PDHonline Course M312 (4 PDH)

Fire Dynamics Series: Estimating Fire

Flame Height and Radiant Heat Flux
From Fire

Instructor: Lawrence J. Marchetti, PE, CFPS

2012

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 CHAPTER 4. ESTIMATING WALL FIRE FLAME HEIGHT,
LINE FIRE FLAME HEIGHT AGAINST THE WALL,
AND CORNER FIRE FLAME HEIGHT

4.1 Objectives
This chapter has the following objectives:
• Identify the three regions of a diffusion flame.
• Explain how corners and walls affect flames.
• Define relevant terms, including persistent flame region, intermittent flame region,
flame height, and flame extension.

4.2 Introduction
If a fire is located close to a wall or a corner (i.e., formed by the intersection of two walls),
the resulting restriction on free air entrainment will have a significant effect on fire growth
and spread. The primary impact of walls and corners is to reduce the amount of entrained air
available to the flame or plume. This lengthens flames and causes the temperature in a plume to
be higher at a given elevation than it would be in the open. Remember that the expression
for estimating flame height given in Chapter 3 assumes that the fire source is located away from
the walls and corners.
When a diffusion flame develops and is in contact with the wall, its structure can be subdivided into
three regions, which are commonly identified as the persistent flame region, the intermittent flame
region, and the buoyant plume region. As the plume rises to the ceiling, its direction changes from
vertical (upward) to horizontal. Until the point where the flow changes direction, the plume
is primarily driven by buoyancy. Thereafter, the plume is driven by its residual momentum
and becomes a jet, which is referred to as the “ceiling jet.”
The flame heats the wall material with which it comes in contact. The heat flux to the wall is
a function of location and is highest in the persistent flame region. The flame height depends on
the amount of air entrained which, in turn, is proportional to the fuel heat release rate.
On occasions, it may also be necessary to calculate the flame projections against a wall
from the spill of flammable liquid in a trench or flames emerging from a burning electrical cabinet.

4.3 Flame Height Correlations for Walls Fires, Line Fires, and Corner Fires
In a wall flame, the wall-side heat flux appears to be governed by the flame radiation, while the heat
flux in the far field is primarily attributable to convection. This implies that flame height can be a
scaling factor representing the distribution of wall heat transfer. Using the analogy of unconfined
fires, the flame height is expected to depend only on the gross heat release rate of the fuel.
The terms “flame height” and “flame extension” designate the lengths of flame in the vertical and
horizontal directions, respectively. A wall flame generated from a fire located against a wall can
only entrain air from half of its perimeter. Thus, wall flame can be considered to be geometrically
half of an axisymmetric flame and its mass flow rate, in turn, is half of that from an axisymmetric
flame.

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A flame generated from a fire located in a corner of a compartment (typically where the intersecting
walls form a 90° angle) is referred to as corner flame. Corner fires are more severe than wall fires
because of the radiative heat exchange between the two burning walls. However, the physical
phenomena controlling fire growth in corner and wall scenarios are very similar, if not identical.

4.3.1 Wall Fire Flame Height Correlation

Delichatsios (1984) reported by Budnick, Evans, and Nelson (1997) developed a simple correlation
of flame height for elongated fire based on experimental data. Figure 4-1 depicts the configuration
used in developing the correlation for wall flame height. In the following correlation, the flame
height is based on the rate of HRR per unit length of the fire:

(4-1)

Where:
H f(W all) = wall flame height (m)
0.034 = entrainment coefficient
= HRR per unit length of the fire (kW/m)

The above correlation can be used to determine the length of the flame against the wall and to
estimate radiative heat transfer to objects in the enclosure.

