Radiant Flux

PDHonline Course M312 (4 PDH)
Fire Dynamics Series: Estimating Fire

Flame Height and Radiant Heat Flux
From Fire
Instructor: Lawrence J. Marchetti, PE, CFPS
2020
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CHAPTER 5. ESTIMATING RADIANT HEAT FLUX
FROM FIRE TO A TARGET FUEL
5.1 Objectives
This chapter has the following objectives:

• Introduce the three modes of heat transfer.
• Explain how to calculate the heat flux from a flame to a target outside the flame.
• Discuss point source radiation models and solid flame radiation models.
• Identify the difference between solid flame radiation models at ground level and solid flame
radiation models above ground level with and without wind.
• Define relevant terms, including, conduction, convection, radiation, heat flux, emissive power,
and configuration factor.
5.2 Introduction
Fire normally grows and spreads by direct burning, which results from impingement of the flame
on combustible materials, or from heat transfer to other combustibles by means of conduction,
convection, or radiation. All three of these modes of heat transfer may be significant, depending
on the specifics of a given fire scenario. Conduction is particularly important in allowing heat to
pass through a solid barrier (e.g., fire wall) to ignite material on the other side. Nevertheless, most
of the heat transfer in fires typically occurs by means of convection and/or radiation. In fact, it is
estimated that in most fires, approximate 70-percent of the heat emanates by convection (heat
transfer through a moving gas or liquid). Consider, for example, a scenario in which a fire produces
hot gas which is less dense than the surrounding air. This hot gas then rises, carrying heat. The
hot products of combustion rising from a fire typically have a temperature in the range of
800–1,200 °C (1,472–2,192 °F) and a density that is one-quarter that of ambient air. In the third
mode of heat transfer, known as radiation, radiated heat is transferred directly to nearby objects.
One type of radiation, known as thermal radiation, is the significant mode of heat transfer for
situations in which a target is located laterally to the exposure fire source. This would be the case,
for example, for a floor-based fire adjacent to an electrical cabinet or a vertical cable tray in a large
compartment. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic energy occurring in wavelengths from 2 to
16 mm (infrared). It is the net result of radiation emitted by the radiating substances such as water
(H 2 O), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and soot in the flame.
Chapter 2 discussed various methods of predicting the temperature of the hot gas layer and the
height of the smoke layer in a room fire with natural or forced ventilation. However, those methods
are not applicable when analyzing a fire scenario in a very large open space or compartment.
In large spaces, such as the reactor building in a boiling water reactor (BWR) or an open space in
a turbine building, the volume of the space is too large for a uniform hot gas layer to accumulate.
For such scenarios, fire protection engineers must analyze other forms of heat transfer, such as
radiation. A floor-mounted electrical cabinet is an example of a ground-level target. A typical target
above ground level is an overhead cable tray.
5-1
5.3 Critical Heat Flux to a Target
Radiation from a flame, or any hot gas, is driven by its temperature and emissivity. The emissivity
is a measure of how well the hot gas emits thermal radiation (emissivity is defined as the ratio of
radiant energy emitted by a surface to that emitted by a black body of the same temperature).
Emmisivity is reported as a value between 0 and 1, with 1 being a perfect radiator. The radiation
that an observer feels is affected by the flame temperature and size (height) of the flame.
The incident heat flux (the rate of heat transfer per unit area that is normal to the direction of heat
flow. It is a total of heat transmitted by radiation, conduction, and convection) required to raise the
surface of a target to a critical temperature is termed the critical heat flux. Measured critical heat
flux levels for representative cable samples typically range from 15 to 25 kW/m 2 (1.32 to 2.2 Btu/ft 2-
sec). For screening purposes, it is appropriate to use value of 10 kW/m 2 (0.88 Btu/ft 2-sec) for IEEE-
383 qualified cable and 5 kW/m 2 (0.44 Btu/ft2 -sec) for IEEE-383 unqualified cable. These values
are consistent with selected damage temperatures for both types of cables based on the Electrical
Power Research Institute (EPRI), “Fire-Induced Vulnerability Evaluation (FIVE),” methodology.
Researchers have developed numerous methods to calculate the heat flux from a flame to a target
located outside the flame. Flames have been represented by cylinders, cones, planes, and point
sources in an attempt to evaluate the effective configuration factors 1 between the flame and the
target. Available predictive methods range from those that are very simple to others that are very
complex and involve correlations, detailed solutions to the equations of radiative heat transfer, and
computational fluid mechanics. Routine FHAs are most often performed using correlationally based
approaches, because of the limited goals of the analyses and the limited resources available for
routine evaluation. As a result of their widespread use, a great deal of effort has gone into the
development of these methods. Burning rates, flame heights, and radiative heat fluxes are routinely
