate similar chemistry with other elements with
the same numeral. The number proceeds in a linearly increasing fashion for the
most part, once on the left of the table, and once on the right (see List of oxidation
states of the elements), with some irregularities in the transition metals. However,
the two systems use the letters differently. For example, potassium (K) has one
valence electron. Therefore, it is located in group 1. Calcium (Ca) is in group 2, for
it contains two valence electrons.
In the old IUPAC system the letters A and B were designated to the left (A) and
right (B) part of the table, while in the CAS system the letters A and B are
designated to main group elements (A) and transition elements (B). The old
IUPAC system was frequently used in Europe while the CAS is most common in
America. The new IUPAC scheme was developed to replace both systems as they
confusingly used the same names to mean different things. The new system simply
numbers the groups increasingly from left to right on the standard periodic table.
The IUPAC proposal was first circulated in 1985 for public comments, and was
later included as part of the 1990 edition of the Nomenclature of Inorganic
Chemistry.

34
Table Groups or Family

New Old IUPAC CAS Name by Element Trivial Name

IUPAC Names (US) IUPAC Approved Note(s)
Names (Europe)
Hydrogen is in this column,
but not considered an alkali
Group 1 IA IA Lithium Family Alkaline Metals metal
Group 2 II A II A Beryllium Family Alkaline Earth Metals
Consisting of rare earth
Group 3 III A III B Scandium Family elements plus actinides
Group 4 IV A IV B Titanium Family
Group 5 VA VB Vanadium Family
Group 6 VI A VI B Chromium Family
Group 7 VII A VII B Manganese Family
Group 8 VIII VIII B Iron Family
Group 9 VIII VIII B Cobalt Family
Group 10 VIII VIII B Nickel Family
Group 11 IB IB Copper Family Coinage Metals
Group 12 II B II B Zinc Family Volatile Metals
Triels from Greek tri (three,
Group 13 III B III A Boron Family Triels, Icosagens III)
Tetrels from Greek tetra
Group 14 IV B IV A Carbon Family Tetrels, Crystallogens (four, IV)
Group 15 VB VA Nitrogen Family Pnictogens
Group 16 VI B VI A Oxygen Family Chalcogens
Group 17 VII B VII A Fluorine Family Halogens
Helium Family or
Group 18 Group O VIII A Neon Family Noble Gases, Aerogens

All the group or family using the new IUPAC names will be seen as shown in the
first column.

35
The Groups or Families in the Periodic Table of Elements
The alkali metals are a group (column) in the periodic table consisting of the chemical
elements Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), and Francium
(Fr). This group lies in the s-block of the periodic table as all alkali metals have their outermost
electron in an s-orbital: this electron configuration results in their characteristic properties.
The alkali metals have very similar properties: they are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at
standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with
charge +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface
that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen. Because of
their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found
naturally only in salts and never as the free element.
In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the group 1 elements, excluding
hydrogen (H), which is nominally a group 1 element but not normally considered to be an alkali
metal as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to that of the alkali metals. All the alkali metals
react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.

The alkaline earth metals are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table with very
similar properties.
Z Element No. of electrons/shell Electron configuration[n 2] They are all shiny,
4 Beryllium 2, 2 [He] 2s2 silvery-white,
12 Magnesium 2, 8, 2 [Ne] 3s2 somewhat reactive
20 Calcium 2, 8, 8, 2 [Ar] 4s2 metals at standard
38 Strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 [Kr] 5s2 temperature and
2
56 Barium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 [Xe] 6s pressure and readily
88 Radium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2 [Rn] 7s2 lose their two
outermost electrons to form cations with charge 2+ and an oxidation state, or oxidation number
of +2. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkaline earth metals comprise the group 2
elements.
The alkaline earth metals are Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr),
Barium (Ba), and Radium (Ra). This group lies in the s-block of the periodic table as all alkaline
earth metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital. All the discovered alkaline earth metals
occur in nature.

Group 3 or the Scandium Family: This group, like other d-block groups, should contain
four elements, but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group. Scandium (Sc) and Yttrium
(Y) are always included, but the other two spaces are usually occupied by Lanthanum (La) and
Actinium (Ac), or by Lutetium (Lu) and Lawrencium (Lr); less frequently, it is considered the
group should be expanded to 32 elements (with all the Lanthanides and Actinides included) or
contracted to contain only Scandium and Yttrium. The group itself has not acquired a trivial
name; however, Scandium, Yttrium and the Lanthanides are sometimes called rare earth metals.

36
 Z Element Electron configuration Three group 3 elements occur naturally,
21 Scandium 2, 8, 9, 2 Scandium, Yttrium, and either Lanthanum or
Lutetium. Lanthanum continues the trend started
39 Yttrium 2, 8, 18, 9, 2
by two lighter members; in general chemical
71 Lutetium 2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2 behavior, while Lutetium behaves more
103 Lawrenciu 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3 similarly to Yttrium. The fourth element, either
m Actinium or Lawrencium, has only radioactive
isotopes. Actinium, which occurs only in trace
amounts, continues the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tri-positive ions with a
noble gas configuration; synthetic Lawrencium
Z Element No. of electrons/shell is calculated and partially shown to be more
22 Titanium 2, 8, 10, 2 similar to Lutetium and Yttrium.
40 Zirconium 2, 8, 18, 10, 2
72 Hafnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 10, 2 Group 4: contains the elements Titanium (Ti),
104 Rutherfordiu 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 10, 2 Zirconium (Zr), Hafnium (Hf) and
m Rutherfordium (Rf).
The three Group 4 elements that occur naturally are Titanium (Ti), Zirconium (Zr) and Hafnium
(Hf). The first three members of the group share similar properties; all three are hard refractory
metals under standard conditions. However, the fourth element Rutherfordium (Rf), has been
synthesized in the laboratory; none of its isotopes have been found occurring in nature. All
isotopes of Rutherfordium are radioactive.
The reactivity is not always obvious due to the rapid formation of a stable oxide layer, which
prevents further reactions. The oxides TiO2, ZrO2 and HfO2 are white solids with high melting
points and unreactive against most acids.

Group 5 contains Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb), Tantalum (Ta) and Dubnium (Db). This
group lies in the d-block of the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it
Z Element No. of electrons/shell belongs to the broader grouping of the Transition
23 Vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2 metals.
41 Niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1 The lighter three Group 5 elements occur naturally
73 Tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2 and share similar properties; all three are hard
105 Dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2 refractory metals under standard conditions. The
fourth element, Dubnium, has been synthesized in laboratories, but it has not been found
occurring in nature, with half-life of the most stable isotope, Dubnium-268, being only 29 hours,
and other isotopes even more radioactive.
The metals form different oxides: Vanadium forms Vanadium(II) oxide, Vanadium(III) oxide,
Vanadium(IV) oxide and Vanadium(V) oxide, Niobium forms Niobium(II) oxide, Niobium(IV)
oxide and Niobium(V) oxide, but out of Tantalum oxides only Tantalum(V) oxide is
characterized. Metal (V) oxides are generally nonreactive and act like acids rather than bases, but
the lower oxides are less stable. They, however, have some unusual properties for oxides, such as
high electric conductivity.

37
Group 6, numbered by IUPAC style, is a group of elements in the periodic table. Its members
Z Element No. of electrons/shell are Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten
24 Chromium 2, 8, 13, 1 (W), and Seaborgium (Sg). These are all transition
42 Molybdenum 2, 8, 18, 13, 1 metals and Chromium, Molybdenum and
74 Tungsten 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2 Tungsten are refractory metals. The period 8
106 Seaborgium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2 elements of group 6 are likely to be either
Unpenthexium (Uph) or Unpentoctium (Upo).
This may not be possible; drip instability may imply that the periodic table ends at Unbihexium.
Neither Unpenthexium nor Unpentoctium have been synthesized, and it is unlikely that this will
happen in the near future.
"Group 6" is the new IUPAC name for this group; the old style name was "group VIB" in the old
US system (CAS) or "group VIA" in the European system (old IUPAC). Group 6 must not be
confused with the group with the old-style group crossed names of either VIA (US system, CAS)
or VIB (European system, old IUPAC). That group is now called group 16.

Group 7, numbered by IUPAC nomenclature, is a group of elements in the periodic table. They
are Manganese (Mn), Technetium (Tc), Rhenium (Re), and Bohrium (Bh). All known elements
of group 7 are transition metals.
Z Element No. of electrons/shell
Like other groups, the members of this family
25 Manganese 2, 8, 13, 2
show patterns in their electron configurations,
43 Technetium 2, 8, 18, 13, 2
especially the outermost shells resulting in
75 Rhenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2
trends in chemical behavior.
10 Bohrium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2
Group 7 contains the two naturally occurring 7
transition metals discovered last: Technetium and Rhenium. Manganese was discovered much
earlier owing to its much larger abundance in nature.

Group 8 is a group of chemical element in the periodic table. It consists of Iron (Fe),
Z Element No. of electrons/shell Ruthenium (Ru), Osmium (Os) and Hassium (Hs).
They are all transition metals. Like other groups, the
26 Iron 2, 8, 14, 2
members of this family show patterns in electron
44 Rutheniu 2, 8, 18, 15, 1
configuration, especially in the outermost shells,
m
resulting in trends in chemical behavior.
76 Osmium 2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
108 Hassium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2 "Group 8" is the modern IUPAC name for this
group; the old style name was group VIIIB in the CAS, US system or group VIIIA in the old
IUPAC, European system.
Group 8 should not be confused with the old-style group name of VIIIA by CAS/US naming.
That group is now called group 18.
Hassium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively
observed; only Iron, Ruthenium, and Osmium have had their properties experimentally

38
confirmed. All three elements are typical silvery-white transition metals, hard, and have high
melting and boiling points.