4.3.2 Line Fire Flame Height Correlation

Delichatsios (1984) reported by Budnick et. al., (1997) also developed a flame height correlation
for line fires against a wall. Like the wall fire flame height correlation, this correlation is based on
experimental data. The geometry for this case is shown in Figure 4-2. Delichatsios’ correlation is
expressed by the following equation based on the rate of HRR per unit length of the fire:

(4-2)

Where:
H f(W all, Line) = line fire flame height (m)
0.017 = entrainment coefficient
= HRR per unit length of the fire (kW/m)

The above correlation can be used to determine the length of the flame against the wall from a
line fire source and can be used to estimate radiative heat transfer to objects in the enclosure.

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Figure 4-1 Wall Fire Flame Configuration

Figure 4-2 Line Fire Flame Against a Wall

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4.3.3 Corner Fire Flame Height Correlation

A corner fire may be modeled using a pool fire and specifying the center coordinates as the apex
of the corner. At the start of the fire, a diffusion flame develops and makes contact with the walls.
As flames spread along the intersection of wall and ceiling, they eventually reach another corner.
With a noncombustible ceiling, flames also spread downward. By contrast, with a combustible wall,
the heat transfer between two walls in contact with the fire source results in a much more rapid fire
spread. Figure 4-3 depicts the configuration used in developing the corner flame height correlation
from experimental data. Hasemi and Tokunaga (1983 and 1984) suggest the following expression,
based on the correlation of an extensive number of fire tests:

(4-3)

Where:
H f(Corner) = corner fire flame height (m)
0.075 = entrainment coefficient
= HRR of the fire (kW)

The above correlation can be used to determine the length of the flame against the intersection of
two walls and to estimate radiative heat transfer to objects in the enclosure.

Figure 4-3 Corner Fire Flame Configuration

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4.4 Assumptions and Limitations

The methods discussed in this chapter are subject to several assumptions and limitations:
(1) This method includes correlations for flame height for liquid fire.
(2) The size of the fire (flame height) depends on the length of the fire.
(3) This correlation is developed for two-dimensional sources.The turbulent diffusion flames
produced by fires burning at or near a wall configuration of a compartment affect the
spread of the fire.
(4) Air is entrained only from one side during the combustion process.

4.5 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations

The user must obtain the following information to use the spreadsheet:
(1) fuel type (material)
(2) fuel spill volume (gallons)
(3) fuel spill area (ft 2)

4.6 Cautions

(1) Use the appropriate spreadsheet (04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls) on the CD-ROM

for wall fire flame height, line fire flame height, and corner fire flame height calculations.
(2) Use the page that best represents the fire configuration.
(3) Make sure to enter the input parameters in the correct units.

4.7 Summary

This chapter describes methods of calculating the height of a flame and its buoyant gases when
the fire source is near a wall or a corner. These fire scenarios are often used as idealized
representatives of situations of much greater complexity. The correlations presented were obtained
from laboratory scale fires providing local measurements of gas temperature and velocity both
below and above the flame tips, as well as measurements of visual flame length.

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4.8 References

Budnick, E.K., D.D. Evans, and H.E. Nelson, “Simple Fire Growth Calculations,” Section 11 Chapter
10, NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 18 th Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
Massachusetts, 1997.

Delichatsios, M.A., “Flame Heights of Turbulent Wall Fire with Significant Flame Radiation,”
Combustion Science and Technology, Volume 39, pp. 195–214, 1984.

Hasemi Y., and T.Tokunaga, “Modeling of Turbulent Diffusion Flames and Fire Plumes for the
Analysis of Fire Growth,” Proceedings of the 21 st National Heat Transfer Conference, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 1983.

Hasemi Y., and T.Tokunaga, “Some Experimental Aspects of Turbulent Diffusion Flames and
Buoyant Plumes from Fire Sources Against a Wall and in Corner of Walls,” Combustion Science
and Technology, Volume 40, pp. 1–17, 1984.

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4.9 Problems

Example Problem 4.9-1

Problem Statement

A pool fire scenario arises from a breach (leak or rupture) in an oil-filled transformer. This event
allows the fuel contents of the transformer to spill 2 gallons along a wall with an area of 9 ft2 .
A cable tray is located 8 ft above the fire. Calculate the wall flame height of the fire and determine
whether the flame will impinge upon the cable tray.

