44th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit AIAA 2006-377

9 - 12 January 2006, Reno, Nevada

Combustion Characteristics of Pressurized Swirling Spray

Flame and Unsteady Two-Phase Exhaust Jet
Martin B. Linck * , Ashwani K. Gupta † , Guillaume Bourhis, and Ken Yu**
The Combustion Laboratory
University of Maryland
Department of Mechanical Engineering
College Park, MD 20742

The effects of flame enclosure and combustor pressure on the combustor flowfield and
structure of turbulent spray flames have been investigated. The exhaust jet from the
combustor was directed into water to simulate underwater propulsion applications. Two-
phase interactions between the exhaust jet from the pressurized combustor and liquid water
in an attached mixing chamber have been examined to address issues associated with the
operation of a submerged combustor for underwater propulsion applications. Enclosure of
the flame, in the absence of pressurization, was found to affect the flame structure and
dynamic behavior significantly. At normal pressure, the combustor flow attached to one side
of the exit port to result in large-scale, low-frequency flame oscillations. In contrast the
pressurized flame, obtained by constricting the exhaust flow from the combustor, was not
found to display the same large-scale distortions associated with the enclosed, unpressurized
case. The global structure of the pressurized and unenclosed flame cases was similar;
however, the flame in pressurized case was found to be shorter. Axial and radial velocities of
the air flowfield in the combustor were examined using particle imaging velocimetry. The
interaction of the gaseous combustor exhaust jet with water in a downstream mixing
chamber was also examined. Unchoked and choked isothermal exhaust jets at two
combustor pressures were examined using two exhaust nozzle geometries. The primary
parameter influencing the behavior of the isothermal exhaust jet was found to be the
pressure drop across the exhaust port. At relatively low combustor pressures the exhaust jet
was found to emerge as a series of distinct bubbles. The inertia of the liquid phase and
buoyant forces acting on the bubbles appear to dominate the dynamic behavior of the jet.
Swirl imparted to the combustion air did not affect the behavior of the jet significantly, since
the momentum of the jet is insignificant in comparison to other factors associated with the
two-phase jet interaction. The exhaust nozzle geometry affects the shape of the bubble
during emergence and detachment. However, the frequency of the bubble formation and
detachment was not influenced strongly by exhaust nozzle geometry. The Strouhal number
associated with the cycle in the two-phase flow case was found to be two orders of magnitude
smaller than that associated with large-scale jet mixing instabilities in single-phase mixing.
The maximum diameter of the large-scale bubble structure was found to be effectively
independent of combustor chamber pressure. The structure and dynamics of the exhaust jet
from a reacting flow case, issuing from the pressurized combustor, were also examined. The
structure of the heated jet was found to be more chaotic than the isothermal flow, displaying
events occurring across a wide range of time scales. A distinct, repeatable bubble-formation
mode was not observed. The exhaust jet associated with the reacting flow displayed a greater
tendency to produce extremely small as well as large bubbles, with diameters ranging from
microns to a few millimeters.

*
Graduate Researcher, Student Member AIAA.
†
Professor, Fellow AIAA.
** Associate Professor, Aerospace Engineering, Associate Fellow AIAA

1
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Copyright © 2006 by the authors. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission.
 Nomenclature
D = outer diameter of combustor injector
dh = swirler hub diameter
do = swirler outer diameter
S = swirl number
Ri = swirler inner radius
Ro = swirler outer radius
v = local axial mean velocity
w = local tangential mean velocity
r = swirler radial location
θ = swirl vane angle
V = mean axial velocity
U = mean radial velocity
Pcc = combustor chamber pressure
DB = maximum bubble diameter
DE = exhaust nozzle inner diameter
St = Strouhal number
f = frequency
d = jet diameter
Umean = jet mean velocity
θjet = open jet mode included angle
Φ = equivalence ratio

I. Introduction

F uture propulsion challenges associated with Navy vessels will increasingly deal with underwater propulsion.
Underwater combustor systems, associated with torpedoes, missiles, or other types of submersible systems are
an area of particular interest. Furthermore, there is a need for small, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV’s). As
has been demonstrated by the CIA’s Predator program, autonomous vehicles, capable of monitoring or intervening
in critical situations, are quite effective. A similar type of vehicle, designed for naval applications, could help
monitor coastlines, eavesdrop on radio and other communications, and remain concealed in shallow waters. Vehicles
of this kind might also be used to actively pursue and eliminate threats. Development of propulsion systems for
small submersible craft is quite challenging. Currently, the state-of-the-art is battery-powered electrical propulsion
systems. However, combustion systems can provide much higher volumetric power density than comparably-sized
electric motors, and can potentially be lighter. A hot exhaust jet from the combustor section can be used to propel an
AUV, either by being vented directly into the surrounding water, or by powering a turbine that turns a propeller.
Burners designed to operate across a large turndown-ratio could propel the vehicle at a range of speeds; quietly and
slowly when necessary, or at speeds comparable with those of surface vehicles. Whether the combustion gases are
used to turn a propeller or to propel the vehicle directly, exhaust jet instabilities, particularly those driven by
instabilities in the combustor, are likely to affect the sound signature of the vehicle when the jet interacts with water,
making the AUV more detectable and more difficult to control. The discharge of exhaust gases in to the surrounding
water also affects the combustion process. Understanding the combustor and exhaust jet behavior is therefore crucial
in designing a practical vehicle. This paper examines issues of direct relevance to this area of underwater propulsion.
The role of combustor pressure on flame signature is also examined.
Combustors designed for future AUV applications, or for larger-scale underwater propulsion applications, must
operate efficiently over a range of pressures. At low to moderate combustor power settings, or at greater depths, the
pressure in the combustor may be only slightly higher than the pressure of the surroundings. Thus two major
considerations arise: the effect of pressure on flame structure in the combustor, and the effect of exhaust-jet
interactions on the combustor performance and propulsion characteristics of the system. The water does not directly
interact with the flame in the combustor under these conditions. More complex effects (such as changes in the
exhaust jet behavior due to unstable heat release in the combustor and the potential for linked interaction between
the exhaust jet characteristics and dynamic combustor behavior) are also of interest.
Control of flame stability and structure is often a concern during combustor development. Swirl stabilized flames
have been found to possess extremely useful characteristics, namely large turndown ratios, rapid fuel vaporization,