Group 9, numbered by IUPAC nomenclature, is a group of chemical element in the periodic

table. Members are Cobalt (Co), Rhodium (Rh),
Z Element No. of electrons/shell Iridium (Ir) and Meitnerium (Mt). These are all
27 Cobalt 2, 8, 15, 2 transition metals in the d-block. All known isotopes
45 Rhodium 2, 8, 18, 16, 1 of Meitnerium are radioactive with short half-lives,
77 Iridium 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2 and it is not known to occur in nature; only minute
109 Meitnerium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2 quantities have been synthesized in laboratories.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially
in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior; however, Rhodium deviates
from the pattern.
Meitnerium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively
observed; only Cobalt, Rhodium, and Iridium have had their properties experimentally
confirmed. All three elements are typical silvery-white transition metals, hard, and have high
melting and boiling points.

Group 10, numbered by current IUPAC style, is the group of chemical elements in the periodic
table that consists of Nickel (Ni), Palladium
Z Element No. of electrons per shell (Pd), Platinum (Pt), and Darmstadtium (Ds).
28 Nickel 2, 8, 17, 1 All are d-block transition metals. All known
46 Palladium 2, 8, 18, 18 isotopes of Ds are radioactive with short
78 Platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1 half-lives, and are not known to occur in
11 Darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 nature; only minute quantities have been
0 synthesized in laboratories.
Like other groups, the members of this group show patterns in electron configuration, especially
in the outermost shells, although for this group they are particularly weak, with Palladium being
an exceptional case. The relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital is the explanation to the
predicted electron configuration of Darmstadtium, which, unusually for this group, conforms to
that predicted by the Aufbau principle.

Group 11, numbered by IUPAC style, is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table,
consisting of Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), and Gold
Z Element No. of electrons/shell (Au). Roentgenium (Rg) belongs to this group of
29 Copper 2, 8, 18, 1 elements based on its theoretical electronic
47 Silver 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 configuration, but it is a short-lived transactinide
79 Gold 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 with a half-life of 26 seconds that has been
111 Roentgenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 2 observed only in laboratory conditions. Although
at various times societies have used other metals in coinage including Aluminium, Lead, Nickel,
stainless steel, Tin, and Zinc, the name coinage metals is used to highlight the special physio-

39
chemical properties that make this series of metals uniquely well suited for monetary purposes.
These properties include ease of identification, resistance to tarnish, extreme difficulty in
counterfeiting, durability, fungibility and a reliable store of value unmatched by any other metals
known. All the elements of the group except Roentgenium have been known since prehistoric
times.

Group 12, by modern IUPAC numbering, is a group of chemical elements in the periodic
table. It includes Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg). The further inclusion of
Copernicium (Cn) in group 12 is supported by recent experiments on individual Copernicium
atoms. Group 12 is also known as the volatile metals, although this can also more generally refer
to any metal (which need not be in group 12) that has high volatility, such as Polonium or
Flerovium. Formerly this group was named IIB (pronounced as "group two B", as the "II" is a
Roman numeral) by CAS and old IUPAC system.
The three Group 12 elements that occur naturally are Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury. They are all
widely used in electric and electronic applications, as well as in various alloys. The first two
members of the group share similar properties as they are solid metals under standard conditions.
Mercury is the only metal that is a Z Element No. of electrons/shell
liquid at room temperature. While 30 Zinc 2, 8, 18, 2
Zinc is very important in the
48 Cadmium 2, 8, 18, 18, 2
biochemistry of living organisms,
80 Mercury 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2
Cadmium and Mercury are both
112 Copernicium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 2 (predicted)
highly toxic. As Copernicium does
not occur in nature, it has to be synthesized in the laboratory.

The Boron group consists of the chemical elements in Group 13 of the periodic table,
comprising Boron (B), Aluminium (Al),
Z Element No. of electrons per shell
Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), Thallium (Tl), and
5 Boron 2, 3 Ununtrium (Uut). The elements in the Boron
13 Aluminium 2, 8, 3 group are characterized by having three
31 Gallium 2, 8, 18, 3 electrons in their outer energy levels (valence
49 Indium 2, 8, 18, 18, 3 layers). These elements have also been referred
81 Thallium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3 to as Icosagens and Triels.
113 Ununtrium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3
Boron is classified as a metalloid while the rest,
with the possible exception of Ununtrium, are considered other metals. Ununtrium has not yet
been confirmed to be another metal and, due to relativistic effects, might not turn out to be one.
Aluminium occurs widely on earth, and indeed is the third most abundant element in the Earth's
crust (8.3%). Gallium is found in the earth with an abundance of 13 ppm. Indium is the 61st most
abundant element in the earth's crust, and Thallium is found in moderate amounts throughout the
planet. Ununtrium is never found in nature and therefore is termed a synthetic element.
Several group 13 elements have biological roles in the ecosystem. Boron is a trace element in
humans and is essential for some plants. Lack of Boron can lead to stunted plant growth, while
an excess can also cause harm by inhibiting growth. Aluminium has neither a biological role nor
significant toxicity and is considered safe. Indium and Gallium can stimulate metabolism;

40
Gallium is credited with the ability to bind itself to Iron proteins. Thallium is highly toxic,
interfering with the function of numerous vital enzymes, and has seen use as a pesticide.
The boron group is notable for trends in the electron configuration, as shown above, and in some
of its elements' characteristics. Boron differs from the other group members in its hardness,
refractivity and reluctance to participate in metallic bonding.

The Carbon group is a periodic table group consisting of Carbon (C), Silicon (Si),
Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn), Lead (Pb), and Flerovium (Fl).

Z Element No. of electrons/shell In modern IUPAC notation, it is called

Group 14. In the field of semiconductor
6 Carbon 2, 4
physics, it is still universally called
14 Silicon 2, 8, 4
Group IV. The group was once also
32 Germanium 2, 8, 18, 4
known as the tetrels (from Greek tetra,
50 Tin 2, 8, 18, 32, 4
four), stemming from the Roman
82 Lead 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 numeral IV in the group names, or (not
11 Flerovium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 (predicted) coincidentally) from the fact that these
4 elements have four valence electrons
(see below). The group is sometimes also referred to as tetragens or crystallogens.

This Group 15 is also known as the Nitrogen family. It consists of the elements Nitrogen (N),
Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
Z Element No. of electrons/shell
Bismuth (Bi) and the synthetic element Ununpentium
7 Nitrogen 2, 5 (Uup) (unconfirmed).
15 Phosphoru 2, 8, 5
s In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 15. In
33 Arsenic 2, 8, 18, 5 CAS and the old IUPAC systems it was called Group
51 Antimony 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 VA and Group VB, respectively (pronounced "group
83 Bismuth 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 five A" and "group five B", "V" for the Roman
numeral 5). In the field of semiconductor physics, it
is still usually called Group V. The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from the
"pentavalency" of Nitrogen, reflected by the stoichiometry of compounds such as N2O5.
The term "pnictogen" (or "pnigogen") is derived from an Ancient Greek word meaning to choke,
referring to the choking or stifling property of nitrogen gas.
This group has the defining characteristic that all the component elements have 5 electrons in
their outermost shell, that is 2 Z Element No. of electrons/shell
electrons in the s subshell and 3 8 oxygen 2, 6
unpaired electrons in the p subshell. 16 sulfur 2, 8, 6
They are therefore 3 electrons short 34 selenium 2, 8, 18, 6
of filling their outermost electron 52 tellurium 2, 8, 18, 18, 6
shell in their non-ionized state. The 84 polonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6
most important elements of this
116 livermoriu 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6 (predicted)
group are Nitrogen (N), which in its
m

41
diatomic form is the principal component of air, and Phosphorus (P), which, like Nitrogen, is
essential to all known forms of life.

The chalcogens are the chemical elements in Group 16 of the periodic table. This group is
also known as the Oxygen family. It consists of the elements Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium
(Se), Tellurium (Te), and the radioactive element Polonium (Po). The synthetic element
Livermorium (Lv) is predicted to be a chalcogen as well. Often, Oxygen is treated separately
from the other chalcogens, sometimes even excluded from the scope of the term "chalcogen"
altogether, due to its very different chemical behavior from Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, and
Polonium. The word "chalcogen" is derived from a combination of the Greek word khalkόs
principally meaning Copper (the term was also used for bronze/brass, any metal in the poetic
sense, ore or coin), and the Latinised Greek word genēs, meaning born or produced.
Oxygen is generally extracted from air and Sulfur is extracted from oil and natural gas. Selenium
and Tellurium are produced as byproducts of copper refining. Polonium and Livermorium are
most available in particle accelerators. The primary use of elemental Oxygen is in steelmaking.
Sulfur is mostly converted into sulfuric acid, which is heavily used in the chemical industry.
Selenium's most common application is glassmaking. Tellurium compounds are mostly used in
optical disks, electronic devices, and solar cells. Some of Polonium's applications are due to its
radioactivity

The halogens or halogen elements are a group in the periodic table consisting of five
chemically related elements: Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), and Astatine
(At). The artificially created element 117 (Ununseptium) may also be a halogen. In the modern
IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17.
The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements in three of the four
main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when
bonded to Hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle
halogen, that is Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine, are often used as disinfectants. Organo-bromides
are the most important class of flame retardants. Elemental halogens are generally toxic.

Halogen molecule structure model d(X−X) / pm d(X−X) / pm

(gas phase) (solid phase)

Fluorine F2 143 149

Chlorine Cl2 199 198

42
Bromine Br2 228 227

Iodine I2 266 272

The Inert gases make a group of chemical elements with similar properties: under standard
conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic
Z Elemen No. of electrons/shell gases with very low chemical reactivity. The six noble
t gases that occur naturally are Helium (He), Neon (Ne),
2 Helium 2 Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and the
10 Neon 2, 8 radioactive Radon (Rn).
18 Argon 2, 8, 8
36 Krypton 2, 8, 18, 8 For the first six periods of the periodic table, the inert
54 Xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 gases are exactly the members of Group 18 of the
86 Radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 periodic table. Inert gases are typically highly
unreactive except when under particular extreme conditions. The inertness of these gases makes
them very suitable in applications where reactions are not wanted. For example: Argon is used in
light bulbs to prevent the hot Tungsten filament from oxidizing; also, Helium is breathed by
deep-sea divers to prevent Oxygen and Nitrogen toxicity.
Each of the inert gasses glows in its own colour when exposed to high voltage; for example
Helium becomes pink, Krypton glows yellow/green, Xenon shines in lavender blue and Argon in
light blue/purple ... In addition neon lights have a strong
red glow, generally last for about 10 years, after which
they simply need to be refilled with gas.

