FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Kousik Deb

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Lecture 06: Standard Penetration Test and Cone Penetration Test

 SPT Corrections
The standard blow count N′70 can be computed as (ASTM D 1586) (American Society for Testing
and Materials)

′ = C N × N ×η1 ×η 2 ×η3 ×η 4
N 70
where, ηi = correction factors
N′70 = corrected N using the subscript for the Erb and the ′ to indicate it has been
corrected
Erb = standard energy ratio value
CN = correction for effective overburden pressure p′0 (kPa) computed as [Liao
and Whitman, 1986]
1
 95.76  2
C N =  
 p0′ 
• Hammer Efficiency Correction

• Drill rod, sampler and borehole corrections

• Correction due to overburden pressure

Hammer Efficiency Correction
SPT is standardized to some energy ratio (Er)

Actual hammer energy to sampler , Ea

Er = ×100
Input energy, Ein

1
1 2 1W 2
Now Ein = mv = v and v = (2 gh) 2
2 2 g

1W
Thus Ein = (2 gh) = Wh
2 g W = weight of hammer
h = height of fall
Correction factor η1 for hammer efficiency

Er
η1 =
Erb

Different types of hammers are in use for driving the drill

rods. Two types are normally used. They are (Bowles, 1996)
1. Donut hammer with Er = 45 to 67
2. Safety hammer with Er as fellows:
• Rope-pulley or cathead = 70 to 80
• Trip or automatic hammer = 80 to 100.
Now if Er = 80 and standard energy ratio value (Erb) = 70,
then η1 = 80/70 = 1.14

Bowles, J.E, 1996

Correction factor η2 for rod length
Length >10 m η2 = 1.00
6 – 10 m = 0.95
4–6m = 0.85
0–4m = 0.75
Note: N is too high for Length < 10 m

Correction factor η3 for sampler

Without liner η3 = 1.00
With liner: Dense sand , clay = 0.80
Loose sand = 0.90

Bowles, J.E, 1996

Correction factor η4 for borehole diameter

Hole diameter: 60 – 120 mm η4 = 1.00

150 mm = 1.05
200 mm = 1.15

Note: η4 = 1.00 for all diameter hollow-stem augers where SPT is taken through the stem

Bowles, J.E, 1996

• Example 1
Given: N = 21, rod length= 13 m, hole diameter = 100 mm, p′0 = 200 kPa, Er= 80; loose sand
without liner. What are the standard N′70 and N′60 values?
Solution
For Erb= 70: ′ = C N × N ×η1 ×η 2 ×η3 ×η 4
N 70
1
 95.76 
2
CN =   = 0.69
 200 
η1= 80/70 = 1.14; η2 = 1.0; η3 = 1.0; η4 = 1.0
Thus, N 70
′ = 0.69 × 21×1.14 ×1.0 ×1.0 ×1.0 = 17

Now Er1 × N1 = Er 2 × N 2 ; Thus, N 60  70 

′ =   ×17 = 20
 60 
not corrected SPT Correlations in Clays
for overburden

N′60 cu (kPa) consistency visual identification

0-2 0 – 12.5 very soft Thumb can penetrate > 25 mm
2-4 12.5-25 soft Thumb can penetrate 25 mm
4-8 25-50 medium Thumb penetrates with moderate
effort
8-15 50-100 stiff Thumb will indent 8 mm
15-30 100-200 very stiff Can indent with thumb nail; not
thumb
>30 >200 hard Cannot indent even with thumb nail

N Sivakugan
 SPT Correlations in Granular Soils

(N′)60 Dr (%) consistency

not corrected for 0-4 0-15 very loose
overburden
4-10 15-35 loose

10-30 35-65 medium

30-50 65-85 dense

>50 85-100 very dense

N. Sivakugan
Ranjan and Rao, 2000
 List of Reference materials and Books

• Arora, K.R., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.” Standard Publisher, New Delhi.

• Purnmia, B.C., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.” Laxmi Publication.

• Ranjan, G. , Rao, A. S. R., “Basics and Applied Soil Mechanics”, New Age International, 2000.

• Braja M. Das, “Principles of Foundation Engineering.” PWS Publishing, USA. , 1999

• Bowles, J.E., 1997. Foundation Analysis and Design, fifth ed. McGraw-Hill, Singapore.
Indirect Method
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) Static cone penetration test (SCPT)

pushed into the ground @ 1 cm/s

similar to SPT; hammer driven

using cone instead of split spoon gives continuous measurements

closed end; no
samples

gives blow counts @ 1.5 m depth intervals

N. Sivakugan
 Static Cone Penetration Test

• The Static cone penetration test, which is also known as Dutch Cone test, has been
standardized by “IS: 4968 (Part-III)-1976 - Method for subsurface sounding for soils - Part III
Static cone penetration test”.

