:

CHAPTER 3.0

CELL DIVISION
(3 Hours)
 Leptotene
Zygotene
Importance in living Pachytene
G1 Theory organism Diplotene
S Diakinesis
G2 Concept
Interphase

Mitotic Prophase I
CELL DIVISION Metaphase I
Cell Cycle
Meiosis I Anaphase I
Telophase I
Types
Prophase
Metaphase
Phase MEIOSIS Significance
Anaphase MITOSIS
Telophase
Meiosis II
Significance Comparison

Comparison
Prophase II
Metaphase II mitosis meiosis
Animal Plant Anaphase II
Telophase II
 3.0 Cell Division (3hrs)

3.1 The concept of cell division (1/2)

3.2 The cell cycle (1/2)
3.3 Mitosis (1)
3.4 Meiosis (1)
 Learning outcomes

(a) Explain cell division.

(b) State the importance of cell division
in living organisms.
Learning Outcomes :
3.1 (a) Explain cell division

3.1 The concept of cell division

 related to the theory of cells

Rudolph Virchow ; 1855
‘Omnis cellula e cellula’
Every cell is from a cell
All new cells are derived from other cell through
cell division

The new cell is called daughter cell

Other cell refer to the parent (mother) cell
Learning Outcomes :
Learning
3.1 State Outcomes :
the importance of cell division in living organisms
3.1 (a) Explain cell division

Concept of Cell Division

Parent cell

Daughter cells
Learning Outcomes :
3.1 (a) Explain cell division

 2 types of cell division:

 Mitosis  Meiosis

 Produces 2 daughter cells.  Produces 4 daughter cells.

 Each daughter cell contain  Each daughter cell contain
the same number (2n) of half of the parent (n) cell’s
chromosome as the parent. chromosome number.
Learning Outcomes :
3.1 (b) State the importance of cell division in living organisms

Cell division is IMPORTANT in an organism for :

Repair damaged cells

Reproduction

Growth
 3.0 Cell Division (3hrs)

3.1 The concept of cell division (1/2)

3.2 The cell cycle (1/2)
3.3 Mitosis (1)
3.4 Meiosis (1)
 Learning outcomes

Explain the stages in cell cycle

Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle

3.2 THE CELL CYCLE

Definition:
The sequence of
events in the life of
an individual diploid
cell.
…start during the
formation of a cell
…until the cell
undergoes its own
division to form
daughter cells.
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle

Stages in the cell cycle

The length of stages vary among

species and type of cell.

the interphase the mitotic phase

 G1 phase  Mitosis;
 S phase Involve the nuclear division
 G2 phase (karyokinesis).
 Cytokinesis;
Involve the cytoplasm division.
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle

 INTERPHASE
 G1 phase; first gap phase

 The longest phase.

 Synthesis of organelles;
number of organelles
increase; increased in
cytoplasmic mass.
 Cell metabolic rate is high.
 Synthesis of protein,
carbohydrate, lipid and
RNA.
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle

 INTERPHASE
 S phase; DNA synthesis

 DNA replication occurs.

 Chromosome duplicates
into sister chromatids;
attached together at
centromere.
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle

 INTERPHASE
 G2 phase ; second gap phase

 Mitochondria divide,
energy stores increases.
 Further synthesis of
organelles.
 Chromosome starts to
condense.
 Spindle fibers begin to
form.
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle
Learning Outcomes :
3.2 Explain the stages in cell cycle

 MITOTIC PHASE
• mitosis
• cytokinesis

 to be discussed in 3.3

 It alternates with the interphase

 3.0 Cell Division (3hrs)

3.1 The concept of cell division (1/2)

3.2 The cell cycle (1/2)
3.3 Mitosis (1)
3.4 Meiosis (1)
 Learning outcomes
(a) Describe the four stages of the mitotic
cell division.
(b) Explain the behaviour of chromosomes
at each stage.
(c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis
process.
(d) Compare the cell division in animal and
plant.
(e) State the significance of mitosis.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

3.3 MITOSIS
Definition

 A process by which …
 a cell nucleus divides
 to produce two daughter cells; each contain
the identical number of chromosomes to
the parent cell
 and followed by cytokinesis
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

Four stages of Mitosis

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

1. Prophase

 Chromatin/chromosome
become more tightly
coiled & folded ;
continue to shorten &
thicken (condense).