43
The Lanthanides
The lanthanides are located in block 5d of the periodic table. The first 5d transition element is
either Lanthanum or Lutetium, depending on how you interpret the periodic trends of the
elements. Sometimes only the Lanthanides, and not the Actinides, are classified as rare earths.
The Lanthanides are not as rare as was once thought; even the scarce rare earths (e.g., Europium,
Lutetium) are more common than the platinum-group metals. Several of the Lanthanides form
during the fission of Uranium and Plutonium.
The Lanthanides have many scientific and industrial uses. Their compounds are used as catalysts
in the production of petroleum and synthetic products. Lanthanides are used in lamps, lasers,
magnets, phosphors, motion picture projectors, and X-ray intensifying screens. A pyrophoric
mixed rare-earth alloy called Mischmetall (50% Ce, 25% La, 25% other light Lanthanides) or
Misch metal is combined with Iron to make flints for cigarette lighters. The addition of <1%
Mischmetall or lanthanide silicides improves the strength and workability of low alloy steels.
Common Properties of the Lanthanides
Lanthanides share the following common properties:
- Silvery-white metals that tarnish when exposed to air, forming their oxides.
- Relatively soft metals. Hardness increases somewhat with higher atomic number.
- Moving from left to right across the period (increasing atomic number), the radius of
each lanthanide 3+ ion steadily decreases. This is referred to as 'lanthanide contraction'.
- High melting points and boiling points.
- Very reactive.
- React with water to liberate hydrogen (H2), slowly in cold/quickly upon heating.
Lanthanides commonly bind to water.
- React with H+ (dilute acid) to release H2 (rapidly at room temperature).
- React in an exothermic reaction with H2.
- Burn easily in air.
- They are strong reducing agents.
- Their compounds are generally ionic.
- At elevated temperatures, many rare earths ignite and burn vigorously.
- Most rare earth compounds are strongly paramagnetic.
- Many rare earth compounds fluoresce strongly under ultraviolet light.
- Lanthanide ions tend to be pale colors, resulting from weak, narrow, forbidden f x f
optical transitions.
- The magnetic moments of the lanthanide and iron ions oppose each other.

44
 - The lanthanides react readily with most nonmetals and form binaries on heating with
most nonmetals.
- The coordination numbers of lanthanides are high (greater than 6; usually 8 or 9 or as
high as 12).

Actinides
The electronic configurations of the actinides utilize the f sublevel. Depending on your
interpretation of the periodicity of the elements, the series begins with actinium, thorium, or even
lawrencium. The actinides (An) are prepared by reduction of AnF3 or AnF4 with vapors of Li,
Mg, Ca, or Ba at 1100 - 1400°C.
Common Properties of the Actinides
Actinides share the following common properties:
- All are radioactive.
- Actinides are highly electropositive.
- The metals tarnish readily in air.
- Actinides are very dense metals with distinctive structures. Numerous allotropes may be
formed (plutonium has at least 6 allotropes).
- They react with boiling water or dilute acid to release hydrogen gas.
- Actinides combine directly with most nonmetals.

45
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
1. How are the elements classified according to their origin in the periodic
table?

2. Give another name for artificial elements.

3. How are the elements classified according to their characteristics in the

periodic table?

4. What does the IUPAC stand for?

5. What does the CAS stand for?

6. What other information can be found in the Periodic table?

7. What significant changes have the IUPAC made when grouping the
elements?

8. Why is the Periodic table colour coded?

9. What does the Z stand for in the columns of each group?

46
 10.What is the Aufbau Principle?

The Periodic System

The periodic table is formed by columns; both horizontal and vertical. The horizontal columns
are called PERIODS and the vertical columns area called GROUPS.
Periods
Seven periods are obvious horizontally which are designated with Arabic numbers from 1 to 7
written on the left hand side of the table or identified with the letters K-Q.
The properties of the elements vary systematically throughout the periods.
Groups
Groups are designated as being the vertical columns in the periodic table. They are identified
with Roman numerals from I to VIII.
The group indicates the number of electrons that the elements have in their last level of energy.
The elements in every group possess chemical and physical properties that are intact related. The
groups are further subdivided into two other groups A and B.
Subgroups A and B
The subgroups A are elements that are representatives and the subgroups B are elements of
transition.
The Inert gases
The Inert Gases are designated as subgroups VIII A by having eight electrons (e-) in their last
energy level, sometimes they are called Group Zero due to they do not have no valence.
Actually there are 50 elements
that are representative and 40
elements that are transitional.
The elements that are of internal
transition are comprised of two
series: lanthanides or rare earths
(58-71) and actinides (90-103)

47
ACIDS and BASES
There are several methods of defining acids and bases. Sometimes bases are called alkaline.
While these definitions don't contradict each other, they do vary in how inclusive they are.
Antoine Lavoisier, Humphrey Davy, and Justus Liebig also made observations regarding acids
and bases, but didn't formalize definitions. Here are some of their observations:

Properties of Acids:
- taste sour... the word 'acid' comes from the Latin ‘acere’, which means 'sour'
- acids change litmus (a blue vegetable dye) from blue to red
- their aqueous (water) solutions conduct electric current (are electrolytes)
- react with bases to form salts and water
- evolve hydrogen gas (H2) upon reaction with an active metal (such as alkali metals,
alkaline earth metals, zinc, aluminum)

Properties of Bases:
- taste bitter
- feel slippery or soapy
- bases don't change the color of litmus; they can turn red (acidified) litmus back to blue
- their aqueous (water) solutions conduct and electric current (are electrolytes)
- react with acids to form salts and water
We should never taste or touch any substance to see if they are bitter or sweet (Acids or bases)

Examples of Common Acids

- citric acid (from certain fruits and veggies, notably citrus fruits)
- ascorbic acid (vitamin C, as from certain fruits)
- vinegar (5% acetic acid)
- carbonic acid (for carbonation of soft drinks)
- lactic acid (in buttermilk)

Examples of Common Bases or Alkaline

- detergents
- soap

48
 - lye (NaOH)
- household ammonia (aqueous)

The following are some of the names and formulas of some of the common acids
and bases.

Binary Acids
A binary compound consists of two elements. Binary acids have the prefix hydro in front of the
full name of the nonmetallic element. They have the ending -ic. Examples include hydrochloric
and hydrofluoric acid.

Hydrofluoric Acid - HF

Hydrochloric Acid - HCl

Hydrobromic Acid - HBr

Hydroiodic Acid - HI

Hydrosulfuric Acid - H2S

Ternary Acids
Ternary acids commonly contain hydrogen, a nonmetal, and oxygen. The name of the
most common form of the acid consists of the nonmetal root name with the -ic ending, The
acid containing one less oxygen atom than the most common form is designated by the -ous
ending. An acid containing one less oxygen atom than the -ous acid has the prefix hypo-
and the -ous ending. The acid containing one more oxygen than the most common acid has
the per- prefix and the -ic ending.

Nitric Acid - HNO3 Nitrous Acid - HNO2

Hypochlorous Acid – HClO Chlorous Acid - HClO2
Chloric Acid - HClO3 Perchloric Acid - HClO4
Sulfuric Acid - H2SO4 Sulfurous Acid - H2SO3

49
Phosphoric Acid - H3PO4 Phosphorous Acid - H3PO3
Carbonic Acid - H2CO3 Acetic Acid - HC2H3O2
Oxalic Acid - H2C2O4 Boric Acid - H3BO3
Silicic Acid - H2SiO3

Bases or Alkaline
Sodium Hydroxide - NaOH
Potassium Hydroxide - KOH
Ammonium Hydroxide - NH4OH
Calcium Hydroxide - Ca(OH)2
Magnesium Hydroxide - Mg(OH)2
Barium Hydroxide - Ba(OH)2
Aluminum Hydroxide - Al(OH)3
Ferrous Hydroxide or Iron (II) Hydroxide – Fe (OH)2
Ferric Hydroxide or Iron (III) Hydroxide – Fe (OH)3
Zinc Hydroxide - Zn(OH)2
Lithium Hydroxide - LiOH

What Makes a Strong Acid or Strong Base?

Strong electrolytes are completely dissociated into ions in water. The acid or base molecule does
not exist in aqueous solution, only ions. Weak electrolytes are incompletely dissociated.

Strong Acids

Strong acids completely dissociate in water, forming H+ and an anion. There are
six strong acids. The others are considered to be weak acids. You should commit
the strong acids to memory:

HCl - hydrochloric acid

HNO3 - nitric acid
H2SO4 - sulfuric acid
50
HBr - hydrobromic acid
HI - hydroiodic acid
HClO4 - perchloric acid

Weak Acids

A weak acid only partially dissociates in water to give H+ and the anion. Examples
of weak acids include hydrofluoric acid, HF, and acetic acid, CH3COOH. Weak
acids include:

- Molecules that contain an ionizable proton. A molecule wih a formula

starting with H usually is an acid.
- Organic acids containing one or more carboxyl group, -COOH. The H is
ionizable.
- Anions with an ionizable proton. (e.g., HSO4- → H+ + SO42-)
- Cations
- transition metal cations
- heavy metal cations with high charge
- NH4+ dissociates into NH3 + H+

Strong Bases

Strong bases dissociate 100% into the cation and OH- (hydroxide ion). The
hydroxides of the Group I and Group II metals usually are considered to be strong
bases.

- LiOH - lithium hydroxide

- NaOH - sodium hydroxide
- KOH - potassium hydroxide
- RbOH - rubidium hydroxide
- CsOH - cesium hydroxide
- *Ca(OH)2 - calcium hydroxide
- *Sr(OH)2 - strontium hydroxide
- *Ba(OH)2 - barium hydroxide

51
* These bases completely dissociate in solutions of 0.01 M or less. The other bases
make solutions of 1.0 M and are 100% dissociated at that concentration. There are
other strong bases than those listed, but they are not often encountered.