• The equipment consists of a steel cone, a friction jacket, sounding rod, mantle tube, a
driving mechanism and measuring equipment.

• The cone have an apex angle of 60° ± 15′ and overall base diameter of 35.7 mm giving a
cross-sectional area of 10 cm2.
• The friction sleeve should have an area of 150 cm2 as per standard practice.

• The sounding rod is a steel rod of 15 mm diameter which can be extended with
additional rods of 1 m each in length.

• The driving mechanism should have a capacity of 20 to 30 kN for manually operated

equipment and 100 kN for the mechanically operated equipment.
Operation of Penetrometer

The sequence of operation of the penetrometer

as follows:

• Position 1: The cone and friction jacket

assembly in a collapsed position.

• Position 2: The cone is pushed down by the

inner sounding rods to a depth a until a collar
engages the cone. The pressure gauge records
the total force Qc to the cone. Normally a = 40
mm.
Operation of Penetrometer

• Position 3: The sounding rod is pushed further to

a depth b. This pushes the friction jacket and
the cone assembly together; the force is Qt.
Normally b = 40 mm.

• Position 4: The outside mantle tube is pushed

down a distance a + b which brings the cone
assembly and the friction jacket to position 1.
The total movement = a + b = 80 mm.
 40 mm
Static Cone Penetrometer test
40 mm
Sounding rod

40 mm
Mantle tube
40 mm

Friction jacket
assembly

Cone assembly
 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Kousik Deb

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Lecture 07: Cone Penetration Test and Other In-situ Tests

 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) Static cone penetration test (SCPT)

pushed into the ground @ 1 cm/s

similar to SPT; hammer driven

using cone instead of split spoon gives continuous measurements

closed end; no
samples

gives blow counts @ 1.5 m depth intervals

N. Sivakugan
 40 mm
Static Cone Penetrometer test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6haEMA5Jx9I
40 mm
Sounding rod

40 mm
Mantle tube
40 mm

Friction jacket
assembly

Cone assembly

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKQbCA-QUcU
 SCPT Correlations
In Clays,
qc − σ v
cu =
Nk
cu = Undrained shear strength of
σv = total vertical stress at the depth of penetration
qc = The cone tip resistance

Nk = cone factor (15-20)

Electric cone mechanical cone

N Sivakugan
In Sand,

φ= tan -1 [0.1 + 0.38 log (qc/σv′)] (Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990)

where
φ is the friction angle
qc is the cone resistance
σv′ (or p0′) is the vertical effective overburden pressure or stress
Normally consolidated quartz sand (after Robertson and Campanella, 1983) Das, B. M. ,1999
 fs Cone resistance or cone tip resistance (qc)
Friction ratio, Fr = Sleeve friction (fs)
qc

(after Robertson and Campanella, 1983) Das, B. M. ,1999

Piezocone

Pushed into the ground Porous stone for pore pressure

measurement

A modern static cone; measures pore water

pressure also.

N Sivakugan

Piezocone with leads

https://geoprobe.com/cpt-pro-sample-log
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test

• The dynamic cone penetration test is standardised by “IS: 4968 (Part I) – 1976 -
Method for Subsurface Sounding for Soils-Part I Dynamic method using 50 mm cone
without bentonite slurry”.

• The equipment consists of a cone, driving rods, driving head, hoisting equipment and
a hammer.

• The hammer used for driving the cone shall be of mild steel or cast-iron with a base of
mild steel and the weight of the hammer shall be 640 N (65 kg).
• The cone shall be driven into the soil by allowing the hammer to fall freely through 750

mm each time.

• The number of blows for every 100 mm penetration of the cone shall be recorded.

• The process shall be repeated till the cone is driven to the required depth.
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test

Better than SPT or SCPT in hard soils such as dense gravels

As crude as SPT; relies on correlations based on blow counts

Hollow (split spoon)

SPT

DCPT
Solid (∴no samples)

N Sivakugan
 Pressuremeter Test
The pressure meter consists of an inflatable cylindrical probe
which is connected to a water reservoir.