 Each chromosome exist

as a pair of sister
chromatids (identical
chromatid) attached
together at centromere.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

1. Prophase

 The mitotic spindle

begins to form.
 (It is composed of
the centrosomes
and the
microtubules that
extend from them)
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

1. Prophase

 The radial arrays of

shorter microtubules
that extend from the
centrosomes are called
asters (“stars”).
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

1. Prophase

 The centrosomes move

away from each other,
apparently propelled by
the lengthening
microtubules between
them.
 The nucleolus
disappear and nuclear
envelope disintegrate.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

equator
2. Metaphase

 Centrosomes are at
opposite poles of the
cell.

 Spindle fibers pull the

chromosomes until
they are all aligned
along the equator /
metaphase plate.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

3. Anaphase

 Centromeres divide.

 Sister chromatids
separate and move to
the opposite poles as
kinetochore
microtubule shorten.
Sister
chromatids
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

3. Anaphase

 The energy for this

process is provided by
mitochondria.

 At the end of this phase,

each pole contains a
complete set of
chromosomes.
Sister
chromatids
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

4. Telophase

 Chromosome
distributed / reach to
the opposite pole of the
cells.

 Two daughter nuclei begin to

form in the cell.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Describe four stages of the mitotic cell division
(b) Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage

4. Telophase

 Nuclear envelopes
arise from the
fragments of the parent
cell’s nuclear envelope
and other portions of
the endomembrane
system.
 The chromosomes
become less
condensed.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

CYTOKINESIS
 The division of cytoplasm
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

 In Animal Cells

 Occur by a process known

as cleavage.

 Cleavage occurs through

furrowing where the Cleavage
membrane is pulled furrow
inwards by the
cytoskeleton.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

 In Animal Cells

 A shallow groove is formed

in the cell surface near
metaphase plate.

 A contractile ring forms on Cleavage

the cytoplasmic side of the furrow
furrowing.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

 In Animal Cells

 Microfilaments/actin and
myosin of the ring contract,
reducing the diameter of
the ring.
Cleavage
 Cells are completely furrow

separated and 2 cells are

formed.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

 In Plant Cells

 Involved formation of
cell plate.

 Because plant cell has

cell wall.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

• During telophase, vesicles derived from

Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to
the middle of the cell producing a cell plate.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

•The vesicles enlarge and fuse with each other

& form middle lamella.
•Vesicle membrane form cell membrane.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

• Cellulose, pectin & other components

deposited between the 2 membranes to form
primary cell wall.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

• The place where vesicle not fuse formed

plasmodesmata.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Describe briefly the cytokinesis process

• The cell plate expands outward and unite with

existing membranes.
• Forming two plant cells.
• A new cell wall formed between the membranes.

Vesicles forming Wall of

cell plate parent cell New cell wall

Cell plate Daughter cells

Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.
Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (d) Compare the cell division in animal and plant

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CELL DIVISION IN

PLANT & ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
• No aster is formed • Aster is formed
• No centriole present • Centriole present

• Cell plate is formed during • Cleavage furrow is

cytokinesis formed during cytokinesis
• Occur mainly in meristem • Occur in cells / tissues
tissue / cells throughout the body
• Cytokinesis begins from the • Cytokinesis begins from
center outwards the outer inwards
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) State the significance of mitosis

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

a) Genetic stability
- Mitosis produce two nuclei which have the
same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell.
- Daughter cells are genetically identical to the
parent cell and no variation in genetic
information can be introduced during mitosis.
- This result in genetic stability within populations
of cells derived from the same parental cells.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) State the significance of mitosis

b) Growth
- The number of cells within an organism
increases by mitosis and this is the basis of
growth in multicellular organisms.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) State the significance of mitosis

c) Cell replacement
- Any cells that are worn out or damaged can
be replaced.

Cell replacement
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) State the significance of mitosis

d) Regeneration
- Some animals can regenerate lost or
damaged body parts.
- The production of new cells to regenerate
the body part is achieved by mitosis.

newt
Star fish planaria
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) State the significance of mitosis

e) Asexual reproduction
- Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction.
- Production of new individuals of a species by
one parent organism.
 3.0 Cell Division (3hrs)

3.1 The concept of cell division (1/2)

3.2 The cell cycle (1/2)
3.3 Mitosis (1)
3.4 Meiosis (1)
 Learning outcomes

(a) Explain and compare the processes in

meiosis I and meiosis II.
(b) Explain the position and changes of
chromosomes at each stage.
(c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent,
tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and
centromere.
(d) State the significance of meiosis.
(e) Compare meiosis and mitosis.
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

3.4 MEIOSIS
Definition
 Is a process by which…
 a cell nucleus divides…
 to produce four daughter cells; each
containing half number of chromosomes of
parent cell.

 Involving a reduction number of chromosomes

from diploid (2n) to haploid (n).
54
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Like mitosis, …
 it involves DNA replication during interphase
 it is a continuous process ; is divided into
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase

Unlike mitosis, it occurs in reproductive

organs (gonad cells), during
 the formation of gametes @ gametogenesis
in animals
 the production of spores; in plants
55
56
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

The Phases:
 Two continuous cell divisions in meiosis :
 meiosis I
 genetic recombination
 separation of homologous chromosomes

 meiosis II
 separation of sister chromatids

57
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II
 Prophase I  Prophase II
- Leptotene  Metaphase II
- Zygotene  Anaphase II
- Pachytene  Telophase II
- Diplotene
- Diakinesis
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I
 Telophase I 58
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

MEIOSIS I
Prophase I
 Nucleolus and nuclear envelope dissappear.
 Centriole migrate away from each other.
 Formation of spindle fibre.
 Chromatin condenses – chromosome
become visible.
 Homologous chromosome undergo synapsis
forming tetrads.
 Crossing over may occur between non-sister
chromatid.
59
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Prophase I

The longest phase. This phase

can be divided into 5 stages :
a) Leptotene
b) Zygotene
c) Pachytene
- (crossing over)
d) Diplotene
e) Diakinesis
60
61
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

a) Leptotene (“thin threads”)

- Chromosomes appear as
single threads.

- Chromosomes start to
condense.

- Spindle starts to form.

62
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

b) Zygotene (“paired threads”)

- Homologous pairs of
chromosomes associate forming
a bivalent in a process known
as synapsis.

63
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

c) Pachytene (“thick threads”)

- Chromosomes more thicken &

can be seen clearly.

-Crossing over occur at chiasmata

between non-sister chromatids.

64
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

d) Diplotene (“two threads”)

- Homologous chromosome
separate from each other
except at chiasmata.

- The chiasmata remain on the

chromosomes until they are
severed in anaphase I.

65
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

e) Diakinesis (“moving through”)

- Chromosomes become
shorter and thicker.

- Tetrads are clearly visible

and move towards equator.

- Nucleoli and nuclear

membrane disappeared.

- Spindle fibres have completely

formed.

66
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Metaphase I

The tetrads line up along

the equator of the
spindle, attached by their
centromeres.

67
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Anaphase I

Homologous
chromosomes separate.
One of each pair moves to
opposite poles.
This separate the
chromosomes into two
haploid sets, one set at
each end of the spindle.

68
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Telophase I

Homologous
chromosome arrived at
opposite poles.
Halving of chromosome
number has occurred but
the chromosomes are still
composed of two
chromatids.

69
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Telophase I

Spindle fibres
disappear.
New nuclear
membrane surrounds
each haploid set.
Chromosomes uncoil,
lengthens and
becomes fine.
Cytokinesis occur.