2
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 and efficient mixing, thus allowing the design of
compact and stable combustion systems1,2,3,4. The
research results presented here describe the behavior
of a swirl-stabilized, methanol-fuelled combustor, PIV Laser
which features a swirl-stabilization arrangement Position 2
found in many compact, high-energy-density Gas
combustors, such as those in gas turbine engines. Interaction
Specifically, the combustor has been examined
Choke
under conditions relevant to underwater propulsion
Plate
applications.
The experiments carried out will be described in
two main sections. In the first section, the effect of Flame
enclosure and moderate pressurization of the flame
for a swirl-stabilized spray flame will be discussed.
In the second section, two-phase interactions
between the exhaust jet and water in a special PIV Laser
enclosure (mixing chamber) will be discussed. Position 1
An optically-accessible experimental rig has Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the test section for
been developed and constructed in order to facilitate simulation of underwater propulsion
these investigations, see Figure 1. The rig consists
of two chambers linked by a nozzle block. The upstream chamber functions as a combustor while the downstream
structure functions as a mixing chamber. Particle image velocimetry (PIV), sound pressure levels and direct flame
digital photography have been applied as diagnostics. The downstream mixing chamber is designed to simulate a
variety of surrounding conditions for underwater propulsion applications. The mixing chamber is of square cross-
section with Plexiglas walls and incorporates a baffle system to reduce entrainment-related problems associated with
the two phase flow. The experimental section has been used to examine the two-phase interactions between the
exhaust jet and water. Interaction between the exhaust jet and air was examined previously in a prototype chamber5.
The entire system is built on a positioning stage, allowing the entire test section to be moved in three dimensions
relative the fixed laser diagnostics.
The interaction of the exhaust gases from the combustor chamber with water in the mixing chamber causes
two-phase shear layer fluid mixing between exhaust gases and the water in the downstream mixing chamber. In the
investigations described below, the pressure in the combustor was only slightly higher than the pressure in the
mixing chamber. Combustor gauge pressures on the order of 1
bar (14.7 psig) were examined. The pressure in the mixing Exhaust Nozzle Block
chamber was always atmospheric (0 psi gauge pressure). It was
thus possible to examine the behavior of unchoked and choked
flows. Under conditions when the exhaust jet is unchoked, D
interactions between the exhaust jet conditions and combustor Steel
behavior are possible. The facility design allows full optical
access to relevant regions of the flow in both chambers, which
facilitates the examination of the complex dynamic phenomena Quartz
associated with combustion and two-phase shear layer mixing
4.711D
in the combustor and mixing chambers, respectively. Gasket

Swirlers 3.91D
II. Section 1: Effect of Pressure on Flame and Flow
Structure

A. Pressurizeable Combustor

A schematic of the combustor chamber is shown in Figure

2. The combustor has a square cross-section, with a diameter D = 62 mm
expansion ratio of 3.91. Quartz windows, 12.5 mm thick, are
positioned on three sides of the chamber. The fourth side is a 4.16D

steel plate, 6.3 mm thick, with access for probes, igniters, or Figure 2. Schematic diagram of combustor
pressure taps. The combustion chamber has the same exit and section with dimensions

3
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
inlet diameters. A nozzle block can be installed in the outlet of
the combustor to constrict the flow. The nozzle block is
aluminum, and can be fitted with stainless steel nozzles of
different diameters. Thus a variety of combustor pressures can be
obtained for the same combustor mass flowrate and heat release.
The combustor injector (Outer Diameter: D = 62mm) features
co-annular air passages, surrounding a central fuel nozzle. The
fuel nozzle is an air-assist atomizing system. Each air annulus can
be fitted with a swirl vane assembly, allowing the flow and swirl
strength and distribution through the inner and outer annulus to be
varied. A schematic of the injector is shown in Figure 3.
The fuel spray nozzle has been found (in previous
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of injector and
investigations) to create a fuel spray with a mean diameter near
6 fuel nozzle
50 microns . The detailed structure of the flame and fuel spray
associated with this injector, in the absence of an enclosure, have
been studied experimentally and numerically6,7. The effects of swirl configuration, flow configuration and enclosure
on methanol and kerosene flame characteristics have also been examined8,9. The effects of flame structure on the
combustion behavior, including the composition of the exhaust gases, have also been reported10. In the current
investigation, the nozzle formed a solid-cone spray, with the fuel droplets occurring throughout the cone. High-
purity methanol was used as the test fuel, in order to avoid soot buildup on the combustor windows and simplify
analysis of the combustion chemistry. The combustion and atomization air flowrates were measured using high-
precision orifices and pressure gauges. The fuel flowrate was measured using a digital turbine flowmeter.

B. Swirl Configuration

Characterization of Swirl Number

The swirl number, S of a particular swirl assembly can be obtained if the mean axial, radial, and tangential
velocities are known as a function of radial location in the combustor4 . The following simplified expression can be
applied if only the axial and tangential velocity components are available:

RO

∫ vwr
2
dr
S= Ri
RO
(1)

∫v
2
rdr
Ri

Here, v is the axial mean velocity, w is the tangential mean velocity, and r is the radial location. The density is
presumed to be invariant, and the radial pressure gradient produced by the swirling motion is ignored in the above
expression. These simplifications introduce some error.4 The swirl number of a swirling flow should be a conserved
quantity. If the pressure term is ignored, the swirl number obtained will not be seen to be conserved in the flow. The
static pressure in the flow is difficult to measure, however, and modified forms of the above equation, which take
the pressure variation into account based on the relationship between axial and tangential velocities, are not
appropriate for high-swirl flows (flows where S > 1).
Swirl can be imparted to a flow in a wide variety of ways. In practical applications, however, swirl is generally
produced using swirler assemblies, which are essentially vane packs installed in the air ducts. The assemblies are
quite compact, and the degree of swirl imparted depends on the vane angle. Swirl vanes may be aligned with the
flow direction, in which case the swirl vane angle is 0°, or they may deviate from the flow direction. The maximum
practical swirl vane angle is approximately 70°. Greater vane angles are not usually possible, since the vanes must
be of a finite thickness. There is a pressure drop associated with swirler assemblies. The magnitude of the pressure
drop depends on the swirl vane angle and the swirl vane design. Since this pressure drop affects the overall
efficiency of the combustor (particularly in gas turbine or other propulsion applications), the objective is generally to
obtain the required swirl with the minimum pressure drop. Swirling flows are also quite sensitive to inlet conditions.