Expand cylindrical probe inside a bore hole. Borehole

The probe presses against the wall of bore hole. So the soil
begins to deform cylindrical probe
guard cell
The volumetric deformation of the borehole is measured by
noting the fall in water level in the water reservoir

IS: 1892-1979 describes the use of pressure meter

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CgbZR23Znuk

N Sivakugan
V0 is measured and the probe is inserted into the borehole.
The pressure is applied in increment and the volumetric expansion of the cell is measured

Zone I: Reloading Zone and p0 represents the in-situ total horizontal stress
Zone II: Pseudo-elastic Zone
Zone III: Plastic Zone and pl represents the limit pressure

Das, B. M. ,1999
 Das, B. M. ,1999

∆p
Pressuremeter modulus, E p = 2(1 + µ )(V0 + vm ) 
 ∆v 
where vm = (v0 + vf)/2; ∆p = pf – p0; ∆v = vf – vo, µ = Poisson’s ratio and V0 =
measuring cell volume = 535 cm3
Correlations
pl − p0
cu = (Baguelin et al. 1978)
Np

where cu is undrained shear strength of clay

 Ep 
N p = 1 + ln 
 2cu 
Typical values of Np vary between 5 to 12 (average = 8.5)

E p (kN / m 2 ) = 908 N 0.66 For Clay

Ohya et al. 1982, also
For Sand Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990
E p (kN / m 2 ) = 1930 N 0.63
where N is field standard penetration value

Das, B. M. ,1999
 Dilatometer Test
Advance @ 20 mm/s. Test every 200-300 mm.
Nitrogen tank for inflating the membrane.
Gives cu, K0, OCR, cv, k, soil stiffness .
Can identify soil (from a chart).
Similar to the
cone

60 mm diameter flexible steel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8hq-dLN1Fo
membrane
 0.47 Marchetti (1980)
 KD 
K0 =   − 0.6 p0 − u 0
 1.5  KD =
σ v'
OCR = (0.5 K D )1.6 E D (kN / m 2 ) = 34.7( pl − p 0 )
cu
= 0.22 Normally consolidated clay p0 is the contact stress
σ '
v pl is the expansion stress
u0 is the pore water pressure
 cu  c 
 '  =  u'  (0.5K D )1.25
σv  over consolidated caly  σ v  normally consolidated caly

E = (1 − µ 2 ) E D
σv′ (or p0′) is the vertical effective overburden pressure or stress
E is the elastic modulus
K0 is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Das, B. M. ,1999
µ= Poisson’s ratio
Example
A dilatometer test was conducted in a clay deposit. The ground water table was located at a depth of 2m
below ground level. At a depth of 7 m below the ground level, the contact pressure (p0) was 280 kN/m2
and the expansion stress (pl) was 350 kN/m2. Determine K0, OCR and E. Assume , µ = Poisson’s ratio =0.35.
Saturated and bulk unit weight is 20 kN/m3 and 18 kN/m3, respectively.
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Kousik Deb
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Lecture 08: Types of Sampler

 Sivakugan

Vane Shear Test measuring (torque) head

For clays, and mainly for soft clays.

Measure torque (T) required to quickly bore hole
shear the vane pushed into soft clay.

∴ undrained

torque  undrained shear strength cu

h≈2d
Typical d = 20-100 mm. vane

vane d

soft clay
 T
cu =
 2 h d3 
π  d + 
 2 6 

cu = Undrained shear strength of soil

T = Torque applied
h= Height of the vane
d= diameter of the soil cylinder sheared
 Common In Situ Testing Devices

SPT

VST PMT DMT

CPT

In bore holes
N. Sivakugan
 Types of Samples

• Samples of soil taken out of natural deposits for testing may be classified as:

 Disturbed sample

 Undisturbed sample

A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of the soil gets
modified partly or fully during sampling

An undisturbed sample is that in which the natural structure and other physical
properties remain preserved.
 Disturbed but representative Undisturbed samples must be
samples can generally be used for used for

• Grain-size analysis • Consolidation test

• Determination of liquid and plastic • Hydraulic conductivity test
limits • Shear strength test
• Specific gravity of soil solids
• Organic content determination
• Soil classification
 Undisturbed Samples
• Required for triaxial, consolidation tests in the lab.
• Good quality samples necessary.

AR<10% soil O.D.2 − I .D.2

AR = ×100 (%)
2
I .D.

area
sampling tube ratio

• Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

• Take good care in transport and handling.

N Sivakugan
 Sample Disturbance
• Inside clearance, Ci

D3 − D1
Ci = ×100
D1

• Outside clearance, C0 • According to IS: 1892 – 1979, Ci should be in

D2 − D4 between 1% to 3%
C0 = ×100
D4
• C0 usually lies between 0 to 2 %
• Area ratio, AR
• AR should not be greater that about
D22 − D12
AR = ×100 20% for stiff formation, whereas for soft
D12
sensitive clay, AR ≤ 10%
Ranjan and Rao, 2000
• The degree of disturbance of a cohesive or rock sample can be estimated by
recovery ratio Lr

Actual length of re cov ered sample

Lr =
Theoretical length of re cov ered sample

Lr = 1 (recovered length of the sample = the length sampler was forced into the stratum).
Theoretically, the sample did not become compressed from friction on the tube.

Lr = 1 indicates a good recovery

Lr <1 indicates that the soil is compressed

Lr >1 indicates that the soil has swelled

 Types of Samplers

• Soil samplers are classified as:

• ‘Thick wall’ samplers (Split spoon sampler)

• ‘Thin wall’ samplers (Shelby tubes)

 Split Spoon Sampler

• A drive shoe attached to the lower end serves as the cutting edge. A sample head
may be screwed at the upper end of split spoon.

• The standard size of the spoon sampler is of 35 mm (34.9 mm) internal and 50.8 mm
external diameter.
 Split Spoon Sampler

• The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the bore hole by attaching it to the drill
rod. The sampler is then driven by forcing it into the soil by blows from a hammer.

• The assembly of the sampler is then extracted from the hole and the cutting edge
and coupling at the top are unscrewed. The two halves of the barrel are separated
and the sample is thus exposed.

• Samples are generally taken at intervals of about 1.53 m (5 ft)

 Split Spoon Sampler

URL; http://www4.ncsu.edu/~rcborden/Facilities/split_spoon_sampler.jpg
Das, B. M. ,1999
 Split Spoon Sampler

 For a standard split-spoon sampler

(50.8) 2 − (34.9) 2
AR = (100) = 112%
2
(34.9)

Hence the samples are highly disturbed.

 When the material encountered in the filed is sand (particularly fine sand below
the water table), a device such as a spring core catcher is placed inside the split
spoon.
 Thin Walled Sampler

• Commonly used to obtain undisturbed clayey samples.

• Outside diameter: 50.8 mm (2 in) and 76.3 mm (3 in)
• Sampler with a 50.8 mm outside diameter has an inside diameter of about 47.63
mm. The area ratio is

(50.8) 2 − (47.63) 2
AR = (100) = 13.75%
2
(47.63)
Thin Walled Sampler

Das, B. M. ,1999
How many bore holes?

The number of bore holes depends on:

 type and size of the project

 budget for site investigation

 soil variability

Locate the bore holes where the loads are expected. proposed building
 Spacing of Borings

Type of project Spacing (m)

Multistory buildings 10 – 30
One-story industrial plants 20 – 60
Highways 250-500
Residential subdivision 250-500
Dams and dikes 40 - 80
• The minimum depth of boring for a building with a width of 30.5 m (100 ft) will be as
follows (Sowers and Sowers, 1970)

No of stories Boring depth

1 3.5 m
2 6.0 m
3 10 m
4 16 m
5 24 m
 Depth of Borings (according to IS 1892-1979)

Type of foundation Depth of boring

1. Isolated spread footing or raft One and half times the width (B) of the foundation

2.Adjacent footings with clear One and half times the length (L) of the footing
spacing One and half times the
length (L) of the footing
less than twice the width

3. Pile and well foundation To a depth of one and half times the width of structure from the bearing
level (toe of pile or bottom of well).

4. (a) road cut Equal to the bottom width of the cut

(b) Fill Two meters below ground level or equal to the height of the fill which is
greater.
 Ground Water Level

• A correct indication of the general ground water level is found by allowing the
water in the boring to reach an equilibrium level.

• In sandy soils, the level gets stabilized very quickly - within a few hours at the most.

• In clayey soils it will take many days for this purpose. Hence, standpipes or
piezometers are used in clays and silt.
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Kousik Deb

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Lecture 09: Geophysical Exploration I

 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
63.5 kg Number of blows for the first 150 mm penetration
is disregarded due to the disturbance likely to
exist at the bottom of the drill hole

0.75 m
The test can be conducted at every 1m vertical intervals
(Not more than 1.5 m)
0.15 m Number of blows = N1
Drill rod 0.15 m
0.15 m Number of blows = N2
Number of blows = N3

Standard penetration resistance (SPT N) = N2 + N3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12J5D4WltYM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cUOBSF8bMg
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) Static cone penetration test (SCPT)

pushed into the ground @ 1 cm/s

similar to SPT; hammer driven

using cone instead of split spoon gives continuous measurements

closed end; no
samples

gives blow counts @ 1.5 m depth intervals

N. Sivakugan
 Pressuremeter Test
The pressure meter consists of an inflatable cylindrical probe
which is connected to a water reservoir.