predicted using these approaches.
Fire involving flammable and combustible liquids typically have higher heat release rates (for the
same area of fuel involved) than ordinary combustibles fires. The flame from a liquid fire is typically
taller, making it a better radiator. Hydrocarbon liquid fires are also quite luminous because of the
quantity of soot in the flames. Sooty fires are better emitters of thermal radiation. Thus, an
observer approaching a flammable/combustible liquid fire feels more heat than an observer
approaching an ordinary combustibles fire of comparable size.
The methods presented in this chapter are drawn from the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, 3 rd Edition, 2002, which examines the accuracy of these methods by comparisons
with available experimental data (these methods also presented in the SFPE Engineering Guide,
“Assessing Flame Radiation to External Targets from Pool Fires,” June 1999).
1
The configuration factor is a purely geometric quantity, which gives the fraction of the radiation
leaving one surface that strikes another surface directly.
5-2
5.3.1 Point Source Radiation Model
A point source estimate of radiant flux is conceptually the simplest representation configurational
model of a radiant source used in calculating the heat flux from a flame to target located outside
the flame. To predict the thermal radiation field of flames, it is customary to model the flame based
on the point source located at the center of a flame 2. The point source model provides a simple
relationship that varies as the inverse square of the distance, R. For an actual point source of
radiation or a spherical source of radiation, the distance R is simply the distance from the point or
from the center of the sphere to the target.
The thermal radiation hazard from a fire depends on a number of parameters, including the
composition of the fuel, the size and the shape of the fire, its duration, proximity to the object at risk,
and thermal characteristics of the object exposed to the fire. The point source method may be used
for either fixed or transient combustibles. They may involve an electrical cabinet, pump, liquid spill,
or intervening combustible at some elevation above the floor. For example, the top of a switchgear
or motor control center (MCC) cabinet is a potential location for the point source of a postulated fire
in this type of equipment. By contrast, the point source of a transient combustible liquid spill or
pump fire is at the floor.
The point source model assumes that radiant energy is released at a point located at the center of
the fire. The radiant heat flux at any distance from the source fire is inversely related to the
horizontal separation distance (R), by the following equation (Drysdale, 1998):
(5-1)
Where:
= radiant heat flux (kW/m 2 )
= heat release rate of the fire (kW)
R = radial distance from the center of the flame to the edge of the target (m)
c r = fraction of total energy radiated
In general, c r depends on the fuel, flame size, and flame configuration, and can vary from
approximately 0.15 for low-sooting fuels (e.g., alcohol) to 0.60 for high sooting fuels (e.g.,
hydrocarbons). For large fires (several meters in diameter), cold soot enveloping the luminous
flames can reduce c r considerably. See Figure 5-1 for a graphic representation of the relevant
nomenclature.
2
More realistic radiator shapes give rise to very complex configuration factor equations.
5-3
Figure 5-1 Radiant Heat Flux from a Pool Fire
to a Floor-Based Target Fuel (Point Source Model)
The HRR of a fire can be determined by laboratory or field testing. In the absence of experimental
data, the maximum HRR for the fire , is given by the following equation (Babrauskas, 1995):
(5-2)
Where:
= burning or mass loss rate per unit area per unit time (kg/m 2 -sec)
DH c,eff = effective heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
A f = horizontal burning area of the fuel (m 2 )
k $= empirical constant (m -1 )
D = diameter of burning area (m)
For non-circular pools, the effective diameter is defined as the diameter of a circular pool with an
area equal to the actual pool area, given by the following equation:
(5-3)
Where:
A f = surface area of the non-circular pool (m 2 )
D = diameter of the fire (m)
5-4
5.3.2 Solid Flame Radiation Model with Target At and Above Ground Level
The solid flame spreadsheet associated with this chapter provides a detailed method for assessing
the impact of radiation from pool fires to potential targets using configuration factor algebra. This
method covers a range of detailed calculations, some of which are most appropriate for first order
initial hazard assessments, while others are capable of more accurate predictions.
The solid flame model assumes that, (1) the fire can be represented by a solid body of a simple
geometrical shape, (2) thermal radiation is emitted from its surface, and, (3) non-visible gases do
not emit much radiation. (See Figures 5-2 and 5-3 for general nomenclature.) To ensure that the
fire volume is not neglected, the model must account for the volume because a portion of the fire
may be obscured as seen from the target. The intensity of thermal radiation from the pool fire to
an element outside the flame envelope for no-wind conditions and for windblown flames is given
by the following equation (Beyler, 2002):
(5-4)
Where:
= incident radiative heat flux (kW/m 2 )
E = average emissive power at flame surface (kW/m 2 )
F 16 2 = configuration factor
Figure 5-2 Solid Flame Radiation Model with No Wind