Weak Bases

Examples of weak bases include ammonia, NH3, and diethylamine, (CH3CH2)2NH.

Most weak bases are anions of weak acids.

Weak bases do not furnish OH- ions by dissociation. Instead, they react with water
to generate OH- ions.
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

I. Answer the following True or False

1. The word acid comes from the Latin word ‘acere’ which means sour.
2. Bases are bitter.
3. In order to determine if a solution is acidic or alkaline we can taste some of them.
4. An example of a base is soap.
5. An example of an acid is vinegar.
6. Lactic acid is found in soft drinks and other gaseous drinks.
7. Binary acids are made up of only two elements.
8. Ternary acids are made up of three elements.
9. This is an example of a ternary acid: KPO2
10. There are six strong acids.
II. Tell if the following are acids or bases

1. HNO3
2. H3PO3
3. HCl
4. HClO
5. HClO2
6. NaOH

52
 7. NH4OH
8. Al(OH)2
9. LiOH
10. KOH

III. Match the name to the chemical formula for the following acids or bases

1. Magnesium Hydroxide Fe(OH)3

2. Ferric Hydroxide Mg(OH)2

3. Hydro bromic Acid H3PO4

4. Chloric Acid HBr

5. Phosphoric Acid HClO3

IV. Circle the correct letter

1. The other name for Ferric Hydroxide is

(a) Iron (II) hydroxide (b) Iron (III) hydroxide (c) Hypoferrum

2. The other name for Ferrous Hydroxide is

(a) Iron (II) hydroxide (b) Iron (III) hydroxide (c) Hydroferrum

3. How many strong acids are there?

(a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 7

4. The name of most acids consist of the ending:

(a) -ic (b) - id (c) – ous

5. An acid containing one more oxygen has the prefix:

(a) pro- (b) hypo- (c) per-

V. Which group is Acid or Base

53
Atoms and Bonding
The atoms in a molecule or compound are attracted and repelled with respect to
each other in ways that determine the types of bonds they can form.

Atoms are the basic building blocks of all types of matter. Atoms link to other
atoms through chemicals bonds resulting from the strong attractive forces that exist
between the atoms.
So what exactly is a chemical bond? It is a region that forms when electrons from
different atoms interact with each other. The electrons that participate in chemical
bonds are the valence electrons, which are the electrons found in an atom's
outermost shell. When two atoms approach each other these outer electrons
interact. Electrons repel each other, yet they are attracted to the protons within
atoms. The interplay of forces results in some atoms forming bonds with each
other and sticking together.
The two main types of bonds
formed between atoms are: ionic
bonds and covalent bonds. An
ionic bond is formed when one
atom accepts or donates one or
more of its valence electrons to
another atom. A covalent bond is
formed when atoms share
valence electrons. The atoms do
not always share the electrons
equally, so a polar covalent bond
may be the result. When
electrons are shared by two
metallic atoms a metallic bond
may be formed. In a covalent
bond, electrons are shared
between two atoms. The

54
electrons that participate in metallic bonds may be shared between any of the metal
atoms in the region.

Electronegativity in bonding
If the electronegativity values of two atoms are similar:
- Metallic bonds form between two metal atoms.
- Covalent bonds form between two non-metal atoms.
- Nonpolar covalent bonds form when the electronegativity values are very similar.
- Polar covalent bonds form when the electronegativity values are a little further apart.

If the electronegativity values of two atoms are different:

- Ionic bonds are formed.

What is the difference between an Ionic and Covalent Chemical Bond?

A molecule or compound is made when two or more atoms form a chemical bond,
linking them together. The two types of bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds. In an
ionic bond, the atoms are bound together by the attraction between oppositely-charged
ions. For example, sodium and chloride form an ionic bond, to make NaCl, or table salt.
In a covalent bond, the atoms are bound by shared electrons. If the electron is shared
equally between the atoms forming a covalent bond, then the bond is said to be nonpolar.
Usually, an electron is more attracted to one atom than to another, forming a polar
covalent bond. For example, the atoms in water, H 2O, are held together by polar covalent
bonds.

55
IONIC Compounds
 Ionic compounds form crystals.
Ionic compounds form crystal lattices rather than amorphous solids. Although molecular compounds
form crystals, they frequently take other forms plus molecular crystals typically are softer than ionic
crystals.
 Ionic compounds have high melting points and high boiling points.
High temperatures are required to overcome the attraction between the positive and negative ions in
ionic compounds. Therefore, a lot of energy is required to melt ionic compounds or cause them to
boil.
 Ionic compounds have higher enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than
molecular compounds.
Just as ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, they usually have enthalpies of fusion
and vaporization that may be 10 to 100 times higher than those of most molecular compounds. The
enthalpy of fusion is the heat required melt a single mole of a solid under constant pressure. The
enthalpy of vaporization is the heat required for vaporize one mole of a liquid compound under
constant pressure.
 Ionic compounds are hard and brittle.
Ionic crystals are hard because the positive and negative ions are strongly attracted to each other and
difficult to separate, however, when pressure is applied to ionic crystal then ions of like charge may
be forced closer to each other. The electrostatic repulsion can be enough to split the crystal, which is
why ionic solids also are brittle.

56
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water.
When ionic compounds are dissolved in water the dissociated ions are free to conduct electric charge
through the solution. Molten ionic compounds (molten salts) also conduct electricity .
 Ionic solids are good insulators.
Although they conduct in molten form or in aqueous solution, ionic solids do not conduct electricity
very well because the ions are bound so tightly to each other.

Examples of ionic bonds and ionic compounds:

NaBr - sodium bromide
KBr - potassium bromide
NaCl - sodium chloride
NaF - sodium fluoride
KI - potassium iodide
KCl - potassium chloride
CaCl2 - calcium chloride
K2O - potassium oxide
MgO - magnesium oxide
You can recognize ionic compounds because they consist of a metal bonded to a nonmetal.

COVALENT compounds
These are properties of covalent compounds, also known as molecular compounds.
Covalent compounds are a diverse group of molecules, so there are several exceptions to
each 'rule'. When looking at a compound and trying to determine whether it is an ionic
compound or a covalent compound, it's best to examine several properties of the sample.

 Most covalent compounds have relatively low melting points and boiling points.

 Covalent compounds usually have lower enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than
ionic compounds.
 Covalent compounds tend to be soft and relatively flexible.

 Covalent compounds tend to be more flammable than ionic compounds.

 When dissolved in water, covalent compounds don't conduct electricity.

 Many covalent compounds don't dissolve well in water.

These are examples of covalent bonds and covalent compounds. Covalent compounds also are
known as molecular compounds. Organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and

57
nucleic acids, are all examples of molecular compounds. You can recognize these compounds
because they consist of nonmetals bonded to each other. Here are some examples:

PCl3- phosphorus tri-chloride CH3CH2OH- ethanol O3 – ozone H2 - hydrogen

H2O – water HCl - hydrogen chloride CH4 – methane NH3 ammonia
CO2 - carbon dioxide

Ionic or electrovalent bonding

In this type of union, joining or bonding there is a complete transfer of electrons from one
atom to another.

Generally, the atoms that have 1, 2 or 3 electrons as a valence tend to loose electrons to
convert the ions to a positive charge; like in the case of metals. On the other hand, the
atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 electrons tend to win electrons and convert into ions with a
negative charge.

When a metal element reacts with a non-metal, the remaining components are generally
ionic.

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

1. How do atoms link with each other?

2. Name the two main types of bonds.

3. What is an ionic bond?

58
 4. What is a covalent bond?

5. Give two examples of ionic bonds or compounds.

6. Give two examples of covalent bonds or compounds.

7. How can you recognize an ionic bond from a covalent bond?

Bonding Basics
An atom has shells; you want the shells to be full. Some atoms have too
many electrons (one or two extra). Some atoms are really close to having a full shell.
Those atoms need to full the outer shell; they can easily combine with another atom that
has one, two or three extra atoms on its outer shell. Look at the examples:

For
atoms with atomic numbers between 1 and 18; there is a 2-8-8 rule for these
elements. The first shell is filled with 2 electrons, the second is filled with 8
electrons, and the third is filled with 8. You can see that Sodium (Na)
and Magnesium (Mg) have a couple of extra electrons. They have two
possibilities: they can try to get to eight electrons to fill up their third shell, or they
can give up a

59
few electrons and have a filled second shell. It is always easier to give away one or
two electrons than it is to go out and find six or seven to fill your shells.

Oxygen (O) and Fluorine (F) are two good examples. Each of those elements is
looking for a couple of electrons to make a filled shell. They each have one filled
shell with two electrons, but their second shells want to have eight. There are a
couple of ways they can get the electrons. They can share electrons, making
a covalent bond, or they can just borrow them, and make an ionic bond (also
called electrovalent bond).

Look at this example:

Sodium gives up its extra electron. The sodium then has a full second shell and the
fluorine (F) also has a full second shell. When an atom gives up an electron, it
becomes positive like the sodium ion (Na+). When an atom gets an extra electron,
it becomes negatively charged like the Fluorine ion (F -). The positive and negative
charges continue to attract each other like magnets. The attraction of opposite
charges is the way they form and maintain the bond. Any atoms in an
ionic/electrovalent bond can get or give up electrons.

Look at the following examples and note how the atoms have bonded together

60
TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS

61
There are three types of covalent bond depending upon the number of shared
electron pairs.
SINGLE COVALENT BOND
DOUBLE COVALENT BOND
TRIPLE COVALENT BOND

SINGLE COVALENT BOND

A covalent bond formed by the mutual sharing of one electron pair between two atoms is
called a "Single Covalent bond."
It is denoted by single short line( )
Examples:

In single bond formation each atom provides one electron.