4
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Slight imperfections and asymmetries in the swirler can produce a very asymmetrical swirling flowfield. As a result,
the associated flames will also be asymmetrical, and this can affect the combustion characteristics of the flame.
Swirl vanes may be straight, or they may be twisted. Straight swirl vanes have a vane angle that does not vary
with radial location. They are easier to manufacture, but may be less efficient in terms of pressure drop. Twisted
swirl vanes feature a small vane angle near the centerline, and a progressively larger vane angle as the radial
distance from the centerline increases. In vane assemblies, most of the air is forced outward, and the majority of the
flow will exit the swirler near the outer wall of the swirl assembly. The swirl number of a straight-vane swirl
assembly can be approximated4 as:

⎡ 1 − (d h d o )3 ⎤
S = 2/3 ⋅ ⎢ 2⎥
⋅ tan(θ ) (2)
⎣ 1 − (d h d o ) ⎦

Here, dh is the hub diameter of the swirler, and do is the outer diameter of the swirler. The swirl number is thus
found to depend primarily on θ, the swirl vane angle. As mentioned above, swirl vane angles greater than 70° cannot
usually be employed in practice. Equation 3 also appears to be appropriate for twisted-vane swirlers, however, in the
case of the twisted-vane swirler, θ is the vane angle of the outer edge of the vane.
In this investigation, both twisted and straight-vane swirl assemblies were employed. For the flames described
in this section, an aluminum twisted-vane type swirler assembly was inserted in the inner air annulus, and a brass
straight-vane-type swirler assembly was inserted in the outer air annulus. The inner swirler is shown in Figure 4. As
can be seen from the figure, the vanes have a twisted
configuration, and the divergence of the vane surface from the
axial direction increases with radius. This particular swirler
features a 45° angle at the outer vane edge. As a result, it imparts
a swirl of magnitude S ~ 0.8 to the flow issuing from the inner air
annulus.
A photograph of the injector, showing the fuel nozzle in the
center and the surrounding swirl assemblies, is shown in Figure
5. As mentioned above, the outer swirl assembly is a straight-
vane-type, featuring a vane angle of 50°. The swirl number of the
flow from the outer annulus has magnitude S ~ 1.

Vortex Breakdown and Flow Recirculation

Swirling flows at swirl numbers greater than S ~ 0.6 display a

vortex breakdown phenomenon. This phenomenon is
characterized by a toroidal recirculation region, located
downstream of the swirl generator. Usually, the flow at the inlet Figure 4. Inner swirler with twisted vanes
to a combustor undergoes some expansion, whether it is swirl-
stabilized or not, since the combustor cross-sectional area is
larger than the inlet duct cross-sectional area. In swirl-stabilized
combustors, the swirling motion of the flow forces the flow
outward even more, creating a region of low pressure at the center
of the flow. If the swirl number is high enough, this region of low
pressure expands, so that slower-moving, higher-pressure gas
from the downstream region is pushed back upstream toward the
burner inlet. This phenomenon is quite useful in stabilizing
combustion, since it creates a convenient mechanism by which
hot product gases can be brought into contact with fresh,
unburned fuel and oxidizer. If a fuel spray is present, it can be
injected into the recirculation region in order to enhance
evaporation and rapid mixing of the fuel before combustion.
Recirculation also occurs behind bluff bodies inserted in the
Figure 5. Injector with inner and outer
flow. In the experimental combustor employed here, the fuel
swirlers installed
nozzle acts as a bluff body, and some recirculation occurs

5
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
downstream of the nozzle even if no swirl is imparted to the inner or outer combustion air flows. The features of the
recirculation region and the spray flame are thus affected by the geometry of the swirl assemblies as well as the fuel
nozzle. The structure of the flame obtained for several operating conditions is described below.

C. Effect of Enclosure and Pressurization on Flame Structure

An experimental series was carried out in order to examine the effect of enclosure and combustion chamber
pressure on the methanol spray flame. The flame characteristics were examined using direct flame photography. The
isothermal, non-reacting airflow structure, in the absence of a fuel spray, was examined using 2-D PIV diagnostics.
The mass flowrate of combustion air fed through each annulus was held constant, at 9.3 grams/s. The
atomization air flowrate was held constant, at 0.136 grams/s. The fuel flowrate was set to 30 ml/min of methanol,
creating an overall equivalence ratio, Φ, of 0.15.
An unenclosed flame was examined first, and photographed using a shutter speed of 0.5s. The relatively long
exposure time provides a time-averaged image of the luminous flame. The same airflow conditions were then
examined using PIV, in the absence of a fuel spray.
The optically-accessible combustion enclosure was then installed. In order to ensure that the enclosure was not
pressurized during this phase of the experiment, the nozzle block was removed from the combustor exit. The
combustor exit diameter was thus equal to the overall inlet diameter of the chamber. The secondary mixing chamber
was not installed during this experiment; the combustor vented straight to the atmosphere. Since the flow was
unobstructed, the pressure in the combustor remained very near 0 psig (atmospheric pressure) during the test. The
flame was again photographed. The air flowfield, in the absence of the fuel spray, was also examined using PIV
diagnostics.
The pressurized test was then carried out with the nozzle
block installed at the exit of the combustion chamber. A stainless-
steel nozzle, with a throat diameter of 8.7 mm (0.14*D), was
inserted into the nozzle block to constrict the flow at the
combustor exit. During firing of the combustor, the chamber
pressure under these conditions rose to 11.5 psig (1.78 bar total
pressure). The global features of the pressurized flame were
examined and photographed. In order to carry out examination of
the air flowfield at the same pressure, an adjustable flow
constrictor was installed at the nozzle. The same air mass flow
was then fed into the combustor, and the constrictor tightened
until the combustor chamber pressure rose to 11.5 psig. The fuel
spray was absent during this part of the experiment. The 2-D PIV
diagnostics was used to characterize the air flowfield.
Figure 6. Unenclosed, enclosed, and
Flame Structure: Unenclosed, Enclosed, and Pressurized Flames pressurized flames
It was found that the flame structure depends heavily on the
features of the fuel spray and the recirculation region. Since the
fuel nozzle tends to eject most of the fuel upward at velocities
near 10 m/s, and since many of the droplets in the spray are large
enough that they have appreciable inertia-to-drag ratios, much of
the spray penetrates the recirculation region and combusts further
downstream. The flame is generally blue, with regions of orange
luminosity near the widest point of the flame. The trailing edge of
the flame is orange in color. The base of the flame is anchored by
the recirculation region, and the shape of the flame near the
injector is determined by the recirculation of hot combusting
material upstream toward the nozzle. Images of the flames
obtained with an exposure time of 0.5s are shown in Figure 6.