and Target at Ground Level
5-5
Figure 5-3 Solid Flame Radiation Model with No Wind
and Target Above Ground
5.3.2.1 Em issive Power
Emissive power is the total radiative power leaving the surface of the fire per unit area per unit time.
Emissive power can be calculated using of Stefan’s law, which gives the radiation of a black body
in relation to its temperature. Because a fire is not a perfect black body (black body is defined as
a perfect radiator; a surface with an emissivity of unity and, therefore, a reflectivity of zero),
the emissive power is a fraction (e) of the black body radiation (Beyler, 2002):
(5-5)
Where:
E = flame emissive power (kW/m 2 )
e = flame emissivity
s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10 -11 (kW/m 2 -K 4 )
T = temperature of the fire (K)
5-6
The use of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant to calculate radiation heat transfer requires knowledge
of the temperature and emissivity of the fire; however, turbulent mixing causes the fire temperature
to vary. Consequently, Shokri and Beyler (1989) correlated experimental data of flame radiation
to external targets in terms of an average emissive power of the flame. For that correlation, the
flame is assumed to be a cylindrical, black body, homogeneous radiator with an average emissive
power. Thus, effective power of the pool fire in terms of effective diameter is given by:
(5-6)
Where:
E = flame emissive power (kW/m 2 )
D = diameter of pool fire (m)
This represents the average emissive power over the whole of the flame and is significantly less
than the emissive power that can be attained locally. The emissive power is further reduced with
increasing pool diameter as a result of the increasing prominence of black smoke outside the flame,
which obscures the radiation from the luminous flame.
For non-circular pools, the effective diameter is defined as the diameter of a circular pool with an
area equal to the actual pool area given by Equation 5-3.
5.3.2.2 Configuration Factor F 1 6 2 under Wind-Free Conditions
The configuration factor 3 is a purely geometric quantity, which provides the fraction of the radiation
leaving one surface that strikes another surface directly. In other words the configuration factor
gives the fraction of hemispherical surface area seen by one differential element when looking at
another differential element on the hemisphere.
The configuration factor is a function of target location, flame size (height), and fire diameter, and
is a value between 0 and 1. When the target is very close to the flame, the configuration factor
approaches 1, since everything viewed by the target is the flame. The flame is idealized with a
diameter equal to the pool diameter, D, and a height equal to the flame height, H f. If the pool has
a length-to-width ratio near 1, an equivalent area circular source can be used in determining the
flame length, H f, for non-circular pools. (See Figure 5-4 and 5-5 for general definitions applicable
to the cylindrical flame model under wind-free conditions.)
3
The configuration factor is also commonly referred to as the “view factor”.
5-7
Figure 5-4 Cylindrical Flame Shape Configuration Factor Geometry
for Vertical and Horizontal Targets at Ground Level with No Wind
Figure 5-5 Cylindrical Flame Shape Configuration Factor Geometry

for Vertical and Horizontal Targets Above Ground with No Wind
5-8
Flame height of the pool fire is then determined using the following correlation (Heskestad, 1995):
(5-8)
Where:
H f = flame height (m)
D = diameter of the burning area (m)
The HRR of the fire can be determined by laboratory or field testing. In the absence of
experimental data, the maximum HRR for the fire , is given by Equation 5-2.
The radiation exchange factor between a fire and an element outside the fire depends on the shape
of the flame, the relative distance between the fire and the receiving element, and the relative
orientation of the element. The turbulent diffusion flame can be approximated by a cylinder. Under
wind-free conditions, the cylinder is vertical (Figure 5-4). If the target is either at ground level or at
the flame height, a single cylinder can represent the flame. However, if the target is above the
ground, two cylinders should be used to represent the flame.
For horizontal and vertical target orientations at ground level with no-wind conditions, given the
diameter and height of the flame, the configuration (or view factor) F 16 2 under wind-free conditions
is determined using the following equations related to cylindrical radiation sources (Beyler, 2002):
(5-9)
(5-10)
Where:
And:
L = the distance between the center of the cylinder (flame) to the target (m)
H f = the height of the cylinder (flame) (m)
D = the cylinder (flame) diameter (m)
5-9
The maximum configuration factor (or view factor) at a point is given by the vectorial sum of the
horizontal and vertical configuration factors:
(5-11)
As previously stated, for targets above the ground, two cylinders should be used to represent the
flame. In such instances, one cylinder represents the flame below the height of the target, while
the other represents the flame above the height of the target (See Figure 5-5). Thus, the following
expressions are used to estimate the configuration factor (or view factor) under wind-free conditions
for targets above ground level:
(5-12)
Where:
(5-13)
Where:
And:
L = the distance between the center of the cylinder (flame) to the target (m)
H f = the height of the cylinder (flame) (m)
D = the cylinder (flame) diameter (m)
The total configuration factor or (view factor) at a point is given by the sum of two configuration
factor as follows:
(5-14)
5-10
5.3.2.3 Configuration Factor F 1 6 2 in Presence of Wind
As discussed in pervious section, in the solid flame radiation model the turbulent flame is
approximated by a cylinder. Under wind-free conditions, the cylinder is vertical, in the presence of
wind, the flame may not remain vertical and thermal radiation to the surrounding objects will change
in the presence of a significant wind. The flame actually follows a curved path and makes an angle
of tilt or an angle of deflection approximate to its curved path. Figures 5-6 and 5-7 describe the
flame configuration in presence of wind velocity (u w) for target at and above ground level.
Figure 5-6 Solid Flame Radiation Model in Presence of Wind