70
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

MEIOSIS II

Interphase II

No further DNA
replication occurs

71
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Prophase II

 The nucleolus
and nuclear
envelopes
disappear and
the
chromatids
shorten and
thicken.

72
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Prophase II

 Centrioles, if
present move
to opposite
poles of the
cells and the
end of
prophase II,
new spindle
fibers appear.

73
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Metaphase II

 Sister chromatids align at

the equator.

Anaphase II

 The centromeres divide.

 Sister chromatids
separate and move to
opposites poles. 74
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Telophase II

 Chromosomes
arrived at
opposite poles.
 The
chromosomes
uncoiled and
lengthen.
 The spindle
fibres
disappear.
75
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (a) Explain and compare the processes in meiosis I and meiosis II
(b) Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes at each stage

Telophase II

 Nucleolus and
nuclear
envelope
reform.
 Cytokinesis
occur - four
haploid
daughter cells
are formed.

76
77
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and centromere.

DEFINITION
Chromatid
CENTROMERE

One of the two copies of DNA

making up a duplicated
chromosome, which are joined
at their centromeres, for the
process of cell division.

~ sister chromatids

Sister
chromatids 78
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and centromere.

Homologous chromosome
Pair of chromosomes that are
identical in :
 size (length)
 genetic information
 position of centromere

Chromosomes is inherited
from paternal and maternal
gamete nuclei. Homologous chromosome
79
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and centromere.

Synapsis
A process where
homologous chromosomes
come closer together during
prophase I meiosis.

Bivalent
A pair of homologous
chromosomes which
undergo synapsis.
bivalent
80
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and centromere.

Tetrad

Chromatids of a pair of
homologous chromosomes
which undergo synapsis.

tetrad
81
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and centromere.

Chiasmata (sing. chiasma)

The regions of crossing over.
At which two non-sister
chromatids are joined.

Crossing over
The exchange of genetic
material between non-sister
chromatids of bivalent.
Lead to genetic recombination
(new genes combination) in the
chromatids. 82
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (c) Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, crossing over and centromere.

Centromere
Specialised region where
the two chromatids are most
centromere
closely attached.

83
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (d) State the significance of meiosis.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

For sexual reproduction.

Chromosome number is halved.
Produce haploid gametes – with genetic
variation by :
- crossing over
- independent assortment
After fertilisation – number of chromosome
remain the same.
84
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) Compare meiosis and mitosis.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

No MEIOSIS MITOSIS
1. Occurs in gonad cells Occurs in somatic cell
(organ : ovaries in females
and testes in males)
2. Chromosome number of Chromosome number of
daughter cells is halved (n) daughter cells remain the
same (2n)

85
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) Compare meiosis and mitosis.

No. MEIOSIS MITOSIS

3. Synapsis of homologous No synapsis of
chromosomes occur during homologous chromosomes
prophase I to form occur to form bivalent.
bivalent.
4. Chiasma / crossing over No chiasma / crossing
occurs. over.
5. Sister chromatids separate Sister chromatids separate
at anaphase II. at anaphase.

86
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) Compare meiosis and mitosis.

No. MEIOSIS MITOSIS

6. Daughter cells are not Daughter cells are
genetically identical to genetically identical to
the parent cell. parent cell.

7. Produce four haploid Produce two diploid

daughter cells daughter cells
8. Cytokinesis occurs twice Cytokinesis occurs once.

87
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) Compare meiosis and mitosis.

88
Learning Outcomes :
3.3 (e) Compare meiosis and mitosis.

89
 Leptotene
Zygotene
Importance in living Pachytene
G1 Theory organism Diplotene
S Diakinesis

G2
Interphase Concept

Mitotic Prophase I
CELL DIVISION Metaphase I
Cell Cycle
Meiosis I Anaphase I
Telophase I
Types
Prophase
Metaphase
Phase MEIOSIS Significance
Anaphase MITOSIS
Telophase
Meiosis II
Significance Comparison
Comparison
Prophase II
Metaphase II mitosis meiosis
Animal Plant Anaphase II
Telophase II