Effect of Enclosure 0.125 s Exposure 0.5 s Exposure

Figure 7. Enclosed Flame images, showing
rapid and slow exposures
6
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 The flame region in the enclosed, non-pressurized case (shown in the center of Figure 6) is considerably wider
than in the unenclosed (left) and pressurized (right) cases. It also differs in overall shape, being narrower near the
injector and wider downstream. This effect is due to turbulent flame distortions and lack of entrainment of ambient
air into the flame. In the unenclosed case, the flame structure is relatively stable, with few large-scale distortions. In
the enclosed case, however, cold ambient air cannot be entrained as effectively, and large-scale distortions of the
flame, occurring at frequencies of 5-10 Hz, affect the structure of the flame dramatically. This effect is shown in
detail in Figure 7. The flame photograph of the enclosed, unpressurized flame shown at the left in Figure 7 was
obtained using a 0.125 s exposure duration. The flame photograph at the right shows the same flame, photographed
using a 0.5 s exposure duration. The higher temporal resolution of the left-hand image shows that the exhaust stream
from the flame is attached to one wall of the exhaust port of the combustor. This effect is seen at the top of the left-
hand image. The point at which this attachment occurs rotates around the circumference of the port with a frequency
of 5-10 Hz, producing regularly oscillating motions of the flame. This is attributed to the precessing vortex motion
in the swirl flow. The cumulative effect of these 3-D motions in the flame, averaged over a longer exposure time,
produces the broadened luminous flame region shown at the right in Fig. 7. This effect is not seen in the enclosed,
pressurized case, due simply to the fact that the exhaust, in the pressurized flame, is forced out through a small
nozzle. Flame attachment to one wall of the nozzle cannot produce a large-scale distortion of the flame, since the
scale of the diameter of the nozzle is much smaller than the other scales associated with the flow.

Effect of Chamber Pressure

The flame region in the pressurized flame is considerably shorter than that for the unpressurized flame case. In
the pressurized case, the airflow velocity drops dramatically, since the density of the air is increased at higher
pressure, although the mass flowrate is still the same as in the other cases. The fuel droplet axial velocity may
decrease somewhat, since the mass flux of atomization air fed through the fuel nozzle remains constant, and this
atomization air will occupy a smaller volume, and produce a smaller droplet velocity, when the combustor pressure
rises. The Stokes drag on fuel droplets increases as well, thus fewer of them are able to penetrate the recirculation
region to burn away downstream. The residence time of material in the combustor increases, due to the lower flow
velocities. Higher pressures may also increase the rate of combustion reactions, since concentrations of reactants are
increased and locally higher temperatures may occur. This effect leads to a shorter, more compact flame. The
detailed structure of the flame, however, depends on the particular features of the combustion airflow and fuel spray.

D. Effect of Pressure on Swirling Air Flowfield

The isothermal, non-reacting air flowfield in the combustor, in the absence of a fuel spray, can provide valuable
understanding of the structure of the flame. The flame front is stabilized at the boundary of the recirculation region,
and the features of the recirculation region in the flow coincide
quite well with the observed flame structure. In Figure 8 a direct
comparison is shown between the unenclosed flame and axial
velocity contours in the 2-dimensional air flowfield. The blue
regions in the flowfield indicate regions of recirculation. The red
regions indicate large positive axial velocities; these are regions
where the air is moving rapidly upward. Clearly, the luminous
region of the spray flame coincides almost exactly with the
boundary of the recirculation region in the non-reacting airflow,
at least in this portion of the flow near the inlet. Divergence
between the behavior of the non-reacting flow and the flowfield
of the flame might occur further downstream, where the effects of
added enthalpy, reduced density, and increased mass flow
associated with the reacting case would be expected to have an
effect. The region of positive axial velocities seen in the
recirculation region is due to the atomization air jet emanating
from the nozzle. Since this jet opposes recirculation of gases
toward the nozzle, the presence and flowrate of this jet Figure 8. Comparison of isothermal axial
dramatically affects the shape of the flame. The recirculation velocity contours and flame structure in the
region, and thus the flame, is lifted away from the fuel nozzle, unenclosed flame

7
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
creating the slender neck seen at the base of the flame. An increase or
decrease in the atomization air flowrate thus affects the properties of
the fuel spray and also directly affects the shape of the flame
flowfield.
The PIV system used here has been described in detail
elsewhere11. In the current experiments, flowfields were obtained
from 249 image pairs using a cross-correlation algorithm. During the
2-D PIV experiments, the combustion air was seeded with
polydisperese 4-5 micron sauter mean diameter (SMD) propylene
glycol droplets. A laser sheet, approximately 2 mm thick, was
projected through the vertical centerline of the combustor. The laser
sheet was carefully trimmed, so that no excess light reflected off the
burner, swirlers, or fuel nozzle. During the enclosed experiments, the Unenclosed
a) Unenclosed
combustion chamber was oriented so that its windows were at right
angles to the laser sheet. This arrangement, along with careful
trimming of the laser sheet, essentially eliminated internal reflections
within the chamber. Since the resolution of the PIV camera detector
used in the experiments is limited, it was necessary to focus on a
particular region of the flow. Since the region near the inlet is quite
similar in both the non-reacting flow and the flame, 2-D PIV data was
acquired from this region. Contours of mean axial velocity (V) and
radial velocity (U) for the three flame cases are shown in Figures 9
and 10. The region of the recirculation zone on one side of the
centerline, nearest to the injector, is depicted. Coordinates in the X
(radial) and Y (axial) directions are given in mm; velocities are given
in m/s. The origin of the coordinate system is located at the fuel Enclosed,
b) Enclosed,
1 bar
1 bar
nozzle exit. The blue regions in flowfields shown in Figure 9, near the
centerline (X = 0) represent the recirculation regions of the flow in
each case. The maximum axial velocities measured in the unenclosed
and enclosed, atmospheric-pressure case are near 10 m/s. In the
pressurized case, where the total pressure is 1.78 bar, the velocities are
much lower. The boundary of the recirculation region moves outward,
contributing to the shorter flame associated with this case. The
broader recirculation increases the amount of combustion occurring
upstream, near the injector, and reduces the amount of unburned
reactant convected downstream.
The radial velocity contours shown in Figure 10 display the same
trends. The radial velocities in the pressurized case are, again, much
lower than those seen in the atmospheric-pressure cases. This effect is c) Enclosed,
Enclosed,
1.78
1.78
barbar
due to the fact that the density of the gas increases at higher pressure, Figure 9. Comparison of Contours of
so that the same mass of material flows through the chamber at lower Axial velocity, V
velocities. The data presented here on the measured properties of the
airflow fields in the non-reacting airflow help to understand the flame structures seen in Figure 6.