Solution

Purpose:
(1) Calculate the wall flame height.
(2) Determine whether the flame will impinge upon the cable tray.

Assumptions:
(1) Air is entrained only from one side during the combustion process.
(2) The fire is located at or near a wall configuration of a compartment that affects
the spread of the fire.

Spreadsheet (FDT s) Information:

Use the following FDT s:

(a) 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Wall_Flame _Height)

FDTs Input Parameters:

-Fuel spill volume (V) = 2 gallons

-Fuel Spill Area or Dike Area (A dike ) = 9.0 ft2
-Select Fuel Type: Transformer Oil, Hydrocarbon

Results*

Fuel Wall Fire Flame Height (H f(W all)) Cable Tray

m (ft) Impingement

Transformer Oil, 3.0 (10.0) Yes

Hydrocarbon
*see spreadsheet on next page

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Spreadsheet Calculations
FDT s: 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Wall_Flame _Height)

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4-9
Example Problem 4.9-2

Problem Statement
A pool fire scenario arises from a transient combustible liquid spill. This event allows the fuel
contents of a 15 gallon can to form along a wall with an area of 30 ft 2 . A cable tray is located 12 ft
above the fire. Determine the line wall fire flame height and whether the flame will impinge upon
the cable tray if the spilled liquids are (a) diesel, (b) acetone, and (c) methanol.

Solution

Purpose:
(1) Calculate the line wall fire flame height using three transient combustibles.
(2) Determine whether the flame will impinge upon the cable tray in each case.

Assumptions:
(1) Air is entrained only from one side during the combustion process.
(2) The fire is located at or near a wall configuration of a compartment
that affects the spread of the fire.

Spreadsheet (FDT s) Information:

Use the following FDT s:

(a) 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Wall_Line_Flame _Height)

FDT s Input Parameters:

-Fuel spill volume (V) = 15 gallons

-Fuel Spill Area or Dike Area (A dike ) = 30.0 ft2
-Select Fuel Type: Diesel, Acetone, and Methanol

Results*
Fuel Wall Line Fire Height (H f(W all Line)) Cable Tray
m (ft) Impingement

Diesel 3.8 (12.3) Yes

Acetone 2.44(8.0) No

Methanol 1.2 (3.8) No

*See spreadsheets on next page

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Spreadsheet Calculations
FDT s: 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Wall_Line_Flame _Height)
(a) Diesel

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4-12
FDT s: 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Wall_Line_Flame _Height)
(b) Acetone

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4-14
FDT s: 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Wall_Line_Flame _Height)
(c) Methanol

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Example Problem 4.9-3

Problem Statement

A pool fire scenario arises from a rupture in a diesel generator fuel line. This event allows diesel
fuel to spill 1.5 gallons along the corner of walls with an area of 10 ft2 . An unprotected junction box
is located 12 ft above the fire. Determine whether the flame will impinge upon the junction box.

Solution

Purpose:
(1) Calculate the line wall fire flame height.
(2) Determine whether the flame will impinge upon the junction box.

Assumptions:
(1) Air is entrained only from one side during the combustion process.
(2) The fire is located at or near a wall configuration of a compartment that affects
the spread of the fire.

Spreadsheet (FDT s) Information:

Use the following FDT s:

(a) 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Corner_Flame _Height)

FDTs Input Parameters:

-Fuel spill volume (V) = 1.5 gallons

-Fuel Spill Area or Dike Area (A dike ) = 10 ft2
-Select Fuel Type: Diesel

Results*
Fuel Corner Fire Flame Height (H f(Corner)) Junction Box
m (ft) Impingement

Diesel 6.4 (21.1) Yes

*see spreadsheet on next page

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Spreadsheet Calculations
FDT s: 04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xls (click on Corner_Flame _Height)

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