DOUBLE COVALENT BOND
A covalent bond formed between two atoms by the mutual sharing of two electron pairs is
called a "double covalent bond". It is denoted by double short line ( )

Examples:

TRIPLE COVALENT BOND

A covalent bond formed by the mutual sharing of three electron pairs is called a "Triple
covalent bond". It is denoted by triple short line ( ).
Examples:

POLAR COVALENT BOND

A covalent bond formed between two different atoms is known as Polar covalent bond.
For example when a Covalent bond is formed between H and Cl, it is polar in nature
because Cl is more electronegative than H atom. Therefore, electron cloud is shifted
towards Cl atom. Due to this reason a partial -ve charge appeared on Cl atom and an
equal +ve charge on H atom

Examples:

NON-POLAR BOND

A covalent bond formed between two like atoms is known as Non-polar bond. Since
difference of electro negativity is zero therefore, both atoms attract electron pair equally
and no charge appears on any atom and the whole molecule becomes neutral.

62
 Examples:
H-H
Cl - Cl
F-F

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bond between a Metal and Non-Metal (M + NM)
Covalent Bond between a Non-Metal and Non-Metal (NM + NM)
Metallic Bond between a Metal and Metal (M+ M)

Determine if the elements in the following compounds are metals or non-

metals. Describe the type of bonding that occurs in the compound.

63
 Compound Element 1 Element 2 Bond Type
(metal or non-metal?) (metal or non-metal?)
NO2 N = non-metal O = non-metal covalent

NaCl
SO2
PO43-
MgBr2
CaO
H2O
K2O
O2
CuCl2
NO2-
TiO2
HF
Rb2S
Fe2O3
C6H12O22
The halogens are five non-metallic elements found in group 17 of the periodic table. The term
"halogen" means "salt-former" and compounds containing halogens are called "salts".
Pure Elements, Molecules and Compounds
Matter can exist in the form of a pure element, but combinations of elements are
more common.

Molecule - a molecule is a combination of two or more atoms (could be from the

same or different elements, such as H2 or H2O)

Compound - a compound is a combination of two or more chemically-bonded

elements. Generally, compounds are considered to be a subclass of molecules
(some people will argue they are determined by the types of chemical bonds).

64
A chemical formula is a shorthand way of showing the elements contained in a
molecule/compound and their ratio. For example, H2O, the chemical formula for
water, shows that two atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen to
form a molecule of water.

Chemical bonds hold atoms together.

Ionic Bond - formed when an electron transfers from one atom to another

Covalent Bond - formed when two atoms share one or more electrons.

Electron configuration
An electron configuration is the probable distribution of the electrons of an atom. The
numbers of electrons are distributed in the levels of energy or orbitals filling first the
levels of energy closer to the nucleus.
The electron shell scale makes it easier for us to facilitate the job of understanding
how these electrons are distributed.
The Aufbau principle (from the German Aufbau, "building up, construction") was an
important part of Bohr's original concept of electron configuration. It may be stated
as:

65
A maximum of two electrons are put into orbitals in the order of increasing orbital
energy: the lowest-energy orbitals are filled before electrons are placed in higher-
energy orbitals.
The modern form of the Aufbau principle describes an order of orbital energies given
by Madelung's rule (or Klechkowski's rule). This rule was first stated by Charles Janet
in 1929, rediscovered by Erwin Madelung in 1936, and later given a theoretical
justification by V.M. Klechkowski.
Orbitals are filled in the order of increasing n+l;
Where two orbitals have the same value of n+l, they are filled in order of increasing n.
This gives the following order for filling the orbitals:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, (8s, 5g, 6f, 7d,
8p, and 9s)
In this list the orbitals in parentheses are not occupied in the ground state of the
heaviest atom now known (Uuo, Z = 118).
The Aufbau principle can be applied, in a modified form, to the protons and neutrons
in the atomic nucleus, as in the shell model of nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry.
Eg.
Iron is number 26 in the Periodic Table of Elements
Iron = Ar 4s2 3d6 : this is the condensed electron configuration as it appears in the
table.
The extensive or complete electron configuration is as follows:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
Notice that the condensed electron configuration is part of the extensive
configuration. To make sure that the electron configuration is correct you count the
numeric electrons.

66
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Element Symbol Number Number Electron Electron configuration
p+ e- configuration (extensive)
(condensed)

Calcium Ca

Scandium Sc

67
 Potassium K

Arsenic As

Technetiu Tc

Mercury Hg

Gold Au

Sodium Na

Silver Ag

Basic Lewis Dot Structures

There are two basic types of bonding that form the basis of the Lewis theory and it
is important to understand before one can begin to draw Lewis dot structures.

Ionic Bonding
In ionic bonding one element is much more electronegative then another element. In
other words, the electronegative atom wants an electron much more than the other
element; thus, the element with a
positive charge loses electron and
the element with the negative

68
charge gains an electron. These two elements then become attracted to each other because
of Coulomb’s Law which states that there is electrostatic interaction between particles
that are electrically charged, in this case the electrons describes the charge of the atom.
The atom that loses electrons is electron deficient; thus, the atomic charge will be
positive. The atom that gains electrons has excess of electrons; thus, the atomic charge
will be negative. This attraction between the elements brings them together to form an
ionic bond. An example of an ionic compound is shown:

Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding the elements share electrons equally, i.e. both the atoms have an
equal share of electrons in the bond. This sharing of electrons creates a bond that is
known as a covalent bond. It is thought that a covalent bond is equal, but in nature, the
bond is never equal. The electronegativity differs between all the elements and the more
electronegative the atom, it has a higher tendency to gain electrons; however, because the
bond is formed by sharing electrons, the atom cannot "possess" an electron. So, the only
way for the more electronegative
atom to take the "advantage" of an
electron is by unequal sharing of
electrons. The compounds that share
electrons unequally are called polar
compounds and the process is called
polarity. An example of a polar
compound is water (H2O). An
example of a generalized covalent
compound is shown below.

How to Draw Lewis Structure: To begin any Lewis dot structure, begin
by counting how many valence electrons are in all the elements.

CH4 CO2

1 C: 1 *[4 Valence Electrons] (2s22p2) 1 C: 1 *[4 Valence Electrons] (2s22p2)

4 H: 4 *[1 Valence Electron] (1s1) 2 O: 2 *[6 Valence Electrons] (2s22p4)

4+4 = 8 Valence Electrons 4 + 12 = 16 Valence Electrons

Next, arrange the elements in a

basic outline, without the electrons

69
or bonds. This is sometimes known as a skeleton structure. In general the least
electronegative element goes in the middle, and hydrogen is almost always on the
outside.

Finally, connect the elements, remembering that hydrogen only needs 2 electrons
and other elements should have 8. A good strategy is to first connect them with
single bonds and fill in the rest with electrons. If there are not enough electrons
add in double/triple bonds when necessary.

The essential goal is to always ensure that each element has a full octet and the
molecule has all the valence electrons it should have from its constituents.

Formal Charges
In an atomic bond, either ionic or covalent, atoms gain or lose electrons. The
formal charge is the difference between the original number of valence electrons
and the actual number of electrons used in filling the octet. The actual number of
electrons is the addition of the lone pair electrons and one electron from each
bond. Only one electron is counted in a bond because there are two electrons
being shared in the bond but only one is being possessed by each atom.

70
The following rules are needed to see if a particular Lewis structure can be
possibly formed in nature.

Formal charge of 0 --> really good, possible in nature

Formal charge of -1 or 1 --> Okay, possible in nature
Formal charge < -2 or > 2 --> Not good, impossible in nature

To check if the formal charge for a particular compound is correct, one can check
if the total of all formal charges of the atoms in the compound equal to the charge
of that compound. An example can be seen in the second figure of category
"Resonance" on the next page:

Resonance
Draw a Lewis dot structure for [SCN]. Is it one of the ones below?

71
All of these molecules look different, but they fulfill the simple rules of Lewis dot
structures. They all fulfill the octet rule and use 16 electrons (15 valence electrons
+1 from the -). This demonstrates that in certain cases, molecules can have the
same elements but it can be arranged differently by the Lewis dot theory. The
different Lewis structures are called resonance structures. It is important to
recognize resonance structures but one also has to consider the natural chance of
each one occurring in nature. One method is to look at the formal charges as
shown below.

One can immediately see that it is extremely unlikely for the middle one to occur
because of the formal charge of -2 to one of the atom i.e. Nitrogen atom. The
formal charge means that nitrogen will take more electrons and so sulfur will
become positive. By comparing the two formal charges on the terminal atoms, one
can see that, in either case, sulfur has a charge of 0 or -1. This is same for
Nitrogen. Now understanding the concept of electronegativity and electron affinity,
which atom is more likely to have a negative charge? To answer that question we
must look at electron affinities. Nitrogen has a higher electron affinity, and thus is
more likely to have a negative charge. The first structure is most common, whereas
the middle structure is least probable structure for SCN-.

Atomic number
The atomic number is represented by the letter Z. The Z represents the number of
protons that exist in the nucleus of the atom of each element. The atomic number is
what distinguishes the atoms of an element with another.

Atomic Mass

72
The atomic mass is also called the atomic weight. This is represented by the letter
A. The mass or weight of the atom is obtained by adding the number of protons
and neutrons of an atom. The formula that is used is: A = p+ + n
If we know the atomic mass and the number of protons we can estimate the
number of neutron by sing the following formula: n = A-Z
(Number of neutrons: atomic mass – atomic number)

Eg.

Using the formula, find the number of neutrons for Hydrogen.

n=A–Z
n = 1.0079 - 1
n = 0.0079

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Find the number of neutrons for: n = A – Z

1. Brome
2. Thallium
3. Molybdenum
4. Aluminum
5. Iron
6. Palladium
7. Platinum
8. Antimony
9. Potassium
10.Selenium
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Number Number Number of n (n=A-Z)
Number Mass of p+ of e-

73
Barium Ba 56 137.327 56 56 137.327 – 56 = 81.327

Actinium

Osmium

Gallium

Cadmium

Europium

Cobalt

Fluor

Caladium

Hafnium

Iodine

Molybdenum

Palladium

Potassium

Sodium

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

74
 1. What other subatomic particles are located in the nucleus of the atom other

than the p+ and the n?

2. What letter represents the atomic mass?

3. What letter represents the atomic number?

4. Explain the following formula: n=A-Z

5. Complete the following table:

Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Number Number Number of n (n=A-Z)
Number Mass of p+ of e-

Rutheniu
m

50

Fe

19

79.909

Valence
The valence of an atom is the capacity of an element to combine and form a
compound with another element.