III. Section 2: Exhaust Jet Dynamic Behavior in a Two-Phase System

In order to examine the behavior of the combustor under simulated underwater propulsion conditions, a series of
experiments were carried out with the combustor exhaust jet injected into the water chamber, thus resulting in a two-
phase environment. The water chamber (or mixing chamber) shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 1 was
installed in such a way that the exhaust jet from the combustion chamber vented into the base of the mixing chamber
before escaping to the atmosphere. The mixing chamber was then filled with water. A specially-designed baffle
system was installed in the mixing chamber to separate the gas and liquid components of the two-phase exhaust
flow. Liquid water was retained in the mixing chamber, while gas effluents were allowed to escape. A high-speed
camera was used to image the region near the exhaust nozzle. Initial experiments were undertaken to examine the

8
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
behavior of the exhaust jet in the absence of a flame in the combustor.
Two combustor pressure conditions and two exhaust nozzle geometries
were investigated. One of the exhaust nozzle geometries was examined
further under combusting conditions, to examine the effect of combustion
on the exhaust jet behavior. Sound pressure level spectra have been
obtained for each case, making it possible to compare acoustic signatures
associated with each experimental condition.

Experimental Considerations: Design of the Mixing Tank Baffles

In order to ensure that no water from the mixing chamber moved

upstream into the combustor, a small flow of air was fed into the
combustor during filling of the mixing chamber. The combustor pressure Unenclosed
a) Unenclosed
was thus always slightly higher than the pressure in the mixing chamber,
and air was steadily flowing out through the exhaust nozzle. This
prevented any water from entering the combustor. Only a very slight
combustor pressure (on the order of 0.4 psig) was necessary to keep the
combustor dry.
Large-scale vibrational modes of the entire combustor system were
also excited during the two-phase experiments. The setup was extensively
reinforced in order to reduce the amplitude of these vibrations.
During initial tests, two further problems were encountered: First, the
exhaust jet tended to entrain water when the combustor pressure rose
above 1 psig. This caused large amounts of water to exit the top of the
mixing chamber. Second, the exhaust jet tended to create large
concentrations of very small bubbles in the water. The most problematic Enclosed,
b) Enclosed,
1 bar
1 bar
bubbles featured diameters on the order of few microns. This effect
depended on the combustor pressure; if the combustor pressure was over
10 psig, the water became clouded by bubbles so that the jet could no
longer be imaged effectively.
The baffle system was developed to address these issues. A schematic
of the baffle system is shown in Figure 11. Four baffle plates, made of
perforated aluminum sheets edged with TeflonTM, are located in the mixing
tank in such a way that the tank is divided into the three major zones. The
two lower plates feature large central holes, located and sized to allow
particular portions of the exhaust jet to pass through, while retaining other
portions. The lowest plate is submerged, and has a large central hole that
allows the entire exhaust jet to pass through. The second plate has a
smaller hole, sized to allow only the jet core to pass through unobstructed. c) Enclosed,
Enclosed,
1.78
1.78
barbar
The jet core consists mainly of gas, with little entrained liquid. The upper Figure 10. Comparison of Contours
pair of baffle plates has no central holes, and is designed to trap any of radial velocity, U
droplets not caught by the previous pair of plates. The gas stream that
passes through the baffles then exits at the top of the tank through four trap
stacks. The stacks are stainless-steel tubes, positioned at the corners of the tank lid, and fitted with internal gratings
that capture the fine sprays of mist.
The baffles perform two functions: First, they retain the water in the mixing chamber, and effectively prevent it
from escaping. During tests, it was found that no significant quantities of water escaped the mixing chamber, even
when the combustor chamber pressure was on the order of 15 psig. Second, the baffles prevent small bubbles from
recirculating downward to obscure the view of the jet. Small bubbles are trapped above the lowest baffle, and
recirculate in this region until they dissipate or escape from the water.
Figure 12 shows the combustor and mixing chamber in operation. A swirl-stabilized methanol spray flame is
visible in the combustor; and the exhaust jet is seen interacting with water in the mixing chamber. The water is not
clearly visible due to the shutter speed used to obtain the image. The agitation of the water in the chamber is so
violent that it is visible only as a white blur.

Combustor Inlet Swirl Conditions

9
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 The air fed into the combustor was introduced through the same co-annular injector described above. The inner
swirler was the same twisted-vane swirler, with an outer vane
angle of 45°, used in the experiments described in Section 1. Trap Stack
The swirl number of air fed through the inner annulus was thus
S ~ 0.8. The outer swirler was not the same one described in
Section 1. For the two-phase jet interaction experiments 24 cm
described in Section 2, an outer swirl assembly featuring Jet Core
Baffle Plate
straight vanes, with 0° swirl angle, was installed. The swirl
number of air fed through the outer swirler was therefore S = 0.
Recirculation 44 cm
Combustor Exhaust Nozzle Geometry Pattern