Expand cylindrical probe inside a bore hole. Borehole

The probe presses against the wall of bore hole. So the soil
begins to deform cylindrical probe
guard cell
The volumetric deformation of the borehole is measured by
noting the fall in water level in the water reservoir

IS: 1892-1979 describes the use of pressure meter

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CgbZR23Znuk

N Sivakugan
 Das, B. M. ,1999

Pressuremeter modulus, E p = 2(1 + µ )(V0 + vm ) ∆p 

 ∆v 
where vm = (v0 + vf)/2; ∆p = pf – p0; ∆v = vf – vo, µ = Poisson’s ratio and V0 =
measuring cell volume = 535 cm3
 Dilatometer Test
Advance @ 20 mm/s. Test every 200-300 mm.
Nitrogen tank for inflating the membrane.
Gives cu, K0, OCR, cv, k, soil stiffness .
Can identify soil (from a chart).
Similar to the
cone

60 mm diameter flexible steel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8hq-dLN1Fo
membrane
 Sivakugan

Vane Shear Test measuring (torque) head

For clays, and mainly for soft clays.

Measure torque (T) required to quickly bore hole
shear the vane pushed into soft clay.

∴ undrained

torque  undrained shear strength cu

h≈2d
Typical d = 20-100 mm. vane

vane d

soft clay
 Common In Situ Testing Devices

SPT

VST PMT DMT

CPT

In bore holes
N. Sivakugan
 Types of Samplers

• Soil samplers are classified as:

• ‘Thick wall’ samplers (Split spoon sampler)

• ‘Thin wall’ samplers (Shelby tubes)

Geophysical Exploration
Geophysical Exploration

• Seismic reflection survey

• Seismic refraction survey

• Seismic Cross-hole survey

Seismic reflection survey Seismograph

Geophone Cable
Trigger Cable
Explosive
Geophones
S charge in a
R shallow hole
x

Direct waves

Reflected H
waves 2i
Soil
vp1

Bedrock
http://cgiss.boisestate.edu/leeliberty/ http://geofyzika.webz.cz/merseism.php

http://geosiamservices.com/services/ground-services/seismic-survey/
 t

Some of the wave energy follows a direct path from S

1
to R and arrives R at
v p1
Reflected Wave

x
td =
2H Direct Wave v p1
v p1
x

By measuring x and td, the p-wave velocity of the upper layer, vp1 , can be determined
The part of the wave that is reflected back toward the ground surface arrives at the receiver at

2 H 2 + ( x / 2) 2
tr =
v p1

By measuring tr and x and knowing vp1 from the direct wave calculation, the thickness of the
upper layer (H) can be calculated as

1 2 2
H= t r v p1 − x 2
2
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Kousik Deb

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Lecture 10: Geophysical Exploration II

Seismic refraction survey Seismograph

Geophone Cable
Trigger Cable
Geophones Explosive
charge in a
shallow hole

Direct waves
Refracted
waves α
Soil
v1
Refracted
v2 Bedrock waves
http://cgiss.boisestate.edu/leeliberty/ http://geofyzika.webz.cz/merseism.php

http://geosiamservices.com/services/ground-services/seismic-survey/
 A (x1) B (x2) C D (x3)
x
Layer I, v1 v1 v1 Z1
Velocity, vp1 v1
v2
d
Layer II,

Time of first arrival

v2 v2 Z2 c
Velocity, vp2

T2
v3
Layer III,
b
Velocity, vp3
T1
xc
a Distance, x
Example
The results of a refraction survey at a site are as follows:
Distance from the source (m) Time of first arrival of wave (msec)
2.5 5.1
5.0 10.2
7.5 15.3
10 17.0
15 19.8
20 23.9
25 27.0
30 28.0
40 31.0
50 33.7
Determine the thickness of the layers and the wave velocity.
40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Seismic cross-hole survey

Receiver
Source
vs = Δx/Δt

Δx Soil
Soil

Direct measurement using two bore hole

 Receivers
Source

Soil
Soil

Interval measurment using three-hole configuration

G = ρVs2 where G is the shear modulus of the soil, Vs is the shear wave velocity and ρ is the
density of the soil

4
K+ G
3 where K is the bulk modulus of the soil
Vp =
ρ