75
The last level of energy of an atom in an element is called the sub-level or orbit of
valence. In this last orbit the electrons that are found in them are capable of
forming a compound. This happens when the element gains or loses electrons.
To obtain the valence of an element we can use various methods. The Algebraic
Method is often used to find the valence. This method is comprised by using the
following steps:
1.) Identify the valence in question with an ‘x’
2.) Multiply the valence of every element by the number of atoms of the same element
3.) Represent the equation having in mind that the sums of both the positive and negative
valences of a compound are equal to zero.
4.) Find ‘x’
Example
Find the valence of sulfur in the compound H2SO4
1 is the valence found in the periodic table of elements for Hydrogen.
‘x’ is place over the element Sulfur, since this is the valence of the element
in question.
-2 is the valence found in the periodic table of element for Oxygen.

(1 x 2) + (x x 1) + (-2 x 4) = 0
2 + x + (-8) = 0
x + (-8 + 2) = 0
x + (-6) = 0
x=0+6
x=6

The valence of sulfur in the compound H2SO4 is 6.

Notice that the valence in question had various possible answers. When using this
method it becomes possible to determine which valence is the right one for the
element in question.

76
This is the same example as in the previous page. Here it show the same compound
done in a table to show the changes that the element undergo, when using the
Algebraic Method to find the valence of a compound with an element in question.

1x2 xx1 -2 x 4 =0

2 x (-8) =0

x (-8 +2) =0

x (-6) =0

x =0+6

x =6

Classwork: Using the same Algebraic Method find the valence for the following
elements:
Phosphorous:
1. KPO2
2. H3PO4
Iron:
1. Fe2O3
2. FeO
Nitrogen:
1. N2O3
2. HNO3

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___________________________ _________________________

77
 Chemistry
1. Find the number of neutrons for the following elements:

i) Tc

ii) Re

iii) La

iv) Pb

v) Ta

vi) Hs

vii) Tl

viii) Pa

ix) Bh

x) Sg

2. Find the valence for the following elements in question

i) Carbon in: a) CO b) H2CO3

ii) Manganese in: a) MnO2 b) KMnO4

iii) Iron in: a) FeO b) Fe2O3

3. Find the valence for the following elements in question

(i) Sulfur (a) Na2S2O3 (b) CaSO4 (c) SF6

(ii) Chlorine (a) Cl2O (b) Cl2O7 (c) DyCl3

(iii) Carbon (a) CH3OH (b) CO2 (c) MgCO3

(iv) Iron (a) FeTa2O6

Numbers in the Chemical Formula

78
The chemical formulas describe the atomic composition of a component. The
numbers in the molecular formula can be placed in two different places; each one
having a different name and meaning.
The formula H2O for example, indicates that there are two atoms of Hydrogen and
one atom of Oxygen.
Formulas can be written in various ways. Let us take the formula for water: H 2O;
here are the ways it can be represented:

1) Molecular formula: H2O

2) Empirical formula: HO

3) Extended formula:

4) Electron formula:

Parts of a formula or equation

Coefficient
The coefficient is the number that is placed at the front of the equation. It indicates
the number of molecules. If no number is placed at the front of an equation; it is
understood that a 1 is at the front of the equation.
2H2O is interpreted as:
H2O + H2O = 2H2O

The sub index

79
The sub index is the number placed under each element. It also states the number
of atoms that are present in each of the elements in an equation. If no sub index is
written at the bottom of any element it is understood that a 1 is represented.
For example, Na2CO3 indicates:
2 atoms of Na
1 atom of C
3 atoms of O

Classification of molecules
According to the type of atoms that form molecules, they are placed in two:
Homogeneous molecules and Heterogeneous molecules.

Homogeneous molecules: are those formulas that are formed by only one type of
element.

Eg. H2 N2

Heterogeneous molecules: are those formulas that are formed by more than one
type of element.
Eg. H2O Fe2O3

According to the number of atoms that form the molecules they are grouped as
follows:
1- Monoatomic (those made up of one atom) Eg. Ar Fe N

2- Diatomic (those made up of two atoms) Eg. F2 LiH Fe2

3- Triatomic (those made up of three atoms) Eg. Fe2O CO2

4- Tetratomic (those made up of four atoms) Eg. HBr2O Fe2O2

5- Pent atomic (those made up of five atoms) Eg. Fe2O3 N2O3

6- Hex atomic (those made up of six atoms) Eg. H2CO3

7- Hep atomic (those made up of seven atoms) Eg. Na2SO4

8- Polyatomic (those made up of more than seven atoms) C6H12O6 2HBr2O

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80
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Compound Name according to group Name according to number of atoms

N2

CH4

C4H10

KClO3

H2SO4

Compound Number of Molecules Number of atoms

N2

2CH4

3C4H10

6KClO3

H2SO4

Compound Name according to group Name according to number of atoms

CO2

I2

H2S

NaCl

P2O5

___________________________ _________________________

81
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Compound Number of Molecules Number of atoms

4 NaCl

Na2SO4

6 KMnD4

Al2(CO3) 3

10 C2H6

Compound Number of Molecules Number of atoms

H2CO3

3 KNO3

2 FeS

7 MgSO4

Zn(NO3)2

___________________________ _________________________

82
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Compound Name according to type of atoms Name according to number of atoms

Br2

SO3

O2

FeO2

HCl

Compound Number of Molecules Number of atoms

5 Na2CO3

10 CO2

HClO3

7 KOH

4 K2Cr6O7

Molecular Mass

83
Molecular mass refers to the sum of all the atomic masses that forms a molecule.
Let us find the molecular mass of water (H2O)

Compound Element(s) Number of Atomic Sum Answer

atoms Mass
H2O H 2 1.0079 2.0158

O 1 15.999 15.999
18.0148 18.0148 A.M.U
Atomic Mass Unit

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Compound Element(s) Number of Atomic Sum Answer
atoms Mass
CO2

CH4

Na2SO4

Zn(NO3)2

KClO3

___________________________ _________________________

84
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Find the atomic mass for the following compounds

Compound Element(s) Number of Atomic Sum Answer

atoms Mass
KClO3

ZnCO3

Mg2O3

Zn(NO3)2

CaCl2

Chemical Reactions
85
A chemical reaction is referred to whatever changes occur in the composition of
matter. All chemical reactions are produced in two stages:
- Initial stage
- Final stage
The initial stage refers anything that is present before any effect or change.
The final reaction refers to all changes that have happen after any effect or change.

It is known that a reaction have occurred because of the properties of the

substances at the initial stage or ‘reactants’ are different from those at the final
stage.

The scientist Antoine Lavoisier after understanding the above mentioned called it
‘The law of conversion of Matter’. In this he states: “Matter it not created, nor is it
destroyed, it is only transferred and remains constant in the Universe”.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after

the French Revolution; 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794);
was a French nobleman and chemist central to the 18th-
century Chemical Revolution and a large influence on both
the histories of chemistry and biology. He is widely
considered to be the "Father of Modern Chemistry."
It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great
accomplishments in chemistry largely stem from the fact
that he changed the science from a qualitative to a
quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays
in combustion. He recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and
opposed the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the metric system, wrote
the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.
He predicted the existence of silicon (1787) and was also the first to establish that
sulfur was an element (1777) rather than a compound. He discovered that, although
matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same.

Years later, John Dalton stated: “In chemistry only a recondition or a

recombination of atoms occur.”

Eg. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

(Calcium oxide) + (water) is equal or reacts as (calcium hydroxide)
Classification of Chemical reactions

86
All the chemical reactions are associated with changes in energy; causing a total or
partial absorption or displacement of heat.

The reactions are classified in two:

- Exothermic reactions
- Endothermic reactions

Exothermic reactions
An exothermic reaction is one that after it reaches its final stage displaces energy.
Eg. NaOH + HCl →NaCl + H2O + Energy
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O + Energy
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid →Sodium Chloride + water + 13.7
Kcal.

Endothermic reactions

An endothermic reaction needs the abortion or application of energy from the

exterior for a reaction to be possible.
Eg. H2 + I2 + Energy → 2HCl

H2 + I2 + Energy → 2HCl
Hydrogen + Iodine + (Kcal) → hydro Iodine acid

87
Chemical Equations
Chemical equations are a representation of the chemical formula using terms and symbols of the
elements that make up the compounds of the formula.

Some symbols used in chemical formulas:

(g): gas
(l): liquid
(s): solid
(aq): aqueous
(sol): solution

→ produce, originates, reacts, gives

= or reversible reaction (reactants forming products and forming reactants)

↑ displaces a gas or heat

↓ precipitates is insoluble with a higher density than the liquid where the reaction has occurred.

According to the type of combination the major part of chemical reactions are classified in four
main groups:
- Reactions by association or Direct combination
- Reactions by Decomposition
- Reactions by Replacement or Simple substitution
- Reaction by Interchange or Double substitution

Example of Reactions by Association: 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

Example of Reaction by Decomposition: 2HgO → 2Hg + O2

Example of Reaction by Simple Substitution: 2 Fe + 3H2O →Fe2O3 + 3H2

Example of Reaction by Double Substitution: CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O

88
Proving and balancing chemical equations
All of the previous types of chemical reaction balance and can be proven. Both the reactant and
product must be equal in order for the equation to work. So, the reactant has a numerical
equivalent and so do the product.

Example 1:

Mg2O3 if we look on the periodic table of element we find out that all the elements have an
atomic mass. If we take that mass and multiply it by the sub index or the amount of the atoms;
and add it with each element that forms the formula we will get a numerical figure.

Mg2O3 the atomic mass for Magnesium is 24. If we multiply 24 by the 2 molecules we get a
total of 48. We add 48 with the total of O 3; which is the atomic mass for Oxygen which is 16 by
the 3 molecules. This is 16 by 3 which gives us a total of 48.
So Mg2= (24 x 2) = 48 + O3= (16 x 3) = 48 hence; 48 + 48 = 96

Mg2O3
(24 x 2) + (16 x 3)
48 + 48
96

Example 2:

2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO

2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO
2 (40 x 1) + (16 x 2) → 2 (40 +16)
2 (40) + (32) → 2 (56)
80 + 32 → 112
112 → 112

Example: 3

2Fe + 3H2O → Fe2O3 + 3H2

2Fe + 3H2O → Fe2O3 + 3H2

2(56) + 3 (1x2 + 16) → (56x2 + 16x3) + 3 (1x2)
112 + 3 (2 + 16) → (112 + 48) + 3 (2)
112 + 3 (18) → 160 +6
112 + 54 → 166
166 → 166

89
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Prove the following equations

1.) Mg(s) + CuO →MgO (s) + Cu (s)

2.) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)

3.) 2 Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2 Fe (l)

4.) CuO(g) + H2SO4 → CuSO4(s)+ H2O(g)

5.) 2 KI(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 KCl(s) + I2(g)

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

1). 2 AgI + Na2S →Ag2S + 2 NaI

2). Na3PO4 + 3 HCl → 3 NaCl + H3PO4
3). Ba3N2 + 6H2O → 3 Ba(OH)2 + 2 NH3
4). TiCl4 + 2 H2O →TiO2 + 4 HCl
5). 3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 NaCl

90
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
1). 2 NaBr + Cl2 →2 NaCl + Br2
2). Mg (OH)2 + 2 HCl →MgCl2 + 2 H2O
3). 4 FeS + 7 O2 → 2 Fe2O3 + 4 SO2
4). PCl5 + 4 H2O → H3PO4 + 5 HCl
5). C2H6O + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

1.) FeS(s) + 2HCl(l) → FeCl2 + H2S

2.) 2 K(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2 ↑

3.) HNO3(l) + H2O(l) → H3O(aq) + NO3(aq)

4.) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2

5.) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

6.) 2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O (l)

91
__________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry Review

1. What is a proton?

2. What is an electron?

3. What is a neutron?

4. Name the most important part of an atom.

5. What is valence?

6. What method is mostly used to identify the valence of an element in a

formula?

7. What are the sublevels of energy in an atom?

8. What is the name given to the parts of a chemical equation?

92
Balancing Chemical Equations
Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation

__CH4 +__ O2 → __ CO2 + __ H2O

Identify the elements in the equation: C, H, O

1. H is found in CH4 and H2O, so it's a good starting element.

2. You have 4 H in CH4 yet only 2 H in H2O, so you need to double the coefficient of H 2O
to balance H.
1 CH4 + __ O2 → __ CO2 + 2 H2O
3. Looking at carbon, you can see that CH4 and CO2 must have the same coefficient.
1 CH4 + __ O2 → 1 CO2 + 2 H2O
4. Finally, determine the O coefficient. You can see you need to double the O 2 coefficient in
order to get 4 O seen on the product side of the reaction.
1 CH4 + 2 O2 → 1 CO2 + 2 H2O
5. Check your work. It's standard to drop a coefficient of 1, so the final balanced equation
would be written: CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

In other words to balance the equation it is necessary to find the equality among all the atoms of
each element or reacting compound with the number of atoms of each element or reacting
product.

To balance the equation we make use of the coefficient that comes in front of the formula until
completing an equal quantity of matter in each of the elements in the equation.

Example 1:

2 Mg + __ O2 → 2 MgO
Mg O → Mg O
1 2 → 1 1
1 2 → 2 2
2 2 → 2 2

So the new equation is 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

93
Checking the Balance of a Chemical Equation
When we write chemical equations for a chemical reaction, we use special numbers called
coefficients to represent multiple molecules or formula units. For example; 6H2O
As before, the subscript 2 pertains only to the hydrogen. However, the coefficient 6 pertains
to every element in the compound, whether or not they are found in parenthesis. The 6 tells
us that there are six molecules of water, with a total of 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atoms of
oxygen. Once again, a coefficient pertains to every element in the compound, regardless of
parenthesis. You will need to keep this in mind when you check the balance of an equation.

Example 1. Determine if the following reaction is balanced or not.

Ca(OH)2(cr) ---> CaO(cr) + H2O(g)
Let us make an organized tally table and compare both sides of the equation;

Ca(OH)2(cr) ---> CaO(cr) + H2O(g)

Reactant Side Product Side
Elements Ca O H Elements Ca O H
1 atom 2 atoms 2 atoms 1 atom 2 atoms 2 atoms
As you can see, this reaction is balanced, so no coefficients are necessary.

Example 2. Check the balance on the following chemical reaction;

Ca(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) ---> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) ---> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Reactant Side Product Side
Ca O H Cl Ca O H Cl
1 atom 2 atoms 3 atoms 1 atom 1 atom 1 atom 2 atoms 2 atoms
As you can see, this reaction is not balanced. You are not allowed to change any subscripts,
but coefficients may be added in order to obtain balance.

94
Balancing Chemical Equations
Balancing chemical equations is a skill that only develops with practice, but for
starters, looks at the tally above. Notice that you need more Cl on the reactant
side. What would the tally look like if we add a coefficient of 2 to the HCl on the
reactant side?

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ---> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ---> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Reactant Side Product Side
Ca O H Cl Ca O H Cl
1 atom 2 atoms 4 atoms 2 atoms 1 atom 1 atom 2 atoms 2 atoms
Now we need more oxygen and more hydrogen on the product side. Let's add a coefficient of 2
to the H2O on the product side and check the balance again.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ---> CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ---> CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Reactant Side Product Side
Ca O H Cl Ca O H Cl
1 atom 2 atoms 4 atoms 2 atoms 1 atom 2 atom 4 atoms 2 atoms
Now the equation is balanced.

Example 2. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction below;

Propane reacts with oxygen gas to yield carbon dioxide and water.
First, you need to be able to turn a word equation into a chemical equation. The one above
would become;

C3H8(g) + O2(g) ----> CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Now, let us tally the information in a table:

C3H8(g) + O2(g) ----> CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Reactant Side Product Side
C H O C H O
3 atoms 8 atoms 2 atoms 1 atom 2 atoms 3 atoms

Well, a quick look shows us that we will need more hydrogen and more carbon on the right hand
side. Let us start by multiplying the number of hydrogen on the product side by four, giving us a
total of 8 atoms of hydrogen. Be aware that this will also change the number of oxygen atoms on
the product side. Let us look at how a coefficient of 4 in front of water changes things.

95
C3H8(g) + O2(g) ----> CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

C3H8(g) + O2(g) ----> CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

Reactant Side Product Side
C H O C H O
3 atoms 8 atoms 2 atoms 1 atom 8 atoms 6 atoms

Now we have a match with the number of hydrogen atoms. Let us balance the carbon atoms
next, because in order to change the carbon atoms on the product side, it will also affect the
number of oxygen atoms. We need to multiply the number of carbon atoms on the product side
by three, so we will place a coefficient of three in front of the carbon dioxide and check the tally
again.

C3H8(g) + O2(g) ----> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

C3H8(g) + O2(g) ----> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

Reactant Side Product Side
C H O C H O
3 atoms 8 atoms 2 atoms 3 atom 8 atoms 10 atoms

Now, we have matched the number of atoms for two of the elements. A subscript of 5 in front of
the oxygen on the reactant side should finish the job.

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) ----> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) ----> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

Reactant Side Product Side
C H O C H O
3 atoms 8 atoms 10 atoms 3 atom 8 atoms 10 atoms

We have achieved proper balance! In practice, the process is not nearly as long and tedious as
this may have appeared. Once you gain some experience, you will find that you can balance
these equations quickly and painlessly. Start practicing with the worksheets below, and be sure
to browse the links for more information.

One of the most useful devices for communicating information related to chemical changes is the
chemical equation. The equation contains both qualitative and quantitative information related to
the nature and quantity of the substances involved in the chemical reaction. It may also include
the energy change involved. Atoms are fundamental building blocks of all matter. For the
purpose of equation balancing we say that they can be neither created nor destroyed.

96
Thus the number of atoms at the beginning of a reaction (reactants - left side of the equation)
must equal the number of atoms at the end of the reaction (products - right side of the equation).
Note that the number of atoms on each side of an equation must balance, therefore, the mass
(number of grams) must balance, but not the number of molecules or the volume of gases.

The subscripts in a correct formula tell the number of atoms in one molecule. The coefficients
(numbers in front of a formula) in a correctly balanced equation tell the number of molecules
involved in a reaction.

There is a particular order that you can follow in balancing. It is the MINOH method

M - metals. Balance metals such as Fe or Na first.

I - ions. Looks for polyatomic ions (such as PO4 ¯ 3 or SO4¯ 2 that cross from reactant to
product unchanged (Balance them as a group)
N - non-metals. Look for Cl or S, these are common ones.
O - oxygen and then
H - hydrogen.

Often, balancing H and O will involve water on one side or the other. Also, look carefully for
elements that occur in only one place on each side of the arrow. These should be balanced before
examining elements that are spread over several compounds. Often, either H or O will be spread
out over several compounds. This is the one to leave to the last. Remember, you cannot change a
subscript to balance the equation, nor can you add in new compounds.

97
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Balance and prove the following equations:

1. __H2+ __O2→ __H2O

2. S8+ O2→ SO3
3. HgO → Hg + O2
4. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2+ H2
5. Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
6. C10H16+ Cl2→ C + HCl
7. Si2H3+ O2→ SiO2+ H2O
8. Fe + O2→ Fe2O3

98
___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry
Balance the following chemical equations

1. ____ Fe + ____ H2SO4 → ____ Fe2(SO4)3 + ____H2

2. ____ C2H6 + ____ O2 → ____ H2O + ____CO2

3. ____ KOH + ____ H3PO4 → ____ K3PO4 + ____H2O

4. ____ SnO2 + ____ H2 → ____Sn + ____ H2O

5. ____ NH3 + ____ O2 → ____ NO + ____ H2O

6. ____ KNO3 + ____ H2CO3 → ____ K2CO3 + ____ HNO3

7. ____ B2Br6 + ____ HNO3 → ____ B(NO3)3 + ____ HBr

8. ____ BF3 + ____ Li2SO3 →____B2(SO3)3 + ____ LiF

9. ____ (NH4)3PO4 + ____ Pb(NO3)4 → ____ Pb3(PO4)4 + ____ NH4NO3

10. ____ SeCl6 + ____ O2 → ____ SeO2 + ____Cl2

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Concentration, volume and number of moles in a solution

Concentration

The concentration of a solution is the number of moles of solute contained in each liter of
solution. One liter is equal to one hundred centimeter cube or one decimeter cube. Hence, we can
say: 1 liter = 1 dm3 = 100 cm3

The formula for finding the concentration of a solution is:

Example 1:

Find the concentration of 117g of solution chloride (NaCl) used to make 4 dm3 of salt solution.

Concentration of NaCl =

22.989 + 35.45 = 58.439 g (To find the concentration; the atomic mass of both the elements are
added. Notice that the atomic masses of both elements are not rounded off.)

Hence; 2 moles = 0.5 mol/dm3

4 dm3

So, the concentration of 117g of NaCl in 4 dm3 is 0.5 mol/dm3.

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___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry

Find the concentration for the following examples.

1.) 10g of NaOH (sodium hydroxide) are used to make 1 dm3 of NaOH solution. Find the
concentration.

2.) 40g of NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate) are used to make 250 cm3 of ammonium nitrate.
What is the concentration of ammonium nitrate?

3.) What is the concentration of the following solutions:

(i) 2 moles of MgCl2 to make 6dm3of solution.
(ii) 0.01 moles of AgNO3 to make a solution of 2 dm3
(iii) 0.5 moles of CuSO4 to make 4 liters of solution
(iv) 20g of CuSO4 to make 100 cm3
(v) 1g of NaOH to make 25 cm3

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Number of Moles
If we know the concentration of a solute, we can also work out how many moles of dissolved
solute there are in any particular volume.
The formula to find the number of moles is: Number of moles= volume x concentration

Example 1:

How many moles of H2SO4 are there in 2 dm3 of a solution with a concentration of 4 mol/dm3.

Number of moles = volume x concentration

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry I

1.) How many moles of sodium hydroxide are there in 50 cm3 of a solution with a
concentration of 0.1 mol/dm3?

2.) How many moles of H2SO4 are in:

(i) 2 dm3 of a 1 mol/dm3solution

(ii) 3dm3 of a 0.2 mol/dm3solution

(iii) 50 cm3 of a 2 mol/dm3 solution

(iv) 150 cm3 of a 0.1 mol/dm3 solution

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Volume
If we have a solution of a known concentration and we know how many moles of solute we need
in our sample solution. We calculate the volume required by applying the following formula:

Example 1:

You need 0.1 moles of HCl. You have 2 mol/dm3 solution of HCl. What volume should you
take?

Volume =

___________________________ _________________________
___________________________ _________________________
Chemistry I

1.) What volume of 0.1mol/dm3 HCl is required for a sample to contain:

(i) 1 mole of dissolved HCl

(ii) 0.01 mole of dissolved HCl

(iii) 0.0004 mole of dissolved HCl

(iv) 0.02 mole of dissolved HCl

103
Gas Laws
One of the most amazing things about gases is that, despite wide differences in
chemical properties, all the gases more or less obey the gas laws. The gas laws
deal with how gases behave with respect to pressure, volume, temperature, and
amount.

Pressure

Gases are the only state of matter that can be compressed very tightly or expanded
to fill a very large space. Pressure is force per unit area, calculated by dividing the
force by the area on which the force acts. The earth's gravity acts on air molecules
to create a force, that of the air pushing on the earth. This is called atmospheric
pressure.

The units of pressure that are used are pascal (Pa), standard atmosphere (atm), and
torr. 1 atm is the average pressure at sea level. It is normally used as a standard
unit of pressure. The SI unit though, is the pascal: 101.325 Pascals equals 1 atm or
101.325 kPa = 1 atm (standard atmospheric pressure)

For laboratory work the atmosphere is very large. A more convenient unit is the
torr. 760 torr equals 1 atm. A torr is the same unit as the mmHg (millimeter of
mercury). It is the pressure that is needed to raise a tube of mercury 1 millimeter.

The Gas Laws: Pressure Volume Temperature Relationships

Boyle's Law: The Pressure-Volume Law

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

Boyle's law or the pressure-volume law states that the volume

of a given amount of gas held at constant temperature varies
inversely with the applied pressure when the temperature and
mass are constant.

Another way to describing it is saying that their products are constant.

PV = C

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When pressure goes up, volume goes down. When volume goes up, pressure goes
down.

From the equation above, this can be derived:

P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 etc.

This equation states that the product of the initial volume and pressure is equal to
the product of the volume and pressure after a change in one of them under
constant temperature.

For example, if the initial volume was 500 mL at a pressure of 760 torr, when the
volume is compressed to 450 mL, what is the pressure?

Plug in the values:

P 1V 1 = P 2V 2

(760 torr)(500 mL) = P2(450 mL)

760 torr x 500 mL/450 mL = P2 844 torr = P2
The pressure is 844 torr after compression.

Classwork

1. What would be the pressure if there is an initial volume of 650 mL with a

pressure of 800 torr can it was compressed to a final 520 mL?

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Boyle’s Gas Law P1V1 = P2V2
Temperatures need to be changed to Kelvins (K = oC + 273.15)

1. A weather balloon with a volume of 1.375 L is released from Earth’s surface

at sea level. What volume will the balloon occupy at an altitude of 20km,
where the air pressure is 10kPa? Assume that the temperature remains
constant.

2. A gas has a pressure of of 1.26 atm and occupies a volume of 7.40 L. If the
gas is compressed to a volume of 2.93L, what will the pressure be? Assume
no temperature changed?

3. As divers know, the pressure exerted by water increases by about 100kPa

with every 10.2 m of depth. If the volume of a balloon is 3.5L at STP, what
would its volume be at 51 m below the water’s surface? Assume no
temperature changed.

4. A balloon contains 375 mL of air at a pressure of 730 torr. What is the

pressure of the air in the balloon if the volume is reduced to 250 mL at a
constant temperature? Assume no air enters or escapes during compression.

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Charles' Law: The Temperature-Volume Law
Jacques Charles (1746 - 1823)

This law states that the volume of a given amount of gas held at
constant pressure is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature.

V T
Same as before, a constant can be put in:
V
T
=C
As the volume goes up, the temperature also goes up, and vice-versa.
Also same as before, initial and final volumes and temperatures under constant
pressure can be calculated.

V1
T1 = VT 22 = V3
T 3 etc.

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Charles’ Gas Law

or V1 x T2 = V2 x T1

Temperatures need to be changed to Kelvins (K = oC + 273.15)

Worksheet
1. The temperature in a refrigerator is about 4 o Celsius. If I place a balloon that
has an initial temperature of 22 o Celsius and a volume of 0.5 liters, what will
be the volume of the balloon when it is fully cooled in the refrigerator?

2. Robert heats a balloon in the oven. If the balloon has a volume of 0.4 liters
and a temperature of 20o C; what will be the volume of the balloon be after
he heats it to a temperature of 250o C?

3. On a hot day at the cafeteria you might notice that a chips bag (churrito)
seems to be inflated eventhough it is not open. The bag has a volume of 250
mL and the temperature is of 19oC, what would be the new volume of the
bag if it is left inside of a car with a temperature of 60oC?

4. A soda (fresco) bottle is flexible enough that the volume of the bottle can
change without opening it. What will be the temperature of an empty 2L
bottle at room temperature (25oC) is placed in a freezer with a temperature
of -4oC?

108
5. If I inhale 2.2 liters of air (gas) at a room temperature of 18oC and it heats up
in my lungs with a temperature of 38oC; what is the new volume of gas?

6. How hot will a 2.3 L balloon have to get to expand to a volume of 400L. Let
us assume that the initial temperature of the baloon is 25oC.

7. The students of I Bach made a thermometer that measure temperature by the

compressing and expanding of gas in a piston. I have measured that at 100oC
the volume of the piston is 20 L. What is the temperature outside if the
piston has a volume of 15 L? What would be the appropriate clothing to
wear if that were the weather? Express your answer in oF.

8. A baloon filled with Helium has a volume of 2.75 L at 20oC. The volume of
the baloon decreases to 2.46 L after it is place outisde where it is a cold day.
What was the outside temperature in K? express the temperature in oC.

9. A gas at 65oC occupies 4.22 L. At what temperature in oC will the volume

be 3.87 L assuming the pressure is constant or remains the same?

10. A sample of methane has a volume of 56.2 mL at a temperature of 112oC.

At what degree Celsius will the gas occupy a volume of 60.0 mL?

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Gay-Lussac's Law: The Pressure Temperature Law
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850)

This law states that the pressure of a given amount of gas held at
constant volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature.

P T

P
Same as before, a constant can be put in:
T
=C
As the pressure goes up, the temperature also goes up, and vice-versa.
Also same as before, initial and final volumes and temperatures under constant
pressure can be calculated.

P1
T1 = PT 22 = PT 33 etc.

Gay-Lussac’s Gas Law

Temperatures need to be changed to Kelvins (K = oC + 273.15)

101.325 kPa = 1 atm (standard atmospheric pressure)

1. 10.0 L of gas is found to exert 97.0 kPa at 25oC. What temperature would
be required to change the pressure to standard pressure?

2. Determine the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 1.0 atm
is heated from 20.0 oC to 30.0 oC.

110
3. A gas has pressure of 0.370 atm at 50oC. What is the pressure at standard
temperature?

4. A certain gas in a container is pressurized from 15.0 atm to 16.0 atm and
its original temperature wa 25oC, what would the final temperature of the
gas be?

5. A sample of gas at 3.00x103 mmHg inside a steel tank is cooled from

500.0 oC to 0.0oC. what is the final pressure of the gas in the steel tank in
atm?

6. Calculate the final pressure inside a scuba tank after it cools from 100oC
to 25.0oC. The initial pressure in the tank is 130.0 atm.

7. To what temperature must a sample of nitrogen at 27oC and 0.625 atm be

taken so that its pressure becomes 1.125 atm at constant volume?

111