Two exhaust nozzle geometries were investigated. Both

featured inner diameters (DE) of 8.7 mm. One was flush- Water
mounted with the baseplate of the mixing chamber, and did not
project into the mixing chamber. The other nozzle, which will
be referred to as the conical projecting nozzle, featured a
tapered, conical extension that allowed it to project 40.6 mm
Exhaust Nozzle
into the mixing tank. The conical projecting nozzle was Approx. Outer Jet Boundary
developed in order to examine the effect of nozzle geometry on
Figure 11. Schematic of the mixing chamber
entrainment and dynamic behavior of the exhaust jet.
Schematic diagrams of both nozzles are shown in
Figure 13. Mixing Chamber
Isothermal Flow Experiments
Combustor
Flush-mounted nozzle; PCC = 1 Psig: exhaust nozzle
During the first set of experiments, the flush-mounted
nozzle was installed in the nozzle block, and the
combustor chamber pressure (PCC) was raised to 1 Baseplate
psig. Air fed to the combustor was initially introduced
through the inner annulus (S ~ 0.8). The mixing
chamber was vented to the atmosphere. The mixing Swirl-Stabilized
chamber was filled with water, to obtain a mean depth Spray Flame
of 14.5 cm. The small pressure difference between the
combustor and the mixing chamber in this case Coannular
simulates conditions where the combustor is being
operated at great depth, or at a low power setting. No
swirl injector
fuel was fed to the chamber, and no combustion
occurred. The atomization air stream, with a flowrate Figure 12. The experimental section in operation,
of 0.14 g/s, was introduced through the fuel nozzle to reacting flow condition
purge it and prevent contamination or blockage of the Mixing Chamber Baseplate
nozzle. 40.6 mm
The gas stream from the exhaust nozzle was seen 8.7 mm
to emerge as a series of distinct bubbles or gas slugs.
They emerged with a regular frequency of
approximately 0.8-1.0 Hz. The stream was imaged 54.4 mm
using a Photron Ultima 1024 high-speed camera,
linked to a high-performance desktop PC via an IEEE
1394 connection. Monochrome images were captured
at a frame rate of 500 frames per second (fps). Image Flush-Mounted 22.2 mm Conical Projecting
resolution was 480x360 pixels. A representative Figure 13. Schematics of Flush-Mounted and conical
bubble is shown emerging and detaching in Figure 14. projecting nozzles
The gas from the exhaust port initially expands
laterally, until the bubble diameter, DB is approximately 5 times the exhaust port diameter, DE. Only when an

10
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
appreciable amount of gas has emerged does the bubble begin to rise, indicating that the momentum associated with
the gas jet is insignificant in comparison to the effect of buoyancy on the bubble. The bubble rises and elongates,
and then begins to collapse in the vicinity of the exhaust port. The water then finally rushes back to literally seal off
the nozzle exit, and the cycle begins again. At no time, however, there was any appreciable penetration of water into
the exhaust nozzle. The swirl imparted to the combustion air in the combustor also plays no significant role in
determining the dynamic behavior of the bubble-formation process. The bubble has no perceptible rotational motion
associated with it. When the flow of air was introduced into the combustor through the outer annulus, with a swirl
number of S ~ 0, the same bubble behavior was observed. The presence or absence of swirl in the combustion air is
therefore insignificant in comparison with the inertial and buoyant forces acting on the bubble and water at the
nozzle exit. Thus, only the combustor pressure (and resulting mass and volumetric flowrate through the exhaust
nozzle) plays a significant role in shaping the structure and behavior of the exhaust jet during two-phase interaction.
Attempts to image the gas jet emerging from the flush-mounted nozzle with higher combustor chamber pressures
were problematic. The lateral spreading of the jet during the initial stage of bubble formation produced clouds of
smaller bubbles (with diameters << DE), and these made observation of the central jet nearly impossible.

Conical Projecting Nozzle; PCC = 1 Psig

In order to examine the effect of nozzle geometry on the behavior of the exhaust jet, the conical projecting nozzle
described in Figure 13 was installed. The mean water level in the tank, measured from the surface of the base plate
of the tank, was again brought up to 14.5 cm. The conical nozzle projects 40.6 mm up above the surface of the base
plate so that the exit of the nozzle was submerged under 9.9 cm of water. The air pressure in the combustor was
again brought to 1 psig, with S ~ 0.8.
The emergence of a bubble from the conical nozzle is shown in Figure 15. The bubble forms initially as a sphere
of gas that surrounds the conical projecting nozzle. The total time necessary for a bubble formation-cycle to be
completed was approximately 1 s, just as with the flush-mounted nozzle. The maximum diameter attained by the
sphere is, again, approximately 5*DE. This is illustrated in Figure 16. The gas jet in this configuration behaves less
predictably than in the case of the flush-mounted nozzle. Two modes were observed; one in which bubbles emerged
at regular intervals, and another in which the gas jet opened a channel to the surface of the water, and the gas
escaped through this channel without forming bubbles. The channel was not stable, however, and remained open
only briefly. When the channel collapsed, the bubble-formation mode resumed again. There was no obvious pattern
regulating the formation of the open channel to the surface, and the behavior of the exhaust stream appears to be
somewhat random. The bubble-formation mode dominates, however, and the Strouhal number of the bubble-
formation cycle can be readily calculated. The equation for the Strouhal number, St, of a jet is:

f*d
St = (3)
U mean
a) Phase Angle: 0° b) Phase Angle: 90° c) Phase Angle: 180° d) Phase Angle: 270° d) Phase Angle: 0°

Figure 14. Bubble emerging from flush-mounted nozzle, Combustor Pressure: 1 psig
a) Phase Angle: 0° b) Phase Angle: 90° c) Phase Angle: 180° d) Phase Angle: 270° d) Phase Angle: 0°