and Target Above Ground Level
Figure 5-7 Solid Flame Radiation Model in Presence of Wind

and Target at Ground Level
5-11
For horizontal and vertical target orientations at ground level in presence of wind, the expression
for estimating the configuration factors is expressed by the following equations (Beyler, 2002):
(5-15)
(5-16)
Where:
And:
H f = the height of the tilted cylinder (flame) (m)
r = the cylinder (flame) radius (m)
R = distance from center of the pool fire to edge of the target (m)
q = flame title or angle of deflection (radians)
The maximum configuration factor for a target at ground level in the presence of wind at a point
is given by the vectorial sum of the horizontal and vertical configuration factors:
(5-17)
5-12
For targets above the ground in presence of wind, two cylinders must be used to represent the
flame. In such instances, one cylinder represents the flame below the height of the target, while
the other represents the flame above the height of the target. The following expressions are used
to estimate the configuration or view factor in presence of wind for targets above ground level:
(5-18)
(5-19)
Where:
And:
H 1 = H f1 = vertical distance of target from ground level (m)
H f = the height of the tilted cylinder (flame) (m)
r = the cylinder (flame) radius (m)
R = distance from center of the pool fire to edge of the target (m)
q = flame title or angle of deflection (radians)
5-13
The total configuration or view factor at a point is given by the sum of two configuration factors,
as follows:
(5-20)
In presence of wind, the expression for estimating flame height is expressed by the following
correlation, based on the experimental data (Thomas, 1962):
(5-21)
Where:
= mass burning rate of fuel (kg/m 2-sec)
r a = ambient air density (kg/m 3 )
g = gravitational acceleration (m/sec 2)
u* = nondimensional wind velocity
The nondimensional wind velocity is given by:
(5-22)
Where:
u w = wind speed or wind velocity (m/sec)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/sec 2)
= mass burning rate of fuel (kg/m 2 -sec)
r = density of ambient air (kg/m 3)
The correlation relating to angle of tilt or angle of deflection (q), of the flame from the vertical
are expressed by the following equations based on the American Gas Association (AGA) data:
(5-23)
Where:
q = angle of tilt or angle of deflection (radians)
5-14
5.4 Method of Estimating Thermal Radiation from Hydrocarbon Fireball
For industrial processes, many substances that are gases at ambient conditions are stored in
container or vessel under pressure in a saturated liquid/vapor form. A rupture of a such vessel will
result in a violent incident as the liquid expands into its gaseous form. This phase change forms
blast waves with energy equivalent to the change in internal energy of the liquid/vapor; this
phenomenon is called the BLEVE. BLEVE is an acronym of Boiling Liquid, Expanding Vapor
Explosion. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), defined a BLEVE as the failure of a major
container into two or more pieces, occurring at a moment when the contained liquid is at
temperature above its boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure. Typically, a BLEVE occurs in
a metal container that has been overheated above 538 °C (1,000 °F) (Nolan 1996). The metal may
not be able to withstand the internal stress and therefore failure occurs. The contained liquid space
of the vessel normally acts as a heat absorber, so the wetted portion of the container is usually not
at risk, only the surfaces of the internal vapor space. Most BLEVEs occur when containers are less
than ½ to a full of liquid.
A container can fail for a number of reasons. It can be damaged by impact from an object, thus
causing a crack to develop and grow, either as a result of internal pressure, vessel material
brittleness, or both. Thus, the container may rupture completely after impact. Weakening the
container’s metal beyond the point at which it can withstand internal pressure can also cause large
cracks, or even cause the container to separate into two or more pieces. Weakening can result
from corrosion, internal overheating, or manufacturing defects, etc.
5.4.1 Radiation Due to BLEVEs with Accompanying Fireball
In additional to the container becoming a projectile, the hazard posed by a BLEVE is the fireball and
the resulting radiation. The rapid failure of the container is followed by a fireball or major fire, which
produces a powerful radiant heat flux.
Four parameters often used to determine a fireball’s thermal radiation hazard are the mass of fuel
involved and the fireball’s diameter, duration, and thermal emissive power. Radiation hazards can
then be calculated from empirical relation.
Radiation received by an object relatively distant from the fireball can be calculated by the following
expression (Hasegawa and Sato, 1977 and Roberts, 1982):
(5-24)
Where:
= thermal radiation from fireball (kW/m 2 )
m F = mass of fuel vapor (kg)
R = distance from the center of the fireball to the target (m)
5-15
The distance from the center of the fireball to the target is given by the following relation:
(5-25)
Where:
R = distance from the center of the fireball to the target (m)

Z p = fireball flame height (m)
L = distance at ground level from the origin (m)
The fireball flame height is given by the following expression (Fay and Lewis 1976):
(5-26)
Where:
Z p = fireball flame height (m)

V F = volume of fuel vapor (m 3)
The volume of fireball can be calculated from the following relation:
(5-27)
Where:
V F = volume of fuel vapor (m 3)

m F = mass of fuel vapor (kg)
r F = fuel vapor density (kg/m 3)
5-16
5.5 Assumptions and Limitations
The methods discussed in this chapter are subject to several assumptions and limitations.
The following assumption applies to all radiation models:

(1) The pool is circular or nearly circular.
The following assumptions and limitations apply to point source radiation models:
(1) Except near the base of pool fires, radiation to the surroundings can be approximated as
being isotropic or emanating from a point source.
(2) The point source model overestimates the intensity of thermal radiation at the observer’s
(target) locations close to the fire. This is primarily because the near-field radiation is
greatly influenced by the flame size, shape, and tilt, as well as the relative orientation of the
observer (target).
(3) A theoretical analysis of radiation from small pool fire by Modak (1977) indicated that the
point source model is within 5-percent the correct incident heat flux when L/D >2.5.
(4) The energy radiated from the flame is a specified fraction of the energy released during
combustion.
(5) The model can be used to determine thermal radiation hazards in scenarios for which a
conservative estimate of the hazard is generally acceptable.
The following limitation applies to solid flame radiation models at and above ground level:
(1) The correlation of emissive power was developed on the basis of data from experiments
that included kerosene, fuel oil, gasoline, JP-4, JP-5 4 , and liquified natural gas (LNG). With
the exception of the LNG, these are quite luminous flames, so the correlation should be
suitable for most fuels. The pool diameters ranged from 1 to 50 m.
5.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations
The user must obtain the following information before using the spreadsheet:
(1) fuel type (material)
(2) fuel spill area or curbed area (ft 2 )
(3) distance between fire and target (ft)
(4) vertical distance of target from ground level (ft)
(5) wind speed (ft/min)
5.7 Cautions
(1) Use the appropriate spreadsheet (05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_W ind_Free.xls or

05.2_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind) on the CD-ROM for the calculation.
(2) Make sure units are correct on input parameters.
4
Common jet fuel.
5-17
5.8 Summary
Estimating the thermal radiation field surrounding a fire involves the following steps:
(1) Characterize the geometry of the pool fire; that is, determine its HRR and physical
dimensions. In calculating thermal radiation, the size of the fire implies the time-averaged
size of the visible envelope.
(2) Characterize the radiative properties of the fire; that is, determine the average irradiance
of the flames (emissive power).
(3) Calculate the radiant intensity at a given location. This can be accomplished after
determining the geometry of the fire; its radiation characteristics; and the location, geometry,
and orientation of the target.Determine the HRR from Equation 5-2 or from experimental
data available in the literature.
(4) Determine the height of the pool fire.
(5) Calculate the view or configuration factor.
(6) Determine the effective emissive power of the flame.
(7) Calculate the radiative heat flux to the target.
5-18
5.9 References
American Gas Association (AGA), “LNG Safety Research Program,” Report IS 3–1. 1974.
Babrauskas, V., “Burning Rates,” Section 3, Chapter 3-1, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, 2 nd Edition, P.J. DiNenno, Editor-in-Chief, National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, Massachusetts, 1995.
Drysdale, D.D., An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, Chapter 4, “Diffusion Flames and Fire Plumes,”
2 nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp.109–158, 1998.
Barry, T.F., Risk-Informed, Performance-Based Industrial Fire Protection, TFBarry Publications and
Tennessee Valley Publications, Knoxville, Tennessee, 2002.
Beyler, C.L., “Fire Hazard Calculations for Large Open Hydrogen Fires,” Section 3, Chapter 1,
SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 3 rd Edition, P.J. DiNenno, Editor-in-Chief, National
Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts, 2002.
EPRI TR-100370, “Fire-Induced Vulnerability Evaluation (FIVE),” Final Report, Electrical Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, April 1992.
Fay, J.A., and D.H. Lewis, “Unsteady Burning of Unconfined Fuel Vapor Clouds,” Sixteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. pp.
1397–1404, 1977.
Hasegawa, K., and K. Sato, “Study on the Fireball Following Steam Explosion of n-Pentane,”
Second Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries,
Heidelberg, pp. 297–304, 1977.
Heskestad, G., “Fire Plumes,” Section 2, Chapter 2-2, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, 2 nd Edition, P.J. DiNenno, Editor-in-Chief, National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, Massachusetts, 1995.
Modak, A., “Thermal Radiation from Pool Fires,” Combustion and Flames,” Volume 29, pp.
177–192, 1977.
Nolan, D.P., Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles for Oil, Gas,
Chemical and Related Facilities, Noyes Publications, Westwood, New Jersey, 1996.
Roberts, A., “Thermal Radiation Hazards from Release of LPG Fires from Pressurized Storage,”
Fire Safety Journal, Volume 4, pp. 197–212, 1982.
SFPE Engineering Guide, “Assessing Flame Radiation to External Targets from Pool Fires,” Society
of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE), Bethesda, Maryland, June 1999.
Shokri, M., and C.L. Beyler, “Radiation from Large Pool Fires,” SFPE Journal of Fire Protection
Engineering, Volume 1, No. 4, pp.141–150, 1989.
Thomas, P.H., “The Size of Flames from Natural Fires,” Ninth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 844–859, 1962.
5-19
5.10 Additional Readings
Cote, A., and P. Bugbee, Principle of Fire Protection, 2 nd Edition National Fire Protection
Association, Quincy, Massachusetts, 1988.
Friedman, R., Principles of Fire Protection Chemistry and Physics, 3 rd Edition, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts, 1998.
Fire Dynamics Course Guide, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), United States Fire
Administration (USFA), National Emergency Training Center, Emmitsburg, Maryland, 1995.
Karlsson, B., and J.G. Quintiere, Enclosure Fire Dynamics, Chapter 7, “Heat Transfer in
Compartment Fires,” CRC Press LLC, New York, pp. 141–180, 1999.
Quintiere, J.G., Principles of Fire Behavior, Chapter 3, “Heat Transfer,” Delmar Publishers, Albany,
New York, pp. 47–64, 1997.
5-20
5.11 Problems
Example Problem 5.11-1
Problem Statement
A pool fire scenario arises from a breach (leak or rupture) in a transformer. This event allows the
fuel contents of the transformer to spill and spread over the compartment floor. The compartment
is very large and has a high ceiling (e.g., typical reactor building elevation of a BW R, turbine
building open area). A pool fire ensues with a spill area of 9.0 ft2 on the concrete floor. Calculate
the flame radiant heat flux to a target (cabinet) at ground level with no wind using: a) point source
radiation model and b) solid flame radiation model. The distance between the fire source and the
target edge is assumed to be 10 ft.
Example Problem 5-1: Radiant Heat Flux from a Pool Fire to a Target Fuel
Solution
Purpose:
(1) Calculate the radiant heat flux from the pool fire to the target cabinet using the point
source and solid flame radiation models.
Assumptions:
(1) The pool is circular or nearly circular.
(2) Radiation to the surroundings can be approximated as being isotropic or emanating
from a point source (valid for point source radiation model only).
(3) The correlation for solid flame radiation model is suitable for most fuels.
5-21
Spreadsheet (FDT s) Information:
Use the following FDT s:
(a) 05.1_ Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls
(click on Point Source and Solid Flame 1 for point source and solid flame analysis
respectively).
FDT s Input Parameters: (For both spreadsheets)

-Fuel Spill Area or Curb Area (A curb ) = 9.0 ft2
-Distance between Fire Source and Target (L) = 10 ft
-Select Fuel Type: Transformer Oil, Hydrocarbon
Results*
Radiation Model Radiant Heat Flux
kW (Btu/ft2 -sec)
Point Source 1.45 (0.13)
Solid Flame 3.05 (0.27)

* see spreadsheet on next page
5-22
Spreadsheet Calculations
FDT s : 05.1_ Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls (Point Source)
5-23
5-24
FDT s : 05.1_ Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls (Solid Flame 1)
5-25
5-26
5-27
Problem Statement
A transient combustible fire scenario may arise from burning wood pallets (4 ft x 4 ft = 16 ft2 ),
stacked 10 ft high on the floor of a compartment with a very high ceiling. Calculate the flame
radiant heat flux to a target (safety-related cabinet) at ground level with no wind, using the point
source radiation model and the solid flame radiation model. The distance between the fire source
and the target edge (L) is assumed to be 15 ft.
Example Problem 5-2: Radiant Heat Flux from a Burning Pallet to a Target Fuel
Solution
Purpose:
(1) Calculate the radiant heat flux from the fire source to the target cabinet using the
point source and solid flame radiation models.
Assumptions:
(1) The fire source will be nearly circular.
from a point source (valid for point source radiation model only).
5-28
(a) 05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls
(click on Point Source and Solid Flame 1 for point source and solid flame
analysis respectively)
FDT s Inputs: (For both spreadsheets)
-Fuel Spill Area or Curb Area (A curb ) = 16 ft2
-Select Fuel Type: Douglas Fir Plywood
Results*
kW (Btu/ft2 -sec)

*see spreadsheet on next page
5-29
FDT s: 05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls (Point Source)
5-30
5-31
FDT s : 05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls (Solid Flame 1)
5-32
5-33
5-34
Problem Statement
A fire scenario may arise from a horizontal cable tray burning in a very large compartment. The
cables in the tray are IEEE-383 unqualified and made of PE/PVC insulation material (assume that
the exposed area of the cable is 20 ft2 ). Another safety-related cable tray also filled with IEEE-383
unqualified made of PE/PVC insulation material is located at a radial distance (L) of 9 ft from the
fire source. Calculate the flame radiant heat flux to a target (safety-related cable tray) using the
point source radiation model and solid flame radiation model. Is this heat flux sufficient to ignite the
cable tray?
Example Problem 5-3: Radiant Heat Flux from a Burning Cable Tray to a Target Fuel
Solution
Purpose:
(1) Calculate the radiant heat flux from the burning cable tray to the target cable tray
using the point source and solid flame radiation models.
(2) Determine if the heat flux is sufficient to ignite the cable tray.
Assumptions:
from a point source (point source radiation model only).
5-35
(a) 05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls
(click on Point Source and Solid Flame 1 for point source and solid flame analysis,
respectively).
FDT s Inputs: (For both spreadsheets)

-Mass Burning Rate of Fuel = 0.0044 kg/m 2-sec
-Effective Heat of Combustion of Fuel (DH c,eff) = 25,100 kJ/kg
-Empirical Constant (k $) = 100 m -1 (use this if actual value is unknown)
Note: Since the insulation material (PE/PVC) is not available in the thermal
properties data of the spreadsheet, we have to input the mass burning rate and
effective heat of combustion in the spreadsheet. Values of cable materials
properties are available in Table 3-4. Select User-Specified Value, and enter the
respective values.
Results*
kW (Btu/ft2 -sec)

5-36
FDT s: 05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls (Point Source)
5-37
5-38
5-39
5-40
5-41
Problem Statement
A pool fire scenario may arise from a leak in a pump. This event allows the lubricating oil to spill
and spread over the compartment floor. A pool fire ensues with a spill of 9.6 ft2 is considered in a
compartment with a concrete floor. The distance (L) between the pool fire and the target edge is
assumed to be 10 ft. Calculate the flame radiant heat flux to a vertical target (safety-related) 8 ft
high above the floor with no wind, using the solid flame radiation model. If the vertical target
contains IEEE-383 unqualified cables, could there be cable failure in this fire scenario?
Example Problem 5-4: Radiant Heat Flux from a Pool Fire to a Vertical Target Fuel
Solution
Purpose:
(1) Calculate the radiant heat flux from the pool fire to the vertical target using the solid
flame radiation model.
(2) Determine if the IEEE-383 unqualified cables are damaged.
Assumptions:
(a) 05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls (click on Solid Flame 2)
s
FDT Inputs:
-Fuel Spill Area or Curb Area (A curb ) = 9.6 ft2
-Vertical Distance of Target from Ground (H 1 = H f1) = 8 ft
-Select Fuel Type: Lube Oil
Results*
Radiation Model Radiant Heat Flux Cable Failure
2
kW (Btu/ft -sec)
Solid Flame 3.0 (0.26) No

5-42
5-43
5-44
5-45
Problem Statement
A transient combustible fire scenario may arise from burning wood pallets (4 ft x 4 ft = 16 ft2 ),
stacked 14 ft high on the floor of a compartment. Calculate the flame radiant heat flux from
exposure fire to a vertical target (safety-related electrical junction box) located 8 ft high above the
floor, with no wind, using the solid flame radiation model. The distance (L) between the transient
fire and the target edge is assumed to be 15 ft.
Example Problem 5-5: Radiant Heat Flux from a Burning Pallet to a Vertical Target Fuel
Solution
Purpose:
(1) Calculate the radiant heat flux from the burning pallet to the vertical target fuel using
the solid flame radiation model.
Assumptions:
FDT s Inputs:
-Select Fuel Type: Douglas Fir Plywood
Results*
kW (Btu/ft2 -sec)

5-46
5-47
5-48
5-49
Problem Statement
A fire scenario may arise from a horizontal cable tray burning in a very large compartment.
The cables in the tray are IEEE-383 unqualified and made of XPE/FRXPE insulation material
(assume that the exposed area of the cable is 20 ft2 ). A safety-related cable tray is also filled with
IEEE-383 qualified made of XLPE insulation material located at a radial distance (L) of 9 ft from the
fire source and 6 ft above the fire source. Calculate the flame radiant heat flux to a target (safety-related
cable tray) using the solid flame radiation model. Is the IEEE-383 qualified cable tray damaged?
Example Problem 5-6: Radiant Heat Flux from a Burning Cable Tray to a Vertical Target Fuel
Solution
Purpose:
(1) Calculate the radiant heat flux from the burning cable tray to the vertical target cable
tray using the solid flame radiation model.
(2) Determine if the IEEE-383 cable tray (target) is damaged.
Assumptions:
5-50
s
FDT Inputs:
-Mass Burning Rate of Fuel = 0.0037 kg/m 2 -sec
-Effective Heat of Combustion of Fuel (DH c,eff) = 28,300 kJ/kg
Note: Since the insulation material (XPE/FRXPE) is not available in the thermal
properties data of the spreadsheet, we have to input the mass burning rate and
effective heat of combustion in the spreadsheet. Values of cable materials
properties are available in Table 3-4. Select User-Specified Value, and enter
the and DH c,eff values from Table 3-4.
Results*
Radiation Model Radiant Heat Flux Cable Failure
2
kW (Btu/ft -sec)
Solid Flame 0.60 (0.05) No,
5-51
5-52
5-53
5-54
ERRATA
NUREG-1805 Fire Dynamics Tools (FDT)s - Quantitative Fire Hazard Analysis Methods for the
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Fire Protection Inspection Program
Page 5-12, Equation 5-15

Replace
by
Page 17-2, Table 17-1
Replace
Table 17-1. Standard Time-Temperature Curve Points

Time Temperature /C (/F)
5 min 38 (100)
10 min 704 (1,300)
30 min 843 (1,550)
1 hr 927 (1,700)
2 hr 1,010 (1,850)
4 hr 1,093 (2,000)
By
Table 17-1. Standard Time-Temperature Curve Points

Time Temperature /C (/F)
5 min 538 (1,000)
10 min 704 (1,300)
30 min 843 (1,550)
1 hr 927 (1,700)
2 hr 1,010 (1,850)
4 hr 1,093 (2,000)
8 hr 1,260 (2,300)
Page 2-12, Equation (2-6)
Replace
By
And:
∆Tg = upper layer gas temperature rise above ambient (Tg - Ta ) (K)
k = thermal conductivity of the interior lining (kW/m-K)
AT = area of the compartment boundaries surface (m2 )
ρ = density of the interior lining (kg/m3 )
c = thermal capacity of the interior lining (kJ/kg-K)
m = mass of the gas in the compartment (kg)
cp = specific heat of air (kJ/kg-k)
t = exposure time (sec)

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PDHonline Course M312 (4 PDH)

Fire Dynamics Series: Estimating Fire

PDH Online | PDH Center

An Approved Continuing Education Provider

This chapter has the following objectives:

Figure 5-2 Solid Flame Radiation Model with No Wind

5.3.2.1 Em issive Power

5.3.2.2 Configuration Factor F 1 6 2 under Wind-Free Conditions

Figure 5-5 Cylindrical Flame Shape Configuration Factor Geometry

Figure 5-6 Solid Flame Radiation Model in Presence of Wind

Figure 5-7 Solid Flame Radiation Model in Presence of Wind

The nondimensional wind velocity is given by:

5.4.1 Radiation Due to BLEVEs with Accompanying Fireball

R = distance from the center of the fireball to the target (m)

Z p = fireball flame height (m)

The volume of fireball can be calculated from the following relation:

V F = volume of fuel vapor (m 3)

The following assumption applies to all radiation models:

5.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations

(1) Use the appropriate spreadsheet (05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_W ind_Free.xls or

Example Problem 5.11-1

FDT s Input Parameters: (For both spreadsheets)

Point Source 1.45 (0.13)

Solid Flame 3.05 (0.27)

Point Source 0.15 (0.01)

Solid Flame 0.45 (0.04)

FDT s Inputs: (For both spreadsheets)

Point Source 0.4 (0.03)

Solid Flame 1.1 (0.10)

Solid Flame 3.0 (0.26) No

Solid Flame 0.30 (0.03)

Solid Flame 0.60 (0.05) No,

*see spreadsheet on next page

Page 5-12, Equation 5-15

Table 17-1. Standard Time-Temperature Curve Points

Table 17-1. Standard Time-Temperature Curve Points

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