Figure 15. Bubble emerging from conical nozzle, Combustor Pressure: 1 psig

11
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Here, f is the frequency of a periodic instability, d is the diameter of the jet, and
Umean is the mean velocity of the jet at the inlet. In a free gas jet mixing with a
gaseous ambient medium, large-scale instabilities at the jet boundary have
generally been observed to occur with Strouhal numbers ranging from 0.2 to 0.5.
The Strouhal number associated with the bubble-formation cycle in the two-
phase exhaust jet shown in Figures 14 and 15 is found to be 0.002. This indicates
that the mechanisms associated with fluid interactions in a two-phase system are
fundamentally different from those associated with single-phase systems. As
indicated above, the primary difference appears to be the importance of buoyancy
effects in the two-phase case, while the momentum of the jet is much more
significant in the single-phase case.
5*DE
This observation may be of particular importance in understanding links
between combustor and exhaust jet instabilities. If the exhaust jet is not choked,
and the combustor has the potential for unstable combustion at frequencies
similar to those associated with the exhaust jet, a feedback interaction between
the dynamic exhaust jet behavior and the combustor may occur. On the other
hand, if the flow through the exhaust orifice is choked, then the exhaust jet would
not likely be able to influence the combustor behavior. However, instabilities in
the combustor could dramatically influence the features of the exhaust jet, and
this may have some practical consequences, particularly with regard to the Figure 16. Maximum
stealthiness of the combustor. diameter of bubble,
Combustor Pressure: 1 psig
Conical Projecting Nozzle; PCC = 15 Psig
In order to examine the behavior of an isothermal choked flow, the combustor pressure was increased to 15 Psig.
This operating condition simulates a case where the combustor is operated in shallow water, or the power setting of
the combustor is increased. The open-channel mode was observed to be much more stable in this case, and during
most of the experiment, this mode dominated the jet behavior. An image of the open-channel mode is shown in
Figure 17. The included solid angle associated with the channel, θjet, was approximately 30°. This mode was
possible only because the jet was vented upward through a relatively thin layer of water. In a practical situation the
exhaust jet from a submerged vehicle would likely be vented laterally, and would in any case be at depths large
enough that an open channel, which allows continuous passage of gas to the atmosphere, could not form.
The open channel mode was unstable, however, and collapsed occasionally at apparently-random intervals.
When one of these collapses occurred, a return to the bubble-formation mode followed. Figure 18 shows the
emergence and detachment of such a bubble. The period of this process was much shorter than in the 1 psig cases
described above. Formation of a bubble, and collapse of the associated structure, occurs in approximately 0.2 s. The
process ends with a return to an open channel in the center of the flow, surrounded by a series of distinct bubbles of
small diameter (D < 5*DE).
The higher jet velocity associated with the exhaust jet in this case generally produced structures of much smaller
scale than those observed previously. Bubbles produced by gas-liquid interaction at the edge of the jet were
observed to occur with diameters on the scale of millimeters. Very small bubbles, with diameters apparently on the
order of few microns in size, were also observed, and these made the development of the baffles, described above,
necessary. Figure 19 shows a detailed view of a bubble structure formed during a bubble-formation cycle.
Interestingly, the overall diameter achieved by the bubble is still 5*DE, as was the case previously with the slower-
moving jets. However, the surface of the gas-liquid interface is much more heavily corrugated, suggesting that
smaller turbulent scales associated with the faster-moving jet are affecting the interaction between the two phases.
The scale of the corrugations is likely also linked to the scale of the bubbles produced by the jet; hence large
populations of small bubbles can be observed in the water around the jet.

12
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 The Strouhal number of the large-scale a) Phase Angle: 0°
instability is also of interest. Significantly, the
Strouhal number of the bubble-formation
θjet = 30º mode associated with the choked jet is also
approximately St = 0.002. These observations
are, at this point, based on limited sample
sizes, so some experimental uncertainty exists.
The indication, however, is that the
characteristic Strouhal numbers associated
with large-scale dynamic events in two-phase b) Phase Angle: 90°
jet/fluid systems will be two orders of
magnitude smaller than those associated with
large-scale instabilities in single-phase
systems.

Conical Projecting Nozzle; PCC = 15 Psig,

Reacting Flow
In order to examine the behavior under c) Phase Angle: 180°
combustion conditions, heated exhaust gas was
Figure 17. Exhaust jet vented into the mixing chamber from a swirl-
structure, 15 psig, open-jet stabilized methanol spray flame in the
mode combustor chamber. 9.3 grams/second of air
were fed through each of the air annuli. As stated above, the inner air annulus
imparted a swirl number of S ~ 0.8, while the outer air annulus was fitted with a
vane assembly that featured S = 0. The fuel flowrate was 61 mL/min of methanol;
the resulting thermal load was 16.2 kW. The fuel spray was atomized by 0.136
d) Phase Angle: 270°
grams/second of atomization air. The fuel droplet Sauter mean diameter (SMD),
based on previous phase-Doppler particle analyzer (PDPA) investigations of the
atomization characteristics of the fuel nozzle, was near 50 microns. The
equivalence ratio, Φ, of the combustor was 0.35. The combustor pressure rose to
15 psig, and combustion was sustained only briefly. The temperature of the water
in the tank did not exceed 40 °C, so that the physical properties of water
remained reasonably consistent throughout the trial. The resulting flame in the
combustor is shown in Figure 12.
d) Phase Angle: 0°
An image of the exhaust jet from the combustor is shown in Figure 20.
The structure of the jet is almost entirely obscured by surrounding bubbles.
Extremely small bubbles, with diameters below the resolution limit of the
camera, are associated with the region nearest the jet/liquid interface (at the
center of the image). Larger bubbles surround the jet. The jet appears to be
dominated by the open-channel mode, similar to the case with the isothermal
choked jet, but large-scale events distort the jet structure in a random fashion. It
appears that the open jet does collapse, but no clearly-visible, well-formed bubble Figure 18. Exhaust jet
structure emerges. Instead, violent ejections of groups of bubbles occur. structure, 15 psig, bubble-
Interestingly, the larger bubbles, featuring diameters on the order of formation mode
approximately 0.1*DE, are often observed to be ejected downward and outward. These groups of large bubbles then
rise slowly toward the surface of the water, driven by buoyancy.
In general, it appears that the exhaust jet from the reacting flow displays events occurring on smaller temporal
and spatial scales than those observed in the non-reacting flows. This may be due to the increased velocity
associated with the higher-temperature, lower-density gas produced by the flame. The higher enthalpy associated
with the exhaust gas from the reacting flow may also be reducing the effect of viscosity in the water. This will also
allow the gas/liquid interface to distort more severely, and these distortions, occurring on much smaller length
scales, produce larger concentrations of small bubbles, as opposed to the large, coherent bubble structures seen in
the non-reacting flows. Calculation and comparison of Strouhal numbers associated with the dynamics of the jet
interaction in the case of the exhaust jet from the reacting flow was not possible at this time, due to the nature of the
data collected, and the difficulties associated with observation and analysis of the jet structure. However, with
different experimental conditions or diagnostic techniques, it is possible to overcome these difficulties.

13
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 IV. Summary

The effects of enclosure and pressurization on the structure of a turbulent,

swirl-stabilized spray flame have been investigated. Enclosure of the flame, in the
absence of pressurization, was found to affect the flame structure and dynamic
behavior significantly. Practical issues associated with operation of a submerged
combustor for underwater propulsion applications have been examined. The 5*DE
structure of the flame is determined by the shape and extent of a central
recirculation region in the flow above the fuel nozzle. The atomization airflow
associated with the air-atomizing nozzle has a significant effect on the shape of
the base of the flame, in the region nearest the fuel nozzle. When the flame is
enclosed, but not pressurized, attachment of the exhaust flow to one side of the
combustor exhaust port, and the rotation of this attachment point around the
circumference of the exhaust port, produce a large-scale distortion of the flame
structure due to PVC, occurring with a frequency of approximately 5 to 10 Hz.
When the exhaust flow from the combustor is constricted, the pressure in the
combustor is raised to 1.8 bars. The pressurized flame was not found to display
the same large-scale distortions associated with the enclosed, unpressurized Figure 19. Maximum
experimental case. The structure of the flame in the pressurized case closely diameter of bubble structure,
resembled the structure of the unenclosed flame, however, the flame was found to combustor pressure: 15 psig
be shorter in the pressurized case. Examination of the isothermal air flowfield
associated with each experimental condition
(unenclosed, enclosed, and pressurized) using 2-D PIV
diagnostics showed that the structure of the flame near
the injector is closely linked to the shape of the
recirculation region associated with the air flowfield.
The fluid velocities in the pressurized case are smaller
than in the unenclosed and enclosed cases; and this
appears to explain the shorter flame structure associated
with the pressurized case.
The interaction of the gaseous combustor exhaust
jet with water in a downstream mixing chamber was also
examined. The mixing chamber was filled with enough
water to allow characterization of two-phase interactions
near the combustor exhaust nozzle. The primary
parameter influencing the behavior of the isothermal
exhaust jet was found to be the pressure drop across the
exhaust port. At relatively low combustor pressures, on Figure 20. Image of the jet from reacting flow in
the order of 1 psig, the exhaust jet was found to emerge combustor. Conical projecting nozzle is obscured by
as a series of distinct bubbles. The inertia of the liquid clouds of bubbles
phase and buoyant forces acting on the bubbles appear to
dominate in determining the behavior of the jet. Swirl imparted to the air fed into the combustor was not found to
affect the behavior of the jet significantly, since the momentum of the jet is insignificant in comparison with the
other factors associated with the two-phase jet interaction. A flush-mounted and a conical projecting exhaust nozzle
were both examined. The exhaust nozzle geometry affects the mechanism of bubble emergence and detachment, but
the frequency of the bubble formation does not appear to be influenced strongly by exhaust nozzle geometry. The
Strouhal number associated with the cycle of bubble formation and collapse was found to be approximately 0.002. A
higher-velocity choked isothermal exhaust jet, associated with a combustor chamber pressure of 15 psig, was found
to display an open-channel mode and a bubble-formation mode. The open-channel mode was possible only due to
the conditions of the current experiment; in a practical submerged system, only the bubble-formation mode would be
expected to occur. The maximum diameter formed by the bubble structure was found to be five times the exhaust
nozzle diameter, regardless of the combustor chamber pressure. The Strouhal number associated with the higher-
velocity jet was also approximately 0.002. Strouhal numbers associated with free jets interacting with ambient fluid

14
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
in single-phase systems are generally found to be 0.2 to 0.4. Large-scale events, affecting the dynamic behavior of
jets interacting in two-phase systems display far different fundamental dynamics than jets in single-phase systems.
The structure and dynamics of an exhaust jet from a reacting flow, issuing from the combustor with a
combustor pressure of 15 psig, were also examined. The structure of the jet was found to be more chaotic than the
isothermal flow, with dynamic events occurring across a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. The jet was
dominated by an open-channel mode. A distinct, repeatable bubble-formation mode was not observed. The exhaust
jet associated with the reacting flow displayed a greater tendency to produce extremely small bubbles, with
diameters ranging from few microns to a few millimeters.

Acknowledgments

This work has been carried out with the support from the Office of Naval Research, with Dr. Gabriel Roy as the
program director. This support is gratefully acknowledged.

References
1
Linck, M., Armani, M., and Gupta, A. K., “Passive Control of Unstable Combustion in a Swirl-Stabilized Spray
Combustor,” Proc. of 42nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, January 5-8, 2004, Paper No. AIAA-2004-8010.
2
Gupta, A. K. and Linck, M: “Passive Control of Flow and Flame Structure in Spray Combustion,” Intl. Colloquium on
Combustion Control, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK, August 12-14, 2003.
3
Linck, M., Armani, M., and A. K. Gupta, A. K., “Effect of Swirl and Fuel Pulsation on Flame Dynamics, Flame Structure,
and Droplet Dynamics in Swirl Stabilized Spray Flames,” ASME Power Conference, Baltimore, MD, March 30-April 1, 2004,
Paper No. PWR 2004-52048.
4
Gupta, A. K., Lilley, D. G., and Syred, N., Swirl Flows, Abacus Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984.
5
Linck, M., and Gupta, A. K., “Effect of Combustion on Exhaust Jet Characteristics in a Pressurized, Swirl-Stabilized Spray
Combustor,” Proc. of 43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, January 10-13, 2005 Paper No. AIAA-
2005-0956.
6
Linck, M. and Gupta, A. K., “Effect of Swirl and Combustion on Flow Dynamics in Luminous Kerosene Spray Flames,”
Proc. of 41st AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, January 6-9, 2003, Paper No. AIAA-2003-1345.
7
Gao, Z., Linck, M., Mashayek, F., and Gupta, A. K.: “Experimental Results and Calculations of Two-Phase Flow in a Swirl
Burner Under Isothermal Condition,” 41st AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, NV, January 6-9, 2003, paper No. AIAA-
2003-0336.
8
Linck, M. and Gupta, A. K.: “Dynamics of Unconfined and Confined Methanol and Kerosene Spray Flames,” Proc. IECEC
Conference, Providence, RI, August 16-19, 2004, AIAA Paper No. 2004-5503.
9
Gupta, A.K., Linck, M., “Thermal loading, Flame Structure and Flame Dynamic Response of Kerosene and Methanol Spray
Flames,” Under Review, AIAA Journal for Propulsion and Power, 2005
10
Linck, M., Armani, M., and Gupta, A. K.: “Flow Characteristic Effects on Exhaust Gas Composition in Kerosene Spray
Flames,” IECEC Conference, Portsmouth, VA, August, 17-21, 2003, Paper AIAA 2003-5929.
11
Gupta, A. K., Lourenco, L., Linck, M. and Archer, S., “A New Method to Measure Flowfield in Luminous Spray Flames,”
J. Propulsion and Power, Vol. 20, No. 2, March/April 2004, pp. 369-372.

15
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics