Sunya Ias Sociology Optional Paper1 Notes RP

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SUNVAIAS
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the Point, Structured, Comprehensive & Concise Notes

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INDEX
iit:
UNIT L: SOCIOLOGY — THE DISCIPLINE 3
1.1 MODERNITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN EUROPE AND EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY --~-++-=0s0++nsennnnnncnnnnnan aan 3
U E
1.2 SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
QR P
1.3 SOCIOLOGY AND ITS RELATION WITH OTHER SUBJECTS 14
cnn
enn
tate
nnn
UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE 31
enn
2.1 SCIENCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND CRITIQUE 31
omg
2.2 MAJOR THEORETICAL STRANDS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ----------+---n nen nns nnn 35
N
ones
2.3 POSITIVISM AND ITS CRITIQUE 4l
none
ANE
2.4 FACTS, VALUE AND OBJECTIVITY 46
Repo
2.5 NON-POSITIVIST METHODOLOGIES 35
EE
TERE
UNIT 3: RESEARCH METHODS. AND ANALYSIS 62
RUBE
nnnnn-
3.1 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 62
3.2 TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION: 67
3.3 VARIABLES, SAMPLING, HYPOTHESIS, Ri [PY -nnnennnnnnnn crore nnnarnccnnanennnncannnne 84
UNIT 4: SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS- eo nnretn cena eneneterennnntnnicemanennsenn OD
4,1 KARL MARX

U 99
4.2- EMILE DURKHEIM =------==--02
mmm ensnnrntnnaannn scan snanmnmmmnna M5
4,.3- MAX WEBER 137
4.4 TALCOTT PARSONS 160
Q
4.5 ROBERT MER TON-~--2-#1esnennennnnenanee 175
nee
4.6 GEORGE HERBERT MEAD f
189
UNIT 5: STRATIFICATION AND MOBIRQUR ana nae anne nnen nee 198
5.1 CONCEPTS ----~------------senenenee

nanan nena nnnn nn ne manana amnnnnnammeentin 198
5.2 THEORIES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 215
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nner
5.3 DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 225
5.4 SOCIAL MOBILITY-------
UNIT 6: WORKS AND ECONG

:
anf nnn cnn ene 245
acne ccnnrnee ncn nennnnnnn 5G
6.1-WORK 256
G
6.2 - FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANISATION OF WORK, 277

6,3 - LABOUR AND SOCIETY: 292
UNIT 7: POLITICS AND SOCIETY 306

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7.41 POWER 306

7.2 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES IN POWER AND POWER ELITE: 306
: 7.3 BUREAUCRACY 316
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‘ 7.4 PRESSURE GROUPS/ INTEREST GROUPS 319

: 7.5 POLITICAL PARTIES 324
‘
7.6 NATION AND NATIONALISM ”
327
7,7 STATE 330
7.8 STATE-NATION 336
7.9 STATELESS N ATIONS: 337
7.10 CITIZENSHIP 337
7.11 DEMOCRACY 344
7.12 CIVIL SOCIETY 354
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7.13 IDEOLOGY: :
361
7.14 COLLECTIVE ACTION/BEHAVIOUR: 363
7.15 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 365
7.16 SOCIAL REVOLUTION®+--2==65=2 :
377
7.17 MILLENARIAN MOVEMENT 379
UNIT 8: RELIGION AND SOCIETY 380
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8.1- SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF RELIGION 380
8.2 TYPES OF RELIGIOUS PRACTICES 5-395
8.3 RELIGION ON MODERN SOCIETY 410
UNIT 9; SYSTEM OF KINSHIP 430
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9.1 FAMILY, HOUSEHOLD AND MARRIAGE: :
430
9.2 LINEAGE AND DESCENT nl 456
9.3 PATRIARCHY AND SEXUAL DIVISON OF LABOUR: A 60
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s-nunn
9.4 CONTEMPORARY TRENDS IN KINSHIP PATTERNS, FAMILY AND MARRIAGE --r--22rernnnennnennernnnennannnecnnnn 464
UNIT 10: SOCIAL CHANGE IN MODERN SOCIETY .
471
"10. SOCIAL CHANGES IN MODERN SOCIETY. 47}
10.2 - DEVELOPMENT AND DEPENDENCY: --484
10,3-AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE----~ --498
10.4-EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE- ~503."
10.5-SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND SO!
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UNIT 1: SOCIOLOGY ~— THE DISCIPLINE
1.1 Modernity And Social

1.1.1 What is Modernity?
©
Change In Europe And Emergence Of
|
| ociology
Definition: Following the French revolution, the Enlightenment Project brought new ideas that
transformed how people saw the world. Everything was remade: science, art, technology,
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literature. Modernity is upheaval of old customs and practices to make room for
new, better
ones,
e Background: The notion of modernity has its roots in the endeavour to understarid the
meaning and significance of social changes in Europe in the second half the 19th céntury; of
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especially industrialization, urbanisation, and political democracy on basically rural and
autocratic civilizations. ‘
@ Features: "Modernity" contrasts "modern" with "traditional" to convey these shifts. Modernity
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is characterised by the profound social, economic, and cultural transformations that have
occurred over time. It involves values and norms that are universal in nature and represents:a
break with traditions. Modern society views the world as a human construction, which inspires
both a sense of freedom and possibiliti d anxiety about the future.
1.1.2 Emergence of Sociology

1.1.2.1 Background
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The Enlightenment Period: Fren evolutions sparked sociology's scientific
development. This period of seeial c termed the Enlightenment because of
is
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French thinkers’ new awareness n and individualism, for example,
Montesquieue and Rousseau. The yy, etc. were all questioned.
e Structure and Change in Europ | Europe was land-based. The classes

were Clearly demarcated as lando
morais. People valued family and kins!
asants. Religion affected society and
rope challenged old Europe's fundamentals
its
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after the French and Industrial Revolutions. New classes replaced old ones. Religion's
importance was questi . status changed. Democracies
¢
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replac d hi
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1.1.2.2 Factors related to Emergence of Sociology
1, Social Conditions...
,,....
* Dark Period: Due to
social problems, ignorance, and feudalism, Old Europe was called
the Dark Ages. Literary, demographic, architectural, and material and cultural activities
declined. Social and scientific advancements were scarce.
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¢ Commercial Revolution: The "Commercial Revolution” spans 1450-1800, which shifted
Europe's subsistence-based, stagnating economy toa dynamic, global system, boosting
trade and commerce. This expansion resulted from various European countries’
(Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English) efforts to build and solidify economic and
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political dominance.
-
e Expansion of Banking and Growth of New Companies: European merchants now have
"easier access to credit. New kinds of companies like. regulated and joint stock businesses
the
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grew. Examples include British and Dutch East India Companies.
® Rise of New Middle Class: Middle class economic. dominance was
this era. By the end of the 17th century, western Europe's middle class
a
defining feature of
- Merchants,
‘bankers, shipowners, and investors ntial. This time saw the strengthening of
monarchy, the weakening of th nergence ofthe middle class.
¢ Social Changes: Social cha h as emergence of nuclear families,
divorces, domestic violence,
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* The Scientific Revolution ai ce Period: The scientific revolution

transformed people's perceptio id society as well as material existence, for
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example, Newton’s work on g

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embraced man and nature, j
with the past and challenged old
authorities. Renaissance emp! ism. Its greatest impact was on fine
arts and literature, but also it
s human to
life, which led social ideas.
Renaissance inspired modernism placed old ideas as the new religion.
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2. Political Conditions - French Revolution and ts Impacts:

1789's French Revolutio the qu t for freedom and equality. It ended
feudalism and introduc outline explains Europe's
upheaval. 4
© Class Segregation in France: France was divided into feudal 'estates' in three parts. Only
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2% of the church and nobility possessed 35% of the land. The 80% peasant
the populace,
population possessed 30% of the land.
The First Estate included the clergy - wealthy and religiously indifferent and paid no taxes.
Nobility comprised the Second Estate - landlords and paid no taxes. In theory, they
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were the people's defenders, but in practice, they lived off the.peasants' labour.
o Peasants, merchants, artisans, and others made up the Third Estate. Peasants laboured
day and night but were overtaxed and lived hand to mouth. They provided food for the
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society, yet barely survived and lacked any kind of protection from the, government.
¢ Intellectual Developments in France: Montesquieu, Locke, Voltaire and Rousseau were
the rationalist philosophers who believed that all truths could be proven by reason. {
Montesquieu wrote that executive, legislative, and judicial power be
mn
©
centralised. He believed in separate authorities and individual liberty.
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© Locke believed that everyone has certain unalienable rights, including the right to life,
property, and personal freedom.
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© Voltaire promoted religious and speech freedom. He supported individual rights and
free speech.
© Rousseau said a country's people have the right to choose their sovereign.
e Impact:
o Spread of principles of equality and the right to choose. one’ s own government among
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common people.
middle class!
© Ideas of liberty and equality influenced the French
o The Third Estate's hardships led to the French Revolution, which changed human
history.
o It transformed Europe's political system and ushered in democracy, replacing
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feudalism.
o Early sociologists were interested-in several themes atising from this revolution,
including property transformation, social chaos, and the influence of political change
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on the economy.
o Anew class of power holders emerged - the bourgeoisie.
-
3. Economic Conditions Industrial Revolution and Its Impacts:
The Industrial Revolution began ar gland. It changed England's social and
.
economic life, then other countrie:

‘e ~=New Invention: During the ew tools and techniques were invented,
which allowed mass productk
U yted from feudalism to capitalism and
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the capitalists dominated th ystem. This revolution transformed
civilization from hand-made to oducts,
Impact ofIndustrial Revoluti
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¢
o New class of industrial wo
o The peasants in the new i themselves with thousands of other

people like themselves, wi le mill. Instead of the countryside,
they lived in filth.
fueled urbanisation.
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© Population grew alongside prod

ical thinkers. The conservatives
i
o These changes n¢
dreaded chaos.
transform socie
4. Significant Themes of
the Industrial Revolution:
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o Condition of Workers: A new population earning their livelihood by working in the

factories arose.
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This working class was poor, miserable, and socially disadvantaged in the
beginning.
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= At the same time, they were essential to the new. industrial structure, hence they
®
became
a social powerhouse.
Sociologists recognised that this group's poverty is social, not natural. Thus the
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working class became during the nineteenth century the subject of both moral and _
analytical concern.
° Transformation of Property: During the Industrial Revolution, money or capital gained
importance over land. /
o The investment in the new industrial system came to be recognised. New capitalists
replaced feudal landlords and many of the former landlords were among these new
capitalists.
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The French Revolution was also centred on property as it greatly affects societal order.
o
Economic privileges, social position, and political power all are related to property.
o Sociologists Marx, Tocqueville, Taine, and Weber have debated property and its
impact on social stratification since then.
e The Industrial City, i.¢, Urbanism: Industrialization caused
urbanisation. Modern towns
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and cities grew.as industries expanded.
o Ancient towns like Rome, Athens, etc. existed, but modern cities like Manchester,
England, were different.
o Ancient towns were reservoirs of civilised graces and virtues, whereas new cities were
*-- repositories of misery and inhumanity.
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o Early sociologists worried about these qualities of new cities.

’
© Technology and the Factory system: The impact of technology and factory system led to
large-scale migration of people to the cities.
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© Factory system changed family relations and, the factory jobs included women and
‘children.
o. The factory's siren ruled life and th chine rather than man dominated work.
o Labourers’ relationship with t yhanged, they worked for wages having no
interest in work.
o-:Owner owned the produ
o Life and work became defi
U form of enslavement in the machine
and labour alienation. :
_
© Social scientists believed in fon had made men'and women mechanical
‘
heart and hand.

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1.1.2.3 Intellectual Antecedents Affecting

e Scientific Approach: A scientifi
Intellectuals began systematical! n situations .using natural science
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methodologies.
‘
@ Focus to Reason: 18th-cent societal systems and human

nature. Humans, they sa} lity can lead to freedom of
thought and action.
¢ Political Philosophy: Ideas given by Hobbes, Locke, Voltaire etc. which inspired democracy,
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citizenship, rights and aided subject matter of sociology.

e Importance to History: Many theorists believed society must have progressed through a
series of steps from a simple to complex stage (Marx's Historical Dialectics). Abbe Saint Pierre
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and Giambattista, who founded the philosophy of history, were concerned with all aspects of
society, not only the political, economic, or cultural. Comte, Spencer, Marx, and others later
reflected history's impact on social evolution.
e Importance to Biological Theory of Evolution: Sociology adopted an evolutionary method
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to identify and explain social evolution’s stages. It was modelled on biology, as evidenced by
the widespread view of society as an organism and attempts to define social evolution. Spencer
and Durkheim are examples of this kind of writing.
@ Surveys of Sociai Conditions: Social survey forms an important element in modern sociology.
It emerged due to two reasons, one was the growing conviction that.the methods of the natural
sciences should and could be extended to the study of human affairs: The other was poverty
(‘the social problem’), after it was realized that poverty was societal, not natural.-Sociological
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on
social
method assumes that through understanding
tesearch often uses social surveys. This
conditions, one may solve social problems. .
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Counter Enlightenment conservative movement which existed between the 18th and 20th
The Counter-Enlightenment was 4 associated with
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social, religious and philosophical changes

centuries. It sought to reverse the political,
Revolution. It played a major role in
the emergence of Sociology.
the Enlightenment and the French
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Conclusion: first favorable, but its

and political life. Modernity was
Modernity affected social, economic, intellectual
became clear. Modernity provided problems that led to new
detrimental effects quickly The current disciplines
conditions and a new political system.
conceptions spurred by new material created and due to these roots, Sociology was
couldn't answer the questions, therefore sociology was in
science. John Harriss says Sociology originated
sometimes called the new industrial society's
response to modernity's social challenges.
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Founding Fathers of Sociology
1. Saint Simon:. French philosopher, not
a sociologist.
First one to call modern society an ‘industrial society’.
¢
Defined two classes in a modern society - Working Class and Idle Class.
¢
Industrial society emanates from aristocratic society.
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* Social Physics: Simon studied different components of society through this
concept.
2. Auguste Comte: Founder
¢
Sociology of
Human mind passes through three different phases of consciousness:
© Religious: in theological society. Example: Dark ages of Europe 14" Century
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© Philosophical: in metaphysical society. Example: Medieval Europe of 15" to
18" century.
© Scientific: In modern industrial society, Example: 19" Century Europe.
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¢ He
gave evolutionary explanations to change in modern society.
e Referred to Sociology as a “science of higher order”.
3.. Dé
¢
Bonald.and.Dé Mastaire: Conservatives
Compared social life with the hum
: eye
selomenemepresiuil onsnescn
.
e Every part is interconnected. C ct the other.

e Example- Traditional soci hile Modern society- lifeless and
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mechanical.
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4. Emile Durkheim: Liberal Criti
e Transitional Phase ~ when ity tadition is destroyed causing crisis
and distress.
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¢ Temporary Problem - add lernity rather than running away
from it.
5. Nietzsche - Skeptic
¢ Called modernity a phase of
e Isolation: Modernity gave rise ations, limited resources.
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6. Karl Marx - Revolutionary

e Differentiated betwe gcialigm and B ad modernity- Capitalism.
e Capitalism arising ploitatign.o labourers.
¢ Gave call for rev
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1,2 Scope of Sociology

1.2.1 Definition, Concerns and Areas of Study:
its areas of study?
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1. Sociology and concerns and

¢ Definition: Sociology is the youngest of all the Social Sciences. The word Sociology is
derived from the Latin word ‘societies’ meaning “society’ and the Greek word ‘logos’
meaning ‘study or science’. The etymological meaning
of ‘sociology’ is thus the
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‘science
of society’. Sociology can be defined as
a study of society or social life, of group interaction
and of Social behaviour.
e Concerns:
© How and why societies emerge? .
© Sociology has been concerned with the evolution of society.

© It has tried to analyse the factors and forces underlying the historical transformations
ofsociety.
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o Example: Societies have evolved from primitive tribal states to rural communities.
o Examples: How villages have become important centres of commercial activity or of
art and culture and grown into towns and cities.
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¢ How and why societies persist?
© Sociology has also been concerned with the units of social life.
Various groups, communities, associations, and society have been studied. The focus
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©
has been to explore the social relationships in these groupings.
o Animportant area which sociology deals with is social institutions as institutions shape
society and fulfil its requirements. Any society has five basic social institutions: family,
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political, economic, religious, and educational.
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o Complex civilizations may have bureaucracy, military, welfare, and leisure
organisations, etc. Caste is another Indian institution.
¢ How and why societies change?
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and stability,
© Sociologists also research social processes. Social institutions give order
whereas social processes are dynamic aspects of social relations, like socialisation,
social control, cooperation, conflict ial deviation, and social change.
2. Areas of Study:
¢. Society as an interconnected
e Interaction of individuals and ps.
* How societies emerge, persis
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1.2.2 Scope of Sociology:
te ideas that.constitute two schools of
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The scope of sociology explained by think
thought: Synthetic School (Macro School
1. Synthetic School:
© Maero School: It aims at stud :
which
° Sociology as synthesis of Social 1 sociology as general science
1ews
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° Encyclopaedie 8
expansive, exha
© Inter-relation 0 uires holistic study. of
all
aspects in order to understand the entire fact.
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o Creation of General and Systematic Sociology: Studying social life as a whole, leads
to shaping of sociology as a general science.
© Modern sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Hobhouse, Sorokin and Ginsberg
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advocate synthetic school of thought.

¢ Thinker’s Views:
° Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Sociology has wide interests which includes religion, knowledge, law, crime,
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economic sociology, education, art and aesthetics.

= Sociology has three main fields of inquiry:
— Social Morphology: Studies territorial basis of individual’s life and problems
of population such as volume, density & local distribution etc.
— Social Physiology: It
has different branches like sociology of moral, sociology
of religion, sociology of laws etc.
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— General Sociology: It is regarded as the philosophical part of sociology which
studies with social facts and helps in formulation of social laws.
" He views "Sociology is a science of collective representation". This allows getting
a holistic view of society. :
Morris Ginsberg (1889 — 1970)
:
©
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He gave three main functions of sociology
= Classification of types & forms of social relationships.
«
Determining the relation between different factors of social life. Example: Political
~ Social, Moral- Religious, etc.
* Disentangling the fundamental conditions of social change.
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.
° L T.HeHobhouse (1864- 1929)

shares a similar view as Durkheim. oe s
Social Life: Sociology is a science which shows the social life of man as its
i
" sphere.
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=
Comprehensive: It is possible to have a fuller
"comprehension of the whole from
the study of parts.its
=. From Part to Whole: Sociologists must pursue their study from a particular part
of society (social friend).
Correlation: Sociologists while concluding, must co relate, with results obtained
,,
« .
. from different social science’s perspectives.

°
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Pitirim Sorokin (1889
He suggested systemat
_
fold inter-actions.
" General Science: So ferent aspects of social relationships so
cannot call it ‘special’
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«Interaction: It includ,
relationship with its v:
social aspects.
"He opines that ‘sociolog ience’.
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o Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) ™
Mannheim divides the area of study of sociology into two branches:

«
Systematic fi
factors of living together

in
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found diff n India vs family in Africa

vs family in USA.
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* Historical Sociology: It deals with the historical variety and general forms of
society. It is further be divided into —
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Comparative Sociology: It is concerned with historical features.
Social Dynamics: It
is concerned with the interrelations between social factors and
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institutions.
2. Formal School:
@ Micro School: Its focus is on studying social phenomena micro level such as social at
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relationship.
©
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Criticism to Synthetic School: It emerged as criticism of synthetic school.
o Abstract Generalisation: Sociology makes abstract theories about concrete reality.
°o Kantian Influence: Focus on Subjective understanding of objective reality.
e Thinkers’ View:
o George Simmel:
*
Sociology cannot study everything because society is dynamic.
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« Simmel sought to
isolate the general or recurring forms of social interaction from
the more specific kinds of activity, such as political, economic, and aesthetic.
o Max Weber:
™
Max Weber used concept of
social action which were classified as:
— Traditional action which is driven by culture.
is
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~ Emotional action which driven by psychic orientation.
o
— Rational
Alfred Vierkandt:
action which
is
driven by scientific logic.
* Sociology is a sum total of social and psychic behaviour of

an individual which can be
explained by abstract conceptual design. Example: A family not only has love,
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cooperation but also anxiety, apprehension and conflicts. Pm
o Ferdinand Tonnies:
Introduced two concepts: :
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* Gemeinschaft (Small Society): He found that in small homogeneous societies
members interacted with one another on face to face, informal ‘basis. In these groups
tradition dictated social behaviou nies called this kind of society a Gemeinschaft,
which when translated means} ymmunal, or traditional society".
large and heterogeneous, such as the
g members are impersonal, formal,
U these societies often have contractual
ut, legal contracts rather‘than being
governed by traditions. Te ocieties Gesellschaft, or: “associational
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societies”.
3. Other Views on Scope of Socio
e Marxist Perspective:
o Influenced by Karl Mar
: pe of the lens of
sociology through
‘conflict’ perspective.
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o According to Marx, to analyse re of society, it was necessary: ito:understand

the
the forces of production and relations of production.

o Marx writes tha class struggles. «
o The contradictio sof production leads to class
struggle.
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e Neo Marxist Perspective :

© Questions relevance of Marxist theories in contemporary times.
© Critical School or Frankfurt school tried to incorporate cultural perspective into
Marxist Perspective and thus, broadened the scope of sociology.
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o Neo-Marxism adds Max Weber's broader understanding of social inequality, such as

status and power, to Marxist philosophy.
e Blending of Macro & Micro School of Thoughts:
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o The 1940s saw the emergence of thoughts which were a combination of macro & micro
school of thoughts.
© ‘Talcott Parsons study of social action & social system.
© R.K.Merton’s Middle Range theories which resulted as combination of psychological
& structural aspects of society .
e C.W.Mills- The Sociological Imagination’: He gave the analysis of approaching the

world in order tostudy it sociologically.
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o What is Sociological Imagination? .
e tis quality of mind for observing the world sociologically.

e It is the capacity of mind to understand problems in connection with social
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realities.
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Mills’ Views on Sociological Imagination:
“_°
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@ It is the best way to reconcile the difference between the two terms: ‘personal
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troubles’ and ‘public issues’.
© Personal troubles occur only to an individual at a biographical level. Example:
Unemployment- personal trouble- their inability to work or lack of will to work,
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etc. a ut Pees
:
,
: :
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© Public issues affect the institution of the society in ‘entirety. Example:
i
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Globalisation, Gap between education and-skills required ‘in job miarket; No access
to schools, inability to afford schools etc.
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°.-
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¢ Impact on ‘sociology: He proclaims sociology to be a political and historical
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institution, and thus the public issues impact the structural foundation of sociology.
-@ Feminist Sociology: F
o Origin: Emerged in 1960; native to ‘previous view on scope of

sociology.
o Perspective: Offers gen
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© Focus: Gender as centra
the two sexes regarding soci
© Post Structuralism:
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© Foundation laid by Jacque
o Analyses the emergence 0'
result of increasing surveil
® Post — Modernism:
Emphasised on making sociolog study.
Merdisciplinary field of
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o y
o Negative impacts of modernity: With drastic ate

gein society
due to ‘technological
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Conclusion:
Sociology has become interdisciplinary.in nature. In order to study society as a whole, it requires a
multi-dimensional view of society which requires the specific understanding of various social
sciences.
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1.2.3 Globalisation and Scope of Sociology:

Globalisation, according to sociologists, is an ongoing process that involves interconnected changes
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in the ecgiomic, cultural, social, and political spheres of society.

pin,
Scope of Sociology has widen with help of Globalisation because of following reasons :-
e Interconnected World: Large volumes of money movement, increased volumes of trade,
changes in information technology and communication are all integral to a global world.
Hyper-globalists believe that democracy, human rights etc. have trickled from west east to
(David Held).
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Weakening of National Barriers: A significant movement of goods and people from one
countty to another for trade and work has weakened national barriers and restrictions.
Social Mobility: Trade, along with migration and scientific knowledge has helped to break the
dominance of rampant poverty.
Social Impact: Economic phenomena impact families, individuals and communities. The
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movement of people from rural to urban areas has accelerated, and the growth of cities in the
developing world especially is linked to substandard living for many:
Psychological Impact: The most significant consequence of globalisation that
is it
transforms
one’s identity - in-terms. of how: people think about themselves. in relation to the social
N
environment. Pilkington says that identification of “others” as different grew with the spread
of communication media. ,
Increased Awareness-among Masses: Media such as television and especially the Internet,
which allows for instant communication with any place in the world, play an important
part in
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developing a global identity. For
example,
the 4th wave of feminism arose almost globally
with gender as a shared identity.
Growth in self — selected culture: It m ple choose to form groups with like-minded
persons who wish. to have an. i ainted by the global culture and its
values. Anthony Giddens puts \a reason for growing fundamentalist
groups. *
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Conclusion:
Globalisation is an age old phenomenon which has been taking place for centuries and sociology has
Q
emerged vastly because of it.
The penetration.of technology and new economicstructures are leading
to an increased interaction between people has helped in widening the scope sociology. of
1.2.4 Significance of Sociology:
Scientific Study of Society: Sociology society by using scientific methods. This
R
is in
Help
information about society and human beings is used to make advances related fields. For
example, Durkheim’s s ticganghmultinvariate analysis.
Enables Understandin ociol ables us to examine the relation
between societies, human — human interactions, social institutions etc. For example, relations
G
between capitalists and workers as given by Marx.

Examines the Role of Social Institutions: Sociology examines the role of socialinstitutions
like family, marriage, educational institutions etc. in shaping individual’s thoughts, beliefs and
guiding human behaviour.
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Contributions to Human Culture: Sociology provides us witha logical and rational approach
to question our traditions, ideology, thoughts, beliefs, customs, etc.
Significant in Planning of Society: Sociology leads to better understanding of structure and
KI
functioning of society which is

used in formulation of social planning.
Important in Dealing with Social Problems: Sociology provides multidimensional
understanding of the .social problems such as unemployment, poverty, malnutrition, child
marriage, racial & caste based discrimination, crime etc. For example, SC Dube’s
interdisciplinary study of Shamirpet village for solution-oriented sociology.
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Better understanding about Social Events and Issues: Sociological knowledge influences
an individual's attitude towards -social issues: It gives us the proper reasoning of
various
sociological events like increase in suicides, divorce rates, religious fundamentalism etc.
® Sociology as a Career Option: Sociological experts are required by. formal institutions like
government, advertising, communication, social work & welfare etc. As sociology provides
P
insight related to behavioural and societal impacts, the information available with sociological
studies is of great help in bringing change in
society.
©. Influencing Attitudes: Sociology brought people closer to each other by leading to change in
attitudes towards fellow human beings by making them more tolerant, patient and broad
to
inculcate cleanliness in Swachh Bharat.
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« minded. For example, behavioural nudges
e Awareness about our Roles & Responsibilities: Sociology helps us to understand our
sposition -in ‘the society and makes us aware about our changing duties, roles and
‘
~
a
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responsibilities.
:
"
,
» Significant in Development of Developing Countries: With growing complexities within
society, sociology plays a significant role in guiding economic affairs of the country which
-. -heavily relies on social factors. ,
Conclusion:
Sociology:is important for an individual ging society, sociology not only raises
§
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questions about society but also contrib ds seeking solutions to the problems.
Thus, Sociology is not only important to -also, what we want to be.
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1.3 Sociology And Its
Relation With Ot
1.3.1 Sociology and Political Science
1. Introduction:
Definition of Sociology: Soci
©. and social life as well as deals with
various political aspects of humai
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© Définition of Political Science: Political science also known as “Science of government”

‘or the scientific stud ht politi
e- Sub-discipline: Inte : at
I science
gave rise to sub-
disciplines like political sociology, political anthropology and political economy which
.
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study socio-political facets of human life with an interdisciplinary framework.

2. Understanding Political Science: :
© Public Affairs: Politics is engaged with issues of public affairs, conflict, compromise and
tesolves concerns related to power and distribution of resources.
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e Smooth Administration: Various institutions like Bureaucrats; Ministers, Courts, Police,

social life.
army etc, are regarded as responsible for the smooth functioning of
¢ Associated with Power: Power is the means through which struggle for limited resources
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takes place.
3. Various Thinkers who Combined Politics and Sociology:
e Karl Marx: He used sociology to bring about political change in
the form of communism.
© Max Weber: He used sociology and state to study bureaucracy and power which have a
direct impact in society in terms of
social change and lifestyle.
e Emmanuel Wallerstein: In “dependency theory” he stated that poor and underdeveloped
countries are being exploited by political states of developed countries like the USA.
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Rajni Kothari: He studied caste with politics in India and stated that politicisation of caste
is a double process, caste needs politics as as politics needs
caste..
much
Antonio Gramsci: In “cultural hegemony” he states that ruling class ‘like capitalists
manipulate the culture of civil society to rule over them through power, coercion or force
and also with the consent of civil society.
of
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Vilfredo Pareto and Mosca: They used the concept oligarchy in their study.
4. Mutual Relationship of Political Science and Sociology:
Interrelationship: Interrelated to-analyse power, authority structures, administration and
governance. s
Interdependence: Political science relies heavily on sociology for its basic’ theories and
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methods such as
political behaviour and political development.
Interdisciplinary: Both disciplines have borrowed their .concepts from third party
disciplines like Economics, anthropology, history and psychology,
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Intersection: Sociology examines various aspects of political behaviour with special. focus
on their social implications. .
Psephological Studies: Psepholog: elections using scientific methods such as

sociological variables like cla; and caste for determining voting
mn
behaviour and political foreca

Rise of Sub-discipline:
t
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5.
- political phenomena it tends
.
:
:
.
e Different Approaches: Political rise, fall and changes in government

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whereas sociologists see govery utions, political behaviour as outcome. ~
of social dynamics and leader: “

e Difference in Frame of
interactionist views whereas po
:
mechanisms.
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-@- Macro and Micro. perspectiv

which studies larger §
e Data Collection: Po
and official reports.. While, intensive fieldwork is reauied to carry out research in
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sociology.
© Studies all Institutions: Sociology studies all institutions including the political
institutions whereas political science is limited to the study of political institutions.
Political Science Sociology
N
The study of state and power. It studies all aspects of society. .
It tends to gain and highlight people's It focuses on making. interrelationships between

attention towards the government and its institutions including government.
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relations with people.

It frames laws for the welfare of society. It provides data and methodologies which act as
base for the framed laws and policies.
Political variables like state, law, Sociological variables like caste, class, status are
constitution and political parties are held as independent variables.
dependent on sociology.
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It is mainly concerned with the study of Sociology gives equal importance to all institutions.
political institutions.
Political scientists use macro units and Sociologists study micro-units and then
then generalize the theory. systematically compare them and then reach a
common generalization.
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Conclusion:
Both sociology and political science deal with human social life and widely share their common
interest but both differ in their approaches and methodology.
N
Political Sociology - A Sub-Discipline:
Definition: It is an outcome of intersection between sociology science which
and political
studies various political institutions, associations, interest groups, power and dynamics in
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society.
Subject Matter: It investigates political parties, administrative and bureaucratic behaviour,
state policies and political ideologies.
Connecting Bridge: Political socioleg as connecting bridge between sociology
and political science. Both disci d take relationship as it brings out
critically important and newer ar ciology and political science.
U
Study of Power: Political soci movements, social change, political
socialization, bureaucracy and dec
Research Areas: Analysis of fu
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ecology, political community are s
Greer and Orleans: Political s¢ with state, power, consensus and
legitimacy, relationship between e evelopment.
Lipset and Bendix: The scope o is concerned with voting behavior of
communities and with economic powe
R
Political Sociolog in Indian

Emergence: Political s
democratic republic.
G
Dynamic Nature: Traditional India was composed of a caste based hierarchical system and
after Independence India adopted a modem constitution based on equality. Yogendra Singh
believes that thus modernisation of Indian tradition took place, for example, voting as per caste
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blocs.
Dipankar Gupta: He states that Indian Tradition was moulded and transformed in a unique
symbiotic way to
aid the cause of political and social modernisation India. in
Caste Groupings became Political Grouping: Rudolf and Rudolf state that the caste system
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in India due to pluralism and cultural diversity has made political parties to address people
from all sections of society equally.
Panchy ati Raj: Andre Beteille studied the effect of Panchyati Raj with the context of different
caste groups in Tamil Nadu.
Agrarian Crisis: Agrarian crisis in Punjab and Green Revolution increased the gap between
rich and. poor farmers.
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nn
Relevance in Contemporary World:
1. Ethnic Movement: According to T.K. Oommen, ethnicity arises when the link between
TE
culture and territory is
broken. He suggests citizenship as a solution for ethnic conflicts.
e Example: Rawanda Genocide, Exodus of Kashmiri hindus.
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2. Linguistic Movements: In India 1950 was marked by demands of
different linguistic groups
who wanted the state to be reorganized on the basis of language which led
to formation of state
reorganization commission.
3. Regional Movements: These movements were directed against the central government
ener N
demanding for economic welfare.
nena
pene
e Example: Akali Dal, DMK.
4, Nativist Movements: These movements demand for their own state economic benefits and
non-interference of people belonging to other linguistic groups in the local economy.
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Example: Shiv Sena movement which opposes the intrusion of people from other states of
CNTR
e
Maharashtra.
5. Communal Conflict: It shows the Indian constitutional system. Even after
independence widespread comm ing.
® Example: Gujarat Riots, Bal
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1.3.2 Sociology and History:
1. Introduction:
e Sociology: Sociology is defined ciety while history is the study of the
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past. Emergence of sociology by historical developments like the
French and industrial revolutio
e History: History studies cause ts and circumstances leading to social
change and development.
e Sub-discipline: Sub-disciplines like hi sociology, social history and cultural history
R
al
emerged as an outcome of the intersection between sociology and history.

2. Mutual Relationship o
e Interrelationship: See refers to history to explain
social changes, developments. Similarly history also uses sociological aspects to explain
G
the past.
e Interdependence: Sociology depends on history to understand past events, movements
and social institutions and history provides a frame
analyze changes carefully.
of
reference and tools to examine and
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® Historical Analysis: Sociology is concerned with the study of historical developments of

society such as ancient traditions, culture, and the growth of civilization through historical
analysis and interpretations.
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¢ Data Sharing: Historical phenomena like Industrial Revolution, French Revolution,

World Wars etc. are quite general in nature and have served as a source of data for
sociological studies.
3. Various Thinkers:
e E.H. Carr: In his book “What is history” argued that the more sociological history
becomes, and the more historical sociology becomes, the better for both.
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John Seely: “History without sociology has fruits and sociology without history has no
no
roots”. Both past and present are equally important to understand social issues.
G.E Howard: “History is past sociology, Sociology is-present history”. History provides
the perspective to locate present society on a continuum of man's present, past and future.
C. Wright Mills: ‘Sociological Imagination’ involves seeing the world in terms of
biography and history.
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Karl Marx: His studies of social change and historical materialism are based on historical
perspective.
Max Weber: “Economy and society” uses historical explanations to elaborate his secular
theories about the origin of protestant ethics from primitive to modern state.
.
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Neil J. Smelser: “Social change in industrial revolution” explains social change with the
historical context of the cotton industry during the English industrial revolution.
/
Ferdinand Tonnies: His concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft have used historical
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dimension to enrich their sociological analysis.
4. Difference between Sociology and History:
© Different Discipline: According t thorpe, both sociology and history differ
in their orientation towards pg pectively. Historians emphasise their
findings as time-space lo dlogists believe their understanding
transcends space-time dime ce between sociology and history is
with regard to the nature of da
U analysis. .
e Research Approaches: Soci tned with past and primary data collection
whereas historians are concerne look for secondary data in archives.
Q
¢ History and Sociology are d plains sociology as natural sciences
which works on hypothesis, cl whereas history collects the concrete
data and interprets it as a uniq
¢ Nomothetic and Idiographic: vocates that “Sociology is nomothetic;:’
while history is idiographic” ie., ociologists derive generalizations and historians
R
describe unique eve

« Nomothetie: It
seck: alid for larger social patterns.
Example: Newton's ,
@
Idiographic: It focuses on individual events. Example: Ethnographers focus on specific
of
G
groups people or communities.

Sociology History
It studies present social phenomena with their It deals with the
past events of man and is
complexity. silent regarding the present.
N
It is analytical and interpretative science. It is descriptive science.

It is Generalising science It is individualising or particularising science.
It uses questionnaire, survey, and interview It uses chronology, coin, artifacts etc. to’
KI
methods for research. conduct research.

Itis more likely to categorise and generalise the It studies concrete details with an objective
particular events from concrete reality. discussion of real events.
Scope is broader as it is not only concerned Scope is narrower than sociology as it is
with social present but social past too. concerned with the social past only.
Sociologists have a craving for numbers and Historians search for chronology and stress on
recognise patterns and rules society.in individual and specific aspects.
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Sociology is nomothetic. History is idiographic.
It looks at events and institutions from the It looks at events from the framework of time.
erspective of the nature of relations involved.
Conclusion:
Sociology and History both disciplines need each other to develop a complete assessment ofsocial
P
issues. Sociology needs to see the past to understand the context and add value to analysis. History
also needs social background and sociological concepts to explain historical phenomena.
its
Historical Sociology - A Sub-Discipline:
N
1. Definition: Historical sociology is a sub-discipline of sociology which emerged
/
during the 20%

Century as a result of the intersection between sociology and history.
2. Subject matter: It studies present society in terms of the past by analysing how
:
people,
a
communities and societies have been changing over period of time and how they transformed
EE
themselves in contemporary modern societies.
3. Contribution to Sociology: Historical sociology as a subfield of sociology gives two
major
contribution — :
¢ Historicise Sociology: It defi sis historically.

o Example: GS Ghurye’s
Indian society.
U
¢ Highlights neglected Issues d’draws important social issues which
critically required historical ai how avoided or remain ‘neglected in
sociological analysis.
Q
o Example: The rights of L
important in making the mi
Social History:
¢ Definition: Social History is a branch of
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interaction of different gr
e Subject Matter: Social
understanding the past. a
¢ Area of Focus: They focus more on social classes, Ethnicity, Gender and race.
G
Relevance of Historical Sociology in Contemporary World

‘Politics and Ideology: Historical sociology studies the development of rational bureaucratic
states, emergence of capitalism, international institutions and trade.
N
¢ International Relations and Events: Historical sociology has been

used in studying
Holocaust in Germany by Nazi people on Jews.
.
¢ Evolution of Social Institutions and Class Structure: Contemporary historical sociology is
KI
concerned with how the state has developed since the Middle Ages, analysing relations
between states classes, economic and political systems.
¢ Cultural Studies: Historical sociology studies vulnerable and extinct tribal societies. The
historical and sociological aspects are studied for the decline of a community of Tribe.
ee
* Ethnographic Studies: Historical sociology is used in studying a particular culture and
community where its origin, social structures and ancestral studies are carried out.
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e Technological Studies: Historical sociology helps in studying the Social shaping of
Technology in the contemporary world.
© Criminology: Historical sociology uses deviance in order to find patterns in society. It
investigates the historical and social aspects behind the crime.
nA
e Social Movements: Historical sociology studies social movements in order trace the social to
changes which aretaking place and its
impact on political infrastructure.
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Conclusion
Though the approaches and purposes of the two disciplines diverge and converge at many points, the
line of demarcation between History and Sociology is becoming increasingly blurred. is right to say It
N
that “Sociology without History is rootless and History without Sociology is fruitless”.
1.3.3 Sociology and Anthropology
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1, Introduction:
nemm
e Sociology: Sociology is a scientific study of human society which tries to explain the
contexts of social phenomena. It emphasises on the collective aspects of human behaviour.
PLETE,
RARER,
mprehensive field that studies humans
i
e Anthropology: Anthropology
and their culture. In fact, is of it dest discipline that deals with the study
of humankind and itsmultip
Sub-Discipline: Social/Cult
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from their beginnings as
they iety.
irrrrerrerrmemmnneneneeneeee
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e Emergence: Like sociology, tl
directly linked to the scientifi
@
Subjeet Matter: Both discipli
@
Concepts and Methods: The d
rather than at the level of the scop
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e Interdependence: There is cross-use of concepts and also the identical theoretical and
research problems angtheir fih@ings RewWegh, the fwodiscipili
¢ History ConnectiongThe study of History is crucial to both
Sociology and Anthropology.
Sociologists and anthropologists both use the past to explain human and social evolution.
G
e Importance to Culture: Anthropology and Sociology both study culture since they focus
on humans and their lives. Both disciplines investigate norms, beliefs, customs,
institutions, and other social components of culture.
e Relation with Natural Sciences: Both anthropology and sociology were formed with
N
elements from the natural sciences, but anthropology, particularly physical anthropology
and archaeological anthropology, has a stronger link to physical science than sociology.
3. Difference between Sociology and Anthropology:
is
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© Subject Matter: Sociology is the study (or science) of society, whereas anthropology
the study of man and everything that concerns man, including the physical and socio-
cultural aspects.
e Scope: Anthropology has a micro-level focus, i.e., it studies and addresses micro-level
aspects of humankind. Sociology, on the other hand, uses a macro-level approach the to
study of humankind. It studies the broader concepts of societies and institutions.
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e Philosophical Connection: Anthropology is generally considered to have “no roots in
philosophy” while sociology has.
® Approach: Sociology uses a top-down approach (from society to individual) while
Anthropology uses a bottom-up approach (from individual society). to
® Initial Field of Study: Sociology began with a desire to understand social phenomena in
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industrialised Western cultures. Anthropology began in the West but focused on the
‘outside’ world. Anthropologists regarded non-Western societies as ‘primitive’.
¢ Connection with Natural Science: Anthropology connects natural and social sciences.
comprises all material and physical aspects of human civilization, which requires natural
It
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science to understand. Sociology has little, if any, link to the natural sciences. Instead, it
combines other social disciplines to examine human communities,
©
Methodology: Both disciplines' methodologies differ in their respective fields. Micro-level
analysis is at the center of anthropology's qualitative approach. It uses participant
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observation, direct source material collection, etc., and has a smaller and local sample size.
Sociology is a macro-level method of study, so it uses a quantitative approach. The
databases are bigger and wider. As
questionnaire or survey analysis
it
has larger sample sizes, sociology often involves
©. Goal: Anthropology aims to understand the diversity of human nature and cultures. often It
engages in a comparative study of individuals and single cultures. The main purpose of
U
Sociology is to understand the problems
solutions to resolve these social issues.
as
they occur in human societies and find policy
Anthropology
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It is the study of man and every
concerns man,
No
roots in philosophy.
Anthropology originated from We logy originated to answer the various
R
scholars’ interest in primitive communities in queries put forward because of modernity.

non-western countries.
Study of ‘other’ exotic c as a generalising social
non-European and/or non-western societies. science, like industrialised societies.
G
Anthropological methods are generally Sociological methods are value laden.

neutral, having no role of values in their
research.
Anthropologists go out to the field and live Sociologists employ quantitative methods like
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‘with the people for several months or years and questionnaires to collect data and analysis with
learn their culture. the help of statistical techniques.
Anthropology also studies physical aspects Sociology mainly focuses upon cultural and
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related to evolution and biology. social aspects.

4. Social Anthropology - A Sub-Discipline:
@
Definition: Social-cultural anthropology studies the diversity of human societies in time
and space, while looking for commonalities across them. It uses a holistic strategy linking
local and global, past and present - to offer various approaches to understanding
contemporary challenges.
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@ Subject Matter: Socio-cultural anthropology studies the social, symbolic or nonmaterial
and material lives of contemporary and historically recent human societies, taking the
concept of culture central to its goal.
® Contribution to Sociology: Sociology is very close to social/cultural (Socio-Cultural)
anthropology. The relationship between the two is
so close that in contemporary times the
P
difference has become very bleak. There are many eminent anthropologists who have
opined the close relationship between Sociology and anthropology, particularly socio-
cultural anthropology.
o Frazer: “Social anthropology as that branch of sociology that deals with primitive
N
societies”.
o Radcliffe-Brown: Social anthropology is a ‘comparative sociology’.
o Evans-Pritchard: He considers social anthropology as “a branch of sociological
studies, that branch which chiefly devotes itself to primitive societies”.
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o E.A. Hoebel: The relationship between sociology and social anthropology are, “in their
broadest senses, one and the same. Both are the study of social interrelationships, i.e.,
the relations of men to men”.
Conclusion:
The link between sociology and socia e. In scope, interest areas, theories,
U he tradition in which they arose has
methods, and practice, the two fields ar
several overlapping fields of inquiry. cial anthropology investigate human
society and share theoretical issues and inte yy many consider social anthropology a
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subfield of sociology.
1.3.4 Sociology and Economics

1. Introduction:
@
Sociology: Sociology is highly institutions and associations of human
R
beings. Sociology is the scientific studiéS"of human interactions and interrelations, their
conditions and conseq
® Economics: Accord ocial science which studies
human behavior in
ré eans which have alternative
uses.” It largely focuses on the activities of man such as production, consumption, :
G
distribution and exchange. It also studies the structure and functions of

different economic:
organizations like banks, markets etc.
e Sub-discipline: Economic Sociology has made remarkable contributions in analyzing
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society from an economic perspective. If we closely observe, we can find out the birth of
economic sociology in the writings of Karl Marx.
2. Mutual Relationship of Economics and Sociology: /
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e Interdependent: In order to achieve common welfare, economics takes help from all
social sciences and mostly from sociology. For example, progressive taxation to reduce
inequalities and poverty which derive from sociology. Silverman opines that Economics
is regarded as an offshoot of sociology which studies the general principles of social all
relations.
e Interrelated: Economics is a part of sociology hence without the help from sociology; it
is very difficult to understand economics completely. Thomas opines that,
“Economics is,
in fact, but one branch of Sociology.”
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© Role in
understanding Social Change: Classical sociologists like Max Weber, Vilfredo
Pareto etc. have done extensive and rigorous research on economy and society which was
later greatly beneficial for economics. Some economists also consider economic change as
an aspect of social change.
¢ Common Problems/Focus: When there are economic problems in society, such as
P
inflation, poverty and unemployment, economists usually take the help of sociology and
they take into account the social events that occurred at that particular time. Some of the
important social problems like dowry, suicide etc. cannot be sociologically analyzed
without the help of economics because these social problems are mainly of economic crisis.
For example, Utsa Patnaik talks of “economics of dowry” and “economics of child
N
labour”.
3. Difference between Economics and Sociology:
@ Areas of Study: Sociology primarily studies about society and social relationships
EE
whereas economics studies about wealth and choice,
¢ Period of Emergence: Sociology emerged as a science of society very recently whereas
economics is comparatively an older
Nature: Sociology is conside
e@
ience whereas economics is considered
as a concrete science in t ciences, It uses laws, equations and
relationships in a more quan anner than sociology.
U
© Focus: Sociology generally d of social science whereas economics
¥
deals with specific aspects of

is
so
© Scope: Sociology has a very wide: nomics scope very limited.

Q
© Social Activity vs Economic concerned with the social activities of
individuals whereas economic! economic activities. git
e Unit of Study: Society is stud in Sociology whereas individuals are

taken as a unit of study in econ
R
e Methods: Both Sociology and econon

and techniques the for thei
Economics
Economics studies about wea) ies soci social relationships.
Economies is comparatively an older Sociology emerged as a science of society very
G
-science, recently.
Economics is considered as a concrete science Sociology is considered as an abstract science.
in the domain of social sciences.
N
Economics deals with specific aspects of Sociology generally deals with all aspects of
social science, sovial science.
Economics has a very limited scope. Sociology has a very wide scope.
Economics is concerned with their economic Sociology is concerned with the social activities
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activities. of individuals.
Individualism is taken as a unit of study in Society is studied as a unit of study in
economics. Sociology.
4. Various Thinkers:
« A.C. Pigou: He opines that social relations are formed
is thedomain of Economics.
due
to the presence of wealth which
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John Stuart Mill: He defines the subject of economics in a social context as - “The science
of
traces the laws of such of the phenomena society as arise from the combined
which
operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena not are
modified by the pursuit of any other object.”
Alfred Marshall: Economics is concerned with the study of man and deals with their
P
activities in the social setup i.e. study the activities of human beings in the social setup.
James Steuart: He introduced many essential elements of society in Economy, such as
family, population, social interaction, and exchange. which are subject matters of
sociology.
N
Max Weber: Sociology deals with the cause and effect principle which is commonly found
in economics and thevarious policies related to it. For example, his study between the spirit
of capitalism and the rise of protestantism.
Morris Ginsberg: There are many factors that govern human interactions and inter-
EE
relations which includes emotional, behavioural, as well as economic factors.
Pierre Bourdieu: A true economist takes into consideration even the cost of externalities
like suicide and pollution.
Karl Marx: He used ‘econo tensively in his evolution of society in
terms of modes and relations
5. Economie Sociology - A Sub-D
U
¢ Definition: Economic sociolo; f sociological methods to understand
the production, distribution, ex: mption of goods and services.
e Subject Matter: Economic soci attentive to the relationships between
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economic activity, the rest of 's the institutions that contextualize and
condition economic activity.
Relation with Sociology: The ry the sociologists and appeared the in
works of Durkheim and Weber d 50-1920. It
is also during these decades
R
that classical economic sociology exemplified by

4S
such works as The Division
of Labor in Society (1893) by Durkheim, The Philosophy of Money (1900) by Simmel,
and Economy and S:
@
Contemporary Eco
Mark Granovetter, Institutions are congealed social
o Social Networks: According to
G
networks, therefore social scientists must examine interpersonal interactions while

analyzing economics. In economic sociology, markets are seen as networks of
producers competing for niches.
o Free Market and State: Karl Polanyi, argued that the birth of the free market was an
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institutional transformation necessarily promoted by the state and this got a general
acceptance in the domain of economic sociology.
o New Economic Sociology: Convert, B. and Heilbron, J. explain the origins of new
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economic sociology. They believe that the new economic sociology gained scientific
validity by combining network analysis, neo-institutionalism, and cultural analysis.
"New economic sociology” is one of sociology's liveliest subfields.
Conclusion:
The
is
field of collaboration between Sociology and Economics expanding. Sociological principles are
increasingly being used by economists in the analysis of economic problems. Economists collaborate
PAPER
with sociologists to explore economic development issues in developing countries. The combined
efforts of both expertise could be of tremendous practical assistance in overcoming the issues.
1.3.5 Sociology and Psychology

1. Introduction:
Sociology: Sociology is concerned with the study of human relationships and the society
P
Psychology: According to Baron, psychology is the science of behaviour and cognitive
processes, Psychology emphasizes on the process that occurs inside the individual’s mind
such as perception, cognition, emotion, and the consequence ofthese processes on the
social environment.
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intra-individual and social
Sub-discipline: There is constant interaction between the
context and both influence each other mutually. Social psychology could be defined as the
study of the “interface between these two sets of phenomena, the nature and cause of human
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social behaviour”
2. Mutual Relationship of Sociology and Psychology:
Study of Human Behaviour: Both psychology and sociology are social sciences that
involve the study of human thought processes and behaviours.
Focus: Both fields are concerned with improving people’s lives and bettering society.
Methods and Techniques: Both professions utilize communication, interpersonal,
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analytical, research, listening, observational, and problem-solving skills.
Reason and Solution: Both of these fields include finding a reason behind a problem and
finding a way to solve or cure it.
Q
Interconnection: Both of these fields are interconnected, such as someone may find the
reason behind one’s action is based on his or her social belief. The person will go to a
psychologist, and he may find that the problem is hiding behind social issue.
3. Difference between Sociology and Psychology:
Areas of Study: While psychology looks at the behaviour of an individual concerning
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culture and society, sociology looks at collective individuals who belong to a culture or
society, AAs
Scope: Social psychology studies how society and social environment affect individuals’
behaviour, whereas sociology studies groups within society and society as a whole to
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analyze how people behave as

part of a social system. For example, social psychology
looks at mob behaviour, herd mentality etc.
Focus: Psychology focuses on individual behaviours in society and defines normality and
abnormality based on societal norms. Sociology, however, aims to understand social
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behaviour through a broader social context and by looking at the combined population
rather than individuals.
Factors: Sociology looks at
influences of an individual only from external factors: class,
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family, gender, while psychology looks at external factors such as family, culture, class as
well ag internal factors such as genetics, personality as influences of individual behaviour.
Psychology Sociology
It is about_decoding a person’s brain. It is targeted towards a social perspective.
it is the science of man’s experience and It is a science of study of social institutions
behaviour. and their interrelationships.
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1 - Socictogy Optional
Its.subject matter includes - basic impulses, Its subject matters include family, individual,
sympathy, suggestions, restrictions, and religions, power and social change.
passions.
It has a limited scope. It has a larger scope.
Aids
us
see the world from an individual's point Aids us to see the world in terms of
of view. community, race, and religion.
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It is more scientific and allows for greater It has numerous points of view, and its claims
experimentation. of scientific discipline are debated
Examines
a
person’s individual behaviour. This examines a group’s social behaviour.
It includes finding a reason behind emotional It includes identifying causes social rituals,of
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stress, depression, frustration, anxiety attack, social stigma, religious uncertainty, unethical
panic attack and curing. practices, and family troubles.
4. Social Psychology - A Sub-discipline:
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¢ Definition: Social Psychology is the discipline that explores in
an in-depth manner
various aspects of social interaction. Baron and Byrne (2007) define social psychology as
the
the scientific field that seeks to unde
social situations.
nature and causes of
individual behavior in
e Subject Matter: The main cial psychology is the study of the
individual in the social conte mind, self and society are the subject
matters of social psychology
U
® Contribution to Sociology: tempts to understand the relationship
an as
S6
between individual's mind an es in a group as well in isolation. The

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central topics of the research ugg ociological social psychology include
life course analysis, socializd group dynamics, stereotyping and
$;
stigma and social stratification

© At present given the social hologist tends to adopt a multicultural
perspective- which recogniz portance of class, gender, ethnicity, age,
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sexual orientation, disability, religious beliefs and many other social and cultural
dimensions.
Conclusion:
Sociological social psychology can make a diagnosis of contemporary situations to explain adequately
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the reciprocal influence of individuals and their social environment by attending all of its
psychological and social level of analysis. Social psychology attempts to provide a two-way
between situation and behaviour and predicts the causal sequence of relations between
link
groups.
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1.3.6 Sociology and Ethics

1. Introduction:
Sociology: Sociology is the study of society, and sociology studies social life in all its
¢
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manifold forms of manifestation. Ethical ideals and ethical endeavours are objects of
sociological research.
@ Ethics: Ethics is a philosophy which involves ‘systematising, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour.
2. Mutual Relationship of Sociology and Ethics:
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e Similar relation with psychology: Sociology stands in a similar relation to ethics as does
psychology. Ethical ideals and endeavours are not only sociological, but also psychological
phenomena; they are,
therefore, objects for psychology as well as
for sociology.
@
Dependency: Ethics is dependent on sociology, i.e. it cannot be the same
must vary as its historical foundation varies with time.
all times, butat
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e@
Intimate Connect: Sociology leads us on to ethics by the application of the comparative
method, :
e Interrelated: Sociology is not only more comprehensive than ethics, is also a necessary
foundation for ethics. The ethically right must be sociologically possible, must be
it
consistent with the conditions and laws of social development.
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© Social Conditions: Social conditions determine directly or indirectly that which the
individual's conscience adopts as ideal or as true. Very often the character and direction the
of ethical life is determined by physiological or social heredity.
:
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3. Difference between Ethics and Sociology:
Ethics Sociology
A special and limited science. re comprehensive science than Ethics.
A study of nature and the
conditions 0. society and social change.
social development.
More specialised than Sociology.
U
A
A moral philosopher takes the side gist examines what is going on, and how
highest value is
to be found.
Q
Its focus is on means and ends. s on the means, process, ends,
s well as solutions.
Ethical evaluation of historical data. ata is evaluated from a larger
economic, social, political etc.
4, Thinker’s View:
R
@
Wuudt and Hegel: Sociology and ethics are ultimately identical. They are the
consequence of the a i
e Auguste Comte: In
independent science which has its special place in the series of the sciences. Ethical ideas
G
are found partly in the biological, partly in the sociological chapters of his work.
® Comte in later times regarded ethics as an independent science.
@ Mac Iver: In the words of Mac Iver, “Society without values cannot be understood.” In
this way sociology seeks the help ethics.
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of
Conclusion:
Ethics and sociology are mutually complementary sciences. Ethics presents those ideals in the light of
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which social facts are evaluated. Sociology studies ethical ideals in the form of facts and describes the
conditions of society to be understood.
1.4 Sociology Amd Common Sense

1.4.1 Introduction:
1, Sociology: Sociology is a discipline which attempts to understand social phenomena by
collecting: and analysing empirical data.
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2. Common Sense: Common Sense
world and activity.
is the routine knowledge that people have of their everyday
@ Features of Common Sense:

o Nature of Common Sense
= Unexamined
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" Taken for granted
= Unreflective
"More of naturalistic/Individualistic view
" Not necessarily universal
based on
© Inconsistency with Science: The knowledge attained by common sense is
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the accumulated experiences, prejudices and beliefs-of people.
o Utility: It is affected by the culture and traditions of a society, Common sense
sometimes comes as true as wisdom.
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1.4.2 Mutual Relationship of Sociology and Common Sense:
Common-sensical
1. Hypothesis Building:
Sociological theories and concepts find its roots to
knowledge.
Raw Ideas: Common sense prov: ciologists to investigate, analyse and
form theories,
sociology and enriches the discipline
Enrichment: Common sense c’
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while sociology does so by shaping perspectives.
Considerations and Assumptions? d assumptions in sociology are usually
framed by taking into account Common
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Corrects Existing Social Ste sical knowledge is based upon
stereotypes, sociology provides ducts studies, thus, enabling the
formation of concepts, theories an
Testing of Common-sensical Kno
by applying systematic research metho:
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Sociological Background of Wisdom: Common-sensical wisdom can be understood and

explained using sociolo, ries, —
@
Example: Talcott P frou Whatyou are than what you teach.
i
e Example: Howard Becker - an individual’s behavioural pattern is likely to be influenced

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by the labels given to them.

Contrasting Perspectives: Explanation of the same issue
common sense and sociology.
is
different from the perspective of
e Example: Common sense sees poverty as a result of laziness but a sociologist like
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Oscar Lewis explains it

through ‘culture of poverty’.
1,4.3 Thinker’s on Common Sense and Sociology:

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1. Both Common Sense and Science are Interrelated:

e Anthony Giddens: Sometimes sociological knowledge also itself becomes a part of
common sense knowledge. For example, sociological research into marital breakdown has
led people to believe that marriage is a risky proposition.
@
Moore and Reid: Common sense and science are together used to expand man’s
understanding of truth.
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Hegel: All philosophy gradually develops from the ordinary day to. day consciousness.
©
Thus an ordinary person is

a social theorist.
2. Sociology and Common Sense are Mutually Exclusive and Independent:
e Emile Durkheim: Common sense was deceptive, unrealistic, untestified and speculative.
Marxist Scholars: Common sense
e@
world.
is
an ideology which has
limited understanding of the
P
Berger: The fascination of sociology lies in the fact that its perspective makes us see ina
e@
new light the very world we have lived

3. Other Thinkers:
all our lives.in ’
© Goffman: Common sense: is the knowledge used by people to make judgements and
N
navigate their way around world. the
e Antony Gramsci: Common sense thought lies with the masses while theoretical with
elites,
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¢ Positivists discard the role of common sense.
© Anti-Positivists pushed towards the importance of common sense.
© Postmodernist Scholars view bg as similar and remark that sociological
principles are equally uncertai
U
logy analyses the interconnectedness
_
between causes and consequences 61 hile common sense is based upon what
appears on the surface.
Q
e Example: Durkheim in ‘Su
links suicide to individual act.
Relation between Individual and
i
much consideration to individuality.
R
3. Background of Subject Matter: Sociological knowledge is based on logical and rational

reasons While common st
e Example: Commo
biological and physical construct. Sociologists like Mead revealed the partiality of such
G
common sense interpretations of behaviour patterns.

4. Research Method and Result: Sociological knowledge is based upon the evidence,
observation and research while common sense is based on assumptions.
5. Naturalistic vs Empirical: Common-sensical knowledge is not necessarily testable while
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sociological knowledge may be empirically tested.

6. Scope of Bias: Sociological knowledge is free of individual’s bias while common sense
based on. individual’s opinion.
is
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7. Nature of Subject Matter: Sociological subject matter is change oriented and dynamic in
nature while common sense contributes more in maintaining the status quo.
8. Scientific Support: Sociology is a formal field of academic study and scientifically analyses
the society but common sense
Sociology
is
subjective and it has no scientific support.
Common Sense
Study of present social phenomena with their Routine knowledge that people have of their
complexity . everyday world and activity.
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1 - Sociofogy Optional
Based on evidences, data and information Based on superficial information.
collected by means of systematic research
method
Objective in nature. Intuitive in nature, depends on an individual's
opinions and personal judgement.
Subject matter is dynamic in nature and Promotes status quo due to heavy dependence
P
depends on the
changes in
social construct. on culture & traditions
Consists, of theories, concepts and research May not be universal in nature as it depends
conducted through scientific methods. largely on individual’s opinions.
An academic discipline with scientific support. Does not ‘have scientific support and is
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subjective in nature.
Results and Observations based on scientific Results based on assumptions which may or
method
of study.tested. may not be true.
be Results may or may not be tested as it is
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Results may
individualistic and naturalistic in nature.
Follows a systemic and questioning approach Not reflective in nature — Does not questions its
and questions ‘is this really so?’ grigin.
Results are free from individual’s eavily rely on individuals’ judgement.
A
personal judgements. ibilities of error and bias.

U
Conclusion: :
Sociology and common sense are

not two
other at several points. Common-sensical
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sociological knowledge.
R
G
N
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UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE
2.1 Science, Scientific Method And Critique
What is Science? :
ou
Science refers to the systematic body of certified and changing knowledge based on observable
facts while the set of procedural steps which are adopted to
acquire this knowledge, investigate
P
phenomenon
or
correct/integrate previous knowledge is
called the scientific method.
One of the crucial aspects of science is
that it is based upon sensory perception and empirical
evidence. .
o ‘
oo
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Characteristics of Science:
Objectivity: Scientific knowledge is objective. So, Researchers must be detached from his/her
emotions, prejudices and needs as it will contaminate. his/her research data/analysis. For
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example, military operations can be objectively planned. .
Verifiability: Scientific knowledge is based on factual observations and not on speculation so
‘that other observers can observe and check. or example, Sun rises from the east. ‘
Theoretical: Science. helps in sui isely establishing logical relationships

~
between propositions which exp! . For example, As per Newton 2"! law
of motion i.e F=M*A, accelerati body depends upon the force applied
on the body. s.
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Ethical Neutrality: Scientific knowledge
is
ethically neutral/value free. -dees-netmean-that
scientists must not allow their values to’ creep in and contaminate their research work. Thus,
scientists must not say whether particular things/ structures are good or bad. They should only
Q
explain them. For example, Suicide investigated by Durkheim.
Systematic exploration: Science help in collecting data in much more systematic and
organized way so that conclusions are reliable. For example, Goldthorpe and Lockwood
Affluent worker study famously tested the embourgeoisement thesis by collecting data on male
R
workers employed in post-war car, engineering and chemical industries

Intersubjective Reliability: Scientific knowledge must occur repeatedly under the prescribed
conditions forall observers. It should be reproducible under the stated conditions anywhere
and at any time. For example, water will remain liquid anywhere at room temperature
everywhere in
plain areas.
G
Precision and Accuracy: Knowledge backed up by science is not absurd or vague like some
colourful literary writing. Precision requires giving an exact number or measurement. For
a
example, instead of saying “mostly youth commit suicide” scientific researcher says, “twenty
per cent Of people committing suicide are youth”,
N
Predictability: In addition to studying any occurrence/phenomenon, scientists also try to

explain and forecast it. For example, prediction of the monsoon with the help of meteorological
data.
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Quantifiability of phenomenon- Science studies things and processes which can be

quantified and investigated. For example, velocity of car but not happiness/anger.
Scientific Method
1. According to Goldhaber and Nieto, the scientific method
is
a group of techniques to investigate
a phenomenon, acquiring new knowledge or the correction and integration of previous
knowledge. Italian scientist Galileo is considered the founder of the scientific method.
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rr
2. As per Horton and Hunt, there are 8 steps involved in Scientific Method. They are:
¢ Identification and defining: Problem needs to be identified and defined that is worth
studying through method of science.
* Review of literature: To analyse previous work on that problem or issue.
Formulation of hypothesis: It presents the relationship between two variables in the
testable format.
P
¢ Research designing: It gives a framework research. for It
clarifies the way of collecting
data, method of analysis, and bases of research. For example, positivist methodology.
e Data Collection: It is a method for collection of information on the basis of research
problems and objectives. Reliable data collection helps to draw reliable conclusions. For
N
TTT
example, surveys/interviews etc.
Data Analysis and Interpretation: A researcher classifies all the collected data and
Serre
*
interpreted through methods like comparative analysis/mathematical modelling etc.
nnnan EE
¢ Developing generalization and conclusion: Outcome of whole method or results,
learning, implication, new knowledge etc.
¢ Replicate the study: Applicability o ch study or finding to other areas of research.
ramnatin
i> 1, Realizing a
~~
8. Interpretationof
U problem
generalization '
.
2. Identification of
problem
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,
Scientific
7. Data Analysis Method of é
Research 4
3. Review of
R
sa
Literature
of
3
6. Collection
:
data
cd
ete
5. Research 4. Hypothesis 4
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Design Ywuugf formulation

N
2.1.1- Is Sociology A Science?

¢ Early sociologists argued that sociology is a science as it adopts and applies to scientific
method. Auguste Comte opines like other natural sciences, Sociology is also governed by some
natural laws. He called this theory as “Social Physics”.
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¢ Further, Herbert Spencer’s Organismic Analogy was guided by influences of biological

sciences and Darwinism. Even, Emile Durkheim suggested indirect experimentation to prove
empirical validity of social theories
Argument in Favour of Sociology being a Science:
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Deploys scientific method: It employs survey, interview and questionnaire which is used to
quantitatively measure social phenomenon. For example, Middle-range theory by Robert
Merton starts with an empirical phenomenon and abstracts from it to create general statements
that can be verified by data.
Describes Cause-Effect relationship: According to Max Weber, “Sociology is a science
which attempts at interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a
P
causal explanation of its
cause and effects”. For example, while studying family or population
growth, Sociology has traced the relationship between divorce as a cause of family
disorganization and poverty as a cause of population growth.
Provides accurate observation: The entire social world serves as sociology's field study. For
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example, Sociology makes observations of tribal marriage at the time of occurrence.
Objectivity is possible: According to Weber, objectivity is possible through methods like
Verstehen and Ideal Type. So, like natural sciences, Sociology also makes objective study. For
EE
example, Durkheim’s Social fact concept and Max Weber’s Social Action concept
_
Helps in Accurate measurement and prediction: Sociology. efficiently and. accurately
measures social relationships through the use of statistical techniques, sociometric scales, and
scales of measurement. For example dal distance scale is defined as a scale that
measures varying degrees of towards other members of diverse
social, ethnic or racial groups.
Makes generalization: Similar t
U sociology has developed the-ability to
make universally applicable example, Durkheim through his
methodologies proved that suicide rate any celebrity commits suicide.
An essential tool of learning: al research does not simply reduce
Sgi
Q
knowledge to
right or wrong fact
practices and access to knowledgi
Argument Against:
Max Weber denies the status of science to Sociology.
R
€ Sociology can’t be an objective Science.

Further, following arguments ar to
Lack of Objectivity: So
their subject with com a
if
Glas hence they cannot observe
2
du Sociologist might have

differing opinion from a Christian Sociologist in matter of Cow slaughter.
G
Lack of Experimentation: Sociology focuses on interpersonal interactions that cannot be

studied in a lab. Human relationships are abstract in nature, making it impossible for us to
perceive or measure. For example, Hawthorne effect was observed by: Elton Mayo ‘his
in
studies in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response their awareness to
N
of being observed
Cannot Predict: Sociology focuses on interpersonal interactions and unusual human
behaviour, which are, abstract and hard to predict. For example, Comte predicted religion will
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decrease with evolution of society but Stark and Bainbridge have provided evidence of
religious revivalism in modernity.
Cannot provide Accurate measurement: There is no measuring instruments like in natural
science (kilograms, metres, etc.) for social interactions, which are qualitative in nature and
impossible to quantify. For example, love between mother and child is not quantifiable.
Lack
ofgeneralization: As sociology deals with human behaviour which is abstract in nature
as no two individuals are same, thus conclusion drawn by Sociology cannot be universally
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applicable or uniform. For example, general belief that relationship between mother-in-law
and daughter-in-law is not friendly is not applicable in Southern India.
® Terminological Inefficiency: Sociology is still working on creating a sufficient set of
scientific words. Numerous phrases used in sociology are ambiguous and have various
meanings to
different people. For example, The terms ‘caste’ and ‘class’ have not acquired a
clear meaning.
,
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¢ Sociology is Idiographic while natural sciences are nomothetic. These concepts were
introduced by Windelband and Rickert where nomothetic is based on facts, empiricism and.
tendency to generalize and idiographic is based on tendency to specify and subjectively
SEE
interpret.
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Criticism of Scientific Method
¢ Scientific method curtails creativity and imagination: Kuhn, in his book ‘The Structure of
EE
Scientific Revolution’ mentions that scientific revolution is a continuous and collective
process. Why to stick with one (scientific) method which bounds scientists’ creativity and
imagination.
¢ No predefined limits in Social Sci r, in his book ‘The Logic of Scientific
Discovery’ argues that science and e the problem of demarcation. He also
says that all scientific principles -and not finality.
e Science not a discipline to be cd
U mo talks about the progress made. by
science since the 17th (first expl nature including destructive power of
science) century when it attempte In addition-to this, Science has been
colonized by States and Capitalist an choice and freedom. Thus, there is
Q
no need to celebrate science.
e Everything can not be studied advocates that subjective thing like
beauty, happiness, knowledge etc. cientifically. So methodology should
be discipline specific.
R
© Science kills spirit of research?’ Feyerabend opines that scientific method is a form of
reifasis
epistemological anarchism ie. if: g
of science by fixed,
universal rules is unrealiS Sg ce itself.
read“hus, Scientific Method
e Just one method amo:
which should notbe glorified. Rather, other methods should also
one
be
is
among many methods
G
explored. Moreover, glorification of one method hinder the growth of knowledge.

¢ Inductive approach: Scientific method is based upon induction (collecting data first then
conducting analysis), thus it does not promote refutability. Interpretivists do not use this
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approach. Thus sociology should use a deductive approach.

¢ Epistemology Anarchism: Paul Feyerabend mentions about “Epistemology Anarchism”. Any
field that does not use the scientific method should not be taken seriously because science has
spread anarchy.
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Conclusion
Scientific Method, in Sociology, is not bound isby the empirical nature of study,
with methodology. Karl Popper says science not a body of Knowledge
it is more concerned
but method of
but
a approaching
and studying phenomenon. Thus, Scientific Method in Sociology need not be construed in the same
manner as Scientific Method of natural sciences.
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.2 Major Theoretical Strands Of Research Methodolo:
MATOR THEORETICAL STRANDS
P
OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
O
oN MICRO
wosrrnasrs) (WON-POSITIVIST)
N
rai] Lo \
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lvretede rzOUrsK PHENOREWOLOGY ETHVOMETHODOLOSY
FUNCTIONALS:
PERSPECTIVE. CONFLICT
PERSPECTIVE ||
SRT ORer
Neo-Funationaltst
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.2.1 Positivist Research Methodologie
-Positivism (Please refer Unit 2.3)

Q
2.2.1.2-Functionalism / Structural Fun:
1. Introduction
¢ Structural functionalism is a sch F’sociology that holds that each institution,
R
connection, role, and standard that bymake up a society has a purpose and is
necessary for the survival hers and of ci hole. For example, Herbert
Spencer used organi :
Functionalism has social anthropologists like

Malinowski and AR Radcliffe Brown, who further draw their theories from biological
G
sciences.
2. Thinkers
e E. Durkheim: He explained functionalism as an effort of society to sustain and maintain
continuity of the normative value system, called conscience collective, based on internal
N
cohesions that he termed as social solidarity.

© He focuses on the study of social facts, or objective truths of social events, institutions
and behaviours.
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T. Parsons: His structural functionalism theory is the fusion of Durkheim and Max Weber.
Parsons emphasises that the social system is made up individual actions or functions.
of
o Functions/behaviours are
the result of interaction between individuals or institutions.
These are part of cultural norms.
As behaviours
0° are repeated in more interactions, and these expectations are entrenched.
or institutionalised, a role is created.
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Functions are prescribed by the normative role allocation to an individual within, the
social system. This value consensus also provides for a certain degree of integration in
_
the society.
° Parsons AGIL model, Parson’s Theory of Stratification
¢ RK Merton - Merton’s middle range theory emphasises on the functions and dysfunctions
of social behaviour, institutions and norms.
P
° Merton says that manifest and latent functions/dysfunctions are prevalent in every
social system.
O° Merton says functional adherence to the normative system determines the nature of
conformity or deviance of the function.
N
“3, Critical Analysis
¢ Positive
°.. Scalability: Parsons’ Grand theory as well as Merton’s middle range theory ensured
that functionalism was well used to study social reality at both microscopic and
EE
+,macroscopic levels.
o Structures: Structural functionalism was the first school in sociology to explicitly
study the interconnectednes: institutions, the associated functions and
roles and the normative he relationship between family and
industrialization as studie;
Serendipity: Merton der sndipity in sociological studies in his
o
U
work on structural functio
o Liberation: Structural funct sociological studies from the bondage
of scientific methods. It in systems and normative structures in
Q
sociological studies.
© Negative |
° Tautology: Functionalis ,
institutions solely through r

explains the two circularly, F
R
o Historical: Anthony Gi d
'
:
rewritten as hist
o Deviance: Functi :
:
allocation. It fails to comprehensively explain the reasons behind deviant behaviour

G
and dysfunctions.
o Conformity: Conflict theorists argue that functionalism focuses on conformity and
continuity, rejecting the prevailing conflicts like class conflicts, feminism in the
society.
N
o Postmodernism: Postmodernists state that functionalism fails to provide an avid

explanation of contemporary social problems like terrorism, climate crisis and
sustainability issues.
KI
© Iegitimate Teleology- It uses consequence as a cause, but in truth, discovering the

need that a structure functions to meet does not necessarily reveal its cause.
o is
It
difficult to argue today that there is a value consensus in
society — societies around
the world seem much more divided. For eg., Brexit in Britain, rise of communalism
etc, on
Conclusion:
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/
Functionalism is a very good explanation of social institutions, their role allocation and functions
performed by individuals in conformity with the normative value system. Despite all its problems,
creates a practical fusion of positivism’s objectivity with Weberian value relevance to create a more
it
holistic understanding of social reality.
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2.2.1,2.1 - Neo-Functionalism
1. Introduction: Neo-functionalism is a recent addition to contemporary sociological theory. The
basic aim has been to merge strong points of functionalism with other critical
strong points of
perspectives.
N
e It creates a ‘hybrid’ so that one can deal with opposing issues such as consensus and
conflict, equilibrium and change, collectivity and individuality in a balanced manner. It
started with reconstruction and reanalysis of Parsons’ and Merton's functionalism.
EE
2. Thinkers
e Kingsley Davis: He has argued that ‘a functionalist does not have to believe that
*
everything that exists meets a need,

work for the good of the whole.
i
ispensable, or is in a system where all the parts
wictionalist needs to conclude is that things
are interrelated, and that socie ®orking’ (functioning) most of the time”.
e Niklas Luhmann and Jiirg introduced concepts like biology and
U theory with general systems theory.
having limited options for social
ems penetrate the personality system’.
Q
stem into ‘societal environment’ where
he has more freedom to carry ral behavior’.
e Jeffrey Alexander and Pa the main spokesperson of Neo-
functionalism. They defined Né elf-critical strand of functional theory
that seeks to broaden functionalis! cope while retaining its theoretical core’.
R
3. Problems of functionalism that neo-func vercomes:

;
e Anti-individualism: the Individual in fynctiot a product of social forces, was
passive and lacked cf
e Non understanding theory of social order rather than
of change.
G
Conservatism- Offering justification of present system and practices its

Idealism-
ideal
for functionalists society does not require any change as they consider it to be
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4. Critical Analysis
¢ Positives
o. It provides pluralistic description of society as a whole.
It takes a balanced view on social action and social structure.
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Integration, deviance and social control are considered realities and studied together.
ooo
Differentiation is viewed as the central driving force producing social change.
The development of concepts and theory is considered to be independent of the all
levels involved in sociological analysis.
« Negatives
o There are limits to the length to which any theoretical perspective can go in
accommodating incompatible notions.
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o For some critics, the changes introduced in structural functionalism are more cosmetic
than real. For example, Individual’s agency is not fully recognised.
o Conflict is recognized but still remains at secondary place.
o Revolution is certainly not considered,
o Despite the ‘hybridization’, drawing upon different theoretical perspectives.
Conclusion:
P
‘
Thus, neo-functionalism overcomes the limitations of traditional functionalist approach and takes
sociological paradigm to a new height. The hybrid analysis of neo-functionalism is even more critical
for understanding modern day complex societies with their inherent contradictions.
N
2.2.1,3-Conflict Perspective
1. Introduction
in
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“Conflict theory views society as a system of conflict due to inherent problems the social
“Structure and functions. It tries to explain the functions of conflict in social setup, leading
to social changes and improvement.
Karl Marx is viewed as the fathe ory. He propounded the theory of “Class
Conflict” in the economic sys conflict theory is used to denote the
2. Thinkers
social tensions expressed in
ff
, postmodern theory etc.
U
° Kk. Marx: Marx, in his study! of production, recognises conflict as
inherently presently due to ui f Means of Production (MoP). Marx
emphasises on:
Q
© Inequality drives conflict bf ave and have-not.
o Class conflict and’ tension ry society, due to appropriation of
o Tensions lead to dialectical iG tionships. For example, master-slave in

slave society, feud-serf in feudal $6
R
CW
Dialectics drive social
Mills: Mills s
with differing intere:
“i
e i the formof confi
e
hich Marx terms
gh conflict between people
sOurces, in turn, are influenced by
as
revolution.
these structures and by the ‘unequal"distribution of power and resources in the society."
G
Dahrendorf: In his book “Class and Conflict in Industrial Society”, he recognized that
although aspects of the social system could fit together rather neatly, there also could be
considerable conflict and tension among them.
Feminism: Feminism perspective can be defined as the belief in social, political, and
N
economical equality of the genders. It aims to challenge the systemic inequalities that
women face regularly.
KI
Positive
o Contemporary: Conflict theory highlights the contemporary problems of
environmentalism, racism, terrorism among others.
© Women: The continued exploitation of women in
the name of religion, childbirth, child
rearing and dominant patriarchy has been highlighted by feminists like Shulasmith
Firestone,
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o Environment: Capitalism and modern development policies have led to environmental
degradation creating a conflict between market and development, best explained using
conflict theory.
© Surveillance: Critical theorists rightly highlight the role of the state in its control of
life of people through control of knowledge, technology and use of surveillance
techniques.
P
o Focussed on social change- Highlights areas of deprivation and exploitation which
can then be challenged. For example, Marx opined for a revolution to end proletariat
suffering
e Negative
N
o Neglects Negotiations: Conflict theorists neglect the negotiations undertaken to
resolve conflicts. For example, trade union strikes are resolved through grants of
autonomy
or financial increments.
Forgoes Cooperation: Conflict theorists ignore the cooperative model of social
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©
change. For example, the milk cooperative movement changed the socio-economic
t
nature of farming societies in India.
o Polar Opposites: According hool, contradictions and all conflicts split
society into two polar. op; jsion of society in this manner is not
possible.
Endless Changes: The iety is through an endless.cycle of
©
U
iti i
transformation. This is
undergone significant transfo
o Conflict may not follow ch
Q
change. They tend to assu;
that while conflict may fol
o No Empirical basis: theo:
on empirically verifiable d:
R
Conclusion:
Conflict theorists are inspired b
also diversified their approach
makes conflict theory an important prism to structurally study the nature of conflict in contemporary
G
society, its implications, its functions and dysfunctions and possible resolutions.
2.2.1.4 - Feminist Perspective

1. Definition: Feminism is an awareness of patriarchal control, exploitation, and oppression at
N
the material and ideological levels of women's labour, fertility and sexuality, in the family, at
the place of work, and in the society in general, and conscious action by women and men
transform the present situation.
to
2. Waves of feminism: There are total 4 waves which are:
KI
e The first wave

oO
Origin: The first wave in the late 19th-century not the
first appearance of feminist
was
ideals, but it was the first ‘real political movement for the Western world.
Features: First-wave feminism goal was to ensure that society recognize that women
are humans and not property.
= Their focus was limited on white women’s rights.
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=
Reproductive rights also became an important issue for early feminists.
=
They fought for political rights for women to guarantee them right to vote.
e The second wave
oO
Origin: Second-wave feminism took place in the 1960s and ‘70s.
Oo Features:
should be.
It
built on first-wave feminism and challenged what women’s role in society
P
= Inspired by the Civil Rights movement and protests against the Vietnam War,
activists focused on the institutions that held women back.
=
They questioned traditional gender and family roles.
e The third wave
N
° Origin: In 1990s the third wave of feminism came in prominence. They focussed on
issues of their identity, individuality and rebellion.
O° Features: In this wave Many women more freely expressed their sexuality in how they
EE
spoke, dressed, and acted. A woman should choose how shelived her life.
~“" Third-wave feminism also became more conscious of race. Kimberle Crenshaw, a
gender and critical-race scholar, coined the phrase “intersectionality” in 1989. The
term refers to how differ ession — like those based on gender and
race intersect with eac
* The fourth wave
th
oO
Origin: Some people
U
wave isn’t so much of a sh
=
However, with the Mel
rights, many believe we’
Q
° Features: Social media tts,
technological age. It build

freedom: > :
= Fourth-wave feminism c& in
with intersectionality. It analyses the

impact of multiple depriva on
R
ler, race, caste, ethnicity and religion etc.

3. Types of Feminism “
e Liberal Feminism
° Operates from Sil
Wisi i o
nde
the structure of mainstream society to integrate women ‘into that structure,
al
feminism that works
within
G
° Roots: Its roots stretch back to the social contract theory of government instituted by
the American Revolution.
° Thinkers: Abigail Adams and Mary Wollstonecraft were there from the start,
proposing equality for women:
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° Impact: they work inside the system, getting little done amongst the compromises until
some radical movement shows up.
®
Radical Feminism
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° Origin: It refers to the feminist movement that sprung out of the civil rights and peace
movements in 1967-1968.
° why called radical: The reason this group gets the "radical" label is that they view the
oppression of women as
the most fundamental.form of oppression, one that cuts across
boundaries of race, culture, and economic class.. This is a movement intent on social
change, change of rather revolutionary proportions.
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aa
o Contribution: Radical feminism is actually the breeding ground for many of the ideas
arising from feminism; ideas which get shaped and pounded out in various ways by
other (but not all) branches of feminism.
o Change of system rather than change in system: Radical feminism wanted to
reshape society entirely, saying that the system was inherently patriarchal and only an
overhaul would bring liberation
een P
« Marxist and Socialist Feminism
© Premise: Marxism recognizes that women are oppressed, and attributes the
oppression
to the capitalist/private property system.
o Solution: Thus, they insist that the only way to end the oppression of women is to
N
REE
overthrow the capitalist system.
o Character: Socialist feminism is the result of Marxism meeting radical feminism.
Echols offers a description of socialist feminism as a marriage between Marxism and
EE
radical feminism, with Marxism the dominant partner.
o Connection with radical feminism: Marxists and socialists often call themselves
"radical," but they use the term to refer to a completely different “root” of society: the
economic system.
e Black feminism
o What is Black feminis
understanding their positi
U
social and political identiti
‘saeeeeseeeepeneenngeeeeeener of
o Double dose discrimin:
feminism because of their
Q
,
liberation movements bec:

o Intersectionality: Black
identity that women have, ¥
to talk about being black alo
of
t
Black women: Despi
R
o Power
women were and still
inue
movements.
Conclusion:
G
Feminism as a social movement has had a significant impact on both society and sociology as a
discipline. Itstudies inequalities and inequities alongthe intersectional lines of ability, class, gender,
race, sex, and sexuality, and feminists seek to effect change in areas where these inter-sectionalities
create power inequity. It
is an ongoing endeavour and there are miles to be covered before we rest.
N
2.3 Positivism And Its Critique

Many early sociologists chose to turn to science for a methodology on which to base their subject,
KI
others rejected natural sciences methodology in studying human behaviour. Thus, two broad traditions
within Sociology emerged:
¢ Positivists: Those who advocated the use of scientific and quantitative methods. For example,
Saint Simon, August Comte, Herbert Spencer, etc.
e Interpretivists: Those who supported the use of more humanistic and qualitative methods. For
example, Max Weber, Alfred Schutz, G H Mead, etc.
pememeremnn
1
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ae
What Is Positivism?
¢ Positivism is a philosophical position according to which there are close ties between
and natural sciences, which share a common logical framework.
social the
e It is a method of studying society that focuses solely on scientific evidence, such as
experiments and statistics, to reveal the true nature of how society works in terms of causal
effect relationships. Thus, Positivists believed that society is governed by certain fixed laws
P
and hence, is
predictable.
Origin of Positivism
e Emergence of contradiction due to Industrialization: The 18th and 19th centuries saw a
,
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number of scientific discoveries lead to new technologies which in turn lead to
industrialisation, or the growth of factory-based production. Many commentators from the
early 19th century onwards were disturbed by the contradiction between the huge advances
being made in
science and industry and the apparent worsening of the lives ofthe majority,
EE
New. urban centres were plagued with new social problems — most notably
poverty,
unemployment, and social unrest.
e Discipline emerged: It was in this c gust Comte founded Sociology — Comte
basically believed that if we cang ings to bring about improvements in
production through industrialisati¢ he social world and figure out how to
construct a better society that c: such as poverty, lack of education
and crime.
U Ss
Thinkers view on Positivism

Q
1. August Comte: He was the first p ociology, and he also coined the term
“Positive Philosophy’. He believed scientific subjects, Sociology stands
at the pinnacle of that hierarchy.
e¢
Comte suggested four meth of new discipline, viz. Observation,
Experimentation, Historical and Comp
R
2. Saint Simon: He conceptualized a science of social organization, which he called “Social

-
Physiology” developm OG
eae ‘natural laws which the social

xis
goVe
iy
physiologist must attemps, ism was rooted in a science

of society which is analogous to
natural sciences”.
3. Herbert Spencer: In in his hypothesis of Social Darwinism, he writes that superior physical
G
force shapes history.

4. Emile Durkheim: In his “The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), expressed his will to
establish a method that would guarantee sociology’s truly scientific character.
N
Features/Characteristies/Elements of Positivism
¢ Observable: It emphasizes on behaviour that can be directly
feelings and meanings which cannot be directly observed.
observed. It
rejects factors like
KI
¢ Causal Analysis: It finds correlation between different variables to establish cause and effect
relationship, thus attempting to build generalizations.
¢ Empiricism: It focuses upon observations, experiences and rejects common sensical
speculations. This involves recording a social event or
action or fact in quantifiable medium
like text or numerics, and subjecting them to value free objective study.
¢ Universality: It focuses on formulation of Theories and Universality of laws and principles.
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—
e Predictability: It talks about predictability of social events. For example, August Comte
discovered a law of social organisation that could predict the future evolution of societies
(Theological, metaphysical and scientific stages).
e Value Neutrality: It places value neutrality and objectivity at the centre of their research and
believes that what is observable can only be analysed. It is a stepping stone to complete
objectivity.
P
e Factual: Durkheim in his work on Suicide, sought to establish Sociology as a distinct
discipline of study of Social Facts.
e External Realities: It focuses on studying external realities (e.g. Social Fact of Durkheim)
rather than studying internal aspects like meanings and motives. «*:
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e Scientific method: Positivism uses Scientific Method like that used in natural sciences. For
example, Durkheim used statistical technique in his work on Suicide.
e Inductivism: An approach to logic whereby scientific laws are inferred from particular facts
or observational evidence which can be used for deriving sociological laws too.
EE
¢ Deductive Approach: It
gave primacy to formulation of theories and universality of laws and
principles in a way similar to natural sciences.
U
Q
R
¢Theological Stage:
divine powers. For e
Metaphysical Stage CC pf
impersonal powers, occult qualities, vital forces etc, For eg. The Middle Ages in Europe
G
e Scientific Stage: The task of the sciences, and of knowledge in general, is to study the
facts and regularities of nature and society and to formulate the regularities as laws. For
eg. Renaissance period h
2. Comte considers Sociology into two Theoretical Aspects:
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¢ Social static: It focuses on how order is maintained in a society and,how parts of a social
system interact with one another, as well as the functional relationships between the parts
and to the social system as a whole.
KI
* Social dynamic: It focuses on how society changes over time. His theory of social
dynamics is founded on the law of the three stages theological, metaphysical, and positivist
stages (3 stages shows how human mind evolved).
_
Emile Durkheim’s Positivism in Detail
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Durkheim believed that sociology should be able to accurately predict the effect of particular changes
in social organisation such as an increase in unemployment
thus applied following scientific approaches in his work-
a change or in
the education system. He
e Social Facts: Durkheim defined social facts as things external to, and coercive of, the actor.
While they may not seem to be observable, social facts are things, and are to be studied
empirically, not philosophically. For example, the observable societal phenomenon of the
P
‘suicide rate’ is to be explained by social facts such as regulation and integration.
¢ Statistical Data: It helps in classifying the data of the social world. For example, Durkheim
used data on social facts on Suicide rates and membership of various religions.
¢ Correlation between facts: The tendency of two or more social facts correlated to each other
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i.e., found together. For example, Durkheim in his study on Suicide, found a correlation
between Protestantism and a high suicide rate.
e Causation: A relationship in which a change in one variable (the independent variable)
EE
induces change in another (the dependent variable). For example, Durkheim investigated
'
suicide through Multivariate Analysis and not in reference to psychological factors, but rather
to different social institutions and the way they integrate and regulate individuals within a
group.
e Scientific Method: Durkheim bel; neans of researching society should be
the Comparative Method which oups and looking for correlations or
relationships between 2 , in his study of Division of Labour
or more
U
(DoL), he referred to existing stud
verified them and built a hypothesis.
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Critical Analysis
1. Positive/Significance
¢ Scientific: Positivist method
scientific tools and methods of &
¢ Objective: Positivist method prov
R
'
placing any value bias the

in
sociol
©
Multivariate Anal
G
research produces reliable data.

Helps in formulating universal theories: For example, Comte’s evolution of society,
¢
Durkheim’s origin of religion
-# Establishing Cause — effect Relationship: Helps in establishing cause for any social
N
phenomenon, For example, Risc of Capitalism link to Protestant Ethics Religious Ideology
(Weber).
¢ Ensures Value Neutrality: As research is conducted in objective manner (reported what
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is observed), so it ensures value neutrality as subjective biasness and preconceived notions

of researcher does not creep in the sociological research.
¢ Data collection and interpretation for research: Ensures data is
collected and analysed
to come up with some research output. For example, Emile Durkheim collected data on
suicide and formulated a theory on suicide.
2. Negative
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a
¢ Interpretative School: Max Weber and Wilhelm Dilthey emphasized that is impossible
to study human behaviour using natural science methods as positivist methodologies
it
misses out on the values that drive social actions. It also misses out on the meaning and
motives of actions.
© Post-Modernist: Thinkers like Michel Foucault rejected positivist methodologies. As per
him, a human acting as an agent has a unique capability of comprehending and altering his
P
worldly condition in order to become more fully, more essentially, himself. Others thinkers
like Jacques Derrida — talk about deconstruction of language as today language became
very complex and need to be understand wholistically to interpret realgmeanings.
© Neo Idealist: +
‘
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© Seen v/s thought: The positivist view point that ‘ ‘what can be seen is real” was
challenged by idealist viewpoint that “what can be thought is real”. what can be what
is real for example religion, altruism cannot be seen but do influence individual.
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o Discard theory: They denied the possibilities of theory.
¢ Symbolic interactionism: G.M. Mead while criticising positivist in his book mind, self
and society said that:
© Every social action is the o tion, which serve as the cornerstone of
social reality.
U
¢ Phenomenologists: Alfred Sc ‘ositivism fails to take into account how:
human mind works (subjective they make sense of their surroundings:
Ethnomethodologists: Harol
Q
e¢
misses on the cultural and et

phenomenologists (method us
¢ Middel Range Theories: R.
R
i.e. human-human interaction).

¢ Single vs Double He nthony iddeps mentions that sociology should focus
on Double hermen logy should focus on both
macro aspects (that ‘pects (subjective meanings of
human behaviour) unlike positivists who focuses upon only macro aspects.
G
¢ Reflexive Sociology: Alvin Gouldner talks about reflexive sociology where person may
introspect upon his/her behaviour and accordingly may nudge his/her behaviour and this
aspects is completely ignored by positivism.
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¢ Objectivity is illusion: As per Gunnar Myrdal, objectivity (basic. features of Positivism)

is neither possible nor desirable as sociology is about studying human society which
very is
¢
dynamic in nature.
Anti -Methodology: Paul Feyerabend talk about developing new methodologies to study
KI
human society and not stick to positivist methodologies only.

¢ Critical School of Thought:
o Jurgen Habermas: Talked about Cognitive monopolization of positivism, where
Positivists emphasize that everything should be studied in positivists manner (they
believe human react mechanically to external stimuli) which is not correct and human
behave differently in different situations.
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o Max Horkheimer: He talks about objective Anarchism where too much emphasis on :
|
positivism is leading to chaos. Wholistic understanding of social phenomenon or

3
human behaviour is
not achieved.
Dialectics”, too
o Theodor Adorno: He mentioned a terminology called “Negative
much emphasis on positivism leads to regression of knowledge. Subjectivity not taken 1
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into account in positivism.
¢ Incomplete:.The absence of value relevance, adherence to scientific methods makes )
positivism agmechanical study of an organic social setup, missing out on key aspects. :
¢ Reductionism: Historically, positivism ‘has been criticized for its reductionism, i.e., for
contending that all-processes are reducible to physiological, physical or chemical events
N
|
and that all social processes are reducible to relationships between & actions of individuals.
Conclusion:
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Positivism emerged in
an era of scientific revolutions like the Industrial Revolution, modern medical
anatomy and objectivity led by natural sciences. Though
critical foundation to sociology as a distinct discipline
it
claimed superfluous heights,
riding on triumphant scientific
laid the
principles of the
it
time.
2.4 Facts, Value and Objectivity

2.4.1-Facts
U
Fact is anything that can be empirically r ‘validated by an observer. For example,
the rising sun is
a fact, the relation between'fy
to facts, known as Social Facts. (For definitj
fact. Durkheim adds another dimension
Durkheim topic on Social Fact)
Q
Characteristics of Facts
e Can be measured:
.
It can be recdi
numbers, textual contexts etc. For ext
in empirical terms as in quantifiable
fiperature is measured accurately through
R
a thermometer.
Remain the same in
every situa earth rotates from west to east
Can be verified: It is vé sified at a later point in time.
For example, the present as proposed by Weber, but
later falsified by Milton Singer.
G
Actually Happened: A fact refers to something that actually happened.

It
Independent Existence: is impossible to deny its existence because speaks of “is” rather
than “ought”, which implies a preference.
it
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Sources of Facts
* Primary Sources: Survey, Focus groupstudy, Interview etc.
Secondary sources: Document analysis, Historical study, Internet etc.
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Thinkers View on Facts

* Classical theorists: Theorists like Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim
opted for scientific methodology based on fact and.objectivity. They advocated value-free
sociology (personal values of the observer should not affect the research).
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E. Durkheim: He proposed social facts to bring objectivity in social research. Just like science
has scientific facts, social facts in sociology change their shape and meaning as the social
context changes.
Difference between Fact and Theory

Fact
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Theory
1, Idea/ observation that is not yet
proven. 1. idea or truth that has been proven.
An
2. A fact is regarded as an empirically 2. Theory refers to the causal relationship

verifiable phenomenon. between facts. h
3. Fact cannot be a theory itself. 3. Theory is a proven fact.
N
in
4. Facts and observations are used in| 4. Theories if proven becomes Law.
Hypothesis formulation. 5. Example: Durkheim used concept of social
5. Example: Durkheim formulated social fact to formulate theory of suicide .and
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fact as a tool for sociological studies. religion. ce
2.4.2 - OBJECTIVITY
Objectivity refers to complete separatig
biases. It is unprejudiced, detached
values. It implies freedom from personal
wiedge or interpretation of knowledge
about
a situation or a subject.
Values flow from pre conceived
U
pr, religion etc. but objectivity requires
freedom from such values.
Thinkers view on Objectivity

Q
1. Auguste Comte: To ensure obje ositivist method for studying macro
aspects,
2. Emile Durkheim: He preferred ing ind statistical techniques to make sure
his research is free from subjecti¥ “proposes: four rules for objectivity in
R
understanding social phenomena.

* Observation: Observation of social facts and ide
For example:
o Reformative laws} S i i NY
ti
o Repressive laws: Traditional societies.
G
¢ Classification: Durkheim proposed classification of social facts into structural or

morphological and institutional or non-institutional.
¢ Distinction: Distinction between various kinds of social phenomenon. For example,
Normal
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or pathological.
* Explanation: Defining social phenomenon precisely with a complete objective method of
social sciences and empirical investigation in order to make general laws of sociology,
Max Weber: He suggested scientific methods to ensure objectivity along with his own
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methods like verstehen and ideal types.
Significance of Objectivity
a
¢ Ilypothesis Formulation: Objectivity:helps clearly define the nature and target ofresearch.
makes hypothesis formulation more relevant and time effective.
It
¢ Easy Understanding: Objectivity helps the target audience to clearly understand the purpose of
a particular research and it
therefore cases understanding
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Saves Time and Effort: Objectivity clearly defines major objectives, the target group and the
nature of research. This saves observers’ time and effort during research.
Guides Research: Objectivity provides a gauge to measure the direction and intensity of research.
ee
It helps maintain proper guidance to researchers,

Verification and Validity: Objectivity promotes verification and validation of research along
factual value neutral lines. This induces more reliability to research, and falsification whenever
P
necessary.
i
Theory Building; Objectivity helps derive solid theories based on facts and enrich sociology as
a body of knowledge.
N
Rules to ensure Objectivity
Stating Researcher’s Biasness: Any value bias and preferences of the researcher should be
tated at the beginning of the research to ensure value relevance and neutrality. For
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; Weber — value free sociology,
Durkheim — social facts to be treated as things.
Metii ology: Use scientifie/positivists methods. For example, Weber suggested Verstehen
methodologies studying macro social aspects.
approach, August Comte sugecsted using positivist
from advocating preferences of any
ocentric and egocentric biases and
Malinowski — cultural relativism.
Standardisation: Researchers sho’
U
objectivity. For example, Durkheim
Field Limitation: Researchers should
Q
encountered during the course of res
Double Blind Approach: means It
answering a partic ilar question.”This §
Enlarging Sample: Large samples™ E
dimensions promote wider acceptabili

R
Peer Review: Organising criticism,

Reflexive Approach:
perspective of an outsider
By
provide an objective evaluation. ae
4
types of triangulation(data, theory, investigator, methodological) can help club
G
Triangulation:
various perspectives and methods to ensure objectivity.
Problems with Objectivity

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Subject Matter: R. K. Merton stated that very choice of subject matter of research may be based
on personal preferences, experiences and ideological biases.
Problem Formulation: It depends upon the investigators’ preferences. For example, MN
KI
Srinivas conducted village studies based on his preferences.

Data Collection/Accumulation: Data accumulation has limitations in the field. For
example, Andre Beteille was not allowed to visit untouchable localities by Brahmins.
Testing: Researchers tend to produce the same results inc stder to make their theory reliable. They
focus falsification tests. Karl Popper has emphasised on falsification as a test.
do not on
Incomplete: An objective truth may not’ be the complete truth. For example, discrimination in
Indian society is not necessarily caste based. It may be political or religious as well.
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¢ Researcher’s bias: Researchers may become biased in the course of sociological study. For
example, William Whyte, in his study of Italian criminals, says, “I started as a non-participant
observer but ended up as a participant non observer.”
¢ Different Viewpoints: Interpretation of facts is also coloured by the viewpoints of the
investigator. For example, we have Marxist as well as functionalist interpretations of religion
P
based on conflict and coordination, respectively.
* Theoretical Bias: Theories may suffer from the inherent bias of researchers. For example,
Indological theory of Indian sociology has a Brahminic bias.
* Subjectivity is inevitable: As per Gunnar Myrdal, objectivity is an illusion and can never be
achieved. For this he advocated basic viewpoints should be made clear beforehand.
N
Conclusion:
Elvin Gouldner says that value neutrality is an elusive goal
in
sociology. However, a workable model
EE
of objectivity can be devised to suit the needs of the discipline.
2.4.3 Values
—
Introduction: Values are the set of predis preferences that an individual develops
over time due to his social interactions education. They are socially accepted
standards of desirability and understand
U
Sources of Values
¢ Socialisation: An individual receiv
Q
example, Ghurye had Brahminic v
¢ Social Norms and Values: Prevd
time. For example, Indian famili
¢ Education: Education delivers
people. For example, training under
R
* Personal experiences: An individual m his/her experiences. For example, off-

springs of martyred soldiers often tend t ve the country by joining the defence forces.
&
Significance of Values dhs

« Perspective: Value provides perspectives which are important in sociology.
G
* Scope: Values broaden the scope of sociology.

* Variability: Increase variability but reduce reliability.
« Provide Context: Values are necessary for human civilization since they provide the cultural:
context for any social and political analysis, This cultural framework
is
N
a prerequisite for social

analysis; thus, it cannot be put on hold.
¢ Planning and Implementation: Helpful in the planning and implementation of social:
programs and policies.
KI
¢
Supplementary: Facts are not everything, but values can supplement them.
Drawbacks of Values in Sociological Research
¢ Objectivity is missed in the research.
* ‘lopics of only certain interests are focussed upon.
+ Hawthorne effect (people tend to modify their behaviour as they are observed),
desirability.
bias etc.
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e Theory formation is difficult because of multiple interpretations.
Role of Values in Sociological Research

1. Value bias: It is a problem which all behavioural insciences face. Investigators’ subjective values
his research productivity of employees
constrain the meaning of research. Elton Mayo on
of called the Hawthorne
P
coneluded that productivity increases with the presence employers
effect.
e Value bias can be detrimental to the correct and holistic understanding of society as it just
explains the researcher’s or the participants’ personal bias towards the research topic.
Value Freedom: Value freedom means complete detachment of
the research from the value
N
sets of the observer as well as the participant during the lifecycle of sociological research. It
ensures objectivity.
e Source:
EE
o Value freedom is based on primary data.
o It includes scientific methods and research tools for analysis.
¢ Drawbacks:
o It filters out relevant values needed for interpretation of social actions.
o It restricts the freedom of the observer to
inculcate dimensions in
sociological study.
© It reduces sociology to mere scientific interpretation facts
of and empirical analysis and
U
humans toreformative
passive entities.
fails to understand
and solve sociological problems.
o It lacks a approach and
o Value freedom negates the value relevance of social actions. This misdirects the
Q
understanding of the phenomena.
¢ Positive .
© Value freedom induces objectivity in research.

o Rational interpretation of facts is promoted by value free sociology.
© Value free principle did contribute to the intellectual growth and emancipation of the
R
enterprise.
Conclusion:
si life
¢
—— wrt the natural sciences in
Value freedom helped
the age of reason and% jeves, tess sipfilfiGant in the now, in modern and
id
postmodern societies where new methods of value relevance and value neutrality are
G
imbibed on the holistic scale.

3. Value Relevance: It emphasises the importance of values and judgements to make sociology
relevant the values of the researcher. Weber insisted that the value element inevitably enters in
to
N
the selection of problems but not thereafter.

Subject of research depends on values of researcher: It implies that the subject of study
is
selected based on what the researcher feels to be important. That is, they choose what to study
of the past based on their contemporary value system.
KI
Weber believed that investigators cannot make value judgments therefore he suggested value-
neutral methods to social research such as Ideal types, Verstehen.
Researcher should keep himself and the audience informed ofhis value relevance during the
sociological discourse.
He argues that value relevance is crucial to complete understanding of social actions. For
example, a Hindu woman wearing vermillion is rather insignificant in objective terms, but
makes complete sense when understood with marital values.
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¢ Critical Analysis
Positives
o
Complete study of social behaviour.
«=
"
Add meaning
to
sociological interpretation.
Liberates sociology from the bondage of science.
P
o Negatives
" Dilute objectivity.
« Induce value bias if not controlled.
¢ Conclusion: Value relevance is important to understand the researchers’ motives behind the
sociological research. It provides a brief background of
the rationale behind the subject and
N
nature of study.
4. Value Neutrality: Value neutrality as per Max Weber,
and acknowledge their own values and overcome
is
the duty of sociologists to identify
their personal biases when conducting
EE
* Theories of Value Neutrality-
© Positivism - August Comte advocated positivist methodology which has the following
features:
o Other Positivist Thinker:
="
E. Durkheim- He of “social facts” in an objective and
empirical fashion.
U
= Parsons - The AGIL ‘}
used in objective analysis of social
structures, and functions:
Q
o Verstehen approach (Int It contends that theory making in
sociology is futile and th stxisnot to merely observe the facts. If
sociologists will not prom
the ruling class.
© Other Non-Positivists Socio!
R
Interactionists used meanings, int

notion of value-free sociolog
* Challenges to Val
o Ensuring Neut
for researchers.
G
o Diverse- Every social action results from multipte value sets, making accountability of
value diversity difficult in research.
o Abstract- Value sets are abstract in nature. Establishing an accurate balance by
is
N
eliminating bias and inducting value relevance difficult.

© Value Bias- Researchers or the participants may become biased towards their values
in course of the sociological study.
¢ Critical Analysis
KI
° Positive
“ Complete- Value neutrality brings out the complete analysis of social phenomena
“
by inculcating value relevance in
research.
Relevant- Value neutrality ensures relevant analysis of social actions based on
actors’ value sets. _
“ Objectivity- Value neutrality assures objectivity by prescribing value disclosure

during the lifecycle of research.
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o Negative
= Value Bias: Value neutrality accommodates value relevance. It may induce
unwanted value bias in research.
e Conclusion:
Value neutrality is an important tool in modern day sociological research as provides it a:
all value sets and
P
holistic understanding of the research topic, encompassing the relevant
maintaining the objective interpretation of social facts and actions.
2.4.4-Facts, Values And Objectivity - Thinkers’ View

Dilthey: Dilthey implies that a fact-based approach explores only one dimension it ignores
N
as
cultural and ideological dimensions.

Max Weber: Weber says that an attitude of moral differences has no connection with scientific
objectivity.
EE
Vilfredo Pareto: Sociology should study “what is (fact)” rather than “what ought to be
(value)”.
Jurgen Habermas: Habermas insists that_complete separation of facts and values is not
possible as humans study humans.
e Gunnar Myrdal; Myrdal emph: ot organise itself into the cosmos., We
need viewpoints. It amounts to oss of the basic purpose of discipline,
U
. which is a reformist agenda. :
Alvin Gouldner: He says that fac’ separated in research.

Hammersley: According to Ham ility of knowledge is not an excuse to
Q
abandon search for knowledge in ble model of objectivity can be derived
of
|
to suit the needs the discipline.

e Contemporary sociology: It de! s, combining fact, objectivity with
values. Michel Foucault discourse erton's middle range theory make use
of both fact and values. Value provi growth and innovation, while objectivity
R
helps reliable theory formation.

soeial-research can be very far-
e ‘Various Perspective:
reaching as seen from t
bia
a
s
feo.
sen
Robert Redfield studied it
with functionalist perspec
1
Bal harmony between various
from
G
groups in the village while Oscar Lewis studied this village at almost the same time
Marxist perspective and found that the society was conflict ridden.
Conclusion:
N
The,combination of fact, value and objectivity gives meaning to the subject matter of sociology.
Complete separation of fact and value never existed, only a suitable balanced model can be devised.
KI
2.4.5-Serendipity (Unanticipated Consequences

classical
Serendipity is defined as unexpected and valuable discoveries made by accident. Some
examples of accidental findings in science include the discovery of X-ray, gravity and the invention
of penicillin. In sociology, the concept of serendipity is original to Merton.
PAPER
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More detail
1, New Findings: Merton in
his essay, “The
talks about how under certain conditions,
bearing of empirical research on sociological theory”
research finding gives rise to social theory. He calls
it ‘serendipity pattern’.
EE
2. Impetus to New Hypothesis: According to Merton, fruitful empirical research not only tests
theoretically derived hypotheses but also generates new hypotheses. This could be referred to
as the 'serendipity' component rese: of an's terms, it means that unexpected but
Search, sparking the development of an
strategic data may emerge durin:
entirely new theory. For exampl veloped the human relations school,
3. Lack of Control leads to Posi ipity in this manner is used to draw
U
attention to how the lack of co on their practice may have positive
outcomes in
particular circumstance similar to the detective’s method.
4, Characteristics: RK Merton provide ethod to make sense of serendipity. He
Q
states that social scientists should related to serendipity: Unanticipated,
es
Anomalous; Strategic. They are e

¢ Unanticipated: It means res ing the discovery of a new: facts,
practices or patterns that got acc ed.
¢ Anomalous: It
should give new und which
is different from normally accepted
R
facts or patterns.
¢ Strategic: It should should’h in understanding
| Senificance
gE
the society under co Pm)

G
Importance
* Jt broadens the scope and subject
matter of sociology.
e Serendipity can be used to make positivist sociology
e Expands investigators’ horizons in research, reveals unanticipated and fresh discoveries.
N
* Serendipity is higher in qualitative methods like ethnography, participant observation etc as.
they can lead to discovery of hidden patterns,
KI
Conclusion:
A social researcher must always have a keen eye and should be open to new ideas to ensure discovery
of unanticipated results and hidden patterns. i
2.5 - Non-Positivist Methodologies

a
_|
MATOR THEORETICAL STRANDS
OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
/
MACRO AICRO
P
(WON-POSETIVIST)
Sy
(POSETIVISTS)
Positivign
SYMBOLIC
TERACTIONISM
\
PHEVOMENOLOGY ETHVOMETHODOLOGY
N
PUNCTIONALIST
CONFLICT
PERSPECTIVE
PERSPECTIVE DRAMATURGY
T Feminist
NeoPncbonolet
EE
¢ methodologies are the distinct methods of sociological study that have
Non-positivist
developed after the classical school. They emphasize the value of relevant and subjective study
of social phenomena (social actions
They consider man as an indepe’ nstead of an over-socialised passive
entity. The classical school was ugust Comte, Emile Durkheim, etc.
The non-positivists were led by th
U
GH Mead.
Important Characteristics
Meaning: Non-positivist methodol ¢ the underlying meaning and motives
Q
associated with a social phenome’ in positivistic studies.
Ut
Values: These methodologies acc: 0 a social phenomena, For example,

verstehen accommodates value-bay ocial actions.
Actions (Phenomena): These met On study of social actions or phenomena
as against social facts (Example- Religio ited by positivism.
R
Understanding: These methodologies try to achieve complete understanding of a social action

with respect to the moti '
Distinction: They drawalis

derl
erie oRps of
resultant consequences.
ue natural sciences and the
d
value and meaning driven nature of social science. advocates

It
for abdication of scientific
G
methods for complete understanding of social reality.
Positivist
ia
vs Non-Positivist Methodologies
Parameter Positivist Methods Non Positivist Methods
N
Subject Emphasize social facts. Emphasize people, values, social actions

Matter
Perspective Complete Objectivity Blend of Objectivity and Subjectivity
KI
Domain Value free sociology Value relevance and neutral sociology

Definition Sociology is a science Sociology is a distinct social science
Methodology Deploy scientific methods to study Develop distinct methodologies to study
facts aspects of social reality
Context Classical school of Sociology New
schools, starting from Weber
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Approach Structural, nomothetic, and macro Interactional, idiographic, and micro based
based
Aim Provide causal explanations and! Describe and understand phenomenon
generalised theories rather than predict
Need/Significance
e Subjectivity: Subjective understanding is very important to understand the relevance of social
P
actions. Non-positivist believe that reality is multi-layered and complex and a single
©
phenomenon is
having multiple interpretations.
Comprehensive Understanding: Non-Positivist methodologies provide complete
understanding of social reality by equally emphasizing on both subjective and objective
N
meanings.
© Qualitative Approach: Non-Positivist methodologies denounce the
use of material scientific
methods inthe study of social phenomena. They prefer qualitative methods like Participant
EE
observation, case studies, interviews etc.
e Value Relevance: These methodologies accommodate values of various actors and
participants in the study of social phenomenon thus able to explain the cause behind actions.
Conclusion:
Thus, the two paradigms (positivist ai
reality, while positivism stand for o
U
construct laws and rules of human behaviot
interpretation of phenomena and making m'
OL
this, process.
Q
2.5 Non-Positivist Methodologies
2.5.1 - Interpretive Sociology
1. Interpretive sociology is based in
actions related to a social phenomena
Social Sciences”. Weber emphasizes that Ctions can be understood only by interpreting
R
i
the underlying meaning This terpretation is called hermeneutics by Weber.
2. Verstehen: It
is the co:
It has two components
° Objective: It is a social action that is empitically recordable and verifiable. For example,
G
marriage is a social action, recordable in empirical terms.

e Subjective: This is the aspect dealing with the meaning, motives and underlying values
that inspire a social action. For example, love marriage
in terms of values, motives and meanings.
is
different from arranged marriage
N
Features
e Consciousness: Interpretive school focuses on studying human consciousness which attaches
KI
meanings to his/her actions.

¢ Values: Social and individual values define an actor’s conscience and consciousness, and
hence determine his social actions. For example, the Wert-rational action of soldiers going to
save the country is value driven (patriotism, courage etc.).
e Extra Scientific: Science deals with matters without consciousness. Hence, sociology should
not stick to scientific methods for study of human behaviour.
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Causality: Weber explains the social actions depending upon the underlying values and
motives that cause them. For example, a bureaucrat may be ethical because he
is ethical, or he
is aftaid of persecution if caught.
Objective-Subjective..Combination: Verstehen goes for subjective understanding of
objective truth. Hence, it has both the elements.
Reaction: People react to external stimuli depending on the meaning they attach to
the stimuli.
P
For example, intimacy between a man and a woman varies depending upon the relationship,
be it paternalistic, or conjugal.
2.5.1.1- Phenomenology
N
e@
Phenomenology is concerned with the study of social phenomena, in relation to the causal
factors and outcomes. They emphasize the study of meaning, motives and values that shape
human actions insocial setup. The ideological basis to phenomenology is given by philosopher
Alfred Schultz in his “The Phenomenology of the Social World” and Max Weber.
EE
Weber argued that sociological explanations of
action should begin with ‘the observation and
theoretical interpretation of the subjective state of minds actors.of
Thinkers
@
Alfred Schultz: Schutz argues uld analyse 'the natural attitude’, the
assumptions that structure eve ctions in the social world. Our “life
U
world” isan intersubjective worl
constrained by existing external soc’
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckm ‘The Social Construction of Reality’
Q
rejected causal explanation, generg use of any specific methods. There's
no reality beyond the subjectivity
Max Weber: Weber established th
social actions.
R
Critical Evaluation
1. Positive
¢ Complete: Phenome
compared to classical positivism.school
G
‘¢ Inelusive: Phenomenological includes the subjectivity of values and meanings

attached to social actions, making the study more inclusive.
¢ Relevant: Study of meaning and motives behind social actions makes sociology more
relevant and appropriate, and closer to the truth.
N
©
Meaningful: Subjective understanding provides the real meaning associated with social
reality and actions.
2. Negative
KI
© Value Loaded: Subjectivity in phenomenology may spill over and cause value loaded
explanations by
a participant, which can get recorded in the study.
©
Psychology: Phenomenology ignores individual psychology in the course of study of
social meanings and motives. It emphasizes more on social values.
©
Non-methodology: Specific methodology was never developed by Phenomenologists.
They were unable to delineate concrete concepts, making phenomenology a victim of its
own ideologies based on pure subjectivism.
PAP Sociology Optional

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|
Page 56
ee
© Time and Cost Overrun: Time consuming and costly, without significant reliability or
validity
3. Conclusion:
Phenomenology opened up new dimensions to the study of social reality in the form of social
actions, social phenomena and the
attached meanings and motives. Though value biases may
occur from the participants’ end, the observer should inculcate the value relevance and
P
neutrality in his/her study. Thus, Phenomenology is a very good lens to get complete clarity of
the social reality.
2.5.1.2 - Ethnomethodology
1, Ethnomethodology is the study of the body of common-sense knowledge and the range of
N
procedures and considerations by means of which the ordinary members of the society make
sense of, find their way about, and act on the circumstances in which they find themselves. It
was first systematized in his “Studies in Ethnomethodology” work.
EE
2. It basically emphasizes the fact that social reality is the meaning people attach and perceive
the social world.
to
3. Two central ideas of ethnomethodolog
« Indexicality i.e., sense of an aenon is context specific. For example-
id received by interacting parties have
gestures, cues, words and o
meaning in a particular conte§
‘
U
©
Reflexivity i.c., our sense o a conversational process based on
subjective interpretation of orde arold Garfinkel counselling experiment
given below.
,
:
Q
Thinkers
1. Harold Garfinkel: He used the m ing experiment of students in which
students’ method of interpretation of cou! ere reflexive. Students' sense of counsellor
R
answers was derived from the context of interaction,

ae
indexicality. :
fiyeGore who simply acts out the

by
® Garfinkel argued a;
standardised directi
2. Ethnomethodology is the fusion of Parsonian and Schutz’s ideas:
Parsons defined socialisation in a top-down approach. Garfinkel used a bottom-up
G
e@
e
approach to understand
Shutz argued that
social order where people construct it through interaction.
is constantly negotiated in an ongoing Meaning is
meaning process.
always unclear and social order is subjective.
N
Alternatives to Positivism
Peoples Method: Ethnomethodology is called peoples method as it studies ‘what people do’
rather than ‘what they ought to do’. Social world is nothing more than the constructs,
KI
interpretations and accounts of its members.

Individualism: People are viewed as rational but they use practical reasoning, not formal logic
in accomplishing their everyday life. Positivist concept of action based on external stimuli was
rejected.
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® Multiplicity: It is neither interested in micro structures nor in macro structures; they are
concerned with artful practices that produce both types of structures. Positivists were interested
in generalizationof concepts and making social laws.
Critical Evaluation
1. Positive
P
¢ Common Sense: It
provides sociological understanding of common-sensical views, norms
and customs in
society.
Daily Life: Ethnomethodology is a study of everyday life of people.
Enrichment: It enriched sociological understanding of primitive societies and village
N
studies in Indian social understanding.
2. Negative
e Social Change: Ethnomethodology provides little explanation to social change. It
emphasizes more on people and their everyday lives and meanings.
EE
* Radical Subjectivity: Development of subject matter becomes difficult because of radical
subjectivity.
¢ Power Relations: Alvin Goul omethodologists ignored the fact that
social interactions and reality, ferential power relations that exist in
society,
e No Practical Goals: Antho
U nomethodologists have no practical
goals or interests. They have ap otives and have a detached view of the
society.
¢ Whimsical: H. Goldthorpe sai yhat observers don't recognise does not
Q
exist for them and they remai
3. Conclusion;_Ethnomethodology cal understanding of everyday life
which cannot be understood from It provides a common-sense view of
Fvation, interviews, ethnomethodological
R
| ke,
2
2.5.1.3- SYMBOLIC INTERA' I

Symbolic interactionism (SI) theory assumes that people respond to elements of their environments
é
according to the subjective meanings they attach to those elements. These meanings are created and
G
modified through social interaction involving symbolic communication with other people.
Symbolic Interactionism
N
Society Symbols
KI
Communicate with Establish

each other meanings
%.... Develop
their views yy
Characteristics of SI
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Ken Plummer talks about four characteristics of the symbolic interaction perspective. They are:
Symbols: As per SJ, humans communicate with each other through symbols. The history,
culture, and forms of communication of humans can be traced through symbols and
through symbols that meaning is
associated with interpretation, action, and interaction.
is
it
Change, Adjustment, Becoming: SI considers people as active agents where self is created
through social interactions. However, this self is not necessarily a fixed and inflexible self but
—- P
one that is constantly adjusting to others.
Interaction: Actions are not individual actions, rather actions are always joint with mutual
response and adjustment of the actor and others considered.
Empirical: While the symbolic interaction perspective may seem to lack well developed
N
concepts, logical models, or theoretical rigour, it makes up for this by studying social
interaction of actual people in the social world.
Thinkers
EE
1. Herbert Blumer: He rejected both social and biological determinism and argued that man
himself creates social reality through interactions. Individuals are viewed as reflective or
interacting units in society. Accordi r, social interaction thus has four main
principles (premises):
¢ Subjectivity: Individuals act in reference to the subjective meaning objects have for them.
For example, an individual that sees the “object” of family as being relatively unimportant
U
will make decisions neglecting the role of family.
¢ Context (Definition of Situation): Interactions happen in a social and cultural context
where objects, people, and situations must be defined and characterized according to
Q
individuals’ subjective meanings.
¢ Meanings: For individuals, meanings originate from their interactions with other
individuals and with society. For example, a child’s interaction with barking dogs attaches
a meaning of fear towards the animal.
e Interpretation: Individuals create and recreate meanings through a process of
R
i i
interpretation that ha with others.
G. H. Mead: He argued ugh significant symbols. He
argued that “self and so’ person has about the unified
goal of his body, emotions, thoughts and action. Self originates when individuals interact with
G
others in society
Howard Becker's: His labeling theory stems from the school of symbolic interactionism,
which believes that an individual’s sense of selfis formed by their interactions with and the
labels ascribed to them by other people.
N
Charles Horton Cooley: He used the term looking-glass self to convey the idea that a person's
knowledge of their self-concept is largely determined by the reaction of others around them.
Other people thus act as a looking-glass' (mirror) so that we can judge ourselves by looking
KI
‘in! it.
Peter Berger: Man, via social interactions, creates his own meaning and understanding of
reality, directing his own actions based on that.
Alternatives to Positivism
Ability to think: Symbolic Interactionism differentiates between humans and animals on the
basis of ability to think and act.
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a
e Individualism: Individualism was preferred over positivist ideology of external stimuli-based |
interactions.
e Enabler: Symbolic Interactionism enables people to deal with material and social worlds by
allowing them to name, categorize and remember the objects that they counter there. ,
Enhances ability: It improves the ability of individuals to perceive problems and solve them. |
Transcendental: Allows actors to transcend time, space and own personas. For example,
P
actors can imagine what it was like to live in the past.
Metaphysical: Allows to imagine even a metaphysical reality such as heaven and hell.
Individual View: Blumer suggests sociologists to grasp the actor's view rather than attempting '
to fit data into predefined categories. This involves “feeling one's way inside the experience of
N
the actor.”
Critical Evaluation
1. Positive
EE
¢ Human Behavior: SI develops understanding of human behavior through symbols they
use in interactions.
¢ Evolution of self: SI-studies the d f ‘self? and ‘mind’ as a child grows from
play stage to game stage.
¢ Tand Me: SI identifies 2 pha: dynamic, innovative and spontaneous
and ‘me’ being conventional
U
¢ Nature of Role: SI analyses %
i
d role complexities among members in
interaction. For example, a mothi tion with a child than the father.
©
Flexibility: Allows actors to tr d
even their own personas.
Q
2. Negative
e Isolated Interaction: SI exa
scale face to face interaction ig}
activities which Mead sees men
rather they are merely episodes/i interactio
R
Origin of Norms: exacti claim

e
misty
tl
t action is not determined by
structural norms, int “such norms. William Skidmore
comments that interaSeOnisw# lat
Bel for certain actions of people
in certain situations as recurring.
G
e¢
External Force: SI emphasizes that meanings.are generated not as a result of interaction
but as a result of external force due to presence of class relations. Marxists further argued
that the meanings that operate in face-to-face interaction situations are largely the product
ofclass relationships.
N
¢ Ignoring Reality: According to Leon Shaskolsky, Symbolic Interactionists have neglected

to take into consideration the harsher realities of social life by emphasizing American
principles such as liberty, freedom, and individualism.
KI
Additional Information: Dramaturgy

1. Introduction: Apart from Mead’s popularising of the symbolic interactionist approach,
another major contributor to this perspective was Erving Goffman. He popularised a
particular type of interactionist method known as the dramaturgical approach.
2. Various Features:
¢ Social Life as Drama: The dramaturgical approach also derives from the interpretive
approach and
o
it
compares everyday life
to the setting of a drama
M Francis Abraham attests that, “The dramaturgical-approach
—
is
a theatre
stage.
the study of social
or
a
interaction as though participants are actors in a play in a theatre hence; social
behaviour becomes analogous to
theatrical drama.
¢ Premise: Just as actors act in front of us and present to us certain visuals or images,
P
we individuals also like to present certain qualities of our personalities in front of the
outside world; while we like to hide some of them.

e Impression Management: Goffman’s primary focus has been to understand the
process of impression management. Hence, individuals not only present themselves to
N
each other in a presentable manner, but also attempt to manage the image they present.
¢ Interpretation of meanings and motives: If we are to understand the meanings of
actions as Weber postulated, it would be necessary to deeply and subjectively involve
ourselves during interactions, in order to gauge whether an individual is engaging in
EE
the act of impression management.
* Back Stage: Back stage is a place where actors prepare for their roles. Similarly,
individuals’ roles for their soci repared through socialisation, education etc
which
is considered as a life. In the back stage individuals learn
¢
about the social mores
Front Stage: Actors pe!
a ich they will operate.
of audiences. Their performance gets
U
influenced by the respo at the same time they maintain their
a
individuality. Similarly, if,
with others yet they have lot
Q
5. Conclusion:
Symbolic interactionism increase: y including psychological concepts
and principles under the arena of iches the already existing positivist
sociology by inculcating the interac’
R
G
N
KI
PAPER
UNIT 3: RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS
'
3.1 Quantitative And Qualitative Research
3.1.1 Research
e Definition: Research is a procedure by which we attempt to find systematically and with the
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support of demonstrable facts, the answer to a question. Its fundamental objective is to
disseminate information and establish theories based on verifiable facts.
e Origin: Research methods initially borrowed from natural sciences (positivist approach),
gradually sociological perspectives also evolved, for e.g. Verstehen approach by Weber.
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Importance of Research
© Solution to Problems: People directly experience social problems and research offers
remedies to them and improves people's social conditions. Sociological Imagination is
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developed to view problems in
a societal perspective. For e.g.- Oscar Lewis explained poverty
as a “cultural” problem
e Rectify Social Behaviour: As social res: cuses on societal behaviour, so by analysing
the societal behaviour and altering, it. ays will help in achieving societal goals.
This is especially relevant for Crité school. For e.g. Banning of Sati/Child
marriage etc.
@
Development of Methodology:
U tributions of social research is the
development of methodologies -to¥ ues. For e.g.- Nationalist Indology by
Ghurye
e Discover and Re-evaluate: Soci to develop new hypotheses and re-
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evaluate those that have already inking of white man’s burden theory
New Strategies/Models: Designi
e@
ning, prediction, and control models
is aided by social research.
@
Dynamics of Social Institutions “# a: Institutions in society and social
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phenomena seldom remain constant. Thesé“are"ever-evolving. Research is required to assess

the shift. For e.g. religiou: gevivaligm and growth of sects and cults
e Formation of body of kh logical work from layperson
knowledge of
society and'p!
like Marxism, Functionalism etc.
ftatice of work. For e.g.- Schools
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3.1.2- Quantitative Methodolo:

« Quantitative research methodology is concerned with objective measurements and includes
statistical or numerical analysis of data gathered via polls, questionnaires, or surveys, In this,
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the variables can be manipulated to investigate the cause-effect relationship, perform

comparative analysis, or conduct interventional research within a specific population.
e Preferred by Positivist school to generate different types of theories. Best e.g. - Durkheim’s Le
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Suicide study
Characteristics of Quantitative Method

e Clearly defined Research Questions: The researcher frames clearly defined research
questions based on the research problem, and the answers to these questions are sought
objectively.
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Representative Sample: The researcher selects a sample from a specified populatio’ in order
to collect data. Because these sample: are representative of the population, the results obtained
can be generalized to the entire population.
Controlling Variables: The researcher manipulates (e.g., increases or decreases) and even
controls the extraneous/controlled variables that can influence the research study.
Structured and Standardized Tools: Numbers are the focus of quantitative research, and the
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data are gathered using standardized or organized research tools. Utilizing empirical evidence,
the data is analysed. The data are gathered as numbers and statistics, and are frequently
presented in tables, charts, and other.non-textual formats.
Reliable and Valid: The study can be replicated or repeated and will produce comparable
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results because it is carried out under controlled observations using scientific studies. Thus,
research data has high reliability. In addition to
this, as conventional and structured instruments
are used in quantitative research (which are variable specific), they are valid as well. However,
generally the validity of quantitative methods is
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lower than qualitative methods.
Generalisability: Results arrived at using quantitative methods can be generalized, and they
can also be used to accurately anticipate outcomes and infer causal linkages because the
quantitative research is carried out in manner and data are also highly reliable
and valid.
Method:
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‘Advantages/Significance
It gives the chance to gather informa
from a bigger sample, ai of statistical
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concrete,
conducting a larger study, and ps, which can lead to
for the generalization of findin; s overlooking broader themes
larger population.
It aids the researcher in obtain
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accurate and objective results
the participant.
e It provides an opportunity to replicate It does not lead to in-depth and holistic
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and design similar studies. understanding of social action as

understanding actors motives and
meanings is
difficult.
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e It offers the chance to conduct The research is only using a statistical

experiments in a controlled setting, technique; hence it lacks the foundation
minimizing error variance. for the discovery process.
e Closed-ended and structured questions It's possible that the study won't provide
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are employed to produce responses that peoples’ genuine and original responses.
are free from bias.
Types of Quantitative Methods
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¢ Surveys: Surveys are research techniques that gather data from a predetermined representative
sample of respondents in order to learn more and get insights into a range of topics of interest.
For e.g.- NSO, NFHS etc.
* Closed-ended Questionnaires: Closed-ended questions are those that can only be answered
by choosing one of a small number of possibilities. These questions are typically multiple-
choice with a single-word response, such as "yes" or "no," or they can use a rating system like
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Likert scale.
e Structured Interview: A "structured interview" is one in which the entire process is
meticulously planned out and the major areas of inquiry are mapped out with a predetermined
list of questions.
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¢ Multivariate analysis: To overcome the problem of spurious correlation, Durkheim devised
a technique known as multivariate analysis which involves trying to isolate the effect of a
particular independent variable upon the dependent variables.
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* Field experiments: Sociologists do carry out experiments that are normally outside a
laboratory known as
field-experiments which involves intervening in the social world in such
a way that hypotheses can be tested by isolating variables. For e.g.- 2009 — The Ethnicity and i
Job Application Experiment in Brit research is generally characterised as

it.
j
qualitative research, it
often invol ef quantitative research in
ial situations that allow them to
:
|
¢ Laboratory experiments: S *
manipulate variables and study

U example, Milgram's obedience and
|
Aschs' conformity experiments.
e Comparative Method: These may
bf
different societies, of groups within one
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or more societies, and comparison: Srent points in time.
e Statistical Model: It’s a mathema observed data.
Conclusion
Thus, quantitative methodologies help 1 ctivity by removing the biases from the
it
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research as relies on concrete numbers and fewer variables derived from large sample sizes.
3.1.3- Qualitative Method

. ee
Qualitative research aims ve adeiedhding of human behaviour,
/ 4
experience, attitudes, intentions, and motives on the basis of observation and interpretation. It
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evolved with the development of the Interpretivist school by Weber.

For example, qualitative research was used by Mead while studying significant symbols and their
role in self and mind formation.
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Characteristics of Qualitative Method:

Wide context of research: The researcher studies the events taking into accotmt all the
happenings taking place in the particular situation, which can lead to newer discoveries and
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questions. :
Involvement researcher: Qualitative research leads to full involvement of the researchers in
of
the field and in the cultural settings. For e.g. William Whyte’s study of Italian Mafia. Thus,
qualitative researchers do not believe in
strictly value-free inquiry
be more formal and bias-free as suggested by Weber
Researcher- Participant relationship: Can
or informal, participative to bring about a positive change as suggested by feminists like Ann
Oakley.
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« Data gathering and analysis take place simultaneously: The researcher immerses himself or
herself in the research environment to gather data using various methods, such as observation and
interview, and he or she continuously analyses and interprets the data as well.
« Thick description: According to Geertz, researchers will be better able to employ thick
description
if
they are fully immersed in the research environment. The thick description includes
the information about facts, and theoretical as well as analytical description.
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e Discard Generalization: Qualitative research does not focus on generalization. In generalisation
a lot of meaningful information existing in individual units is undermined. Habermas has said
humans are not passive entities which can be observed like things.
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Advantage/Significance Disadvantage
e Helps in gaining a more accurate|e The qualitative research process does not
understanding of the real world, which provide statistical representation but from
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cannot be comprehended or experienced perspectives only. Sample size cannot be
through statistical and numerical data. too large
e Provide the researcher with the per: The data collected is dependent upon the
of the participants of the st perience of the researchers involved in
immersion in a culture or situat
result of direct interaction with them;
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e This type of research method works toward fa must be recognised by the
solving complex issues by breaking dow! esearchers in qualitative research for it
into meaningful inferences that collected.
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readable and understood by all.
e Since, it’s a more communicative method, ( e qualitative research is based on
people can build their trust on the researche! HWidual perspectives, it is almost
and the information thus obtained is.raw an possible to duplicate the results that
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unadulterated. are found.

e Allows for genuine idgg Although ke-minded people tend to
from specific socioeco :
act in similar ways, this is
case.
Create adaptable methods for gathering data,
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« |e Research involving human beings

analysing it afterwards, and interpreting the increases. the possibility of ethical
results. dilemmas undermining the study's
:
overall validity.
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« Provide a holistic view of the phenomena |e Requires a high level of experience from
under investigation and widens scope of the researcher to obtain the targeted
sociology. .
information from the respondent
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Types of Qualitative Methods

¢ Biographical study:
the researcher or
It is the study of an individual his or her experiences as narrated to
of
and
found
in different sources. In
a variety disciplines, literature,
including
history, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and others, one can find biographical texts.
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Phenomenology: In'this method, without employing any theory, calculations, or presumptions
from other fields, the behavioural phenomena is
described with the aid of conscious experience
of events. Developed. by Alfred Schiitz.
Ethnography; A cultural or social group or system is described and interpreted through
ethnography methodologies. Here the focus of the study remains on examining the patterns of
of a group, its customs and ways of life. e.g. Radcliffe Brown Andaman
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behaviour Study.
Case Study: The research methodology emphasizes comprehensive analysis of unit
a or case.
The situation could involve.a person, a project, an occasion, an organization, an activity, etc.
Sigmund Frued used Case study to cure personality problems of his patients.
Focus groups: In this methodology, a group of individuals discusses certain topics or
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questions. Focus groups may be
structured or unstructured, and they may consist of a diverse
or homogeneous group of people. Used by Robert Merton.
Grounded Theory Study: ‘This qualitative method focuses on ‘discovering’ and studies the
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relationship between an empirical investigation and theory. As a result, gathering data is done
with the intention of encouraging theory development using the data.
Content Analysis: It is used to evalua ty of issues from text, news, ads, and other
similar sources, such as social, cultuy ats, and so forth.
Discourse Analysis: It can be esearch that focuses on how. people
communicate verbally and in entails examination of interpersonal
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interactions, texts, social practic ns, photographs, documents, and so
forth.
Unstructured Interviews: Also tert ‘olled’, ‘unguided’, or ‘non-directive’
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interview is one where the intervie’ a list of predetermined questions.
Observation Method: Observati one or more people watch real-life
ll
situation and note important even ow people act out in both‘controlled
and uncontrolled environments. y
ed
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Conclusion
Quantitative methods provide testable and precise expressions to qualitative ideas. Then we use the
qualitative methods to
understand the
conclusions that we
generate from
the statistical analysis of the
quantitative approach.
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Comparative Analysis between Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Quantitative
|
Qualitative
e Seek to confirm hypotheses|e« Seek to explore phenomena
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about phenomena. e Instruments use a more flexible,

e Instruments use a more rigid iterative style of eliciting and
of responses to
General syle ; cticiting and categorizing
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categorizing —_responses 0 questions.

framework e Use semi-structured methods
questions.
e Use highly structured methods such as in-depth interviews,
such as questionnaires, surveys, focus groups, and participant
and structured interviews.. observation.
To quantity variation. e To describe variation.
Analytical ;
To describe and
;
«cet
objectives
To
predict causal relationships. |e
: :
explain
relationships.
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e To describe characteristics of aj e .To describe individual
population. experiences.
e To describe group norms.
Question e Closed-ended. e Open-ended.
format :
Numerical (obtained by Textual (obtained from
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e «
Data Format assigning numerical values to audiotapes, videotapes and field
responses). notes).
»®
Study design is stable from |e Some aspects of the study are
beginning to end flexible (for example, the
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e Participant responses do not addition, exclusion, or wording
influence or determine how and of particular interview
which questions researchers ask questions).
_
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Flexibility in next. e Participant responses affect
study design | Study design is subject to
statistical assumptions and
how and. which questions
researchers ask next.
conditions. Study design is
iterative, that
data collection and research
is,
questions are adjusted
is
U according to what learned.
3.1.4- Triangulation
The process of using numerous d: methods of data analysis to increase
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the reliability of a research study n.
Triangylation, which has its roo surveying contexts, brings diverse
viewpoints into alignment and fa e understanding of the phenomenon
of interest.
Norman Denzin identified four types of ons. They are:
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¢ . Data Triangulation: It involve: ultiple sources of data.
ol
:
¢.; Investigator Triang loyi seifgfal evaluators to engage in
observations or analy iOIpa ae
« Theory triangulation: In this, multiple theoretical perspectives are considered either in
in
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conducting the research or interpreting the data.

e¢
Methodological triangulation: It is the most commonly used form of triangulation,
engaging multiple methods to study a single problem.
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3.2 Techniques Of Data Collection

1. Data collection is the process of gathering and analysing accurate information from a variety
of sources. It helps to find answers to research questions, trends, probabilities and evaluate
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their possible outcomes.

2. Data collection technique depends on the following factors:
e Data required is quantitative or qualitative.
e Data required is primary or secondary.
e Research method is
Positivist or Non-Positivist.
Purpose of Data Collection
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@ Hassle-free Research: Well prepared data collection ensures researchers have no problem in
conducting research. -
e Easy reference: Organised data collection makes it convenient refer to to
the target audience
at any stage of research.
« Difference in research methods: Different research methods demand different techniques of
data collection so as the research outcome is
reliable, accurate and valid.
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« Relevant Data helps in taking an informed decision in research.
Sources of Data Collection

1. Primary Sources: It consists of data collected by researchers themselves during the course of
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their research. It makes use of questionnaires, conducting interviews, or carrying out
participant observation.
_
©
Advantages:
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o Primary data results are accurate if collected properly.
It is more authentic than secondary data.
o
e Disadvantages: First-hand research is time-consuming and costly.
2. Secondary Sources: Secondary data is analysed information that was collected by someone
else. This information is something that the researcher either looked up or asked other people
to find. It includes information from government records, mass media, diaries, letters,
government reports, the works of other sociologists, and historical and modern records. Simply
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put, it's information from a second source.
« Advantages:
o Secondary data saves time as the collection work is done by someone else.
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o Itis well recorded e.g. Travelogues, journals :
¢ Disadvantages: oy
o They have researchers’ bias e.g. Backward theory for Indian villages by colonialists.
o The authenticity and accuracy of the data may be doubtful.
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3.2.1- Quantitative Methods Of Data Collection

Quantitative research is the systematic study of things by gathering data that can be measured and
analysing it using statistics, math, or computers. For example, a person’s age, or: annual
income. Different quantitative techniques are:
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1. Surveys
¢ Definition: It is a research project that collects standardized data about a large number of
people. Aldridge and Levine argued the key characteristic of a survey is ‘that we collect
the same information about all cases in a sample’. It is a holistic process which includes
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tools like questionnaires along with interviews. It involves analysis of, collected data to
come at a meaningful conclusion.
Where
it is applied: It
is best suited for quantitative and Positivist research.
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Processing data: Information collected through surveys can be analysed using statistical
it
techniques, mathematical models and computer simulations.
« How is conducted: The most practical way of collecting such data is through the use of
questionnaires. For example, Research on voting in the UK uses quantitative statistical
methods because the research has to deal with so many numbers.
e Why
is it effective?
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ee
o Efficient: When information is collected over a large set of population, techniques like
focus group and participant observation cannot be used. Hence, a survey is applied.
o Comprehensive: It
is a broad view of a subject based on information from a carefully
chosen group of people who are
representative of the whole.
© Facilitates generalization: It allows a researcher to generalise results for a large
population while actually studying only a small portion of this population.
OT
TO
ane
nee P
o Two guiding principles of selection in a survey:
" Stratification: All the relevant subgroups in the population should be recognised
and represented in the sample.
* Randomisation: The selection of actual units, i.e., person, village or household,
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TTT
LTE
should be based purely on chance.
© Stephen Ackroyd and John A. Hughes distinguished three main types of surveys:
The Factual Survey: It
is used to collect descriptive information. These types of
‘SAL
=
survey methods have also been used to collect data on poverty and social exclusion.
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For example, Government census
" The Attitude Survey: It
attempts to discover the subjective states of individuals.
It doesn’t produce descriptive information about the social world. For
example, polling organisations collect information about attitudes to political
policies and personalities.
* The Explanatory Survey: It
either tests theories and hypotheses or produces new
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theories. It is more ambitious than other types. For example, testing a theory
whether white collar workers had become proletarianized.
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Advantages Of Survey 1 s Of Survey
A practical way to collect data. Low response rate.
Can get.a.lot of information from a lot det methodological position implies that
different people in a relatively
of time.
short amountgjsuch ape
data can be only one of the types of data
required in sociological research.
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Involves relatively little personal Interactionists: Statistical data is inadequate for

involvement, or danger or sacrifice on the partif producing sociological explanations of human
|,
of the researcher, when compared with the!) behaviour.

participant observation studies.
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Results can be easily quantified. It can be Phenomenologists: the data produced is

analysed quickly and efficiently with the
assistance of computers.
|
artificially created by the researcher.
is set
of It produces reliable data but lacks validity.
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Since each respondent given the same

questions, any differences in response should Respondents are unwilling or unable to give
reflect real differences
respondents.
between the
|
accurate replies to the questions.
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Positivist perspective: statistical data can be Validity is also doubtful in case of postal
analysed so that new theories can be surveys where researchers and respondents are
introduced. at a significant far distance.
Suitable method for testing precise Respondents cannot provide information that is
Hypotheses. not asked. Hence, hypothesis framing gets
difficult during the course of research.
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Instruments of data collection are Surveys are
increasingly using online methods ;
standardized implying more reliability and and computer-assisted techniques. People
validity. might skip answering them. |
¢ Conclusion: |
Some topics prefer the use of quantitative techniques, while others lend to qualitative :
techniques. Now the trend of following either of the two is declining, and the use of both
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qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study is becoming more common.
2. QUESTIONNAIRE
¢ Definition: Questionnaires are a popular method of data collection. A questionnaire
a
consists of list of pre-set questions. In this method, the same questions are usually given
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to respondents in the same order so that the same information can be collected from every
of
it
member the sample.
¢ How is conducted: It can be administered by an interviewer face to face, may be sent
by post, distributed during a large gathering or posted online.
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¢ Types of Questionnaires: It is divided into various types:
o Closed ended Questionnaire: In a closed ended questionnaire, questions are followed
by options and the respondent has to choose from them. Close-ended questions are best
suited for large-scale surve ple, choose gender — Male or Female.
Advantages of Closed
Questionnaire
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Cost effective. :
fig in preparation
Answers of the respondents the researchers are imposed on the
compared. :
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Easy for respondents to answer.
Easy to code and tabulate.
Performance of the respondents is

reliable.
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Researchers can also relia!

answers.
Sensitive questions ca foperly # Fe
; they
answered. may need more explanation.
:
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Less number of confusing answers. Less Multiple choices from the researcher may be
knowledgeable persons can also answer. confusing for the respondents.
o Open Ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions give liberty to the respondents to
express their views. Respondents have freedom to answer as per their interpretation.
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For example, Can you tell

me how I could use the Internet to do my research better?
Advantages of Open Ended Questionnaire Disadvantages of Open Ended Questionnaire
Unanticipated answers can be obtained from Different answers may be received from the
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the respondents, respondents on the same question

Researchers can have real views of the Responses can be vague, irrelevant or not to the
respondents, point.
Respondents can give their views in their Coding of the responses is not possible as
own language. This reflects creativity, self- respondents may use different terms for the same
expression and richness of
detail. concept.
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Such answers reveal the logic of the Different ways of looking at the same question
i.e.
respondents rationale behind actions not lead to useful analysis.
might
Promote value neutral research Respondents need more time to answer and more
space is required for answers.
Conclusion: If the questionnaire has a good mix of both types of questions, the
disadvantages about each can be reduced to a great extent. Most questionnaires
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contain both types of questions. For quantitative data, close ended questions are
best while for qualitative data, open ended questions are best.
o Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Questionnaire
" Primary questionnaire: It
is direct ly related to. research or subject. For example, to
it
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determine the type of family whether is male headed, female headed or democratic.
question that might offend them.

It
Secondary questionnaire: is a roundabout way to get someone
For example, who decides the
answer
gift in a
to
personal
party or a
a
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dinner menu?
Tertiary questionnaire: They are neither primary nor secondary. They are general and
casual questions to set up a framework for asking primary or secondary questions.
o Direct and Indirect Questionnaire
" Direct questionnaire: They are personal questions which extract information about the
respondent himself/herself. For exam ple, do you believe in God?

" Indirect questionnaire: They seek information about a third person. For example, Do
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you think a person of your age should believe in god?
© Nominal, Ordinal and Interval Questionnaire-
Nominal question: It is one in which response falls in two or more categories, For
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example, Gender- male, female or other; Education- literate or illiterate.
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Ordinal question: is the one in wh: ich responses are placed in rank order of category.
For example, Smoking- regularly or occasionally or never or can’t say.
" Interval question: They are those in which one can expect a range of answers instead
of a direct answer. For example, present age- 10-20 years or 20-30 years or 30+ years.
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OF QUESTIONNAIRE
questionhaireicannot be used with illiterate
very useful tool for gatheri: ctsatid chifdifen.
It is economical in terms of time, effort and The behaviours, gestures, reactions, emotions of
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cost, both for the sender and respondent the respondent are not noticed well.
It is easy to plan, construct and administer. It is hard to come up with questions about
sensitive, delicate and private topics of research
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It permits group administration and is Some respondents may not like to give their
adaptable to any objectives. views on controversial issues in writing.
Most people trust it when they use if to gel a A questionnaire is rigid in its structure about
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statement Of fact. complex emotional subjects

Most of the time, questionnaires are a better Nothing can be done if the subject: doesn’t
way to fincl out personal information, interpret a question well or provides an
incomplete/ vague response.
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It places less pressure on the- subject for It produces reliable data but lacks validity due
immediate response. to unwillingness or inability by respondents to
give accurate replies to the questions.
It helps the respondent pay attention to all of It is possible that the respondents who return the
the important things. It doesn't allow variation surveys may not represent the entire group
in answers.
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.
It may be used as a preliminary tool for It provides a skewed sample. Non-response is

conducting in-depth study later by a different always a significant question mark.
method.
The responses given by the subjects are It has low validity and reliability. It looks for
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available in their own language and version secondary evidence when primary is lacking.
e Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:
Relevant questions: A good questionnaire asks about important topics that make
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©
people want to fill it out. It is carefully explained on the questionnaire or in

the letter
that comes with it.
o Hidden information: It
is looking for information that can't be found in books, reports,
and other records.
o Crisp:It is as short as possible and.comprehensive and clear enough at the same time.
o Well organized: It
is neatly put together. It can be easily duplicated or printed.
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o Directive: It provides clear and complete directions. Important terms are defined, and
each question deals with a single idea, so it is valid and reliable.
© Categorical: Items are arranged in categories. This enables easy and accurate
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responses. hi
o Clarity: The questions are clear and give no hints about how to answerrithem. The-
researcher makes sure to stay away from leading questions. an,
© Logical: The questions are presented in a logical way from broad to specific résponses.
© Multiple options: The questions carry an adequate number of alternatives.
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o Simple: It's easy to tabulate and understand because the tabulation sheet is already
made and the final data analysis is shown.
© Precautions: Double negatives and combining two Questions into one are! also
avoided.
e Conclusion: Questionnaire as a tool of data collection is one of the cheap and easy
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techniques. It can be used in case of a literate population so that they are able to get back
with their replies. ¢
3. Interviews
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e Definition: It is a guided conversation between the researcher and the respondent(s). It

involves interpersonal communication for data collection.
¢ How
itof
is conducted: It
is conducted in
the form of verbal questioning.
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Forms Interview: Jt may be face-to-face, telephonic and group interview.

it
Types of Interview: At the broadest level, is of two types-
o Structured Interview: It
is simply a questionnaire administered by an interviewer. He
is not allowed to deviate in any way from the
questions provided. The interviewer may
ask questions about the answers to make sure they are clear, if needed and may also
give interviewee extra guidance to help them answer the question.
|
Advantages of Structured Interview | Limitations of Structured Interview |
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Focuses on how accurate each answer so that is, The scope of assessment of results is limited.
very well-organized data can be collected.
Facilitates contact with large sample of target Accuracy is not assured due to the detailed
population information.
The interview process is made easy by the fact Researcher is bound by the pre-decided list
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that it can be standardised. of questions.
Requires a significant amount of time
It is easy to replicate the result on a large sample
Generates reliable results and are quick to
execute.
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o Unstructured Interview: It is a form of conversation where the interviewer has no
predetermined questions. The conversation goes where it wants to go. the respondent If
doesn't talk about something the researcher wants to talk about, the interviewer steers the
conversation back to what he or she wants to talk about.
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» Ann Oakley advocated for unstructured Interviews where the researcher and
respondent become collaborators and friends in the research.
* Critical Sociologists also usual fer unstructured Interviewing.
Advantages of Unstructured Interyf of Unstructured Interview
Mas
Easy to develop a friendly rapport with the A time taking process to execute.
participants. con
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Participants can clarify all their doubts Reliability is questionable because it lacks
related to the subject. questions.
. ipstandardized
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Great flexibility as there is no pre--decided’t ‘Some people find the ethics of this situation
list of questions. almost upsetting.
e Structured vs Unstructured Interviews "
Structured'Interview ctured Interview.

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Sequence, of is pre-decided and the No fixed questions and supplementary

questions
fOpriat for bringing out attitudes

and opinions.
It standardised interviews to the maximumTit is useful in situations which demand new
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extent possible. Hence, it gives more reliable information to deal with problems which
information and are also more objective in their arise in a course of the interviewing process.
approach
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Facilitates easy comparison of responses |

It has a flexible format so that ambiguities,
between different respondents. if any, can be clarified.
catalyst,
o Non-Directive Interview: In a non-directive interview, the interviewer acts as a
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He prompts respondents to give information on research topic. Respondents are given a

free environment so
that they can express their viewsfreely and the point. to
« Role of Researcher: Interviewer supports the views expressed by the respondent
instead of approving or disapproving them.
[
Advantages of NDI |
Disadvantages of NDI |
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e NDI promotes cooperation among |e It may also lead to chaos and conflicts
participants for better consensus. because of divergent views.
© It reduces the time a reseatcher spends on e It costs the researcher more to manage the
asking questions. group.
° Face-to-face Interview: This interview requires at least two persons present physically
P
before each other; and group interview is also possible. It is the best data collection
technique for Sociological Research.
Advantages of Face-to-face Interview Disadvantages of Face-to-face Interview

Interview
N
@ is more flexible than @ Identity of respondents is disclosed so they
Questionnaire as it is not limited by might give a manipulated response.
options or fixed answer
Interview covers much larger samples as
Compared to questionnaires, conducting
@
interviews is expensive, ‘
EE
compared to Participant Observation. @ Interview process depends upon the present
© Respondents are more comfortable in
interpersonal communication. Heng:
mood of
the interviewer and respondent.
riation in context and change in
participation and response rates ar ewer can result in important changes
@ In depth probing on research i ormation provided.
possible via follow-up questio ents often make such answers which
U
an interview i
will present their best image.
of
:
® Both respondents and researchers limited number respondents can be

seek clarification on questions wed at a time.
Q
answers, This removes ambigui | accent, pronunciation, dialectics,
vagueness from data, as both pa ake the situation difficult for the
and researcher are involved i
conversation, usually face-to-face difficult to administer. The respondents
@ Increases the response rate as well a d refuse cooperation when they are
R
quality of response directly confronted, or asked to respond.

Conclusion: Interview method enables the researcher to solicit data through open-
ended/closed ended questions involving conversation with respondents. ‘
4. Schedule
Definition: As per Goode and Hatt, schedule is
list of questions that interviewer asks and
G
the person being interviewed answers. It

is similar to questionnaire, except that schedule is
filled by enumerator who is specially appointed for this purpose.
It
is a standardised tool
of observation or interview and it
it
helps in collecting data in objective manner,
N
How is conducted: A person called an enumerator asks the questions

The questionnaire will only be used internaily.
in
a set proforma.
Why
is it effective: Schedule acts as a guideline for the researcher to collect all the
It
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information in a sequence. prevents loss of information if he forgets something.

Advantage:
oO
Easy Analysis: Tabular format makes data analysis easy.
© Standardised: Enumerator maintains standard data format during input.
© Less Interference: It reduces participant’s interference in data collection.
Disadvantages:
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o Value Dissonance: Enumerator may miss out on participant’s value, or rationale while
recording data in open ended questions.
o Time Consuming: It
takes a lot of time to collect data from respondents.
o No Anonymity: As enumerator and respondent interact with each other.
© Types of Schedules:
o Rating Schedule: It
is used to obtain opinions, preferences etc. of respondents over
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statements on the phenomenon studied
o Documents Schedules: It
collects data/information from recorded evidences and/or
case histories
o Observation Schedules: It is used when a researcher observes the individual as well
N
as the group. Then he tries to verify the information already available or hypothesis
which
is
prepared.
© Evaluation Schedule: It
is used for gathering data about institutions and agencies.
o Interview Schedule: Here the researcher conducts an interview of the respondent and
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makes entries after collecting replies from him/her.
5. Census
© Definition: It
is a total process of collecting, compiling, analysing, evaluating, publishing
and disseminating statistical data regarding the population and its
characteristics.
e Significance of Census Method:
o Information: Census provides information on economic activity, literacy and
U
education, housing and household amenities, urbanisation, fertility and mortality,
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, language, religion, migration, disability.
«For example, 'Arthashastra’ by 'Kautilya’ prescribed the collection of population
Q
statistics as a measure of state policy for taxation in 3 BC.
:
"' -For example, Ain-e-Akbari provided comprehensive data related to population,

industry, wealth etc.
o -Research: Census data facilitates research on urban-rural concentration, the
development of urbanised areas, the geographic distribution of population according to
R
“occupation and education, the sex and age structure of population etc. For example,
Census 197] added a question for information on fertility for currently married women.
!
o Source for Vital Information: Migration Statistics, birth and death rates, fertility
rates, gross and net birth rates. For example, as per census 1921, The decade of 1911-
till
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21 has been the only one now to witness a decadal population decline of 0.31% due
to flu pandemic, 1918,
¢ Challenges of Census
o Costly: Huge expenditure.
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o Errors: Prone to Content and Coverage error.

o Furnishing of false information: Due to fear of losing intended benefits of
Government schemes; Fear of
losing citizenship (CAA) and lack of education.
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o Security: Security of the data in Application. For example, the data of 2021 census
will be collected digitally for the first time
o Data abuse: Potential abuse of such data, by concerned Government officials. They
will have access to everything about a particular family. For example, for the first time
that information of households headed by a person from the transgender community
and members living in the family will be collected. They will be prone to abuse.
o Human resource: Inadequate training of enumerators
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o Data poverty: This. occurs when census misses collecting data on particular aspects.
For example, 2021 census would not collect caste data
3.2.2-Qualitative Methods Of Data Collection

It is a type of scientific research, that is widely used in collecting and understanding specific
information about the behaviour, opinion, values and other social aspects of
a
particular community,
P
culture or population. For example, Research on behaviour in classrooms is done using qualitative
techniques. Different kind of Qualitative research are:
* Observation
@
Content Analysis
N
@ Case Studies
@
Life Histories
@ Focus Group Technique
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oo
Projective Techniques
Ethnography
1. Observation :
¢ Definition: It is a systematic, direct, definite and delibcrate examination of

spontaneous
occurrences at the time of observation. Pauline V Young says that Observation is a
U
methodical way of looking at-and thinking about what
you see. me
@ Characteristics
qualitative research
© Interpretive: It is a method of which is mostly used in
Q
Interpretative Sociology.
© Usage: It
is used when other data collection methods are inadequate.
© Purpose: Itis used to write down what people actually do and to describe social life,
etc., in more detail.
o Scientific: For reliability of results, observation should be systematic and scientific in
it
R
nature and hence, is also called scientific observation.

Advantages of Observation es
Situations to
« It involves directly watching how study social life in ‘natural’ settings
people act, either in lab or in their are limited because of presence’of an observer. Eg,
natural environment. This makes
it Sociologists who study politics are not allowed to
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free of bias.
e Itreduces the possibility that subjects
observe the discussions
e Observation is
ofthe British Cabinet.
inadequate to study when
will not give totally honest accounts individuals adopt new, unpredictable behaviours.
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of the experiences, not take the study For example, Alan Bryman ‘highlights the
seriously, etc. unpredictable reason behind vegetarianism.
e As per Weber, Observation helps ¢ Researcher’s presence might alter the behaviour of
understand situations which motivate those being observed. For example, in small units
KI
people or causes behind their social like families, those who are observed can’t act
actions (Verstehen Approach) naturally with an observer present.
¢ Types of Observation
o Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation
eo
= In controlled observation, the control can be on the subject matter of investigation
and also on the observer,
" The uncontrolled observation doesn’t try to control subject matter of observation.
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© ‘Actives Participant and Passive/ Non-Participant Observation
* In active observation, the observer himself takes
part in the event. For example,
M.N. Srinivas was an active observer in Mysore Village.
" In passive observation, the observer observes from a remote corner or end. For
example, Lé Play passively observed European working families.
P
¢ Participant Observation (PO)- The Most Effective Tool of Data Collection
© Definition: It is a method of research that has been changed to meet the needs of
sociologists who have different ideas about how social reality works. It is mainly
associated with the work of symbolic interactionists such as Herbert Blumer, Howard
Becker and Erving Goffman.
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© Goal: PO is aimed at learning the whole way of life of a community, target group, etc.
Hence, a researcher joins the everyday activity of those whom he/she wishes study. to
o Steps Involved:
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=
"
Approaching the social group to be studied.
Researcher decides to be an overt participant observer (declare their true identity
and purpose) or a covert Participant observer (identity of researcher is
not revealed).
*.
Nigel Fielding believes that while collecting data, one must be detached to collect
it.
data and interpret
=
Collecting the data and recording it...
o
U ..
Types: Raymond Gold has distinguished four types of RO

=
Complete Participation: Here the observer fully engages with the participants and
participates in their activities, like an undetected spy. Participants aren’t aware that
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they are under observation.
*
Participation -as Observer: Here, the researcher fully engages with the
, 9c participants, like a friend or colleague. The participants know that this is a
researcher.
:" Observer as Participant: The observer here interacts in limits with the participants
R
in a value-neutral way. Participants are aware of the researcher’s identity.

is
'
"Complete Observed: The researcher neither seen nor noticed by participants. It

e minimises the Hawthome Effect as participants are more likely to act naturally
» when they don’t know they’re being observed.
Advantages of PO. Disadvantages of PO
G
e The close and relatively

long- POs lack objectivity, are unreliable and depend too
¢
lasting relationships developed much upon the interpretation of the observer.
during PO provide opportunities for
developing trust. ;
|
PO involves spending years in studying and
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conducting research.
e It provides the best means. of « The researcher can usually study a very small group of
obtaining a valid picture of social people only and has to be physically present to
reality through exposure to daily conduct research.
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routine. e Thereare limits on who can be studied using this

It is more difficult for the people method. Eg Higher class and more powerful groups in
being studied to lie or mislead the society, in particular, may be excluded from POs.
researcher. ¢ Ethical issues: Being az participant observer raises
Here the researcher gains data from serious ethical issues:
_
talking to those being studied. The 2 Sociologists have an ethical responsibility to avoid
validity of the data may be greater. harm to those they are studying.
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¢ It provides in-depth studies that can o Sociologists must protect the anonymity of those
serve a number of useful purposes who do not wish their identities to be revealed.
such as generating new hypotheses. e Theoretical objections:
e It has a high level of ecological © Quantitative Researchers highlight that the small
‘|
validity as it collects data in natural sample size used in PO are not useful for
P
it
settings. Thus, is the most valid of
all research methods.
developing generalizations.
Such studies cannot be replicated, so results
o
cannot be checked. It is therefore difficult to
compare results with the findings of other studies
N
2. Content Analysis (CA)
e Definition: It is a research method which is
used to identify patterns in recording the ways
people communicate, EarlR Babbie defined content analysis as a study of recorded human
communication such as books, magazines, paintings and laws.
EE
e Characteristics
o Data Collection: Data is collected systematically from a set of texts (written, oral or
visual.)
o Nature: It can be both quantitative (focused on counting and measuring) as well as
qualitative (focused on interpreting and understanding).
effects of the content of
e Usage: CA can be used to figure out the goals, messages, and
U
communication. It.also helps you describe and draw conclusions about the parts of a
communication or the things that led up to it. For example, to observe the condition of
women in Pakistan, where Indians are not allowed to conduct research, researchers would
Q
go for newspaper articles, movies, art and drama, media or texts and documents.
¢ Process: Ray Pawson identifies four main approaches to carrying out CA, They are:
o Formal Content Analysis: A systematic sample of texts is collected for.study. Then,
a classification system is used to identify different features ofthese texts; and then these
features are counted. ,
R
o Thematic Analysis: It tries to understand the encoding process, especially the

intentions that lie behind the production of the documents.
o Textual Analysis: It examines the linguistic devices within the documents. It shows
how texts encourage a particular interpretation. 5
content of
o Audience Analysis: Focuses on the responses of the audience as well as the
G
mass media.
analysing the meaning and
e Goals: CA can be used to make qualitative inferences by
semiotic relationship of words and concepts. It has various possible goals:
Correlation and patterns: CA is aimed at finding correlation and patterns in how
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‘concepts are communicated.

0 Intentions: CA helps in understanding intentions of individual, group of institutions.
Motive: Propaganda and bias in communication are well accounted in CA. for
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Differences: CA reveals
ooo differences in communication in different contexts.
Analysis: Analysing the consequences of communication content, such as the flow of
information or audience responses isLimitations of Content Analysis
easy in CA.
Advantages of Content Analysis
| |
. .
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It does not create obstacles in research as It may not be as objective as it claim since -
it has no effect on person being studi 2d. researcher might select the data as per his/her
It is relatively easier now to gain access convenience and biasness,
to the sources. It is a time-consuming process.
It has the potential to present the event or Concentrating on isolated words or phrases
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issues in an objective manner. can occasionally be unduly reductive. This
Researchers can analyse communication ignores context, complexity, and has
and social interaction without the direct confusing meanings.
involvement of participants. It involves some level of subjective
Content analysis follows a systematic interpretation, which can affect the reliability
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procedure that can easily be replicated by and validity of the results and conclusions.
other researchers. Hence, it has high Coding large volumes of text manually is
reliability. difficult
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It is highly flexible; the researcher can It can decipher only the manifested meanings
conduct content analysis at any time in of the communication and the latent
any location with low cost. meanings are ignored.
3. Case Study
a
:
e Definition: It
is a complete and detailed account of single social phenomenon, which,
in depth details of an event are studied. It provides a comprehensive analysis of the issue
in
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by carefully taking into account all
relevant factors, such as the causes and effects of an
event.
e Types: Robert K Yin identified five types of case studies:
Q
o Critical Case Study: The researcher specifically chooses a case that offers a narrow
focus for investigations on myth or contradiction. For example, Durkheim’s study on
suitide,
o ‘Unique Case Study: It assumes that each case has unique attributes. A lot can be
learned by concentrating on a single case. For example, Weber’s view on Protestant
R
‘Ethics.
o Revelatory Case Study: It provides the opportunity to investigate a case which was
previously inaccessible
© Longitudinal Case Study: Researchers repeatedly examine the
same individuals or
phenomena to find any changes that might occur over a period of time. For example,
G
Marx’s historical materialism.

o Representative Case Study: It
is the systematic investigation of materials and sources
in orderto establish facts and reach new conclusions.
N
e Usage: Particular situations and incidents like riots, disasters and conflicts are more
appropriate to study by this method as they require an in-depth study. For Example-
Durkheim case study on religion from writings of Spencer
e Sources of Data:
KI
© Primary data: It is collected through interviews and observation. For Example, M.N.
Srinivas’ study of Rampura village.
o Secondary data: It is collected through a variety of sources like reports, records,
newspapers, books, magazines, diaries, biographies etc. It may not be accurate as there
is a high chance of biasness.
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.| Advantages of Case Study Limitations of Case Study
¢ It makes in-depth study possible. e Since it studies a single event, it lacks external
e It is a flexible method and validity.
comparatively less expensive. e It has a poor scope of generalization and cannot
e Itcan be conducted in practically any be applied even to similar events in future.
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kind of setting. e It has higher chances of biasness and
¢ It permits investigation of otherwise subjectivity.
impractical situations. e Itis a time-consuming process
Life Histories (Biographies)
N
4,
e Definition: It is a pure sociological method which is in use since recent times only. It is
,
like a case study on a single person and life. his It

includes oral histories, autobiographies, |
narratives, interviews, etc. which are used to explore how individuals experience social life
EE
and periods of social change.
o Robert Miller defines it
as research method that collects and analyses a person’s whole
life or a part of life. This is done through in-depth and unstructured interviews etc.
|
e Data Collection: It is carried out using a variety of methods but mostly use extended,
unstructured and structured interviews.
e Usage: It
is most appropriate to study how people’s social actions were influenced by
social currents.
U
:
Advantages of Life Histories oe.

ee tations of Life Histories
1
* Personal accounts provide comprehensi < Life histories may have missing
Q
details about existing social currents at a perspectives and details. This
particular point in time. provides a partial view of a person’s
|
social experience.
a
¢ It yields information which is written over a It suffers from biases and ideologies
period of time. Hence, gradual and deep of writers who write biographies,
R
understanding develops with biographica! narratives, etc

:
research
Data can be cross-checked through available
e
letters, news reports and contemporary
:
reports
5. Focus Group Discussion
G
¢ Definition: It
is a type of unstructured interview. It's a tool used in the Participatory process
to help a group of stakeholders talk about how they fee! about a-situation, idea, or method
a
with the help of facilitator. Kothari is of the opinion that such interviews are useful in
N
development of hypotheses
e Why FGD: The goal of FGD is to get an in-depth look at how all the stakeholders feel
about a certain research topic, and everyone's input. Then, a consensus is reached and
strategies/ decisions are made.
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¢ Process: To get desired information, the researcher starts a conversation with the
respondent about a certain topic.
¢ Discretion of Researcher: Interviewer has freedom to decide questions and their
sequence,
Advantages of FGD Disadvantages of FGD
e FGD with the known groups brings| FGD with strangers or people from different
immediate results. cultural groups brings in minimal results,
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© It is qualitative analysis and it can record ¢ In some-sensitive topics, FGD may not be
emotions and perspective. producirig the expected results.
¢ Facilitator knows the people involved ¢ People don't take part in a FGD because they
makes
it
easier for everyone to take part. are afraid and live in a culture of silence.
P
6. Projective Techniques
Definition: It is also known as enabling technique. It can be used by skilled researchers to
look into participants’ deep motivations and attitudes.
Characteristics
Subconscious Process: It depersonalised the question for the respondent,
desensitising
N
©
them to their response and deactivates
any conscious defences they may have had.
© Data Collection: It involves giving a person an ambiguous or incomplete stimulus.
The person must interpret the stimuli, and from their interpretation, one can determine
EE
the person's attitude.
o Usage: This technique is more commonly used if
social- psychological studies where
individual perception-based attitudes are to be studied: For example, the Rorschach
Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Advantage
o Reduced Bias: Conscious bias of respondent is
negated to the maximum.
©
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Interdisciplinarity: Projective techniques are a fusion of psycho-analysis in
Disadvantage:
Not Objective: It lacks objectivity and is very dependent on the observer.
Q
©
o Not Direct method: It is an indirect method. Hence, it is likely to lead to different

conclusions.
7. Ethnography
Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative mode of inquiry. It studies and systematically
R
describes cultural systems, social groups or organizations based on direct observation.

o Geoff Payne and Judy Payne describe ethnography as ‘the production of highly detailed
accounts of how péople in a social setting lead their lives, based upon systematic and
long-term observation of, and conversation with informants.’
More Detail: It
is a wider term covering Participant Observation and Field Study as well.
G
It is widely used by symbolic interactionists. Critical ethnography is a conimon type of

study among critical social scientists.
Malinowski
oO
is
the pioneer of this approach in Cultural Anthropology, which was later
borrowed in Sociology. He used Participant Observation and Field Studies his tool as
N
of investigation of Trobriand Tribes.

8. Longitudinal Studies:
Definition: Longitudinal Studies are studies in which data is
collected at specific intervals
KI
over a long period of time in order to measure changes over time. With a longitudinal study
you might start with an original sample of respondents in one particular year (say the year
2000) and then go back to them every year, every five years, or every ten years, aiming to
collect data from the same people.
© Positives:
o Long term: They allow researchers to trace developments over time, rather than just
taking a one-off ‘snapshot’ of one moment,
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—
o Causal analysis: By making comparisons over time, they can identify causes. The
Millennium Cohort study, for example, suggests a clear correlation between poverty
and its early impact on low
-
educational achievement.
© Negatives:
o Sample attrition: people dropping out of the study, and the people who remain in the
—-
study may not end up being representative of the starting sample.
P
© Influences Subject behaviour: People maystart to act differently because they know
they are part of the study
o Cost and time: Because they take a long time, they are costly and time consuming.
© Practical Difficulties: Continuity over many years may be a problem ~ if a lead
N
researcher retires, for example, her replacement might not have the same rapport with
respondents.
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3.2.3-NOMOTHETIC AND IDIOGRAPHIC METHODS
Wilhelm Windelband gave the term idiographic and nomothetic approach in order to conduct
quantitative analysis to study trends. For example, people living in rural areas are more prone health to
issues as compared to
people of urban areas
IDIOGRAPHIC NOMOTHETIC METHOD
Definition It focuses on i “This approach
is
typical to the natural
finding details abou
U se indivi sciences. It focuses on society as a
with whole. Here generalisation can be
ati’
cases. It typically
is
beings who have con done and result could be applied to

broader society
Q
Examples Malinowski’s st urkheim’s study of ‘Le Suicide’
Tribes
Objective Explains the mean’ xplain objective phenomenon in
generalised manner
R
Process A case's general

particular
: formulation was
backed by practical
| and
research, deductive
* me ématic and Objective
reasoning.
Advantages e Humanistic
© Scientific e.g. Positivism
G
© Interpretive i.e. Complete
e Particularistic e.g. Ideal Types e Empirical

e Form and Content studied e Predictive
e Time efficient
N
Disadvantages e Generalisations are limited e Studies Form, not Content

e Researchers’ bias is possible e Ignores social values
e Time Consuming e Sample may not be representative.
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Conclusion:
Synthesis of idiographic and nomothetic approach will give a better understanding of the field or
concept which is being studied. For example while studying gender bias in workplace nomothetic
approach will give result that gender wage gap is prominent whereas idiographic research will require
personal interviews to see what other problems exist for unequal treatment.
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,,,
Nomothetic Dimension
: Role’
Institution -——» Aole
Expectations
Social
P
System
Need
—> Individual
—» Personality —»
N
Dispositions
Idiographic Dimension
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3.2.4- Deductive And Inductive Methods
DEDUCTIVE METHO INDUCTIVE METHODS
Methodology In this method rese¢ logical approach to make inference
is
theory by col bonclusion generalised

examining empiri¢
U
see if theory is true
Direction of Works from gener: oves from specific observation to
work ‘ ad
Q
specific direction. Foy,¢ generalisation. For example,
goes from fic observation—> pattern
hypothesis—> ol ion—->hypothesis—-> general
confirmation.
Example A 2014 study estab
R
gender biases prevent ethics and capitalism

|
access to ed
Emphasis Generall
Research Generally ,
Associated with quantitative
qualitative research, research.
G
Advantages |e Easy sampling and testing. e Provides first-hand knowledge and

e Possibility of Falsification information by actual observation
e It is a downward process of e Gathers specific information and then
N
thoughts that leads to give general conclusion

confirmation of theory @
Itgives enough room to researchers to
e. It is less time consuming and apply conditional measures in order
allow more time for practice to carry out research
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and application
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Disadvantage |e Predetermination bias. e Avoid Falsification
e It doesn’t give any new|e Costly Sampling
knowledge because its|¢@ Time Consuming
premises.are already tested. e It needs a large number of
e It is reduced merely to a observations. Limited observation
of
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method verification. could come with good logic but can
@ It encourages the dependence be proven wrong with further
of researchers on other observations
resources,
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Conclusion:
Combining inductive and deductive research will enrich definitions, confirm the theory and make
generalised conclusions. Many sociologists conducting larger research projects begin with an
EE
inductive study. The inductive study is followed up with deductive research to confirm or invalidate
the conclusion. The conclusion of the inductive study is also used a starting point for the deductive
study in many cases
3.3 Variables, Sampling, Hypothesis, y

3.3.1- Variables
U
e@
In research, a variable is simply or event that you want to measure in
some way. The goal of sociologic ut if one variable affects another, or if
one variable is related to another. Vatial ral to quantitative sociology.
Q
Thinkers
e Earl R Babbie defines Variables tes.
¢ Postman and Egan define a variab or attribute that can take on a number
of values.
R
Types of Variables:
1. Independent variable (6
jable ett d
ee
© Dependent Variables? epénds’ upon thevalueOf independent variables and
sometimes on other dependent variables as well.
G
¢ Independent Variables: It’s the one which affects dependent variables. Example: Impact
of literacy program on BPL population.
o Independent variable is literacy program.
N
o Dependent variable is effect on BPL Population.
rl
Rerun ane
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ComparingDependent Variables and Independent Variables

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Seen as the cause. Seen as the effect.
Comes before the dependent | It is an outcome of independent variable.
variable.
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_|
Explains the event or the outcome.
Varies at known rate
Represents the outcome which
Varies at unknown rate
is to be.measured.
2. Quantitative vs Qualitative Variable:
¢ Quantitative Variable: Variables which are composed of categories that can be ordered
in magnitude. For example, age, income, etc.
P
© Qualitative Variables: Variables which consist of categories that cannot be ordered in
magnitude. For example, race, religion, etc.
Significance of Variables in Sociological Research
N
e Establish relation between Dependent and Independent variable: A sociological
researcher needs to identify the variables and then establish which of them are dependent and
which are
independent.
Ensures empirical validity: Research results can be empirically verified through variable
EE
e
manipulations. Results or conclusions are not just abstractions.
Basie Units: Variables are important to understand because they are the basic units of the
i
e
information studied and interpreted in re
e¢
Guiding research: Variables giv: ch. They ensure empirical testing of
hypotheses under consideration.
e Focused research: Simplifies r umbers of variables out of unlimited
U -
numbers of variables.
Q
e Multivariate Analysis: Method
variables is known as multivariaté
various independent variables li
variable viz. suicide.
R
3.3.2-Sampling
Sampling is a process, which allgwe y
oupiof peor! “from the large group to derive

gid
y agsny:
inferences that are likely to be aj up. The use of Samples saves

*
the researcher’s time and money.

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« Sociologists lack the resources to conduct thorough studies like Census, therefore they select
a sample with the same proportion of people with relevant characteristics as the population.
¢ For example, If the population contains 60% women and 40% men, then the sample should
also contain 60% women and 40% men.
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Statistics
Measures describing sempie
characteristics
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Purpose/Objective of Sampling
© Relevant Information: The goal of sampling is to find out desired information about a
population at minimum cost and as accurately as possible.
e Accurate Estimate: The goals of choosing a sample are to get the most accurate estimates
possible for a given sample size and to choose a sample without any bias.
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Types of Sampling
Classification of Sampling Techniques
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1. Probability Sampling
e In Probability sampling, ther
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o Every population unit has 'g probability.
© The sampling procedure involves ection at some point.

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¢ Types of Probability Sampling

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© Lottery or Simple Random Sampling: The simplest way to select a large sample.
Each sample unit has an equal chance of being chosen. Achieved by assigning a number
to each sample unit and selecting a random number table. For example, Picking names
from a bowl of chits.
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= Advantage:
— Easy, quick and straightforward method.
— Systematic samples are well spread over the population and there is no risk that
any large part of the population will be left unrepresented.
~ Allows the sampling error to be calculated and thus reduces selection bias.
= Disadvantage:
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1 ~
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Researchers may not choose enough people with their desired trait, especially
—
it's rare.
if ‘
~ It may be challenging to identify a complete sampling frame and inconvenient

to contact them, especially if several forms of contact (email, phone, post) are
necessary and your sample units are geographically dispersed.
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© Systematic Random Sampling: In this method, the sampling frame is put in order
based on certain criteria, and elements are chosen at regular intervals from that list. For
example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1,000, you would
choose every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.
=
Advantage:
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~ Saves time and effort.
— More convenient than simple random sampling.
~ Easy to administer.
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Relatively easy to construct, execute, compare, and- understand.
Low riskfactor.
« Disadvantage:
~—
Unrepresentative.
— May also lead to b:
o Stratified Sampling: itioning a given population into
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homogeneous groups, cal electing samples independently from
each stratum is known as sample from each stratum is selected
by random sampling, the pro led stratified random sampling.
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= Advantages:
— Saves time, mone’
— Itis more precise
— Higher degree of pré ced representation.
Most applicable metho ‘when the population is heterogeneous.
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— Useful when list

of the elements in the is not available.
population
= Disadvantag é
investigators.
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Greater geographical concentration may result in heavy cost and more time.
—
— Difficult to identify appropriate strata for a study.

o Cluster Sampling: A type of random sample that uses multiple stages and is often used
to cover wide geographic areas in which aggregated units are randomly selected and
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then sample are drawn from the sampled aggregated units or cluster. For example,
State level Sampling followed by district level Sampling, followed by block level
Sampling and so on
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= Advantage:
- Cheap, quick and easy.
- This sampling method is more flexible than the other methods.
— Liberty to have a larger sample size than that in simple random sampling.
= Disadvantage:
~ Least representative/ Less accurate.
— High Sampling error.
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~ This method isn't applicable when the sample unit is a single element or
population number:
2. Non — Probability Sampling
¢ Non-probability sampling is a sampling strategy in which some units of the population have
no chance of being chosen or in which the probability of selection cannot be established
precisely. Nonprobability sampling cannot estimate sampling errors and may be biased due to
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non-random selection. So, information gathered from sample cannot be generalised.
e.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling-
© Convenience/ Haphazard/ Accidental Sampling: A sample is drawn from that part of
population that is closest to reach. A handful amounts of people are selected according to
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the need. The whole population is not needed which makes
it
less time-consuming. For
example, to understand the features of industrial classes, a researcher may go to industries
that are most nearby and select a few employees who are known to
him or easy to contact
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=
Advantage: :
— Time Effective.
~ Cheap and Quick.
Optional
~ Easy sample collection.
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~ Itis focused on solvi ar groups.
~ This method of samp all sample is required.
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" Disadvantage:
~ Subject biasness is presét
— Misrepresents the populatio distorted view.
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— This method is applicab n of samples including typical special
cases suchas ‘best teac! the population of teachers.
in
© Purposive Sampling: When

and sample characteristics are
is already known
to
the researcher
ed as Judgemental kind of Sampling.
For example, Youth population, 9 years of age can be a target population
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of a research on unemployment.
‘ace
" Advantage:
~ Less Costly.
— More readily 2
~ More convenient.
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~ Select only those individuals that are relevant to research design.

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Disadvantage:
— No way to ensure that the sample is truly represent of the population.
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~ More emphasis is placed on the ability of researcher to assess the elements of

population.
© Quota Sampling: The researcher fixes some quota to facilitate representation of a
particular group. Quota Sampling is thus a method of stratification sampling in which
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selection of sample units within the stratum is non- random. For example, fixing the quota
of 40% of sample for women, 50% for men and 10% for transgender population
" Advantage:
~ Quicker and cheaper than simple random sampling.
~ Enables the researcher to
introduce a few controls into his research plan.
from:
—
More convenient.
ociclogy yaias.com | Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 Page 88

=
Disadvantage:
~ Not truly random because each person within the population does not have an equal
chance of being chosen.
~ Biasness can easily creep ‘as researcher can choose whom they want/like within
criteria.
Accuracy cannot be estimated as random method not used.
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—
o is
Snowball Sampling: Here, the starting point the pre-existing data of targeted sample. It
deals with referral of the same category of people once the experiment is over. Works in a
chain reaction fashion. Also known as network, chain referral: or reputation sampling
method. For example, in a survey of drug addicts, one drug addict may lead to the
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information about the other.
«
Advantage:
~ Most appropriate where there is no Sampling frame.
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~ Helpful in studying small informal social group's impact on formal organisational
structure.
— Help in studying communicatis ttern in community organisation concepts like
community power; and d
" Disadvantage:
—
Usually biased and wi
U when is large.
—
Sampling becomes cuf
Why Sampling has an Error?

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Sociological researches are typically subj errors can be classified into sampling
errors and non-sampling errors. The te: systematic biases as well as random
errors.
1. Sampling Errors: Sampling errors a the sample design. They include:
by
¢ Selection Bias: When the true babilities differ from those assumed in
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calculating the results.
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e Random sampling piatign in, due to the elements in the
sample being select
2. Non-Sampling Errors: Noffsai jich can impact final survey
estimates, caused by problems in
data collection, processing, or sample design. Such errors may
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‘include:
¢ Over-coverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the population.
¢ Under-coverage: Sampling frame does not include elements in the population.
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¢ Measurement error: When respondents misunderstand a question, or find it difficult to

answer,
Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.
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Non-response or Participation bias: Failure to obtain complete data from all selected
individuals.
Procedure of Selecting a Sample

¢ Identifying the target population: Population here includes all the relevant Sampling units.
For example, in a voting process, the target population would be
all those who are entitled to
vote and the sampling unit will be the individual voter.
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Obtain or produce a sampling frame: It includes a complete and up-to-date list of the’:
members of
the population under investigation. For example, in a voting process, the sampling
frame
is the electoral register.
Specify a Sampling method: Specify if it is probability Sampling or non-probability
Sampling. For example, if the population of Sampling frame has approximately the same
to if
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demographic makeup, researcher might want randomly select a sample. But the sampling
frame does not represent the population, the researcher might want to non-randomly select her
sample.
Determine the sample size: For example, if the population large, is it
will take more time than
if the researcher only has to go through a few surveys. So, the researcher has to make choices
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and find a balance between what will give him/her good data and what practical. is
Implement the plan: Researcher knows his/her population, sampling frame, sampling
method, and sample size. For example, Researcher, using his/her gathered knowledge and data
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implementing the
plan.
Factors Affecting Size of Sample

1. The research process has be made
samples are advised to be smal
to p ess expensive and more convenient. Thus
ples than required will hamper the
efficiency.
The factors which can affect the
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¢ Heterogeneous population: sist of a different population. The
selection of sample size will be
A population having persons fi
:
y the
number of elements. For example,
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te, religion, etc. have differing opinion
ona subject.
¢ Subgroups: Different analysi:
selection will demand large s ‘ocal research, the sample size will be
small.
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e Research Method: The kind of rese’ matters as per the requirement of subject,
population size and time fi r le,
.tf thi earch, deriod is large, simultaneously
the sample size wil
size.
¢ Balancing Sample size and queries: If number of questions asked in research large, is
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then the sample size should be kept small to save the time. For example, if an interview
comprises of 1-hour question asking session, the number of
appointees will be less.
¢ Sampling Method: The
type of sampling involved is important in size determination. For
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example, In the stratified method, the size would be small due to the less random pattern.
Characteristic of Good Sample

Cannot be Substituted: There is no substitution of originally selected unit by some other more
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convenient way.
Independent Components: It consists of such components, all of which are autonomous from
one another to
the greatest extent possible.
Representative: It's a true miniature or replica of the population from which drawn. it's
Adequate: It
is of sufficient magnitude to give confidence in
the stability of its characteristics.
A sufficient sample comprises enough cases to achieve trustworthy results.
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Importance of Sampling nee
© Convenient: Sampling is the best way to do social studies because the population is so big,
it's hard to get in touch with people, there's a high refusal rate, and it's hard to figure out
everything.
@ Ensure Accuracy: The results of sampling have attained a sufficiently high standard of
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accuracy.
e si
Fast and Effective: Data collection is faster as sample size is small compared to original
population. Cost and time Effective as well.
e Homogeneity: As data set is small, it is possible to ensure homogeneity and quality of data.
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Conclusion:
Sampling enables the selection of right data points from within the larger data set to estimate the
characteristics of the whole population.
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Every element in
the sample population has Some elements of the population, compared to
equal chance of being selected. her
members, have a greater but unknown
selection.
Its main feature present here is a Saf od. is used whenever there is no
frame. t of the population (Sampling frame).
U Has the ability to target particular
Advantage: It ensures equal repres
e population. It
is cost effective.
Drawback: :
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e It is more expensive and :
y
do.not have thestatistical foundation of
consuming. method
e tis not mandatory that everyone,
interested in the research proces
less response is expected.
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3.3.3-HYPOTHESIS
It is a tentative and testable s tween two or more events
/variables under investigation. Ofithe Basi§ of the"hypothi¢sis, facts aré’observed and collected. After
verification, if hypothesis is found to be true, a theory is obtained.
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Thinkers’ View
e Stebbing: Every hypothesis springs from the union of knowledge and sagacity.
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e G.A. Lundberg: A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains be to

tested. It may be any hunch, imaginative idea
of action or investigation.
or
intuition whatsoever, which becomes the basis
e W. Goode and P.K. Hatt: A hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine
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its validity, It may seem contrary to, or in accordance with common sense.
« FN. Kerlinger: Hypothesis is the most powerful tool man has invented to achieve dependable
knowledge.
How a Hypothesis is Formulated?

©
Relating Variables: A researcher looks for the statements where she/he relates one or more
variables to make predictions about the relationships.
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e Guiding tool: The hypothesis tells researcher what to do and why to do inthe context of the
problem,
e Simple and easy hypothesis: If a simple, brief and clear scientific hypothesis has been
formulated, there shall be no problem for the researcher to proceed in the research field.
* Validating: Upon validation, a hypothesis may yield a theory, concept or generalization.
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e Linking Theory with investigation: Formulation of hypothesis links between theory and
investigation which lead to discovery of addition to knowledge.
Sources of Hypothesis
e Experience and Creativity of Researcher: Creativity and experience can generate good
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hypotheses. Personal encounters of researchers including their personal reading like
biographies, etc. can be used to generate a hypothesis.
e Background Knowledge: A researcher must know the problem's facts, theories, and previous
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study. Literature helps build hypotheses. It helps a researcher understand how to hypothesise
the relationship between variables, which elements have been explored, and which remain to
be
tested.
©
Versatility of Intellect: A research; ersatile intellect to understand a theory,
deduce a hypothesis from theorie ibuting variables in a study, creatively
imagine the solution to the pro turous and heuristic attitude. All of
these depend on the research
U ersistence. It encourages research
originality.
¢ Scientific Theories: A comprehensi d analysis of theories from psychology,
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sociology, political science, and evgy a researcher construct a hypothesis.
e Authentic Knowledge: Since. tk a solution, it must be based on
legitimate knowledge and irrefut hypothesised relationship between .
variables is confirmed, the resea ifically. Analysis and interpretations

support the hypothesis.
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Prerequisites for a Good Hyp :
e Simple: It should be s aig Hdstheir interrelations should be

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clearly defined. .
Logical: It should be based on sound reasoning and ample preliminary information.

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Specific and precise: A hypothesis should be specific and precise such that is able to narrow it
down the scope of
Sociological Research in manageable limits.
Direction: It
should be able to direct the research on the right track.
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Clarity: It should clarify the scope of enquiry.

Lucid explanation: It should lead to a discovery of general laws and principles and also
exemplify the causal relationships between the various variables.
Testable: A hypothesis should be able to
be tested and its
testability should be in a time bound
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e
manner,
Solid framework: It should provide a framework for organising and summarising the results.
Authentic knowledge: It should not be based merely on moral judgements.
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis
¢ Specific: It should be conceptually clear, specific and weil designed. Use of general terms like
good, bad, poor, personality makes hypothesis vague.
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¢ Can betested: It must be testable else a researcher can't validate or refute the relationship
between variables or deduced implications.
* To the point: It should be limited in scope. Ambiguous hypothesis
may not derive desired
result.
it
:
Clearly Defined: It must explain what intends to explain.
—-
It
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State Relationship: must state the expected relationshipbetween the variables.
Consistency: A hypothesis must be consistent with known facts. A good hypothesis is
grounded in well-established theories and laws.
Relevant Theory: It must be based on some relevant theory or discovered truth.
Testable in time: It should be amenable to
testing within a reasonable time.
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Suggest Solution: Itmust suggest a
tentative solution to the problem under study.
Types of Hypothesis
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1. Null Hypothesis:
® symbolised as Ho :
© It states that there is no relation between the two ot more than two phenomena whose
relation is under investigation.
¢ It is useful tool in testing signi
2. Alternate Hypothesis
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e Symbolised as HI and Ha.
© It specifies those values that re: old true.
e Itis an alternative to null hypoth {s that there is some relation between the
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two or more than two phenomegg under investigation.
* Here researcher hopes that sang ceptance of this hypothesis as‘true.
Key Challenges in Making Good Hypot
e Lack of knowledge: The lack of fa articular theoretical framework presents
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o
j
a significant barrier to the development research hypothesis,
a
id
® Gathering theoretical eyj

a lack of precise theoreti
hypothesis anngtbe formulated
k
there either
$ Onsthe part of the investigator of
:
if +
is
the existence of those th Sos?
Unaware about Research Techniques: If the investigator is not well-versed in the
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methodologies used in scientific research, then it is unlikely that she or he will be able to
construct a sound research hypothesis.
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Errors in Hypothesis
While testing a hypothesis, there can be erroneous results due
to:
Adopting faulty Sampling procedure.
Data collection method inaccurate.
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is
aw
Selected study design faulty.
Inappropriate statistical methods used.
Conclusions drawn are incorrect.
AW
°
There are two such errors:

¢ Type 1 Error: It occurs when the researcher rejects a null hypothesis when is actually
true. The probability of committing a Type 1 error in statistical terms is called the it
significance level or Alpha in common social research parlance.
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e Type 2 Error: It is a type of error which occurs when the researcher fails to reject a null
hypothesis that is false. The probability of committing a Type 2 error is called Beta. The
probability of not committing a Type 2 error is called the power of the test.
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How Hypothesis establishes a relationship between two Variables?
AT
or
more variables are related.
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« A hypothesis is an assumption about how two
e It makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables.
e Insociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behaviour influences
‘TA
another.
In research, independent variables are the cause of the change. The dependent variable is the
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«
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effect, or thing that is changed.
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e Example- Ina basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behaviour as the
independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does
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illiteracy (the independent variable) affect poverty (the dependent variable)?
Hypothesis Independent variable Dependent Variable
TREAE
to change in some way '
ble Housing Homeless Rate
The greater the availability of math ng Math Grades

the higher the math grades
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The grater the police patrol prese [Presence Safer Neighborhood
safer the neighborhood
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The greater the factory lighting, the high sh
ting Productivity
the productivity
The greater the amount of observati Pubic Awareness
higher the public awareness
(Few examples of Dependent and Indé apics, the Independent variable causes the
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Dependent variable to change in some way)
Significance of Hypothesis in
e Guiding Research: A § fesearch. It provides tentative
d
explanations of facts and phenomena and can be tested and validated.

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e Make Research Streamlined: The hypothesis shows how to

pick a sample, develop a research
strategy, collect data, and interpret outcomes to draw valid conclusions.
* More Focussed: The hypothesis directs the researcher to focus on specific concerns and data.
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It helps the researcher limit his study's scope so it's not too large.
e Testing Streamlined: Soundness of a hypothesis is measured by testing it. Testing validates
the presumptions made in a hypothesis.
Justifies empirical validity: Hypothesis proves that the correlation shown the hypothesis in
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e
also bears an empirical validity.
e Coherence in Research: It provides a researcher with rational statements, consisting of,
elements expressed in a logical order of relationships.
« Promotes Knowledge: Scientific rigour gets a boost from hypothesis formation and testing.
Well-thought-out hypotheses provide the researcher a defined purpose and understanding.
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Conclusion: .
A hypothesis will generally provide a causal explanation or propose some association between two
variables. If the hypothesis is a causal explanation,
one independent variable.
it
will involve at least one dependent variable and
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3.3.4-Reliability And Validity
3.3.4.1- Reliability
The extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same answer however and whenever
carried out. For example, a reliable person is one whose behaviour is consistent, dependable and
is it
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predictable while an unreliable person is one whose behaviour is much more variable and inconsistent.
More detail
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« Reliability is about consistency.
e
e
Research
isreliable, when repeated, using the same methods,
Data reliability is concerned with Consistency and Precision.
it
brings the same results.
e Example: Kirk and Miller give an e j

hysical world- a thermometer shows the
same reading of 82°C every tim iling water. It is obviously a reliable
thermometer,
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Different Types of Reliability
eenneeomeneemeneeeETTT
per the formulations of Kirk and Mil
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* Quixotic Reliability: This refers to thégire Jp which a single method of observation

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yields the same measurement over xample, if survey conducted on gender
discrimination, and the responden believed in the equality of men and
answer is different.
observation over time where research
it
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results are the same. For example, is seen

*s participation inthe work force has changed.
i
* Synchronic Reliability i
ations within the same time
period, which can be ev y different methods. Unlike
:
quixotic reliability, synchronic reliability involves observations that are consistent in nature
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How to Improve Reliability?

e Minimise Variation: By standardising the testing settings, we must minimize the external
sources of variation like boredom, exhaustion, etc. to improve stability aspect.
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¢ Precise measuring Instructions: By carefully designing instructions for measuring that don’t
change from group
to
group, using skilled and motivated researchers, and using a larger sample
of items. This is done to improve equivalence.
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3.3.4.2- Validity
Validity refers to the accuracy of the data generated by the research instrument, whether
it
renee
is an
interview or questionnaire or some other means of research, In short, Validity is the quality of being
correct or true. Data can be reliable without being valid.
For example, A researcher studying hospital in-patient satisfaction might question the validity of a
survey instrument whose items or questions produce scores measuring physician communication.
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Types of Validity
1. Content Validity: It
refers to the extent to which a test's items are reflective of the full domain
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test aims to assess. When a test has content validity, its items cover the whole spectrum of
possible topics. For example, if a researcher wanted to construct a spelling achievement test
for third-graders, he or she may select nearly all the possible words that third-graders should
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know.
Criterion validity: Also called criterion-related validity, looks at how well a test measures the
thing it was made to measure. For example if job interview test accurately predicts how well
the employee will do on the job. T! ‘o have criterion validity. There are two
different types of
criterion validi
criterion measures are achieved at the
e Concurrent Validity: Its oc
same time as the test score:
U to which the test scores estimate the
individual’s present status wit ‘or example, ifa
test measures anxiety,
it is said to have concurrent: vali ly shows how anxious a person right is
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now.
e Predictive Validity: It occurs
For example, aptitude tests are
es are obtained at
a time after the test.
0 will be more likely to sueceed or
fail in a particular subject.
Construct Validity (Measuremen ey and White (2007) said that 4test’s
nee
ihe things it is supposed to measure. For
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construct validity is when it actually mi

example, a test of musical
¢
aT h ATW A ability. There are two
Convergent validityt,A test of convergent validity verifies that two of moré constructs
that are presumed to be connected ini fact are related to one another.
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¢ Discriminant validity: Also called "divergent validity," is a test to see if two things that
shouldn't be related actually aren't related.
Face Validity: Face validity refers to what appears to measure on the surface. is up to theIt
until the satisfied is
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researcher's discretion. Each question is examined and adjusted researcher

that it accurately measures the intended construct. The researcher's subjective judgement
used to determine facial validity.
is
It
Internal Validity: relates to causality. If one thing is
said to ‘cause’ another, this explanation
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is internally valid if that cauisal relationship seems to

be true. For example, causal explanations
of criminality. and differentiated educational achievement have had their validity questioned.
External Validity: It is about how well the results of a study can be used in.other situations,
with different people, places, times, and so on. For example, Beverley Skeggs’s study of 83
working-class women in a single town in northwest England may lack external validity in
relation to working-class women elsewhere.
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7. Ecological Validity: It refers to the problem of how closely a research study mirrors the
normal or natural setting
of people’s real experience.
Factors Affecting Reliability and Validity

¢ History or Change in Time: As time passes, variables also take different values.
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e Instrumentation:
during the research.
It
refers to the effect caused by changes in measuring instrument or method
e Selection Bias: It occurs when the test units are selected in such a way that they are not
representative of the population.
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.
Significance of Reliability and Validity in Sociological Research

© Not to be viewed as independent qualities: A measurement cannot be valid unless it is
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reliable; it must be both valid and reliable if it is to be depended upon as an accurate
representation of a concept.
¢ Helps researchers design and evaluat : Knowledge of
Reliability.and Validity enables
the researcher to evaluate his/her o s it makes -him/her‘a better consumer of
research.
e Ensures the data are sound and
that data are sound and replicable
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Key Challenges in Achieving
Qualitative research lacks Reli ethods, the procedure used to collect
}
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*
data is unsystematic, the results d there is no way-of replicating a
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« Lack in measurement e seen to lack the depth to describe

accurately the meanings action.
¢ Lack internal Validit fe fie6rrect conclusions about the
causes of social phenomena, thus unlikely to have internal validity.
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Resolving Challenges
¢ Using Respondent Validation: Some qualitative Researchers (like Feminists) advocate the
use of Respondent Validation to overcome the problem of validity. This involves researchers
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checking research findings so that they can correct any misinterpretation or inaccuracies.
« Calculation of Internal Consistency: Internal Consistency can be ensured by having two
different questions that have the same focus.
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* Chosen Methodology needs to

be appropriate: Appropriate methodology is required for the
research questions being investigated and this impacts the choice of research methods.
¢ Data Collection Technique: the design of the instruments used for data collection is critical
e
in ensuring
a high level of validity.
Avoiding Researcher Bias: At the data analysis stage, it is important to avoid researcher bias
and to be rigorous in
the analysis of the data.
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Conclusion:
In research, the main goal of establishing reliability and validity is to make sure that the data are good
and can be repeated, and that the results are correct. Moreover, Proof of validity and reliability are
needed to make sure that a measuring tool is accurate and of good quality.
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UNIT 4: SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS
4.1 Karl Marx

Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - March 14, 1883), a Prussian political economist, journalist, and activist,
and author of the seminal works, "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das Kapital", influenced
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generations of political leaders and socioeconomic thinkers. He wrote in the background of
industrialisation and capitalism as Europe was witnessing post French Revolution changes. He was
prompted toexplain the misery and suffering of people under capitalism and rising inequalities.
¢ The Communist Manifesto: In 1845, where he founded the German Workers’ Party and was
active in the Communist League. There, Marx networked with other leftist intellectuals and
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activists and together with Engels wrote his most famous work, "The Communist Manifesto",
@ Das Kapital: In this work, Marx aimed to explain the economic impact of capitalist society,
where a small group, which he called the bourgeoisie, owned the means of production and used
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their power to
exploit the proletariat, the working class.
¢ Conflict Theorist: Marx is critically acclaimed to be a conflict theorist and his theories show
how conflicting elements inherent in a s ing change. Karl Marx envisages history as a
class struggle with material productig
Influence on Marx:
1. German Influences and Idealis
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In early years of studentship, Mi enced by the German Philosophy and
Idealism of his days. More specifica f Georg Wilhelm
i
Friedrich Hegel and
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Ludwig Feuerbach is noticeable
2. Hegel's Dialectics of Ideas:
Karl Marx’s years in the Univ jpent under the impact of Hegelian
philosophy. He joined the group lians. Hegel’s philosophy centred on
two important concepts—dialectic
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the understanding of
is
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@ Real is Rational and Rational Real: This quote was given by the German philosopher,
Hegel in the context of justifying the "unchallenged authority" of the state. In the first part
- 'The real is rational" - Hegel explains the nature of reality in an idealistic sense. Since
Hegel was inspired by Socrates' tradition, for him, "ideas" are real. Sometimes ideas attract
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the equivalence of god. Once he established the nature of reality, Hegel proposed his
political ambition through the second part - Rational is real. It means ideas can only be
understood through reason. The end objective of Hegel is
to equate the state with God so
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that people would not dare to challenge the absolute truth.

¢ Definition: Dialectics is defined as a process that makes use of contradictory statements
or ideas to reach an ultimate truth. The dialectic is a method of philosophical argument
wherein there is a contradictory process between opposite sides. Hegel explains dialectics
in terms
of three elements: thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
© Thesis: Thesis is the dominant form of ideas prevalent in
society at any given point of
time whichare perceived to
be ‘true’.
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o Antithesis: Antithesis is the contrary set of ideas which are formulated over a period
of time. The antithesis is also referred to as the negative rationale.
:
o Synthesis: Over time, the thesis and antithesis reconcile in the form of synthesis. The
synthesis is also referred to as the positive rationale. In due course, this synthesis serves
as thesis. ,
o Progress in History: Progress in history happens by way of series of clashes between
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an idea (i.e. thesis) and its contradiction (i.e. antithesis) leading to the rise ofa new idea
(i.e., synthesis).
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Contradictions
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Impact of Marx: Marx accep {
dialectics but did not agree with the
emphasis on ideas. Instead of . ght in material forces and developed the
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idea of dialectical materialism. rial world is charactéfized by its own
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As’
independent existence and'notg also believed that Hegel’s idealism

led to a conservative political é
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3. L. Feuerbach's Theory of Religie

e Critical to Hegel: Feuerbach He placed less focus on idealism and
d on the real material issues rather than the
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more emphasis on materialism. Hi

ideals. While Hegel felt that ‘real m: Feuerbach claimed that 'real
ine,
man’ was someone

e Alienation: Humans? create
seek be like
of God which they attach to
ideal traits that they cannot achieve. Humans to God, yet it is impossible.
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However, they are unable to perceive human traits during the process and, as result, suffer
from. religious estrangement.
¢ Impact on Marx: The emphasis on material bases of religion drew Marx to Feuerbach's
theories. Marx, on the other hand, believed that Feuerbach should have linked theological
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alienation to economic activity. Marx believed that alienation originated from human social
and economic activities. His thought was influential in the development of historical
materialism. He is often recognized as a bridge between Hegel and Marx.
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Marx was influenced by the concept of dialectic, but he felt that it was the material aspects
that were more important than the ideas. Thus, he took the concept of dialectic from Hegel
but was critical of his idealism. Similarly, he took the idea of materialism from Feuerbach,
but he did not totally agree with Feuerbach’s idea of materialism.
4. Materialist Perspective
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¢ Meaning: Materialism seeks the scientific explanations of things, including even religion.
The idea of materialism may be opposed to
the concept of idealism. Materialism contends
that everything that exists, depends upon matter.
® Impact on Marx: Marx traced historical events in the light of materialistic understanding
of reality. According to Marx, the structure and development
of society is conditioned by
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the material conditions or economic factors of that society. It studies the real conditions of
human existence. Marx’s general ideas about society are known
as his theory of historical
materialism.
5. Political Economic Perspective
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Meaning: Political economy refers to the interface between politics and economy. In this
are treated as inseparable from each other. Political economy
sense, politics and economics
addresses the question: how do politics and policies influence economic outcomes (e.g.,
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economic growth, trade, employment, income inequality across different sections of
society and regions).
¢ Impact on Marx: Engels explained political economy in terms of laws that govern
production and exchange of
attacks economists’ practice o:
‘ subsistence’. According to Giddens, Marx
ing to economic value and economic
relations. Class division in ly ignored by economists. The fact,
however, isthat there is perg
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‘class over wages and profit.
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It is the scientific core of Marxist sociol
Political Economy”, It is Marx's sociolo rogress where material or economic
factors have a pivotal role in historical chi alism is the combination of many of
the ideas Marx already had into a cohes?
human lifeis based on the material factors 0
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1. Major Tenets of Historical Materiali

¢ Economic structure
«
Economy determine
Instead of ideas, econ
e terfiines legal superstructure.
¢
political‘and
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2. Meaning: Historical materialism is a materialist interpretation of social, cultural and political

phenomena. His theory of historical materialism is both historical and material in nature.
©
tishistorical because Marx has traced the evolution of human societies from one stage to
another. According to Marx, “History is a process of man’s self-creation”.
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¢ It is materialistic because he has interpreted the evolution of societies in terms of changes

in their material or economic bases.
¢ In evolutionary perspective, the history of society is seen through the successive
stages of
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evolution. Itis not the consciousness of men, therefore, that determines their existence, but
instead their social existence determines their consciousness.
__
3. Basic Assumptions:
¢ Society as an Interrelated Whole: Marx views human society as an interrelated whole.
The social groups, institutions, beliefs and doctrines within it are integrally related.
* Changeable Nature of Society: Marx views society as inherently mutable, in which
changes are produced largely by internal contradictions and conflicts.
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© Production is Essential: “In order to survive, man must produce”. It
is the first historical
act and has been universally a part of human history throughout. Also, man is
a perpetually
dissatisfied animal, once a need is satisfied, new ones are created. Thus, production
continues and history proceeds. While going for production, man enters into relationships
with other men.
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¢ Human Nature and Social Relationships: According to Marx, human nature does not
persist permanently, it
is potential at first and neither initially good nor initially bad. People
don't create things out of a desire for material possessions or to acquire wealth. However,
producing the necessities of existence involves people in social interactions that may not
be of their choice. In most of human history, according to Marx, these relationships are
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class relationships that create class struggle.
4. Social Relations (Over and Above Individuals): According to Marx, as a general rule, people
are forced to enter into specific social relations against their will by the creation of material
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necessities of life, which is a very basic necessity of all civilizations. Marx's theory of society
is based on this key tenet. He explains that awareness of these objective social relations is |
necessary. for understanding the

historical process.
5. Infrastructure and Superstructure iety, according to Marx, has its own
infrastructure and superstructure.
e Infrastructure: He defines s of material conditions, which refers he
U ed its economic base.
to as infrastructure. A socie by Any change
in material conditions implies ons. Infrastructure includes the forces
and relations of production.
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¢ Superstructure: Within the su Jeture are’ a educational, and institutions,
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as well as values, cultural
Superstructure of society is in:
6. Forces and Relations of Produé
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but a movement of the whole of society fronfOtie stage to another.

e Forces of Production; A cording to Marx, the forges of production appear to be a society’ s |
ability to produce.
§
technological knowlé p a :
i
Relations of Production: The production relations emerge from the production process
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*
but generally overlap with the production ownership relations. Relations of production
should not be. confused with property relations. At certain points in time, Marx speaks in
terms of transformation of society from one stage to another. Marx has provided us with a
in
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historical movement scheme explaining the process of transformation.

¢ According to Bottomore, ‘Forces’ and ‘relations’ of production are strongly interrelated.
The development of
one leads to a growing incompatibility or contradiction with the other.
In fact, the contradictions between the two aspects of production ‘act as the motor of
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history’.
7. Social Change in Terms of Social Classes: Marx elaborates the significance of the
infrastructure of society by tracing the formation of the:principal social classes. In a theory of
class struggles, he advances the concept of societal transformation as a result of internal
conflicts.
¢ According to Marx, social change follows a predictable pattern and he creates a broad
historical chronology of the major sorts of society - beginning with the basic,.
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undifferentiated society of ‘primitive communism’ and progressing to the intricate class
system of modern capitalism.
¢ Marx considers each phase of contradiction between the forces and the relations of
productionto be a period of revolution.
¢ Thus, Marx’ dynamic model of society is based on continuous change in
the forces and
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relations of production in response to the changing material conditions- a continuous class
struggle and struggle between man and nature.
8. Dialectical Relationship between the Forces and Relations of Production: Over time,
forces of production evolve. When this happens, they contradict existing relations of
production. When the contradiction intensifies, the existing mode of production and its
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superstructure breaks down. New relations of production that match with forces of production
emerge.
¢ This dialectic between forces of production and relations of production lies at the root of
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societal development that explains the history of societies, Thus, conflict is viewed as a
creative force that triggers progress.
¢ A revolution theory is provided by the dialectical interaction between production forces
and production relations. Revolutigg@ 7
isi
ge.to Marx's interpretation of history, are not
political accidents, but viewedg ement's social expression. Revolutions
are necessary signs of socie
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9, Social Reality and Consciousne: een infrastructure and superstructure,
as well as between social reality ai cording to Marx, human consciousness
does not determine reality; rather, ines human consciousness. Throughout
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history, human consciousness of ven birth to various sorts of social
relations.
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Factors
~
- Overemphasis on Material Mie social and cultural factors. He reduces
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the importance of all other factors into neaflyeconoinic factors.

e Karl Popper
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termed_the, approach of overemph economic factors by Marx as
economic
recon
2. Conflict perspective: SSkela e Vat obs
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conflict and ignored aspects
of social order.
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© Simmel argued that conflict has its own functions for society.
¢ Dahrendorf argued that differential authority structure is the root cause of conflict.
3. Macro view: Marx focused primarily on the macro evolutionary aspect and ignored the micro
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reality of social life.
Conclusion:
in of
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History is the continuity of changes the social system, the development human interactions geared
to productive activity (mode of production), in which the economic system serves as the foundation
and all other relationships, institutions, activities, and idea systems are "superstructural.” For
organising and analysing social institutions and structures within specific societies, the ideas linked
with the theory of historical materialism serve as appropriate macro-sociological organising and
analytical tools.
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Mode of Production
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Marx defines the evolution of mankind in terms of various stages. These stages or particular social
formations are called the mode of production. It
is a combination of forces of production and relations
of production.
1. According to Marx, because the production of surplus enables societies to grow and change,
this factor istaken to be most important in defining the mode of production. :
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2. According to Bottomore, the crucial element in defining mode of production is ‘the in
way
which thesurplus is produced and its
use controlled’.
3. Base and Superstructure:
° Economic infrastriéture (Base): It includes both forces and relations of production, The
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infrastructure is the economic system — the way that society produces goods. It includes
men, classes, tools, techniques etc.
Super superstructure: It includes all of the respect of society such as culture, law, state,
family, religion etc. The function of the superstructure is to reproduce the values and the
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ideas of the ruling class (the ideology).
BT tea rasta
Everything not directly te do with production:
a
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ersten g
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{and maintains)
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3. Production according to Marx:

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Survival: Marx argued that "In order to survive, men must produce". Thus, production is
essential for the survival of human beings. Survival of men depends upon his efficiency in
the production process.
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Universal: Production
human history.
is
the first historical act. Production has been universally a part of
Needs: Marx argued that "Man

his needs.
is
a perpetual dissatisfied animal". Man produces satisfy to
Relations: Through the process of production, men enter into relationships with other men.
Society exists for economic production because men in association produce more than in
isolation,
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4. Forces of Production: The forces of production express the degree to which human beings
control nature. The more advanced the productive forces aré, greater is
their control over nature
and vice versa,
¢ The developmentof forces of production reflects the constant struggle of human beings to
master nature through their labour. The forces of production determine superstructure.the
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Productive forces transform nature into use values and exchange values.
* Forces of Production are divided into two:
© Means of Production: These consist of capital, tools, machinery, raw material,
technology, labour (workers), skills and so on. Some Marxists have even included
geographical or ecological space as a productive force.
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o Labour Power: Labour is the actual exercise of one’s power to add value to
commodities. According to Marx, labour power is the capacity to do such useful work
which increases the value of products. Workers sell their labour power i.e. their
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capacity to do work which adds value to commodities. They sell their labour power to
capitalists for a wage paid in cash.
5. .Relatiotis of Production: Social relationships that directly or indirectly arise out of production
of material conditions of life. People duce jointly by organising in a society. In
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this sense, labour is and always hag acter. According to Marx, in order to
produce, people enter definite re rt. There are two types of Relations:
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¢ Relations between Man an sociations which individuals form to
undertake production. These a:
o The haves: who own p
the
to
sell their labour to
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© The have-nots: those whg uction and have
earn wages.
o Nature of this Relation?
and the worker’s relation fone of cooperation. Nature of these
relations between have a form of antagonistic cooperation. The
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¢ Relations between Man and Things

non-ownership of thi
mode of production. capitalism the most 4
Example: Under fundamental of these relations is the bourgeoisie’s

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ownership of means of production while the proletariat owns only its labour power.
6. Changes in Mode of
Production:
e Causes: Man's constant search for improvement of the production process leads to
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development of new forces of production.

* Conflict: New forces of production come in conflict with the existing relations of
production which results in a new mode of production. Thesis+Antithesis= Synthesis.
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e Six stages: Marx stated that there are six stages of production. Each new mode production
replaces the earlier one.
7. Stages of Mode of Production:
e Primitive Communism
© Basie feature: All are equal and the primary activity was hunting gathering.
© Production: It is communally owned. Equality in society because food was in
abundance and population was low.
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° Relations of production: Based upon the cooperation and coordination. Community
had the ownership of forces.
° Consequence: New form of tools --> Breakup of communal structure of society -->
New form of social organisation emerged --> new mode of production --> those who
had command over tools emerged as masters and others slaves.
« Ancient Slave Mode of Production
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O° Basic Feature: It symbolises ancient slavery in which slaves did not have control on
their labours as well.
° Production: Population increased --> slaves were pressurized to produce more.
°° Relations of Production: Slaves were dependent upon the masters. Exploitation of
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slaves increased. The master has the right of ownership over the slave and appropriates
the products of the slave’s labour. The slave is
not allowed reproduce. to
° Consequences: Slaves revolted against masters --> New mode of
production emerged
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--> Agriculture and Feudalism
e Feudalistic Mode of Production
° Basic Feature: Society was divided into land owning feudal lords and landless serfs.
° Production: Land was centr. ctivity. Feudal lords controlled the land.
Relations of Production: wt on feudal lords. Serfs were forced to
cultivate on the land of fe
Consequences: Develop
U icultural and manufactured products
~-> International trade rou -->.Serfs paid high taxes.--> serfs
mitres
revolted --> foundation for sof production (new mode of production),
Capitalistic mode of producti
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©
oO Basic Feature: Feudal lo: Serfs became workers in factories.

According to Bottomore, wing characteristics:
= Goods are produced fo:
= Labour power is
exchang¥@
"The of ange. This gives an important role to banks
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use money as a mediun

and financial intermediaries.
. or their managers.
epreneur.
5
g
= Individual capitalists compete for control over labour and finance.

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Production: Capital is central to economic activity. Production is social, appropriation

is private.
Relations of Production: Society got divided into haves or have nots. Workers lose
control over their labour
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° Consequences: Marx predicted that workers will unite and revolt. New mode of
production will emerge.
°o Prediction of Marx: Capitalism is unstable and it will be replaced by a new mode of
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Production - socialism.
e Socialist Mode of Production
° Basic Feature: In this stage, proletariat will topple the bourgeoisie
o Production: Proletariat will control the mode of production
° Relations of Production: Marx calls it the dictatorship of proletariat, workers will
Control the forces of production.
3° Consequence: Marx argued that this dictatorship will also come to an end.
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« Communist Mode of Production
© Basis feature: Final mode of production
© Production: Collective production will remain but the qualitative nature of relations
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ere
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will be transformed. .
© Relations of Production: Creative activities will be pursued by everyone. There will
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be no class, no state, no contradiction and no class conflicts.
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o Consequences: Dialectical principle will cease to operate in this mode of production.
Workers will renounce their rule.
TTI
eRe
¢ Asiatic Mode of Production :
o Basie feature: The Asiatic mode of production is characteristic of primitive
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communities in which ownership of land is communal.
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© Production: State power, which is the real or imaginary unity of these communities,
controls the essential economic resources, and directly shares part of the labour and
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production of the community.
© Relations of production: These communities are still partly organised on the basis of
kinship relations. Here the sense of individual ‘ownership’ is absent. As a result, the
notion of property or private pBas © absent. In the absence of both, this is
called a ‘classless’ society 4
Critique of Mode of Production Theor

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eeeeneyennneretemanca
e Raymond Aaron: Socialism is qué
¢ Ossowski: Classes are present in e
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¢ Louis Althusser: The ruling class
rather than repressive state apparayy
¢ Consumption: Marx focused upé
consumption. %
¢ Feminists: Marx ignored the feminiSt

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factor in growth of capitalism).

e Failed to become Realj
communist countries.
e Asiatic Society Mode arx's generalized mode of
production.
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e Pareto: If any proletariat revolution occurs, it will lead to replacement of only one elite to
another.
¢ Narrow Empiricism: It is accused of being economically reductionist and is obsessed with
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social justice.
Conclusion:
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Through his theory of mode of production, Marx placed human beings and their conscious, purposive
activity human. labour —at the centre of his analysis of human history. He was able to show that the
uniqueness of the human species lay in their conscious productive activity whereby they transformed
nature to produce their means of existence. /
Marx
on Alienation about alienation.
1. Introduction: In his “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts”, Marx talks
Alienation literally means “separation from”. Marx argued that a major share the
of profits in
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capitalist mode of production is taken away

the production process and the commodities they produce.
by
capitalists. ‘he workers lack control over both:
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2. They are not able to relate with what they produce. This is what Marx referred to as ‘alienation’ dthrunnennet
of the workers. It is the breakdown of natural interconnection among people and what they rec
rit
produce.
is
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tener
3. Marx believed that the inherent relationship between labour and human nature perverted in
is
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the capitalist system- and this perversion called alienation.

¢ According to Marx, every commodity has two kinds of value attached to
it: ‘use value’ and
“‘exchange-value’. Use-value of the commodity is in its consumption and exchange value
denotes the value of a product when it is exchanged with the other products.
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Explanation:
e Early Times: According to Marx, earlier, men produced in the pursuit of creative activities,
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Through the process of creative production, men used to transform themselves, He undertook
production for his own self-satisfaction and other needs.
e Less Alienating: Work in the past may well have been more physically demanding, but it was
also less alienating. Because worker: | over their working conditions and work
was more satisfying, because wor selves in their work’.
® Later Times: Later, in capitali
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the needs of the market. Labour’
owned by capitalists. This resulted
Workers had no control over what
t
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Being and Social-being: Two essential ure:
® “The constant part is called being satisfied and creative. Man tends to
create things which are expressio ce society limits the creativity of an
individual he feels alienated.
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Four Dimension
of alienation in capitalism:
e Alienation from the Process of Production: Process of production gets fixed. Work is
entirely directed by someone else. Work is highly specific in nature, repetitive and creatively
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unrewarding. Workers indulge in production because they need the wage for survival.
e Alienation from the Product: Product is designed and directed by others. Product does not
belong to those who produce it,
but to the capitalist owner. Workers don't have any control
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over quantity and quality of the product. The same product has to be purchased from the market
by the worker.
e Alienation from the Fellow Workers: Workers do not get time to interact with others. Work
is compartmentlized. It
leads to a feeling of alienation from the fellow workers. Competition
to sell the labour for lowest possible value pits workers against each other. It workers
Prevents
from understanding their shared experience and problems.
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e Alienation from Oneself: Workers are alienated from their true inner self, desires and the
pursuit of happiness. Work is not a choice but a compulsion. Work is external to the worker
and it is nol a part of his nature. Workers feel so helpless that they even doubt their own
existence. This is the peak of alienation.
History of Making has Two Aspects:
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1. First, it was a history of increasing control of men over nature:
e New Technology: Man wanted to improve his production efficiency so he devised new
tools and techniques. These tools and techniques helped man.to overpower and dominate
nature,
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¢ Overcoming Nature: Scientific and technological advances could overcome limits set by
nature. Marx had a deep faith in capitalism's ability to develop the productive forces and
technology to overcome all
risks to the planet and nature.
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2. Second, it was a history of increasing alienation of men:
* Slave of Production: Man overpowered nature but man itself is eliminated from social
¢
sphere, From one node of production t
Detachment: Due to the separa
ther, men becomes
m his labour, he
a
slave of production.
loses control over what
he produces.
Broader Theory of Social Alienation:

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Sociologist Melvin Seeman provided a r cial alienation in a paper published in
1959, titled "On the Meaning of Alienatio attributed to social alienation hold true
today in how sociologists study this phen
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¢ Powerlessness: When individuals ey believe that what happens intheir
lives is outside of their control an ately does not matter. They believe
they are powerless to shape their li
derive meaning from the things in which he
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or she is engaged, or at least not the same common or normative meaning that others derive
from it. «
e Social-Isolation: Whe ar ingfully connected to their
community through sharéd ind™practices? and/or when they do not have
meaningful social relationships with other people.
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e Self-Estrangement: When a person experiences social alienation they may deny their own
personal interests and desires in order to satisfy demands placed by others and/or by social
norms.
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Alienation and Historical Materialism:

® History of mankind has a double aspect as
it was a history of increasing control of man over
nature, at the same time was a it
history of increasing alienation of man.
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e Primitive man found nature to be too overpowering and devised means and forces of
production to overpower nature. But alienation transferred from the natural sphere the social to
sphere.
e Alienation increases within the specific mode of production and also between different modes
of production and peaks at
capitalism.
De-alienation:
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"De-alienating” ur reversing estrangement means re-integrating with others, re-conceiving

(
@
'
ourselves as individuals as part of the universal, returning control over processes of production :
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to producers, regaining dominion over the products of labour. :
Merely abolition of private property cannot solve the problem of alienation. The whole process
{
@
of production is to be transformed.
Socialism is a transition phase while alienation will disappear completely in communism. It
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©
will be marked by the arrival of the “Total Man”. As per Marx, communist society makes it
“possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, hunt
to in
the morning, fish in
the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner, just as I have a mind, without
ever becoming hunter, fisherman, shepherd or critic."
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RNS
Commodity Fetishism
‘enna
used to describe the fanatical power possessed by inanimate objects in indigenous
Fetish is
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cultures. With fetish, we create things and give its powers equivalent to God. In Marxian
SERN
analysis, commodities are products of labour with the sole purpose of exchange the market in to
generate profits.
Features of Commodity Fetishism

1. Mysterious: The social charac udes all types of social relations that
help in the production process.
U them in the form of objective value
of money (universal equivalent)
e Example: The coffee that yo ses the social relations between coffee
i
shop owner, plantation owner,
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shaped coffee trade etc. But g ed to'a simple monetary value of a
cup of coffee. Hence, money %
elations from us.
ans human created forms come to
acquire natural, universal, absolut
beyond their control and unchangeabl
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¢ Example: Durkheim Highlights how God and sacredness is worshiping society itself.
Human reified Godé
3. Mesmerization: Peop! jectivity and/authority of commodity and
economy.
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¢ Example: In India, people are mesmerized by foreign brands like Apple, Gucci etc.
Origin:
1. Commodities: They are simple until they have use-value. Gradually, they become separate
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from the needs and purpose of its creator.

e«
Example: Earlier, a chair was created to provide a sitting space. Now they are created
to sell in the market and earn money with it.
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2. Independent Existence: The commodity comes to have exchange value under capitalism.
This leads to independent and real existence of commodities and their markets, external to
the individual.
to
.
3. Labor as Commodity: Labor, which is what makes us human, comes have an exchange
value. It is turned into an abstract thing. It is appropriated by capitalists to produce objects
for the market that dominate us later.
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* Example: Marx highlights in Das Kapital how profit is generated by variable capital
(human labor) as costs associated with fixed capital are necessary to incur.
4. New Function of Economy: Economy takes the function of ‘production of value’. It was
performed by human actors until now.
e Example: Indian villages were marked by Jajmani relationships as people created value
P
in goods and exchanged them. With the British, market economy based on regulated
forces of demand and supply began to come into shape.
5. Loss of Control: Individual loses control over commodities and market because
they are
accorded independent existence. Rather, they coerce the individual as per their own
demands. As a result, people start fetishing that objects and markets have their intrinsic
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value in itself, rather than being creations of human labor.
¢ Example: Labor produces automobiles not because
the increase in market demand.
of
their own wishes but because of
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¢ Example: Macklemore explains commodity fetishism with Nike Air shoes. People
believe that these shoes will make them the next Micahel Jordan. The value of Nike
shoes
is displaced from the labor time that went into creating them, and instead infused
with an intrinsic value that comes into being through celebrity endorsement or symbols
is
such as the iconic Nike ‘swoosh’
§
U
=
i Ind
Invention of Money
it
Commodity’ independent
as Mniversa Exchange Value
Equivalent Commodity and
|
Market
Q
Commodity. Invisibilization
Fetishism of Human labor
R
Conclusion:
SUNYAIAS
Ue Saal
The concept of commodity fetishism highlights how human labor is
G
disregarded under capitalist

order. Rather objects are endowed with their own intrinsic value. This enables the process of
alienation of workers from the product as well as the process of production.
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Criticism of the Marx's Idea of alienation

1. Merton: Alienation leads to innovation in society.
2. Karl Popper: Alienation can be a breeding ground for creative ideas also.
3. Durkheim: Argues that alienation can be corrected by existing structures. There is no need to
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change the whole system.

4. Goldthorpe and Lockwood: Workers are more occupied with what happens outside the
factory. Work is
just a means to
an end, i.e., better living conditions.
5. CW Mills: White collared staff also witnesses’ alienation. These professionals have to show
fake smiles, artificial politeness.
6.. Robert Blauner: Highlighted that alienation depends upon the technology used at work.
Divides alienation into 4 dimensions.
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of control of workers on their work
Of
® Degree
@
to which they are involved in their work
Degree
¢ of meaning and purpose they find in work.
Degree
es
to which they are socially Integrated to their work
Degree
7. Max Weber: Over bureaucratisation of society leads to alienation because man is guided by
fixed rules and his creativity is suffocated.
P
Conclusion:
Marx first articulated workplacealienation in the 1840s, and his description
were compelled by the industrial revolution to work in manufacturing jobs that
is
still valid today. People
were unsatisfying and
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alienating. The issue lasted into the 20th and 21st centuries, especially in positions with little
autonomy. Despite the automation of manual labour, today's variables like division of labour and the
displacement particular skills lead to alienation.
of
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Marx on Class and Society
Class is a group of people sharing the same position in the process of production. Class is the
fiindarnental unit of organisation and Socie ided into opposing classes. Marx sees two
broad classes in
every society as - haves
3
30talks about intermediate classes but
heargues that as history proceeds ¢

all
Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
U
1, What is i
"Class in itself"?:
@
It isan ‘analytical construct in

Q
According to Marx, itis
@-8
an
It is definedby.the position ink

of
ee
Members arenot aware bei
2. What is
"Class for itself"?
R
¢ It is a class in which class. met bers are aware of their common condition. It is a
Mi0
precondition for the ction to,socialigm.
y
¢ True consciousness
system of ideas with wide r
Me
rk
mane at NY :
energised by an appropriate
Class for itself among workers can happen only in capitalist mode of production. (As an
G
¢
eatlier change of mode of production resulted only in replacement of one set of
,
contradictions by another)
3. Proletariat Developing into a ‘class for itself? due to:
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* Unstable Capitalist Society: The ‘conflict of interest’ between the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat cannot be resolved within the framework of capitalist economy. a
e Exploitation: The basic conflict of interest involves the exploitation of workers by the
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bourgeoisie or capitalists.
¢ Contradiction: Between social production and individual ownership as capitalism
developed, the workforce was increasingly concentrated in ‘large factories’ where
a
production was ‘social enterprise’. But there was,‘joss of human value and alienation from
the product as well as production.
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1 - Sociology
Optional
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¢ Organization: Social production also
makes
it
easier for workers to organize themselves
against the capitalists. It facilitates communication and encourages a recognition of
common circumstances and interests.
4. What is
Class Consciousness?
¢ Awareness: The workers are collected in factories and they become aware of their
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common interests and discuss their common problems. Moreover some members of the
bourgeoisie who are aware of the inevitable course of history also join the workers - the
proletariat.
¢
according to Marx and Engels.
it
Inevitable: It takes time to develop this consciousness but is an inevitable development
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e Class solidarity: Class-consciousness is reached when members realize that only by
collective action can they overthrow the ruling class and when they take positive steps to
do so.
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5. Class Polarisation:
* Marx's view was that the successful members of the middle class would become members
of the bourgeoisie, while the unsuce ould be forced into the proletariat,
e Thus, there would emerge super and super-poor lumpenproletariat.
6. Class Struggle and Revolution:
¢ Conflict: Marx says that cla
U
classes in every mode of pr
¢ Proletariat Revolution: Marx: antagonism and subsequently the class
conflict in the capitalist system jalism in place of capitalism through a
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revolution. Karl Marx argued
‘communist utopia’ of his dre:
© The contradiction between
antagonism. The bourge
production. But the relation
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distribution of income) are not trans erred at the same rate.

o There is
a huge digpa
the majority of the
egpite production and increase in wealth,
isery but a minority of people
have occupied t
o The onus of this disparity lies on the unequal, exploitative relations of production which
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distribute the produce in an unequal manner. This conttadiction, according to Marx,

will eventually produce a revolutionary crisis.
* Pre-requisites: Revolution will not happen automatically, it is possible only when some
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mature conditions exist such as:

0 Workers gain consciousness
Network of communication is established among workers
Identification of enemy
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ooo00
Appropriate organisation
Ideology generated by leadership
* Socialism to Communism:
0 The proletarian revolution will mark the end of classes and of the antagonistic character
of capitalist society. This would mean that the private ownership of property will be
abolished. The proletariat will jointly own means of production and distribute the
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produce according to the needs of the members of the society. This stage is called the
stage of dictatorship of the proletariat — Socialism.
© Socialist stage will later on convert into a stateless society where the communist system
will finally be established in the society. This will also end all kinds of social classes
and of all kinds of class conflicts for the future. This will also mean de-alienation of
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the proletariat.
Criticism of Class Struggle Theory

1. David Harvey: Class issues and workers movement have less importance now. Political
moments have been fragmented into diverse movements.
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2. Frank Parkin: Classes exist even in socialist countries,
3.
. Max Weber: Weber highlighted that
e Economic basis is not the only basis of stratification in society.
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© Class is not a community, so it cannot unite and revolt
Lenski: Breakdown of
capitalism may notlead to socialism because other modes production of
emerge.
Dahrendorf: There is a little chance, au of the working class now because it has
become heterogeneous or dissimilgg
V. Lenin: Workers left to themseg a ‘trade union consciousness,’ seeking
limited social and economic refor
U
lutionary awareness.
Westergaard: Inhis study of Br at though class inequalities are on the
rise, yet there appears to
be ‘less c! es’.
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e Political parties responsible for 2 bilizing class interests are riven with
internal disputes.
Post-Modernists, Pakulski.and ‘The Death of Class’ claim that not
that social inequality is disappear vision is losing its significance and
more cleavages are appearing in sock
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Thomas Piketty: In his Capital, 2014 ar; f
technology progress and_increasing that could be a counter force against

accumulation of private
10. Antonio Gramsci: He
tah. 4
@
i
iVA
agK ;
well as between
placing greater emphasis.on the importance of divisions within classes as
G
Classes.
* For example, agricultural and industrial workers might to some extent have different
interests, and the state might exploit the existence of these divisions in order to maintain
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ruling-class hegemony. .
Relevance of Class Struggle Theory

National Liberation Movements: In the first place, the national liberation movements the in
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developing countries are seen as expressions of the internal contradictions of the global
capitalist system, the colonialism and economic exploitation perpetrated by corporate
capitalism.
Development and Dependency: This position is actively endorsed by Andre Gunder Frank
who
argues that the underdevelopment of the Third World countries is initiated and aggravated
satellized and exploited
by the capitalist system of the developed countries which have
developing countries.
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Appreciation/Relevance/Significance of Karl Marx
® Interaction: Important point Marx argued that human beings not only interacted with nature
to produce what they needed, they also had to necessarily interact with one another
of carrying out production.
the act in
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¢ Individual and Society: The notion of human beings as primarily ‘individuals’ is a creation
of modern bourgeois society while the fact of
history is that human beings have always existed
as social beings and that production at all
stages of historical development takes place in and
through society. .
:
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© Conflict: Marx demonstrated that as productive powers of a hunian society — its ‘productive
forces’ - inevitably keep growing, they necessarily come into conflict with the prevalent
way
of organizing social production and reproduction, which he called ‘the social relations of
production’.
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¢ Class Struggle: Each class society contains the seeds of its
dissolution and overcoming by a
new, higher level of human development, and that the dynamic through which this-process
takes place is
that of class struggle.
©
Ecological Destruction: The clima' for collective solutions, but the logic of
corporate profit maximization, drance that defines contemporary
globalization, makes itimpossi
U
¢ Global Challenges: The scand alnutrition in a world where science
’
is a reminder that capitalism as an
ite some decades now.
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Conclusion:
Marx broke new ground in human though
of class strugglehas little empirical
suppor f it’s heuristic impact, it has been very
influential. Although the Marxian prophecy f capitalism has not come true, Marx’s
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concept of revolution may be still relevant.
4,2- Emile Durkheim

4.2.1- Background
G
* He was born in 1858 in the border district of France called Lorraine (this district shared a
border with Germany). He came from a long line of devout French Jews; his father,
¢
grandfather, and great-grandfather had all been rabbis.
He found humanistic studies uninteresting, turning his attention from psychology and ee
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philosophy to ethics and eventually, sociology. vee
4.2,2- Timelines
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¢ 1893: Durkheim wrote his first major work called, “Social division of labour”. Here he
introduced the concept of “Anomie”. He published this work even before he developed his
methodology,
* 1895: He published his 2"! work, “Rules of Sociological Method”. In this, he described
procedural ‘steps to apply scientific methods to study human society.
¢ 1897: He published another famous work, “The Suicide”. It was the best manifestation of
positive science by applying all
natural science methodologies to
arrive at generalization.
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¢ 1913: He published his last major work, “Totemism — Elementary form of Religious Life”.
Here he provided scientific study of religious phenomena.
4.2.3-‘Influences on Emile Durkheim that shaped his Thought Process

1. Social Influences
a
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Political Instability: France went through lot of political turmoil. First French revolution
broke out in 1789 followed by civil and international wars for the next 25 years. Again,
revolution broke out in 1830 and 1848. In 1870 again, French-German war broke out. In
this France was defeated and monarchy was abolished.
Issue of Education: Basic issue plaguing French society in the 19th century was design of
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Education. Whole society was polarized into two — left wing (emphasized that education
to be secular) and right wing (wanted church to control education). Finally, education was
made secular and Durkheim was tasked with framing the curriculum of schools and
EE
universities.
Panama Canal Issue: French company
Canal, bribed all the politicians. This
in
order to back the contract for building Panama
da feeling of general disillusionment among
common people that all are corru, ould be trusted.
Dreyfus Issue: Alfred Dreyfug ally convicted of selling French military
secrets to the Germans. Di mile Zola drove a public campaign
U
defending Dreyfus thus he was seen as a person who can unify
the whole society. This influer ‘Moral individualism’ whereby defence of
individual’s rights strengthens d against egoism.
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2. Intellectual Influences
Interconnectedness: Influe tesquieu particularly that society is
interconnected. Also inspired General Will” — a collectively held
will that strives for the comm is evident in ED work of Collective
Conscience.
R
Positive Methodology: Direct’ Influence from Simon concept of “Sociological

Positivism”. Simon jentific yethod of natural science to study
y
Dp
oy Ss
a oped,
i
society,
Society needs to R philosopher GHarles Bernard Renouvier and
Emmanuel Kant he picked up the idea of Moral regulation of society.
G
Society over and above Individual (Sociological Realism): From Gustav

Friedrich Schmoller, Durkheim picked up the idea that society has privacy over individual.
Social Reality: Emile Boutroux, French philosopher, shaped his basic assumption about
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social reality that-sociology must concern only with those aspects of reality which are
shared in common by members of society.
Data Analysis: From Fustel de Coulanges, a French historian, he picked up the idea wrt
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how to use and interpret historical data for social research. He used the same methodology
in study of Suicide.
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: Ferdinand Tonnies’ idea of Gemeinschaft (Community
has primacy over individual) and Gesellschaft (individual has primacy over community)
also influenced him. He based his theory of division of labour and types of solidarity in
traditional and modern societies on these concepts.
4.2.4- General conditions for the establishment of a Social Science

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Durkheim laid down the general conditions for the establishment of a social science in his book
Montesquieu and Rousseau, published in 1892. These general conditions are:
¢ Science not coextensive with Human Knowledge: He pointed out Science is not concerned
with total human knowledge or thought. Not every type of question the mind can formulate
can be tested by science. For example, the question posed by the primitive human mind ‘What
is God?’ is not answered by the rationality of science.
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¢ Specificity: Science must have a clear field to study. Science is about things, about the way
things really are. Por social science to exist, it must have definite subject matter.
* Science describes types of subject matter: If we can classify human socictics into groups,
we can come up with general rules to discover regularities of human behaviour.
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¢ Social science describes the social form of Life: Social science categorises the different types
of human societies. For each type of society, it describes what is normal about social life,
because what is
normal is
healthy. It is not concerned with the individual but the society.
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* Societies subjected to regularities: If societies were not subject to regularities, no social
science would be possible. The principle that all the phenomena of the universe-are closely
interrelated is also valid for human soci ich are a part of nature.
4.2.5- Subject Matter of Sociology

1. Introduction: As per Emile Dui
the subject matter of Sociology si
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2. Definition: Social Facts are thos king and feeling which are capable of
exercising external constraints on ind they are generally diffused throughout
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a given society and they can exist jp
#
Examples of social facts are religi

3. Characteristics of Social Facts
e Externality: Social facts ex
individuals. They are sui- generis.
f
L:
a
and must be. seen
over and above
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¢ Constraint: Social
isa coercive force. As true human freedom
a person
lies in
to
certain rules. It
per Durkheim, being regulated by
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societal norms. For example, laws imposed through government institutions are imposed
on ail the common people.
* Independence: Social facts exist independent of the will of the individual, For example,
if
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Religion (social fact) exist outside Individual. Even

continue to exist.
Individual is
not there Religion will
e Enduring: Social Facts endure through time. They outlast any set of groups or individuals.
For example, the institution of caste has been enduring.
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.
¢ Dynamic: Social facts are not static, rather they keep on evolving. For example, the
evolution of law from repressive to restorative nature.
¢ Inter-dependence: Social facts can be explained only by other social facts. These act as
causes and effects to each other, thereby having interdependence relationships. For
example, the root reason of suicide should be investigated through many social factors,
such as population, integration, social order, and so forth, rather than being attributed to
the individual's decision.
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4.. Types of Social Facts: According to Durkheim, there are two broad types of Social Facts.
, They are:
© Material Social Facts: Society, which is more apparent as it has boundary of its own, have
sense of identity as well as unity. They are directly observable.
o Structural elements of society like church, state, judiciary, police, architecture, forms
of technology, division of labour and legal codes etc.
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© Morphological components of society like population distribution, communication
channels, etc.
e Non- Material Social Facts (Main focus of Durkheim): These are intangible and not
directly observable.:The main non-material social fact that kept earliest communities
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together was a deeply held shared morality, or what he called a strong collective
conscience.
© For examples, Culture, social institutions, morality, collective conscience, collective
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representation (Abraham Lincoln in US), social currents (enthusiasm, indignation and
pity in public gatherings), etc.
Additional Information
* Institutionalized Social F are institutionalized and accepted by
people. For example, reli abour institutionalized in the form of
church, factory etc.
Non-institutionalized So
*
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can exercise constraint on
5. Criticism of Social Fact
Gabriel Tarde: Durkheim is ecting individuals and giving much
Q
¢
emphasis on society. For exarg jest or common mass then there will
ing the constant aspect of social fact

more weight. For him, people
R
obligations. For example, helping wea

has glorified
si
« Stephen Lukes: in his book, “ says Durkheim»
empirical analysis to’ ¢ individual subjectivity.

¢ Peter Burger: He ai possib
d
bins Scial observation.
e Weber: He said, “Social facts don’t exist, as things in their own right waiting to be gathered
G
like pebbles on beach”. Thus, social facts lie inside an individual and their influence is on
the basis of individual’s own interpretation of social fact.
¢ Timasheff: Durkheim became unscientific by ignoring individual consciousness.
George Kathleen: Individuals can change the norms of society through individual efforts
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*
« Merton: He makés the point that theories that are both general and universal have no
relevance to the real world. He suggested middle range theories.
¢ Heidieman: Durkheim was more concerned with the process of constructing society than
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it
with establishing a methodology for as Durkheim fails to distinguish between his concern
for sociology and society.
« Gunnar Myrdal: He states that subjectivity is an illusion and can never be achieved as
research is generally driven by certain view point involving subjectivity. This is even true
for social facts.
¢ Overemphasised on macro view: Micro view is also required in understanding society.
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¢ Lemert: Durkheim isolated sociology from the other sciences of man because he defined
it so solely in terms of its
own facts.
6. Conclusion: Despite multiple flaws, Durkheim's concept of social facts helped establish
sociology as a distinct academic discipline and offered one of
the strongest justifications for
understanding society as it is now before making recommendations about how ought to be. it
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4.2.6- Methodology
1. Background
¢Emile Durkheim methodology was published in 1895 in his book, “Rules of Sociological
Method”. In this book he laid down procedural steps to
apply positive science to study
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social phenomena.
e As
per
him, Science of Sociology ought to be science as it the very nature of the subject
matter of Sociology i.e. Social Facts, which are external, general and interconnected.
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Hence, social facts can be observed in terms of generalisation.
2. Procedural Steps: Procedural steps as per Durkheim are:
¢ Rules of Observation: Durkheim talked about 3 rules for observation of social ‘fact. They
are:
° Empirical: While observig should be treated as things as things
can be observed. In sim of social facts must be restricted to
verifiable/external facts.
U must be abandoned. For example,
}
Podium in class is a social served.

Eliminate subjective bias ived notion about social fact must be
abandoned by testing they Ise, this preconceived notion will
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contaminate our observati ons. Any preconceived notions must
be tested against facts. Fo! ommit more suicide must be tested
through facts.
Collectivity over Individua must be observed in their collective
manifestation rather than indiv fianifestation. For example, Durkheim focused
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upon national suicide rate.

VA
bee
°o Specificity: Obs nm be as precise and definite as
possible. Phenonteg unlic e ch ied.
© Rules of Distinction:
G
oO Normal Vs Pathological: He talked about two kinds of classification i.e. Normal and
Pathological. Here he is being biological. Normal is healthy and pathological is
unhealthy.
If social fact is satisfying some or other needs (being beneficial) of society even if
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it is not statistically normal then it is Normal Social-Fact and vice versa. For
i
example, Widow remarriage (though not common occurrence earlier) in earlier
period is normal social fact while COVID (prevalent everywhere) in
present times
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is pathological social fact.

" For example, Crime is normal as it
is present in all types of societies and reaffirms
societal values when people flout norms. When crime.rates rise above what is
generally constant. for a particular societal type, they turn into abnormal or
pathological facts.
° Comparative method: He propounded the use of comparative method to classify
Social phenomenon into different types. This helps in classification of societies as pet
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their structure and complexity, calling it social morphology. For example, he classified
suicides into 4 different types because causal factors are different.
e Rules of Generalization: He argued that Sociology being a positive science must try to
arrive at Generalization. He further added that sociologist must arrive at two kinds of
generalization.
o Causal Generalization: Identify the cause or why any social phenomena occurs.
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o Functional Generalization: Identify the consequences for the society which are
functional for the society.
e Rules of Classification: Durkheim says that every social fact is not unique but a part of is
a broad classification:
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o Structural or morphological facts- which give a particular society its appearance.
© Institutional and Non-institutional social facts (EXPLAINED EARLIER).
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4.2.7- Theory of Suicide
In 1897, Emile Durkheim published his book on suicide i.e., “Le Suicide”. It was the best
manifestation of positivist methodology advocated by him. For the first time in sociology, empirical
research and theory building were brought to;
1 Suicide Definition: All cases of d or indirectly from positive or negative
act of the victim himself/hersel ill provide this effect. (Positive act of
Commission means doing som
U consuming poison and negative act of
Omission means Failing to do w Sin that particular situation that causes
death like firefighters, army persons).
Why Durkheim Choses to Conduet es?
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e Suicide major issue: In the s
and psychologists, climatologig
ntury, suicide became big concern,
gists, and racialists offered several
a
explanations. Durkheim inten using science.
¢ Data availability: Moreover, st
bility of data on suicide from various
sources like hospital, police stations,
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€ . onduct comprehensive study.

Method used was Multivariate Analysis: Durkheim wanted. to overcome problem ofthe
spurious Correlations in §
fn
Betail at the end of the article)
VE pean countries of all un-natural
Findings Of the Data: §
deaths for the period of 30 years (1841-1871). After analysing all the data, he found that:
G
e Climatic theory: % Of suicide in Europe in spring is as high as in winter even though

spring season is very pleasant. Hence, climatic theory failed.
¢ Geographical theory: Different age groups in same geographical area have same rate. So
geographical theory also failed.
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¢ Racial theory: People of same race living in different locations of country had different
rate of suicide. Hence, racial theory has also failed.
¢ Phycological theory: There was drastic variation of suicide rate among various societies.
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Hence Durkheim said that suicide cannot be explained only in psychological terms.
* Behavioral theory: It
said persons with anxiety, sadness, addiction, or hostility commit
suicide, E, Durkheim said there's more to suicide than individual behaviour.
¢ Imitation Theory: Gabriel Tarde (French sociologist) said that suicide is an act of
imitating others. Example: One farmer committing suicide leads to another. But E.
Durkheim vehemently rejected imitation theory. E. Durkheim believed that if the imitation
theory were correct, other family members would have committed suicide.
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Social Realism: Durkheim stated that study of social suicide rate (collective rate) reveals
different suicide rates in different societies, rather than individual suicides. Moreover, these
rates changed very little over time in society. For example, French was twice as likely to
commit suicide than Germans.
Demography Theory: Demographer Robert Selvin believes climate affects suicide.
According to R. Selvin, suicides rate drops in winter and rise in summer. Durkheim
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counters that festival seasons and rituals during winter reduces suicide rates. These
festivities revitalizes both society and individuals, increasing social bonding.
5. Suicido- Genic Current: Every society has a fix quota of suicide. Therefore, it's caused by a
force emanating from within the social structure and diffused. throughout the society,
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compelling individuals to commit suicide. He called it "Suicide-Genic Current”. Society
generates these currents from time to time, and those with a greater propensity commit
suicides.
is
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Suicide social fact: As suicide is social fact, so following Durkheim methodology (a
social fact must be explained in terms of another social fact) cause of suicide must.also be
:
social. On further analysis of data, he fo
o Religion: Everywhere in Eu always had higher rate of suicides than
Catholics as Protestants la on Individualism) and less integrated
to church than Catholics.
o Gender: Another trend
U d higher rate of suicides compared to
women as males unlike fe ner. so

o Marriage: Unmarried peop’ dency to commit suicide than married.
people enter stable social relations.
—
So, marriage is counter ag

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© Political Upheaval (Cris year when there is war/revolution,
,
suddenly suicide rate falls develops and then again it regained

normal rate.
changes in the collective sen in es_in social currents— chan ges in
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Suicide rates ;
After analyzing data, esaccording people to which in

caonaeciog
above categories are
or “Solidarity”. In o
Derpn a
mth t connection “Integration”
in the’ iciéty,,. less will be the suicide rate
is
(rate of suicide in inversely proportional to degree of solidarity in society). In short,
G
Rate of Suicide « 1/ Degree of Solidarity

Typology of Suicide: According to him two suicide-genic currents/impulses develops i.c.,
he developed a theoretical typology of suicide to explain the differing effects of social
factors and how they might lead to suicide. As these two continuous-vafiables go up/down,
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so does the suicide rates-

o Excessive Integration/ Lack of Integration — degree of attachment to society,
o Excessive Regulation/ Lack of Regulation — degree of external constraint on people.
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Types of Suicide

aerte
‘Sy
ee nent
Altruistic suicide
{too much integration)
Anomic Regulation
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suicide = Fatalistic
(not enough ~# suicide
Be (too
regulation) much
regulation)
Integration
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Egoistic suicide
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(not enough integration)
1. Regulative force: Results in two types of Suicides because of over regulation and under
regulation.
¢ Anomic suicide: This type of suici under regulationin which due to sudden
changes (social, economic, aperiences anomie (becomes so much
confused and disconnected oose to commit suicide.
o Example: After sudden ‘>t Tamil Nadu, Jayalalithaa, in 2016,
U
many people committed s
anese man committing suicide as he
became bankrupt after losing néa from Luna crypto crash.
Q
A
\under extreme regulation to escape

}
of helplessness and nothing could be

j
done to change the prevailing 8 “

o Example Suicides
women.
among
s' an and Greek society, Childless married
R
o Example: Many stydents commit,suicide in Rajasthan’ aching hub of Kota, raising

questions on socié
2. Integrative force: Res f
f aigir
oi
ides!
E
f over Integration and low

integration.
G
* Egoistic/ Individualistic suicides: In this, low integration causes suicide. Individual and
collective consciences differ from each other and Individuals don't find society's goals
significant.
o Example: Elderly people who suddenly experience weakened social bond because of
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retirement or loss of spouse are highly susceptible to such kind of suicide.

o Example: Farmer suicide: According to NCRB, an agricultural labourer died by
suicide every 2 hours in 2021.
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¢ Altruistic Suicide: This happens when society approves or demands suicide. Individual
commits suicide to meet society's standards, and unlike egoistic suicide, individual
conscience isin syne with the community conscience.
o Example: Fédayeen acting as suicide bombers.
o Example: In
Harakiri, some Japanese go to the'extent of taking offtheir lives for the
sake of the larger social unity.
PAPER
AES
a
3. Critical Evaluation of Theory of Suicide: In all the 4 cases of suicides, it can be seen that
causes are social. In fact, Durkheim’s positive sociology and social realism are both manifested
in his study of suicide.
¢ Positive:
3° Major Milestone: It was a landmark study
" Relying on official records for data
asit established a tradition of:
to study any social phenomenon.
P
" Primarily addressing a social problem plaguing the society.
* Analyzing official data and tryingto arrive at generalizations.
oO
Comprehensive: Maurice Halbwachs reviewed Durkheim’s work and emphasized that
Durkheim has indeed explained suicide in a comprehensive manner. Like Durkheim,
N
he also used scientific methodology to arrive at other generalization i.e. rate of suicide
was directly proportional to degree of social complexity.
Scientific Methodologies: Jack P. Gibbes and Walter T. Martin agreed with both
Durkheim and Halbwachs that suicide should be studied using scientific methods and
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statistical data. wy
e Negative:
° Role of Imitation: David Phi a survey of suicide in America and found
that when celebrity commi suddenly shoots upin. So, imitations
have a role to play which d by Durkheim.
Psychological Career: ey in America to study suicide using
U
new methodology called psy” (In this way, he talked to people
t
who tried to kill themselves or who were close to someone who did
kill themselves.). He found mitted suicide, had suicide career (i.e.,
Q
they were living with idea period). He unlike Durkheim (focus
only on social causes), em gical cause for committing suicide.
Individuality: Jack Dougla ne (individual feelings must be taken
into account) can't explain sively. Durkheim completely ignores
individual feelings when discuss de, despite its importance. Instead of social
R
realism, critics argue in favor of causal pluralism approach to suicide.

Data may NOT:
‘Ae: in his book, “Discovering
!
wal angiot decide nature of suicide or

Suicide”, questio a
even say whether it is suicide or not. So, nobody can claim that official data are
infallible. For example, whether death is suicide or murder is decided by doctor and
G
their views may be motivated or mistaken.

No Generalization: David Freeman in his book “Ecological Fallacy” (also known as
Ecological inference fallacy is failure in reasoning that arises when an inference is
N
made about an individual based on aggregate data for a group) agcused Durkheim of
committing ecological fallacy as he tried to generalize an individualistic phenomenon.
Overemphasis on Religion: Maurice Halbwachs also criticized Durkheim because he
overestimated the role of religion in his study of suicide by exploring the factors behind
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the Protestants and Catholics. He claimed that differences between living in urban ind
rural areas had more impact than differences between Catholics and Protestants.
Methodological fallacy: Jack P. Gibbes and Walter T. Martin they believed that
Durkheim himself had failed to use sufficiently rigorous method for example he failed
to define the concept of “integration” in sufficiently precise and measurable way.
“., 0 No such thing like data on Suicide: J. M. Atkinson said that whether death is suicide
is
decided by doctor and their views may be motivated or mistaken.
or murder
°o Phenomenological perspective: Jean Baechler also conducted a study of suicide and
looked into individual case and found different meaning in different cases. So, he
‘
divided suicide into 4 different types:

" Escapist Suicide: Person commits suicide because he/she can bear their life
P
conditions. Ex: Slaves committing suicide.
=
Aggressive Suicide: Here person commits suicide to take revenge, Ex: Person
committing suicide to falsely accuse their rival.
_.
" Oblative suicide: In this type of suicide people believe in other world and by
N
committing suicide they want to achieve cherished goal. Ex: People committing
suicide to achieve moksha.
= Ludie suicide: Here person enjoy taking risk though they are aware that their
adventure mayresult in death. Ex: Professional stunt personnel.
,
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8Q, through above classification Jean Baechler wanted to convey that Individual meaning
(ignored by E. Durkheim) should also be taken into consideration while arriving at
generalization.
Conclusion: Despite all the heory is often lauded as aninitiator of
positivistic study in sociolog: gitimacy of sociology by highlighting
ots through empiricism. His theory of
U
“. functionalist approach) and still
ntific method, comparative analysis,
ides the basis for most sociological views
of suicides in the 21st century.
4
Q
‘Relevance of R. Durkheim’s Th
@ Fatalistic suicide: There hi
symbolize fatalistic suicide ast
is
time. In
case they fail, they feel
suicide. Similarly, people suffering. fous kind of mental diseases like delusions,
R
hallucinations may c
Egoistic Suicide: H
suicides
as
these suic ents with family and society and
/
in case, they fail to achieve societal goals “(ex- getting good marks in exams), sense of
G
alienation pushes them towards suicide. Similarly, Widow may commit suicide because of
'-ostracization by society.
Altruistic Suicide: With rise in slogans like “Islam in Danger”, many Muslim youths are
easily convinced by fundamentalist to act as suicide bombers thinking is for benefit of
it
N
whole humanity. Similarly, terminally

‘
ill
patient committing suicide for family welfare.
Anomic Suicide: During Indian stock market scam of 1992 (Harshad Mehta scam) many
common people committed suicide esp. male heads of family because they suddenly
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became bankrupt. Similarly, soon after demonetization in 2016, many suicides were
reported esp among poor sections of society who deals in cash only.
Comparative Analysis: Emile Durkheim (Anomie) and Karl Marx (Alienation)

Emile Durkheim (Anomie)
| |
Karl Marx (Alienation)
|
1- Sociology Optional
Definition It is state of social instability in| « It is phenomenon of separation of
society as a result of a decline in subject from object and very-often
values and norms of the society. the object dominates the subject.
Similarities Both Indicate a sense of helplessness or despondency among groups and
individuals suffering from these problems.
P
Both indicate sense of detachment from their societies or from their groups.
In both of them, worth of life fails and they think that their life is not at all
important and their life is not at all worthwhile. u
As there is no method to determine how much one ig alienated or in_a

condition of anomie, the concepts of anomie ahd’ alienation are subjective
|,
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in their interpretation.
Both, Durkheim and Marx are
-
o Offering a framework for ‘social change’ and ‘social
Progress
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o
o
Responding to
‘crisis of modernity’.
Making distinction between division of labour in simple societi s and
S
U ies. DOL
is
inevitable. yes
s’ rather than individual behaviour. Both
Origin Marx emphasized that alienation

came with emergence of private
transition phase property and capitalist mode. of
Q
Anomie is a resu production (“dead labour”
(capital) dominates “living labour”
labour, industria (worker).
Effect Social controls Powerlesshess, meaninglessness,
isolation.
R
Relation with Anomie is DOL is one of the causes of

Division of worker’s alienation because it is
Labour npésed by capitalists.’
(DOL)
Social change Durkheim’s analysis of anomie is Marx’s analysis of alienation is
G
e
based on evolutionary change. based on revolutionary change.
Type of It is a collective (or mass) je It is a class experience...
experience experience
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Solution Moral Individualism- Opposite of « Class struggle which will. result

egoistic individualism (concerned into a communist society, where
with purely private, selfish means of
production will be owned
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interest). Individuals will follow by community.

code of ethics, emphasizing needs
of society as whole. Occupational
association which will keep DOL
in normal state.
Dimensions Normlessness, e Alienation from product, process
of production, fellow workers, and
self.
PAPER
Example « High rates of anomic suicide, |» A shoemaker manufactures shoes
marital breakup, industrial but cannot use them for himself.
conflict, degrading and His creation thus becomes an
meaningless work. object which is separate from him.
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4.2.8-Division of Labour
Division of labour (Dol,) means whereby complex tasks are broken into simpler tasks and allocated
—_
among members becayse repeated performance of simple tasks leads to greater efficiency. As
advancement in technology increases, division of labour increases which is referred to as
Differentiation (specialization) by Herbert Spencer.
N
Thinkers View on DoL
1. Hebert Spencer: He
it
says is the interplay of individual interests that holds society together.
EE
Individuals want to satisfy their selfish interests that's why they are integrated with others.
Thus, social life is possible.
2. Auguste Comte: He said that social and moral values are what keeps society together. People
and society are tied together by shared norms, and habits. He believed that high
DoL
is
the cause of disorder in F
3. Why did Durkheim conduct a
Through DoL, he wanted to
e¢
U
individual afd society. In add
o What are types of Division 6:
|
Q
°
© How does thedivision of
o Ifa society based on hig!
why
is there high disorgani
R
:
ied questions, he logically divides the whole
use there is no empirical basis):
it oligar) baset on low division of labour
j
rahe basis of age, gender, etc.
G
N
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Modern industrial society with Organic Solidarity based on High division of labour:
®
(Meritocratic division of labour): Tasks are assigned on the basis of acquired skills.
5. (Characteristic of Society based on Mechanical Solidarity
*
fuxtaposed: It is called Mechanical Solidarity .because society is characterised by
mechanical juxtaposition of parts.
° No special skills needed: Division of labour is low. Most members of similar age/gender
would perform the similar tasks. Tasks are very simple hence no special skills are required.
PAPER 1
Low Productivity: Productivity is very low and only small groups can be sustained.
Unity based upon likeness: High degree of homogeneity within society and relations are
of direct cooperation. Basis of unity is likeness among wards. Effort of the whole society
is to maintain and preserve this likeness.
¢ No Interdependence: Since, there is no interdependence (everybody can do the job), all
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so there is need to preserve this likeness to sustain unity.
¢ Repressive laws: Such societies are governed by Repressive laws, whose intention is to
prevent recurrence of act. Authority of society is absolute and any kind-of deviance is not
acceptable. y
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* Collective Conscience: Nature of collective conscience undergoes change and fully
envelopes Individual Conscience. Durkheim analysed collective conscience in terms of
four characteristics. They are:
o Volume: High and completely envelopes individual conscience. It spans the entire
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society.
© Intensity: High because if any person deviates from common tules, then society will
punish him/her severely. For example, in mediaeval France, adultery was punished by
a walk of atonement.
© Definiteness: There
detail.
is
ah eness. Rules are prescribed to minutest
U
o Content: It is overwhel
Arunta tribes
Example of Mechanical Solid ieties, everybody has the same skill set
i
e
Q
as a result everybody can all do
pendence is less. For example, all the
in
4h
members of society get involv@. a™
e Merit given primacy: DivisioiRg

merit. Every individual acquires d
R
V8
¢ Individuality: Authority becomes re:
one
individuals exercise ef re;
©
Equality of It t
This becomes the bas cial jtistice.
4
High degree of Interdependence: Society is integrated because everyone needs each

G
e
other.
¢ Restitutive laws: Such societies are governed by Restitutive laws, whose intention is to
compensate for the losses suffered by the individual and it does not intend to prevent
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recurrence. Focus is on restoration of original situation.

¢ Solidarity: Society with a high division of labour will have more solidarity than a society
with a low division of labour because here solidarity is built within the system as everyone
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needs others.
¢ Collective conscience: Nature of collective conscience changes but still present as new
relationship is based upon contracts. So, even here society ‘regulates but with more
autonomy to individuals. Changes occur to
collective conscience is:
o Volume: Shrinks. Individual becomes more autonomous.
o Intensity: Decreases. Aim of the society is to reform the person in case he/she deviate
from the societal rules. For example, reformative laws like abolition of death penalty
for rape-accused.
PAPER
9° Definiteness: Decline, generalized and becomes abstract.
o Content: It becomes secularized. For example, Modern nation-states are not governed
by religious laws. Instead, they frame the constitution.
¢ Example of Organic Solidarity: Worker and Manager in
Industrial society. Workers need
to be organised by the manager while the manager needs cooperation of workers. Both
ARE essential for each other’s survival.
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7. Causes of Division of labour
© Material volume and material density: Taking cues from Comte, Durkheim said that due
to increasé; of population (material volume), and population density (material density),
changes occur dué:to increase in division of labour.
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* Moral Density/ Dynamic Density: Increased in intensity and frequency of social
interaction (Moral/dynamic density) that results between individuals as a consequence of
growth in numbers. This increased interaction throws up new problems which only be can
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solved through increased DoL.
8. mal/Pathological Forms of Division of labour
As pef Durkheim, though modern industrial European society is marked by organic solidarity
With high division of labour, still th organisation in society (conflicts of 19th
CE
laissez-faire market, extreme ed market, etc). This is because there
is a Pathological type of high div ormal types of high division of labour.
Durkheim said thete are 3 form
U of labour. They are:
¢ Andmic division of labour: | hlessness. Material life changes rapidly,
but rulés, norms and values f
do it. There don't seem to be any rules or
norms left. In the workplace, thi ts between workers and management,
Q
degrading and pointless work, ict. People are working and making
things, but they don't see any doing. For example, Laissez faire
economy ledio sudden chang on due to the free market.
« Force division of labour: de It rigid structured inequality in society
la
R
which fails to produce long in in society. Such an abnormal form results in

individuals becoming with their sogiety. Thus tensions, rivalries
atid antagonism re injus $0 ciety based on equality of
ic
opportunities must oasteThasystem where DoL is based

upon birth (caste) and not on merit.
G
*
Inadequate Organisation: Work is not well organised and coordinated. Workers are often
engaged in doing meaningless tasks. There is no unity of action. Thus, solidarity breaks
down and disorder results. Thus, inadequate organisation makes division of labour
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meaningless, producing disunity and disintegration in society. Eg, Labour tinions,

x a
employer’s union reflect interests of particular class, thereby reducing social solidarity
9. Comparison between Durkheim and Marx wrt Division of labour
¢ Both Durkheim and Marx make a very clear distinction between division of labour in
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simple and complex industrial societies. Both agree that DoL is inevitable and necessary
aspect of the socio-economic life of any society.
Parameters E. Durkheim K. Marx
Caiises of + As per him growth in material and./* Marx too considers division of
of moral density causes division of labour a feature of industrial
labour in
industrial society. society. But unlike Durkheim, he
PAPER 1
1
—
¢ Hesees specialisation or division of does not see it as a méans of
labour as ways to ease the struggle cooperation and coexistence.
for existence. . Rather, he sees it as something
¢ Division of labour stems from fact that workers have to do so that
that individuals must cooperate and capitalists can make money.
perform a range of jobs to ensure Division of labour is imposed on
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|«
the survival of industrial society. workers so that capitalists benefit.

Consequences « Durkheim sees division of labour as |« Marx on the other hand sees
of division of process that would help individuals division of labour as a process
labour coexist and cooperate as DoL acts imposed on workers by capitalists.
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as a force of social integration Its consequences are that it. leads
promoting organic solidarity. to dehumanisation of workforce.
¢ Division of labour helps individuals |« Workers are reduced to things.
get along by assigning each person Their creativity, their control over
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distinct responsibility. Each can use their creation is taken away.
their specialty to increase creative |» Thus, they become mere parts of
and innovative tale: the production process rather than
more on others
that went well t the producers themselves.
~~
Solution to According to Marx, capitalism

«
U
the problem itself is the problem. The way out
related
division
to conscious of them
their is through revolution, through
which workers gain control over
of} + By making
Q
labour linked and inv
rust
the means of
will
production.
then organise and
society, They
“meaningless” operate the production process in
Meaningiessness such a manner that
into awareness of sig) of: dehumanisation and alienation
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their productive roles. will become things of the past.

Basi¢ e
i
iews human history as
Ke
approach tacy
of class struggle, or series
contributions they make to keeping of struggles between oppressors
G
a society alive. and the oppressed. Capitalism is a

e Durkheim does not merely look at phase in human history marked by
the economic aspect of division of the struggle between the
labour but rather its social aspect, bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
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its contribution to social |e Contradictions, conflict and

integration. change are the key-words in
Marx’s understanding of society.
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10. Critical Evaluation of Division of labour:

¢ Positive:
° Sociology of Profession: For the first-time nexus between Occupational experiences
andsocial cohesion was explored. This gave rise to a new branch of sociology that is
Sociology of Profession. Prominent sociologists like Elton Mayo, Herold Wilenski
Carried out research in this field. For example, during Hawthrone experiment it was
found that social integration is as motivating factor as ecoriomic reward.
PAPER
°o Work ethics: Modern society provides autonomy to individuals, but it also involves
the capacity of moral reflection on his duties. For example, Gandhi’s Trusteeship
principle, Protestant ethics and Geeta’s ethics of work is worship.
Reaction against Utilitarian scholars: Scholars like Jeremy Bentham, Stuart Mill
gave the concept of ‘acquisitive individualism’ where an individual is
seen as egoistic,
selfish, competitive. But Durkheim
a
socialised conception in the form of moral
P
gave
individualism. For example, Moral individuals are reflected in the policy of corporate
social responsibility. Classmate donates Rs 1 from every purchase of products to its
people who want education.
o Negative:
N
3° Social Integration vs System Integration: David Lockwood said that ED is confused
between two types of integration. As per David Lockwood there are 2 types integration:
®
Social Integration: Because of sharing common beliefs.
EE
- = System Integration: Because of interdependence.
“As per Durkheim, with low DoL, system integration is low and social integration is
high and vice versa for high DoL. For Lockwood, anomie is chronic condition for
society with high DoL and b as social integration decreases. He said
;
;
|
that solution suggested by yt it can restore social integration only. ,
Problems areinevitablez particularly Marxists, pointed out that

|
list Industrial society is to eliminate

the solution suggested
U
Anomie or restore normat flict theorists said that there are certain |
problems which cannot be mie is removed as they are intrinsic in

society with high DoL.
Q
Deskilling of work: As
pe!
be characterised by fragm: illing of work. Worker is robbed of
all creativity and meanin, work and leisure is robbed of all
meanings in society marked
assembly line production. _,.,-
R
Marxists: They pointed out that there is no common collective conscience as long as
society is divid
Top-Down Appr f the:
Se
oup before the
needs the of
individual. He also didn't give enough attention to economic factors, which are very
in
G
important today's globalised world.

No empirical basis: Durkheim Division of labour is purely a speculative study and
didn’t have any empirical basis. So, he doesn’t follow his methodology. This study was
seen as a response to Industrial Society as the rise of industrial society led to division
N
of labour.
° Progress not same as DoL: Malinowski criticises Durkheim for equating division of
labour with human progress.
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11. Conclusion: Emile Durkheim's theory of division of labour provides a singular :
sociological account of social development and social continuity despite a number of

limitations. The functionalist viewpoint makes it easier to understand how harmful social
processes like the anomic DOL affect society during crises. Additionally, it gives an
economic process a social foundation.
4.2.9- Religion and Society

gesaalattns,
PAPER
a
1. Background
¢ Durkheim believed that to understand the more complex religions, one must first
understand the simple forms so he wanted to study religion in its simplest form because
the true character of religion is manifested in its earliest form when it was not contaminated
by priests or prophets.
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¢ Similarly, if the simplest form of religion is understood, it will be of immense use in
understanding the complexities of ‘organised’ religions. The most elementary or simple
form of religion will be found in those societies with a correspondingly ‘elementary’ social
organisation, namely, amongst the aborigines or primitive tribal communities.
2. How Durkheim arrived at the definition of Religion
N
As Durkheim was positivist, he looked for definitions of religious phenomena which are
e
amenable topositive science methodologies.
¢ He abandoned all preconceived notions related with religion by testing various definitions
EE
of Religion. Like he tested various definitions of Religion. For example,
o First Definition: “Religion is system of beliefs in spiritual beings”. This religion
was called ‘Animism’ as per EB nd H. Spencer. It sought origin of religion in
man’s “intellectual needs”. he concept of soul. The soul is a spirit
being, which leaves tem and permanently on death. However,
s,
this definition was discar rious reasons like:

" Reductionist Fallacy%
U that religion is something imaginary
or mere illusion. But ent universal existence thus religion
cannot be mere illusion ived and died for religion and derived
thi
Q
meaning from it and
"
Application Oriented,
religion = beliefs + pra
o Second Definition: “Reli
‘Naturism’ by Max Muller.
R
getting comfortable with the po nature- thunder, volcano, earthquake etc.

Durkheim criticizes it.on various grounds: Like:
Spl
_
* Problem of :
is confusing. It is showing
that there is ation Sue’ of which there is nature and
On,
other side is supernature. So, basic question arises that how to know what nature is
G
and supernature?
"Hallucination: If religion is born out of fear, then it is hallucination and
hallucination then religion could not have lasted permanently.
it is
if
o Third Definition: “Religion is God”. Durkheim discarded this too as there are many
N
religions in the world which are godless like Jainism, Buddhism, etc.
¢ Conclusion: So, Durkheim overall concluded that religion is a real force which produces
real consequences and Effect can only be real source if is
real. So, source of religion must
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be real, permanent and transcendent and thus amenable

3. Durkheim View on Religion
to
scientific enquiry.
1. Definition: Emile Durkheini in his book, “The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life”
defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that
is to Say, things set apart and forbidden — beliefs and practices which unite into one single
moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them”.
PAPER 1
- Sociclagy Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com
Beliefs: Beliefs are the ideas which explain the sacred. Example-myths, spiritual ideas,
©
ethical code etc.
© Practices: Practices are rites or rituais which explain an individual's behaviour towards
the sacred. Rituals provide guidelines for behaviour that outline how a man should act
in front of sacred artifacts. It is of two types- /
|
Positive rites: Which bring individual and sacred together and are easier to
|
"
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perform. For example, Worship.
«
Negative rites: which help in maintaining the distance between individual and
sacred and difficult to perform. For example, Fasting and sacrifice.
are
2. Two components of Society
N
o Sacred: /
«These are the things which are set apart and forbidden.
" These are connected to the supernatural or divine.
EE
_® Itis non-utilitarian and non-empirical.
‘« There
»
is
a relationship of distance and fear with respect to these things.
Refers to anything which transcends the humdrum of everydaylife.
*
Typically take the form of gat esentations. For example, tulsi, star, cross,
moon.
" Brings out an attitud d obligation. For example, Spiritual
places such as Churc
U
* For Durkheim, anythi se the tag of ‘sacredness’ is provided
by society. For example es, religious books, trees, rocks.
o Profane:
Q
= These are the things w
«Itincludes all the day
daily routine, eating b
© Relation between Sacred a
the role of religion in society, ¢ stiship between sacred and profane and what
R
they represent must be discovered. Social obligations in the profane world are
represented in s: :
worship of the s ‘
towards a sacred symboi.

"For example, Ganges is considered holy river because people imposed the attitude
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of awe and reverence towards it. By worshiping it, people’s collective conscience
gets reinforced.
Sacred world
N
Shaman
Infinite, eternal, timeless realm
The shaman Is capable
Shamans may enter the of moving between the
transcendent realm through realms,
KI
* meditation Shaman
*
tasting
*
prayer
*
*
hallucinogens
abnormal mental states:
Profane World
*
stressors Everyday world of time & space
*
or other processes
3. Case study of Totemism by Durkheim:
PAPER
1 - Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com | Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50. Page 132
Definition: According to Ritzer "Totemism is a religious system in which certain
things, particularly animals and plants, come to be regarded as sacred and as emblems
of the clan." (Note: something that represents a group/nation like flag for the nation).
Methodology: Indirect experimentation- He studied the Arunta tribe and tried to apply
the findings in a generalised manner to the whole society.
P
Durkheim's findings of Arunta Tribes- :
="
Wanderers: Primitive men were wanderers and they kept on moving from one
place to another in search of basic necessities.
*
Gatherings: Tribes gathered together for some religious purposes such as festivals
and the resultant interaction provides a different feeling.
N
" State of exultation and collective effervescence: Primitive man associated this
feeling with the presence of supernatural force but Durkheim argued that the
gathering itself was the real cause.
EE
* Emblems: Each totem has its embiem. In almost-all clans there are objects, pieces
or
of wood polished stones, which bear a
figurative representation of the totem.
Totems: To re-experience the feeling individuals created a totem to represent and
"
it
gave it a sacred status. T: bol of collectivity/society. Evolution of
jal obligations also become sacred and
transformed into bin
“Material Represent
U
e material representations of the non-
material force. This no’ ty) forms the base and material objects
act as superstructure.
of
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4. Functions Religion:
e According to Durkheim, these
Religious representations
fo}
reality.
It acted as a source of solidai
R
0000
It provides a meaning for life. ASE
It is a critical part of the social system.

S
De
°
G
e Harry Alpert has analysed four important functions of religion:

° Disciplinary function: Religious rituals prepare men for social, life by imposing self-
of
:
discipline and a certain measure asceticism.

N
oO Cohesive function: Religious ceremonies bring people together and thus serve to
reaffirm their common bonds and to reinforce social solidarity.
O°
Vitalizing function: The practice of religion helps a community preserve and revive
its social heritage and pass on its enduring values to coming generations.
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° Euphoric function: It helps get rid of feelings of frustration and loss of faith and
certainty by restoring the believer's sense of well-being and their sense of the moral
world's essential tightness.
5. Critical Evaluation of Durkheim’s study of Religion
e Positive
° Functionalism: This study was a remarkable contribution because it helps in
establishing functionalist explanation in sociology. Durkheim’s study highlighted two
PAPER 1
spt
functions of religion- social control and social solidarity. Max Weber’s work also
highlighted the role of religion in bringing social change (protestant ethic and spirit of
capitalism). Functionalist approach was further used by Radcliff Brown, B.
Malenowski, T. Parson, R. K. Merton and others.
Demystified Religion: Durkheim’s approach to
religion makes a very radical departure
from the conventional study of religion and his study demystifies religion by clearly
P
stating that religion is very much part of society and not some spirit or supernatural
force. In-fact, all these times people have worshipped society and nothing else.
Religion indeed symbol of
society: Durkheim claim that nature of religion depends
upon nature of society was empirically tested independently by Mary Douglas and Guy
N
Swanson through their research work and both found that Durkheim claim was right.
Religious-Moral dilemma of modern society: Durkheim integrated secularism of
modern society with religion. If
religion is indirect worship of society, modern people
EE
can directly express their religious feeling towards sacred symbols of society
(constitution, national flag etc), Hence, the form of religion changes but its essence
doesn’t wither away. This revolutionizes the basic understanding about religion.
«: Negative
Oo Religion also divisive: Ag Durkheim’s explanation of religion is
more relevant to smail, arked by close integration of social
groups. They are less r
U Icieties characterized by subcultures,
multiple religious beliefs a igion has also lost
its historic function
of social control and social § nt times. In addition to this Merton also
highlighted that religion not ifying force but also acts as a divisive
Q
in
force multi-religious
Totemism not universal s iots in India, etc.
nowski discovered that some-simple
n is not the worship of society as a
s of emotional stress. For example,
uinea, for them fishing beyond the lagoon
R
is dangerous. Hence, religious tituals developfor fishing in the open sea but not for
fishing in calm
the
i
Multiple Totem atbe multiple totems within a
tribe based on individual, gender, clan etc hence totems can also be divisive. For
G
example, in his essay ‘The Comparative Method in Social Anthropology’, he

highlighted that in Australian aborigines of new South Wales, selection of totem by
two exogamous moieties of tribe is based on inter-group relations (friendship or
antagonism).
N
Sacred-Profane dichotomy: Evan Pritchard indicated that Sacred-Profane dichotomy

is neither universal nor they are always antithetical. Moreover, totem of the clan need
notbe the totem of the individual. On the similar lines William Edward argues that the
KI
dichotomy of propane and sacred is not absolute.

Religion justifies unjust social order: Durkheim emphasized the positive aspects of
religion. However, Karl Marx highlighted that religion is false consciousness thus
legitimizing unjust social order. For example, Karma theory to justify caste system.
Religion can also bring change: As per Durkheim, religion provides only stability.
However, Max Weber rightly pointed out that there are certain religious ideologies
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which can become a source of change. For example, Protestant ethics ideologies in
Europe helped in modernization of society.
o Extreme form of Social Realism: Durkheim completely ignores the individual. He
fails to mention that religion can fulfil some needs of the individual as well. T Parson
said that “religion answers the unanswered”. For example, religion acts as an anxiety
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reliever for Individual.
o Religion creates weakness: Ludwig Feuerbach in his, “Essence of Christianity”,
criticizes the functional role of religion by saying that it makes people weak and
dependent.
and denominations address the
o Sub-religions: In Modern society different cults, sects
N
immediate needs of people and thus emerging as sub religions. Thus, modern societies
not engaged in society worship. Hence, religion is not as integrative as envisaged by
Durkheim.
it
EE
o Armchair Theory: Durkheim didn't visit the Arunta tribe even once and was purely
based on ethnographic evidence.
¢ Conclusion: Sociologists like Emile Durkheim's sociology of religion, even though it has
been criticised in the ways listed ynique point of view in looking relation of
religion to society as a whole explained the cause of religion in a
scientific way but also high Etween religion and science as a unified
system of beliefs, fostering
U , Durkheim’s theory of religion has
multiple connections with ma:
Q
Collective Conscience
* Definition: Durkheim defines it
%
¢
average
Features:
of the members of
a societ
life
R
o Independent existence: The system 6beliefs and sentiments has a of its own!
It is independentof the particular conditions in
wach
individuals are placed.
9 Wholistic: It is spre 0 et ociety — to large and small
towns and villages. ey :
ions etc.
It
e
© Connections: links successive generations to one another.

G
o Perpetual: Individuals come in and go out of society, however collective conscience}

remains.
© Varied: Collective conscience varies in extent and force from one society to another. For’
example, Individual members are subject to the strictest social restraints and prohibitions
N
in primitive society, and they all comply.

o Forceful: It is the collective conscience, which governs the existence of individuals. The
collective sentiments experienced in common have an extreme force. The outrage against
KI
crime or any other breach of the social imperative grows with the strength of
collective conscience. For example, severe punishments on those who violate
society's| a
prohibitions.
© Social solidarity: Collective conscience is also reflective of the degree of cohesion,
integration
o Components: Collective conscience has 4 dimensions-
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Solidarity Volume Intensity Rigidity Content
Mechanical | Entire society High High Religious
Organic Particular group Low Low Moral Individualism
P
* Conclusion: Durkheim first used and refined the idea of collective conscience in his first
significant work, The Division of Labour in Society (1895). Social solidarity serves as a
metaphor for the power of collective conscience. The concept later gave rise to Collective
N
Representations.
Collective Representation
EE
* Definition: Collective representation may be seen as a specific states or substrata of the
collective conscience. In contemporary terms, we may think of collective representations as|
the norms and values of the specific collectivities such as the family, occupation, state and
educational and religious institutions. Colleetive Representations are a central component off
Durkheim’s system of non-material
* Features:
Narrow and specific: Conc
o
U
specifically, but critical point
social facts in a narrower way tl
o Over and above Individual: Dé

Q
are not reducible to the level
of
val isness.
Not depended upon Individ
:
o
depend on any particular indi
o Large Temporal span: They
temporal span is greater than the:
R
o Internal dynamics between Collective representation: One type of representation
oproe
collective constantly or example, liberal ideas of|
€
iby
Q
west interact with sbiithOfBrahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj,

etc.
G
Multivariate Analysis
* Definition: Method used to establish and analyse the relationship between variables is known
as ‘multivariate’ or ‘variable analysis. It was first used by Durkheim in his study of Suicide.
N
* Process: In a multivariate analysis, the impact of a certain independent variable on a specific

dependent variable is isolated. One independent variable can be kept constant while the other!
ischanged to achieve this. For example, the effect of gender on suicide could be isolated from|
KI
the effect of religion by comparing Protestant men and Protestant women to see whether their
suicide rates were similar or different.
o For instance, it's feasible that Protestants of one nationality may have committed suicide
at a higher rate than Protestants of another nationality (nationality itself may have been the|
third variable).
* Features
o__Causal relationship: It can establish causal connections between two or more variables
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ae
o. Methodical Advantage: It overcomes the problem of indirect correlation. It happens
when two or more phenomena are found together but have no direct connection to each
other: one does not therefore cause the other. Eg, although more working-class people
commit crime, this may be because more men are found in the working classes — so the
significant relationship might be between gender and crime, not between class and crime.
P
o Laws: If causal connections are established, we can establish the law of human behaviour.
See
Eg, Durkheim claimed to have discovered laws of human behaviour that governed the
rere
suicide rate. He claimed that differing Integration & Regulation levels led to varied rates
of suicide. A rise in the suicide rate always coincided with ecoriomic ups and downs.
Conclusion: Multivariate analysis combined with correlation, causal analysis, and statistical
N
*
data has established the credibility of sociology as a scientific discipline.
NNN
4.3- Max Weber
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4.3.1-Background
e Early Life: Weber’s father was greatly involved in public life and so his home was constantly
immersed in both politics and academia eber and his brother thrived in this intellectual
epeenem
atmosphere,
NEEEETEe
¢ Education: Weber finished his g sity. of Berlin, earning his doctorate in
1889 and joining the Univer: lecturing and consulting for the
U ,
government. He was one the of of Sociology.
e Career and Later Life: In 1894, a professor of economics at
University
of Freiburg and then was granted th the University of Heidelberg in 1896.
Q
e Major Publications: The Protesta of Capitalism (1904), The Sociology
of Religion (1922), The Theory o: \Organization (1925) etc.
4.3.2-Methodology
1. Substantive Problems - Weber foc’ anding of substantive problems of society,
R
to establish scientific methodology, based on epistemology and methodology
nd
2. Sociology and History -, ates.type concepts and generalises
typology of empirical p
actions, structures and p Signiffic’
t BY
al
e explanation of individual
‘
G
¢ To reject both idiographic and nomothetic schools of sociological study.

¢ To reject generalisations at empirical level as performed by the positivists.
¢ Focus on separation of empirical observation from conceptual world.
¢ Generalisations are sociological understanding of social reality, not the empirical reality
N
itself, as mentioned in History.

3. Microscopic - Weber emphasised on understanding particular concepts of social reality as
empirical reality was vast, unorganised, dichotomous and chaotic.
KI
a
4. Verstehen: =
i
e Definition: Verstehen is the procedure by which sociologists gain access to the meanings
behind human actions. Verstehen is the German word for Understanding.
¢ Origin
© Sociological Naturalism: Positivists like August Comte advocated that methodology
o
in
used natural
Neo-Kantians:
science
is
suitable for social science as well.
Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert differentiated between the
nomothetic/generalizing method of natural science and idiographic/individualizing
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se
xe
approach of social science. Natural world differs from the social world on account of
the presence ofculture in the latter.
o Weber: He argued for
interpretive sociology. The need for Verstehen emerged because
of his two standpoints-
" He agreed with Neo-Kantians that the subject matter of sociology should be ‘social
action’. It is an action oriented towards others, and seeks to look at causes and
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meanings.
" In agreement with positivists, theories should also aim for generalizations. But the
complex nature of sociology can only lead to limited generalizations.
e Features of Verstehen method:
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© Against scientific methods: It argues that human actions cannot be analysed by merely
adopting the research methods followed in natural sciences with ‘absolute objectivity’.
o Human Actions: Weber believed that the interpretation of human actions through
in
EE
recognition and empathy was crucial for a better understanding of social phenomena
society.
© Positioning: Verstehen requires researchers to place themselves in the position of the
individual observed to see an Bead the meanings behind the person’s action
a
RBurpose or outcomes of their actions.
and the meanings attached
o Hermeneutics - It is tg ne ding of empirical works from the
perspective of the author!
U Baeare of the work. Verstchen is achieved
through hermeneutics.
Level of meanings: Verstehen the meanings behind social actions.
Level of causality: After undegs Verstehen looks for various causal
Q
_
explanations behind social phega s approach of ‘causal pluralism’
e Universality: Verstehen can & sgemporary as well as past historical
phenomena. This is why Webe wS have to be a Caesar to know Caesar”.
¢ Types: For Weber, verstehen is DRgg ga )
R
o Direct Observational understanding: Identifying the sense of action as intended by |
the actor For Example- Through the

action of a man
SEALY A
direct observation, we can observe |
who is pointing
|
o Explanatory Unies iNg Rede: he hich action was performed |
and makes sense through emphathetic liaison. For Example- Through empathy, we’ ll
G
understand the cause of hunger behind the

action
¢ Components: Hence, verstehen (interpretative understanding) has two components
o Empirical social reality called social action by Webcr.
o Motives and meanings behind theaction.
N
* Procedure: It
involves following steps-
© Reconstruct choices and constraints of actors- It is done by developing descriptions
of actors through secondary resources.
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o Value-neutrality: Investigator should come at

the same wavelength with the actor in
terms of communication, appearance, behavior. This helps him to interact with the
actor.
o Detachment: To ensure objectivity, researcher should have detached interest in the
actor and his situation
© Interaction: Finally, interact with the actor to understand the meanings attached using
Primary resources through direct observation and explanatory understanding.
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Significance
o Grand Theories: Cultural interpretation of verstehen coincides with large scale
theories like structure functionalism.
o Small Theories: Individual level is appropriate for small scale theories like symbolic
interactionism.
Macroscopic: Verstehen is a tool for macro level analysis. Weber used verstehen for
P
©
cultural and socio-cultural analysis in his studies.

Drawbacks
o Thomas Burger: He argues that Durkheim is not very sophisticated, nor very
consistent in his theories. Weber was redundant in his approach.
N
© Particularistic: Weber mentions that verstehen ‘cannot be applied indiscriminately to
social reality” as reality is infinitely complex. Verstehen can study selective aspects
(e.g. Bureaucracy) of social reality, and not the entire reality (e.g. Political Structure)
EE
© Falsification: There is no way to re-confirm the validity of Verstehen interpretations.
Social dynamics are difficult to reconstruct with the same value relevance:
© Subjectivity: Theodore Obel says that Verstehen is not an easy methodology as
subjectivity sweeps in one . While performing empathetic liaison,
social scientists may bein: tive perception.
o Alfred Schutz: Versteh
is a particular form in w
U
5. Causality- Weber emphasised on hind actions in social setup.
Meaning: Causality for Weber mi t will be followed by another event. For
example, crime is followed by p
Q
History: He understands the ¢;
unlike Marx’s dialectical mat
Multiple Causality: Weber dep
society as the cause behind eventSag
R
Verstehen: Casual explanation of actors")

a component of Verstghe:
;
Adequate Causalit:
between social phen
6. Ideal Types
G
Definition: Ideal types are “abstract models employed to understand the complex reality
of the social world”. It is an analytical construct that acts as a measuring rod to ascertain
similarities as well as deviations in concrete cases. It is formed by one side accentuation
N
of one or more viewpoints.

Weber stated that:
© The Ideal types are not hypotheses.
Ideal types do not state or imply an ethical ideal. 4
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©
o They do not state an average type. u
© Ideal types cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality.
Features
o Concept Ideal types aré concepts developed by a sociologist to study empirical reality
based his conceptual understanding of the essential features of socia! phenomena.
on
Methodological Tool - Ideal types are methodological tools to study social reality.
These are used by sociologists to make sense of reality. : It scrutinizes, classifies,
systematizes and defines social reality without subjective bias
Yardstick - Ideal types are gauges of an observer’s proximity from social reality in his
studies, The lesser the proximity, the closer is the observer to social reality.
‘Heuristic - Ideal types are heuristic devices used to study history in slices, or smaller
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pieces, one at a time. For example, Weber used ideal types to study various aspects of
power structure in the form of bureaucracy.
Understanding Social Phenomenon: At
its most basic level, ideal type is a concept
constructed by social scientist to capture essential features of some social phenomenon.
N
Empirical Research: They are
to be useful and helpful in doing empirical research and
in understanding a specific aspect of the social world.
Typical & Essential Traits: Ideal types are not general types but they are essential
EE
_
traits to the construction of an
ideal type concept.
‘Partial Conception: Ideal types do not present a total reality or they do not explain
everything. They exhibit partial co
'
Different from descriptive c

concept of reality nor a hy: id both in description and explanation.
Comparative Analysis deal types is not to compare empirical
|
o
situation with ideal type,
,
U empirical situations with one another.
~o Artificial: Ideal types ar form. One can abstract only the most
commonly found character ideal
type. For Example- Ideal type of a
serious civil aspirant will includ to
:
@
dherence strict daily routine, buried

Q
saci
in books, wears normal cl ha
fit
.However, not all aspirants into this
image.
o Dynamic! Ideal types are dfor all. Since reality and interests of
of
m
social scientists are changin: es the development new typologies.
i
R
e Types
° Historical - These are ideal types of phenomena in some particular historical epoch.
For example, Cag
o General - These ay and societies. For example,
tor
bureaucracy was present in Mauryan as well as colonial times.
G
“o Action - These are pure types of action, called social action by Weber, based on the
motivations of the actor. For example, affective actions.
oO Structural'- These ideal types denote the forms taken by causes and consequences of
social actions. For example, traditional domination.
N
e Significance
° Inductive Ideal types are inductively derived from social history i.e. ideal types
-
0
require proper study of empirical data from history.
KI
Middle ‘Ground - Ideal types provide a middle ground, between idiographic and
nomothetic schools, to study social reality, For example, Weber would form an ideal
type of intermediate stages like Calvinism of religion, rather than of the history or
individual experiences.
Positive - Negative - Ideal types provide both sides of social reality, be it positive or
negative, or morally repugnant.
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of
co Falsification - Ideal types are open
the existing social reality.
to
falsification in case they do not corroborate with
o Develops classificatory typology: Classification of concepts are developed to

understand infinite social reality. Example: Weber developed typology of social
action, religious ideology, authority. :
o Establish logical interconnections: These interconnections helpin linking different
P
social phenomena. Example: Weber established relationship between Protestant Ethic
and Spirit of Capitalism
o Comparison with reality: Since ideal type is a measuring, rod,
deviations and similarities with reality
it
serves to asceitain
N
o To operationalize verstehen: Verstehen or interpretive understanding of the social
world can be possible after formation of ideal types.
co Heuristic Device: It lets people discover things themselves and learn from their own
EE
experiences.
o Complex reality: Since there are a lot of meanings and layers associated with reality,
it can only be understood in parts rather than whole. Ideal types help in this process.
o Ready reference: Ideal type say earcher from studying a phenomena affesh.
Example — ideal type of d as a ready reference for a host. of
commercial activities of
o Tomake predictions: Site
U
have similar outcomes. E ;
to predict many of its conse

i
izations.
¢ Drawbacks
Q
o Limited - Ideal types off
bureaucracy doesn’t emph
o Subjective - Ideal types
o Value Loaded
- Ideal types are v: id concepts, right from the problem selection
R
to the formulation id | types based he observer’s understanding of the social
view of social reality.

of specificity: left
G
o Lack Weber didn’t tell how to identify elements of ideal type and it
at the discretion of the investigator.
" Example: The elements of Capitalism (profit, wealth, individualism, work is
workship ethics) and those of Protestant ethics (doctrine of predestination,
N
asceticism, notion of calling) were decided by researchers.

7. Values
*®
Definition: Values are the social normative and cultural background that serve as
KI
motivation behind a social action, or offer meaningful explanation to social events, Weber
emphasised on the importance of values in sociological studies, rejecting the complete
objectivity of positivism. He talked about:
o Interrelation - Facts and values are interrelated. Hence they cannot be completely
separated during research.
o Value Relevance - Weber says that researchers should decide the topic, of research
based on what they feel is important.
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—
Value Neutrality - The values of researcher and the participant regarding the social
o
action should be weighed in rationally during the course of study, reducing the bias to
the extent possible. This also means removing the personal biases of the researcher
from the study.
e Aims: It
aims to separate fact and emotion and stigmatize people less.
Importancd: It is important for sociologists to be value-neutral because otherwise their
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findings and analysis could provide distorted and manipulated results.
¢ Method: He should be able to identify the values he held and prevents them from
influencing his research, its findings, or conclusions. For Example: If a doctor lets his
emotions and personal biases get hold of him, he might not perform his duties properly.
N
¢ Drawback: Many sociologists believe it is impossible to set aside personal values and
retain complete objectivity.
8. Substantive Sociology: Weber’s substantive sociology talks about the individual meanings
EE
and motives behind social actions based on values. Verstehen and Hermeneutics are two
important components of substantive sociology, while ideal types are the methodological tool
to undertake the study. Weber’s work o1
:
omy and Society” is a piece of substantive
sociology.
9. Social Actions whys
¢ Definition: Weber defined sd

includes the intervening tho
U
subjective understanding s
as
e¢
Important elements of social a
all
Q
© Social action includes hi
Social action attaches a

i
© sul
o The acting individual or
o Social action is other-orient
e Features
-
R
Values Social actions are driven by values, and the actor is aware of social setup and
ni
©
© Objectivity - Soe in DBAsy.can be empirically wo

observed
and recorded. F a bufeaticfat’are objective.
o
-
Ideal Types Social actions in society are used to develop ideal types by researchers.
G
For example, based on the actions of bureaucrats and the functions of bureaucracy as
an organisation, Weber developed the ideal type for bureaucracy.
© Institutions - Weber emphasises to treat collectivities (institutions like bureaucracy)
N
as individuals for subjective understanding of collective actions.

o Types - There are 4 “ideal types” of Social Actions according to Weber:
" Zweckrational
-
It is also known as Goal Rational Action. It
is teleological (the
ends of action are seen as means to higher, taken-for-granted ends) in nature. For
KI
example, the action of defence forces in disturbed areas is to maintain peace and
public safety. For Example: Bridge-building engineer. He accomplishes
certain materials. This action aims
to
finish construction.
a
task with
~ For example,
-
Wertrational It is known as Value Rational-Action. is deontological
actions of Supreme Court judges confirm
It
values.
nature. in
~ Example-Soldiers dying for their country. He does not seek material goal
of
wealth. Rather does it
for values of honour and patriotism.
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" Affective - These actions are driven by affection between actors. For example, the
care and safety of kids by their mothers.
“ Traditional - These are actions that are based on cultural prescriptions, traditions
and norms. Eg, playing with colours on Holi, greeting elders with folded hands
¢ Criticism of Social Actions ul
Too much emphasis on subjective meaning: Talcott Parsons criticises Weber for
P
Oo
stressing too much the element of voluntary subjective meaning of the actor. For
Parsons, the action of an actor is
involuntary;
attached by actors to things and people.
it
is behaviour directed by the meanings
No attention to mental processes: Hans Berth and CWMills argued that Weber
N
devoted very little attention on mental processes, although implying that he was deeply
interested in them.
Not satisfactory account: A. Schultz criticises Weber for not providing a satisfactory
it
EE
account of meaningful action. If meaning is too much divorced from the actor
becomes an objective category imposed by the sociologists.
Confusing typology: P.S. Cohen argues that Weber’s typology of social action is
confusing due to Weber’s em; jective meaning of the actor. Cohen explains
with an example of traditig a commoner pays tribute to his chief
i
because
it is customary.
Ignores Influence of S
U per laid greater stress on individual
meanings and ignored inflt re in understanding thereality.
° Overemphasis on society
Q
° Limited Analysis: There s of motivation than just four types.
:
ng
ate
Conclusion: Weber's 2 till influenced. sociologists in later
He enriched the subject matter and
R
Social Facts Social ‘Actions

G
Value Free Value Neutral and Value Relevant

Objective Subjective
Positivist and scientific Interpretive and substantive
Have
no
attached meaning Have meanings and motives
N
Critical for grand theories Critical for verstehen, ideal types
4.3. 4- Comparative Analysis Between Marx, Durkheim and Weber

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Basis Marx Durkheim Weber

Methodology Dialectical Positivism Verstehen
Materialism (interpretation)
Conceptualization History is dialectics of History is progress of History is facts
of History MoP science
Perspective Part Positivist (Value Objective, Scientific, Subjective, Substantive
bias) Empirical
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Focus . Class divide Science... : Clags, Status. and Power
Society Economy drives Society is sui-generis Multidimensional
society causality
Social Change Revolution leads to| Anomie leads to Values lead to social
+
social change social change change
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4.3.5- Authority
4.3.5,1-Definition: Weber divides authority as legitimate domination exercised in a direct manner. It

has distinctions from the termis‘power and domination.
N
Power (Schaft) Domination (Herrschaft) Authority
People submit their will Master exercises will over Domination is directly exercised
voluntarily due to coercion others légitimately without coercion
EE
Based ‘on degree of Based on degree of exercise Based on degree of legitimacy
submission of power by master (Herr) accorded on dominating authority
43.5.2-Types of Domination U
Q
R
sins) (pti) ents,
4,3.5.3-Legitimate Dornination (Authori

G
1. Indiréet Domination: Indirect authority is exercised by an individual, an institution or a

collective in spages unaccounted by legal, traditional or charismatic authorities. For example,
the capitalists control the free markets to a great extent.
N
2: Direct Domination:- In direct domination, the master (err) exercises his authority over his
followers or allégiants via direct normative instruments. These instruments may be cultural
prescriptions, or charismatic conventions or legal provisions. Types of direct domination, or
authority, are further discussed below.
KI
é.
Traditional Authority
© Définition;- Wéber says that Authority legitimised on traditional grounds is
based on
“ari established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of
thdséexercising authority under them”
° -Major Types
= Geronitocracy
-
It itidicates the rule by elders. It does not have an administrative
staff. Example- Elders
take decisions of marriage in Indian society
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"~
Primary Patriarchalism It
is the rule by male members, where power transfer is
by inheritance. Here too, administration is absent.
« Patrimonialism - It is a modern form of patriarchalism, where military force and
administrative setup is present. It is a form of government that are based on rulers’
family-household. Example- Nathan Quimpo defined patrimonialism as the usage
of resources by a single person, whether for private or the public usage. It can be
P
seen as the major root cause of corruption.
« Feudalism It
limits the discretion of the master through the development
routinized, even contractual, relationships between leader and subordinate.
more of
Features
N
".
Cultural Norms - Traditional authority is culturally prescribed. For example, the
role of father in the family is traditional.
/
" Socialisation - The role performances of master and the followers are developed
through acculturation within social setup.
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= Personal - Traditional authority is exercised usually by a person.
=
Allegiance - The allegiance of the followers towards traditional authority is
personal in nature. For exag giance of a son towards his father.
= Institutionalisation - may metamorphose into legal rational
hstitutionalises the traditional authority
U
past and sense of duty to uphold it,
tuler generally lacks the actual power

Q
to compel compliance. ly on the respect of the subjects.
®
Traditional Rights: rity where the traditional rights of a
powerful and dominant accepted,or at least not challenged,
— Religious, sacred, or spirit

R
~- Well established and slowl

— Tribal, fai
Significance .
-
:
i
A
= Values Traditional authority helps understand the value system of a society, and
G
its natural source of authority.

= Preserve - Traditional authority preserves the well-established cultural value
system, promoting solidarity and social unity.
'™
Socialisation - Traditional authority plays an important role in the primary.
N
socialisation of children at a time when they have little understanding of charisma

and legal rational systems. Example- Children learn from parents, teachers and
elders about praying before eating food.
:
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Drawbacks
= Obstruct Rationality - Weber views traditional authority and structures as a barrier
to the advent of rational economic isstructures.
= Ascriptive - Traditional authority established by ascription to values by birth and
socialisation, demoting merit and achievement.
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* Misuse - Traditional authority is more prone to misuse compared to legal rational
authority. For example, traditional authority of husband over wife has led to the
marital rape culture.
= Lack of expertise: Offices with distinct areas of expertise and impersonal norms
are absent from the traditional staff.
= Lack of rationality: Additionally, it lacks a distinct hierarchy and a logical
P
ordering
of relations of superiority and inferiority.
" No Consistency: There isn't a consistent system of promotion and appointment
based on unpaid. contracts.
«Lack of Training: Technical training is not typically a necessity for employment
is to
N
or appointment. Example- Being a father/mother not subjected training as done
by an engineer
" Immorality: A traditional authority may suffer from the lack of moral regularity
in the création of legal standards.
EE
o Conclusion: Traditional authority promotes cultural conservatism, from where draws it
is power.It is important to understand the traditional authority as even today, while it
exists predominantly in instit ily at lower levels of social structure, it
dominates macrostructur le of state, or the status enjoyed by
teachers in Indian society,
¢ Charismatic Authority:
U
° Definition - Weber says tha d by charisma rests on the devotion of
followers to the exceptional character, heroism, or special powers
(for example, the ability to gaders, as well as on the normative order
Q
sanctioned by them.
o Features
= Leader Based - The
c!
miracles. Example- Motivatioi s like Ankush Warikoo
R
. Popelaristie |
Charismatic authority draws
ede
from the popuianty of the
= Miracles - Miracles revolutionary ideologies play an important role in

and
establishing the authority of a charismatic leader. For example, the miracles

G
performed by Jesus Christ.

= Revolutionary - Charismatic authority rests heavily on new ideas to gather support
of people, convince them into allegiance and bring a revolution in power structure.
N
For example, SC Bose.

= Routinisation - Charismatic authority may get institutionalised. Weber calls this
routinisation of Charisma. The new forms may be
- Traditional Authority - Jesus Christ led to Christianity.
KI
~ Legal Rational -
Christianity institutionalised into the Roman Catholic Church,
with rule based paid hierarchy of officials.
«=
Death of leader - The charisma usually fades after the death of a charismatic leader.
Any new leader does not carry the same charisma, becomes a traditional authority
as he or she just follows the footsteps of his predecessor |
|
© Significance
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= Pluralist Charismatic authority leads to growth of new ideas. Many new sects and
-
cults are based around charismatic authority. Example- Shakti cult based on
charisma of Goddess Durga
= Social Change - Charismatic authority promotes ‘social change. Gandhiji’s role in
the Freedom Movement is
a good example.
o Drawbacks
P
=
Exploitative - Charismatic leadership can be exploitative for the followers or non-
followers. For example, the Ram Rahim case. :
« Superstitions - Charisma and miraculous elements promote superstition around the

charismatic character. For example, godman Nirmal baba’s character was based
N
around false beliefs.
= TIrritational: It may be exercised in an irrational manner, preventing the
development of more rational forms.
" Threat: The rise of such leaders may pose a threat to the system, challenging the
EE
existing all types of authority. For example- Rise of Xi Jinping challenges legal
rational authority as he concentrates power in his hands
« Unstable: Charismatic auth ently unstable.and mostly short lived. For
example- Charisma of. Virat Kohli changes as per their field
performance. .
=
Tyranny: Accordin 5
U
heroic. For Example-
¢ Legal Rational (Bureaucracy) .
Definition - Authority legitimis

i
© ‘ounds rests “on a belief in the legality
Q
of enacted rules and the r
commands”. Weber studi
that is:
“ Authority is a rationally structtt bureaucracy.
R
= Authority is organisational, neither individual nor personal.
MAX WEBER BUREAUCRACY THEORY

G
Principtes
Leases
Arai’
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PAPER
re
o.. Features
Universal ~Bureaucracy is present in some form or the other in every society, at
least in the macrostructure. For example, all important kingdoms in
India have had
extensive bureaucracy.
Rule Based - Legal rational authority is based on a defined and codified set of rules,
ner
to be followed by the institutions and the members. Example- Civil services
nee P
Conduct rule 1955, constitution
Compulsory Functions - LR Authority prescribes compulsory provisions to be
performed by its
institutions and the members.
Hierarchy - LR Authority or bureaucracy is based on an intricate set of members
N
in a setup of superordination and subordination. Example- Police hierarchy occurs
in form of DIGDIGCSHOU Constable
Training - Bureaucrats require specialised training in terms of their nature of work,
related rules and targets to be achieved. Example- Training centres like LBSNAA,
EE
SVP Police Academy etc
Non-Ownership of MoP - The members exercising legal rational authority do not
own the means of productiog iety.
Non-Appropriation lowed to appropriate profits accruing
from their posts. Exai occupy office of profit
Records
- Legal rati a proper record of its
provisions, acts
U
and actions taken for
renemeemernerrrenrrre
fu
Discipline - Bureaucra trict adherence to institutional rules and

targets. It is enforced b ample- Disciplinary action in form of
Q
suspension, transfers,
Modernity - Bureauc ature of modern socio- economic
institutions.
As a career: Once a pointed, bureaucracy is full-time paid
employment. It provides ave ‘motions through the criterias of seniority,
R
achievement etc
rq
Private v/s stfict 4asefidfated, just like a bureaucrat’s
public and p
Instrumental Rationality: Modern societies are highly complex with the highest
degree of institutional sophistication. This is expressed through Bureaucracy.
G
Formalistic impersonality: In order to eliminate subjective judgements an ideal

official has to separate his individual personality from official tasks. Actions have
to be performed without hatred and other personal feelings. This ensures their
N
neutrality.
Office holding as a Vocation: Official work is no longer a secondary activity but
something that demands the full working capacity of the official.
renee
Solidarity: If those being ruled by bureaucrats have enough solidarity, they can
KI
push back their authoritative rule and present a united front to management.
Example: Alvin Gouldner’s experiment of Gypsum plant workers
Multiple models: Bureaucracy has different types which can be adopted as per
social scenario. These models are given by Alvin Gouldner-
Basis Mock Bureaucracy Representative Punishment-Centered
*
Bureaucracy Bureaucracy
PAPER 1-- Sociology Optional

Initiator of Outside-Agency Both workers and |
Rules arise in
reaction to the
rules management together .
pressure of either workers or
management
Enforcement Not enforced by
1. 1.Enforced by Rules are either enforced by
of rules management management workers or management,
P
2. Not obeyed by 2.Obeyed by workers. .|
and evaded by others.
workers
Conflict Little conflict b/w Few tensions, but little High tension and conflict
worker and overt conflict
N
management
Violation of Values of both the Neither group’s values Only one group’s value is
www
values by of groups are violated are violated violated
rules
EE
Example No smoking rule Safety program No-absentecism rule
o Significance
Efficiency - Weber argues that bureaucracy, through its rule based organisational
hierarchy is the most effigi
Rational - Rule based
laws and provisions
U
-
Achievement Merit
ascription in power str
Scalability - Bureauc
Q
centralised as well as d
Diversity - Bureaucrag ity by focusing on rule based order,
de-emphasising the di , religion, region and language.
Sociology of Organiza cratic model is the starting point of
this sub-discipline. It is a°¢ ure of capitalist industrial society.
R
Continuing existence: Mao’s revolution introduced ‘role shifting system’

and ‘collective d ision making’ to replace the hierarchical bureaucratic structure,
Similar atte: iith Ge similar fate of continuing
existence of . 2
of
A
Equal treatment all: Paul Gay argued that bureaucracy have an unmatched
G
ethos which includes equal treatment of all. The limitations are notof bureaucratic
framework but are due to increased politicization.
Overall management: Stewart R Clegg argued that all Institutions rely on
N
bureaucratic structures to manage information.

Way
of coping: Weber argues that bureaucracy is invisible in modern society
because it is the only way of coping with large scale administrative requirements.
Drawbacks
KI
o
Liberty - Rule based order of legal rational authority limits the individual liberty
of the bureaucrat to act in discretion if required.
Red Tapism - Weber was aware of red tapism and slow working in monolithic
i
silos of bureaucracy, preserved and sanctioned by law.

Apathy - Bureaucratic apathy towards public sentiments and individual beliefs has
been well marked in modern bureaucracy.
1 - Sociology Optional |
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~ ‘Page
149
" Mechanical.- Bureaucracy has been accused of engaging in mechanical rule
following instead of organic participation in power structure. This makes
bureaucracy- appear like a traditional authority.
*
Corruption - Corruption has been well prevalent in
almost all modern bureaucratic
power structures globally. This has been well observed in reports of Transparency
P
International.
" Trapping routine: Weber foresaw that men will be trapped in their specialized
routines daily. They will not be much aware about their relationship between job
and organization as a whole.
*
Preoccupation with order: Bureaucrats will lose sight of the necessary changes in
N
the system because they are stuck around uniformity and order.
" Sense of security: Bureaucrat depend on the
security provided by the organization.
This deters them from taking revolutionary and challenging decisions.
EE
«
Protecting Organization’s image: Officials become more concerned about
protecting the image of
civil service, different government departments. This sways
them away from the end goal of ‘decent public service to the public’.
"Value conflict: Tension a fferences between wider goals of political
processes (substantive arrow functional priorities (formal
rationality). As a res portrayed as cold, unsympathetic, and
arrogant. Example: La
U ts to prevent the public from availing
PDS benefits is favoui the end goal ofsocial justice.
" Times of
crisis: The slo g procedure, preoccupation with rules etc
would render bureaucratic effective during a crisis. Bureaucrats are
Q
not trained for situati ation and innovation, thereby making
him inflexible.
" Career incentives: Pre are awarded for compliance with
rules.
Capitalistic Collusion: Top
R
*
$ may be lured by capitalist interests. They
would tweak their administrative tasks to
6
suit the demands of capital. Example:
Milovan Dji siudy SR. Political masters directed
the economy ¢
*
Seymour M Lipset: Government ureaucracy exercises considerable control over
G
its own political masters. Example: In his study of Cooperative Commonwealth

federation (Socialist Government of Canadian province Saskatchewan), an
entrenched bureaucracy scuttled the reformist policies of the Government
" Reduces Organizational efficiency: This can be confirmed by the following studie
N
of Robert E. Cole’s study of Japanese Blue-Collar workers: Japan’s high industrial

growthis a result of blending formal organizational structure
structure, loyalty, and paternalistic attitude of
with traditional family
management.
KI
" Limitations of bureaucracy by Max Weber:

~—
Alienation: He foresaw it as a source of alienation of human beings.
~ Tron Cage: He called it Iron Cage of Rationality which threatens individual
liberty and creativity.
~ Escape Proof: He described bureaucracies as escape proof and among the
hardest institutions to destroy once they are established.
PAPER
— Dictatorship: He didn't see future interms of
dictatorship of proletariat but in
termsof dictatorship officials. As
of decision-making process and power comes
to be concentrated in fewer hands, it would lead: to autocratic tendencies.
Example: Communist version of Soviet Union ‘in 20th CE whereby
bureaucracies of party, state, military colluded to deprive citizens of
P
representation, liberty.
* Merton talks about dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy:
~ Timidity: Overemphasis of rules in uncertain and complex situations may lead
to timidity.
N
~ Mis-Prioritised: Dependence on goals leads to displacement of Goals.
~ Conflict: Impersonality of goals leads to conflict between officials and public.
* Robert Michaels: He argued that bureaucracy becomes so dominating in
democracy that it
reduces a democracy into an oligarchy (iron Law of Oligarchy).
EE
* Peter Blau: criticized Weber by arguirig that Weber over emphasized on
He
elements of formal structure in the ideal type.

«
i
George Ritzer: He pointed out that increasing rationalization leads to irrational
of people.
d to fulfill expectations
Gypsum Plant, US) that in processing
U
is functional whereas in mining unit
quired. :
= Burns and Stalker: T: nic type of organisation structure and

Q
argued that bureaucrac Srapidly changing situation of various
sectors.
»
Larry Ray and Mich:
challenged and bureavy
society.
R
exible firms are far less rigid than traditional

;
» Steward Clegg: In post-fordi :
bureaucracy. |
cal
|
» Zenden
o Way Forward °
Control:
Professional. politicians must
occupy top
Strong Parliamentary
G
positions in various departments of state because-

~ They are trained to make decisions, thereby providing effective leadership. |
~ It will open up the bureaucracy to public view.

N
~ It will bring transparency in governance by revealing any behind the scenes

wheeling between bureaucrats and powerful interests.
-
Politicians are public figures who are subjected to public scrutiny and
KI
opposition’s criticism. Hence, they remain accountable.

«Direct accountability of bureaucrats: officials must be directly accountable to
Parliament through the mechanism of Parliamentary committees
» Specific application: Bureaucratic organizational structure is better suited to
routine and predictable operations.
— Example: Alvin Gouldner’s study of Gypsum plant indicated that bureaucratic
structure was more suited to the factory than the mine. Since miners faced
PAPER
unpredictable work scenarios, they needed flexible hierarchy and lunch hours,
less division of labor, and informality.
— Example: These findings are confirmed by Burns and Stalker’s work. Formal
and rigid bureaucratic organizations are termed as Mechanistic systems. On the
other hand, Organic Systems are characterized less hierarchy and division of
P
labor, no clear demarcation of responsibility, motivated individual etc
«Mix Model: Peter Blau’s study of Federal Enforcement Agency in Washington
highlights the role of both formal and informal structures in effective functioning
of any organization.
Conclusion: Legal rational authority, ideal-typed by Weber as bureaucracy, is a
N
©
distinct essentially functional institution of modern social structure. It draws heavily

from the rational rule based legal provisions. Although
it
has its share of dysfunctions
in the form of red tapism, corruption and apathy, Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy is
EE
present universally and provides a good paradigm to study social power structure.
4.3.6 -Protestant Ethics and Spirit Of Capitalis
4.3.6.1- Background:
Weber spent
a lot of time in understand
other parts of the globe, mostly orie
U
establishing the relation between rational
of capitalism.
Q
4.3,.6.2~ Spirit of Capitalism:
Weber advocated that Capitalism, as a w
1. Features of Weberian Capitalis
¢ Result of values and material co
R
Moral, ethical and value driven rath pletely utilitarian

Rational book keeping sys'
conse
«s
Unintended .
A living social struct®wecfeatediot# vole

off af structure
ic ‘soelal
No the control of creators

longer under
G
©
© Created by values of protestantism, but self sustaining now
2. Spirit
e Entrepreneurship
N
e Innovative and disruptive

¢ Non conformist and rational
¢ Dedicated, disciplined and hardworking
KI
3. Capital
¢ Private ownership
* Technologically efficient and superior
« Surplus accumulation and reinvestment
¢ Savings driven
4. Market
¢ Open market system
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* Materialistic production and consumerism
e Legitimises surplus accrual
5. Labour
e Rational organisation of Free Labour
e Dedicated, hardworking, disciplines and professional
P
¢ Technically skilled and commercially trained
—_
4.3.6.3-Weberian Capitalism vs Marxian Capitalism
Marx Weber
N
Features of Capitalism is based on greed and Capitalism is based on values and material
Capitalism production relations within conditions
society
Class Divide Class divide leads to capitalism Class divide is related to market, not
EE
society
Stratification Society is formed on economic Society has multidimensional origins
base/ class based ‘on class, prestige and power
|
Consequence
of capitalism
Capitalism leads t
dehumanization
italism maylead to relative deprivation
enchantment.
ence of ‘rational bureaucratic
U
Religion Religions serve capi Gious values lead to capitalism, and are |’
by
:
‘Hanged capitalism
Q
Approach Structural: Karl pretvist: Weber analyses society by
society as his unit ng people's: meanings of their
)
through his theory

superstructure.
Remedy Proletariat revolution™% evolution because rationality is very
R
new age of communism necessary for all human activity in modern
4.3.6.4 — Weberian vs Marxis

Marxian Typology
|
G
Society Weberian Typology

Tribal hunting gathering Booty Capitalism Primitive MoP
Slavery Pariah Capitalism Ancient MoP
Feudalism Traditional Capitalism Feudal MoP
N
__|
Capitalism Legal Rational Capitalism Capitalist MoP

4.3.6,5- Protestant Ethics: Core values of protestant ethics
3. Inner-worldly Asceticism - Protestantism promoted a sense of this worldliness among
its
KI
followers. It focused on attainment ofsalvation by working in this material world, rather than
waiting for the next birth.
4. Inner-worldly Mysticism - It means exploring the truths of this world rather than wondering
about otherworldly mysteries of hell and heaven. It promoted a sense of inquiry, discovery,
and inventions among protestants.
5. Materialistic Asceticism - It emphasises on the achievement of salvation and God's grace by.‘
making heaven on this earth. It means using human potential like invention and innovation for
the improvement of humanity.
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6. This worldly Religion - lt indicates the focus on aspects of the present material world like
humanity and innovation, rather than other worldly concepts like hell and heaven.
7. Predestination - Protestant predestination says that salvation comes those who to
engaged are
in worldly activity, working towards betterment of humanity by their vocation. For Example-
Calvinism's central tenet is that some people are "chosen" by God to go to Heaven (Salvation),
P
while the others are doomed (damnation). No matter what they do on earth, the chosen will
enter Heaven.
8. Dedication and Discipline - The focus on salvation through engagement vocation and work in
towards humanity promotes dedication and discipline among the protestants.
Non attachment and Simplicity - Protestantism talks about simplicity and non attachment to
N
9.
one’s material achievements. It preaches materialism for gratification of humanity; not self
gratification.
10. Glory of God: The idea of sensuous or worldly pleasures horrified them. The Devil created
EE
fine clothing, dance, music, theatre, and literature to distract people from labouring for God's
glory.
il. Hard Work: The Calvinist Ethic holds that all works are significant and holy and should be
carried out with passion and hones er noted the close connection between a
particular type of economic activi rldview
12. Individual responsibility: It is an the church, who responsible for is
his own spiritual destiny.
U
13. Other principles of behavior-
¢ Make good use of time
Q
e Be busy and spare idleness
e Avoid frivolity, self-indulgen
4,3.6,5,1- Ideal Type of Capitalism

Rational: The proponents of Capita minimum risks and behave in a highly
R
calculating way. They continue to make p n after fulfilling their immediate needs.
iviti their monetary values. For
Money Measurement: d
in
Example: Time is mon

Money Multiplication: * foriey can be increased to larger
G
amounts.
Reinvestment: Since enjoyment of wealth is considered sinful, capitalism forces
entrepreneurs to
reinvest their profits back into the business.
Spirit of Capitalism: It is characterized by entrepreneurial attitude, hard work, rational
N
organization of conduct, and frugal living.
4,3.6.5,2- Convergence with Capitalist spirit

KI
Background: Calvinism is a version of Protestantism. Methodism, Baptism, Lutheranism and

Anglicanism are among other versions of Protestantism. Weber was more interested in the
Calvinist version.
Ethics - Calvinism provided an ethical basis to materialism. This enabled capitalists to pursue
their economic interests in the open market.
Determination - Calvinism promoted dedication and determination to vocation for betterment
of humanity. This provided a hardworking labour, or human capital to capitalism.
PAPER
+
to
© Inequality - Calvinism gave cultural legitimacy to economic inequality in the form of those
capable salvation (dedicated, innovative, disciplined), and those
of who not. are
e¢ A comprehensive view of other convergences is shown in diagram below:
ication
of
. ork
P
Discipline
Punctuality
Simple Savings
Lifestyle -
and Capital
niaterial
Curiosity,
Mysticism - Inquiry,Discovery, Inventions.
to
Non
Thisworldliness ~ i
N
Materialistic Asceticism- Market, Capital
innovations
EE
nature
4,3,6.6- Non-Protestant Ethics
Service
1. Judaism
e Weber’s Perspective
Humanity
Resources
attachment
o Necessary Ingredients: ecessary ingredients for a capitalist
Exploitation
system. Jews were a har d dedicated community.
U
© Pre-requisites: Jews ha y and materialist ethics required for a
legal rational socio-econol
eReason for Failure:
It
Q
o Anti Semitism wave: pr
system led by jewish ethic:
o No Legal Rational Autho sised the lack of separate state and
consequent absence of le; among jews as the impediments to
capitalist spirits.
R
2. Chinese Ethics - Confucianism and T:
the form of moneylending

and purveyors. i
;
o Manpower - China has a large population which could have served as a cheap
G
workforce and good market.

© Structure and Values - The structure and value composition of Chinese society was
traditional, discouraging rationality.
N
e Reasons for failure of capitalism

o Structural
" Kinship - Chinese community was a rigid arrangement of kinship bonds and
KI
familial ties based on traditional gerontocracy, discouraging legal-rational

capitalism.
~ Fragmented landholding and artisan crafts
~ Non uniformity of administration and values
" State - Chinese state was patrimonial, traditional and inhibited rational ideas of
legal bureaucracy and capitalism. Officials appropriated profit from public office.
" Language
-
Pictographic and descriptive nature of Chinese language overloaded
the intellectual thought.
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1 ~
Sociology Optional
° Religious (Confucianism)
= Bookish Education - Prerequisite education for. office and social status
discouraged technical innovation and entrepreneurship, limiting it to the elitist.
" Accepting the nature - Confucianism taught adjustment to nature and its forces
i.e. environmental determinism against the environmental possibilism proposed by
P
protestantism. _
“ Environmentalism - Confucian culture is based on protection and worship of

nature and its forces. This obstructed harnessing of natural resources for surplus
generation.
= Absence of Salvation - Chinese religion has no concept of salvation. It thus offers
N
no motivation for material success, either for the religion, or against the religion.
o Religious (Taoism)
* Mysticism - Taoism proposed the supreme god being a state of mind, de-
EE
emphasising the material aspects.
= Lack of motive - Taoism, like Confucianism, has no concept of material salvation, :
discouraging any conflict driven innovation.

|
3. Hinduism
¢ Weber’s Perspective
o Traditions - Weber fail pitalism in a Hindu society dominated
by the traditional caste s
U
o Values - Weber emphasis ey lending was considered unethical,
which obstructed developm
trolled every aspect of Indian social
Q
o Brahmanism - Hindu Brahi
life, from behaviour
rational
fa: to s left practically negligible scope for
legal systems.
e Reasons for failure of Capit:
o Structural Barriers
R
™
Caste System - Hindu caste obstructed sections of society other than
Vaishyas from participating in business entrepreneurship.
= Education
education. Thigg ;
"Indifference - Indian social structure was indifferent to the events of other parts of
G
the world, especially Europe, like the Renaissance, the French Revolution and the
©
Industrial Revolution.
Religious
.
N
= Mobility -Hinduism restricted social mobility by assigning the caste as birth,

changeable only in one’s next life based on karma i.e. adherence to caste rules. This
demotivated any effort towards a better life.
= Otherworldly - Hinduism promoted otherworldliness by preaching concepts of
KI
hell and heaven, diluting the focus on material aspects of present life.
= Lethargy - Hinduism talks about indestructibility of the soul and the theory of
rebirth. This induced lethargy, discouraged motivation
life.
to
innovate for a better ‘this’
= Transience Hinduism considers this world as a transient abode, made of moha

-
and maya. This discouraged people from working towards better life.
a
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—
4.3.6.7- Overall Critical Analysis
1. Positives
¢ Origins of Capitalism- Weber has well described the origins of capitalism, an objective
ideal type, based on religious social values.
e Interpretive - Weber’s study on capitalism and protestantism provides an interpretive
ideological basis to development of capitalism in Europe.
P
« Rational - Weber has depicted how rationalisation of religious values is helpful in
changing economic structure, and social structure consequently.
* Counterintuitive- It gives an interpretation that breaks with common sense perspective on
capitalism, thereby giving a fresh viewpoint.
It to
N
¢ Unfurls the complexity: tries to solve the puzzle of ‘why people choose live frugally.
after accumulating large amounts of wealth’.
¢ Wide reach: Though Weber was chiefly concerned with capitalism, he implied for future
researchers that even Puritanism might be involved in modern capitalist development.
EE
¢ Industrialization due to religion: Ayal and Bellah found out that Japan's exposure to
industry could become possible only through the religious movements. In the 19th century
Japan’s new secular religious valu lants to the growth of capitalism.
* Cross-cultural contacts: Ric s that cross-cultural contacts provide
stimulation for economic de f capitalism. For Example: Growth of
capitalism in Germany that France and expertise from America
U
and technology from Britain.
¢ Subsequent Research:
© Balvant Nevaskar: In his bo out Capitalism: Jins of India and the
Q
Quakers of the West’ ar; highlighted a positive relationship
between Jainism and eco ional aspects like thriftiness, self-
discipline, frugality, and al g Jainism.
© Robert Kennedy: In his ic and the Parsis’, he highlights that
Zoroastrianism set the stage for ; comprising of capitalism and science.
R
o Clifford Geertz: He carried out his study

j
in East java, Indonesia to find local variant
of Protestant ethi Us
© Neil J. Smelser: ‘of capitalism. In third world

societies, the role of protestant ethics is taken up
by
nationalism
(secular inner worldly
asceticism).
G
o Andre Gundur Frank: He emphasized on the role of imperial

domination in the rise
of capitalism. Colonial powers created international division of labor, where colonies
supplied cheap raw material and European industries manufactured final goods.
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2. Negatives
« Problems of Capitalism - Weber himself talks about problems of capitalism like
specialists without spirits, sensualists without hearts.
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« Contemporary Issues - Karlberg says that Weberian explanation of protestant ethics raises
contemporary issues of sociological theory like exploitation of workers, feminism, and
environmental degradation.
¢ Reification - Arthur Mitzman says Weberian theory is a sociology of reification, that is,
one marked by a high degree of abstraction.
« Ignorant - Weberian explanation of capitalism ignores the capitalism present in Indian
communities like Jains, Marwaris, Gujaratis, Chettis etc.
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« Mistaken Beliefs: Sombart said that Weber was mistaken aboutthe beliefs of Calvinists,
They were against greed and pursuit of money. There were some parts of the world where
Calvinism was deeply rooted, but capitalism didn’t emerge. Example- Switzerland,
Scotland, Hungary.
—
¢ Precursor: Kautsky, a Marxist, who saw capitalism as a precursor to protestantism. He
argued that capitalists developed Protestantism as an ideology to legitimize their own
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actions.
« Rational organization of money making: Marshall is against the Weberian notion that
there was no rational organization of money-making ventures in pre-capitalist societies.
Rather, medieval merchant classes behave rationally as per their times.
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* Narrow empirical evidence: RH Tawney said that Empirical evidence for Weber
interpretation was too narrow. Capitalism developed first in England, but English Puritans
didn’t believe in doctrine of ‘predestination’
Non-religious beliefs of calvinism: A class of scholars agree on the role of Calvinists but
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«
arenes
question the role ofits religious beliefs. Rather, rise of entrepreneurs occurred when non-
conformist Calvinists were excluded from holding public office.
¢ Narrow interpretation: Some schgl at Weber focussed on selective aspects of
religion and interpreted them eory.
¢ Pre-existing values: Some s estant value of ‘working as a vocation
was already existing in Cath Hoism.
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¢ Changing values: Modern
worldly asceticism.
ca i
uided by hedonism, rather than inner
. Other factors may trigger Cap ays that for the growth of capitalism
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internal organization patterns 2
e Religion may not trigger: be
October Russian Revolution, re

though old Christians practicing Prot ues were sufficiently present in Russia.
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e Calvinists may not always be prosperous: According to T.C. Hall, Calvinists should
ig
always become rich
regions of South Am
e Capitalism did not follow Industrialization: Fifani and Dickson pointed out that
Capitalism established much before industrial revolution.
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¢ Chettiars of Madras: Milton Singer talked about Chettiars of Madras which are
equivalent of Calvinists.
* Capitalism result of force: Henryk Grossman pointed out that Capitalism came by force
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and not by Protestantism.

¢ Non-Protestant emergence: There are plenty of historical examples of Capitalist systems
having emerged in non-Protestant countries — such as Italian Mercantilism a couple of
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centuries early.
3. Conclusion: Weberian sociology of the capitalist system is wide and multidimensional in its
scope of coverage of legal rational systems of Europe. It
also includes a microscopic outlook
of value systems of oriental societies like India and China. It provides an objective value
rational explanation to development of distinct materialistic legal rational capitalism, driven
by Calvinism in Europe.
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4.3.7-Rationality :
1. Meaning: Rationalization refers to a human effort to organise and coordinate human actions
in a regular, predictable manner in an effort to regulate the environment. Things don't just
happen by accident or by nature.
2. Features of Rationality
Understanding: Human beings have gained such a degree of understanding about the
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world around them that nature is no longer regarded as ‘mysterious’ or ‘incalculable’.
Systemic Activity: Through the use of science and technology, written rules and laws,
human activity is systematised.
Reasoning: Rationality consists of a set of social actions governed by reason or reasoning,
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calculation, rational pursuit of one's interests.
Methodological Calculation: rationality ensures that quantification, predictability, and
regularity become important.
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Caleulative: Individuals favour logic and reasons, instead of supernatural beliefs.
Elimination of fate and chance: The new enlightenment idea that people could control
their own destiny through application reason. For example, this-worldly materialism in
of
protestant ethics.
Driving force: Rationality hag ge from traditionalism to modernity.
Multi-disciplinary: Ration capitalism), political (bureaucracy,
(
democracy), social spheres
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3. Types of Rationality
t
Practical Rationality: Involves
means
or
course of action to hese goals on a systematic way. This
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type of rationality might be ch
achieving useful goals.
because
ic
it
gives people a means of
component of logical theories and structures rather than necessarily being connected to
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social activity.
Basis Formal R:
Definition It involves" 0 clusters of values that lead
means to ends that are foundedon laws, people in their everyday lives,
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rules and regulations apply in general particularly in how they choose the
means to ends.
Features 1. Catculability 1. Desirability of actions
2. Efficiency 2. Wert-rationality important
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3. Predictability 3. Teleological
4. Non Human Technology 4. Value-Postulates - multiple
5. Control over uncertainty values guide social actions
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6. Irrational Consequences
7, Deontology
Example 1. Industrial division of labor is| 1. There is no guarantee that it
technically an efficient and more improves quality of life
rational way of producing things, as 2. Tweaking rules like Aadhar
compared to feudal mode. requirement to release PDS
L_ benefits
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2. Rule-oriented behavior in 3. Economic development at the
bureaucracy and resultant red- cost of environment
tapism
Dominant in Bureaucratic, legal, judicial spheres Economic, Political Sphere
Address How to improve upon the
techniques Why to improve these techniques
question
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Consequence 1. Without substantial rationality, man /1.
Man achieves socio-economic
gets trapped in iron cage of development
rationality 2. Man retains humanity
2.__Man loses humanity
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e Conclusion: Weber believed that reason was important for organisations to function properly
and would spread across society. Weber worried that this would restrict individual initiative,
stifle charisma and tradition, and limit creative human action.
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4.4 Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons is regarded by many as the 20th centuty’s most influential American sociologist. He
laid the foundation for what was to becor nctionalist perspective and developed a
general theory for the study of society calJg
1. Early Life: Talcott Parsons was
sociology, and philosophy as an
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degree in 1924. He then studied at
in economics and sociology from th
2. Career: Parsons taught at Amher:
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an instructor at Harvard Universi conomics. At the time, no sociology
department existed at Harvard. In ciology department was created and
Parsons became one of
the new d
3. Major Publications: The Structure
ors.
137), The Social System (1951), Essays
i
in Sociological Theory (1964), Societies: litionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966)
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Politics and Social Structure (1969

wll de atin,
: as well as some aspects of
the family and sex roles are similar to what is
found in Durkheim.
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© Weber: Influence of Weber on Parsons can be seen in his study of social action and the
action system. Parsons developed many concepts and elaborate conceptual schemes that
could be considered ideal types of the Weberian type. As with many functionalists, Parsons
was concerned with the same issues as Weber, “how do the subjective states of actors
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influence emergent patterns of social organization, and vice versa?”
Earliest Approaches To Social System

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1. Meaning: According to Mitchell, a social system has been defined as ‘consisting of a plurality
of all actors interacting directly or indirectly with each other in a bounded situation. There may
be physical or territorial boundaries but the main pointof reference sociologically that here
is
individuals are oriented, in a wide sense, to a common focus or
interrelated foci’.
¢ Example: Families, Political Parties, Kinship Groups and even whole societies.
2. Utilitarian: The utilitarians have a very individualistic view of social action. They place a
strong focus on utilitarian rational calculation, but at individual level. The utilitarian
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perspective viewed social systems as the result of individuals' rational! inclinations to integrate
their needs and desires into coherent systems. These systems are built on compatibility of
interests through contractual mutuality.
e Parsons’s View: Utilitarian social scientists neglect the role of values.
3. Positivism: The positivists believe that social actors have complete knowledge of their social
situation. This leaves no room for error on the part of actors or variation among actors.
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¢ Parsons’s View: The positivists insist that true human action is born out of full information
of the situation. There is thus a finality and inflexibility in their scheme for there is only
one way to act: the correct way. Consequently there is no room for values, error and
variations in social action.
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4, Idealism: The idealist posits that social action is the realisation of the social spirit and the ideas
such as, of a nation or a people, and consequently pay scant attention to real everyday
impediments on the ground that obstruct the free realisation of ideas.
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¢ Parsons’s View: Idealism places too much emphasis on values and ideas and not enough
on social practice.
Conclusion:
Parsons objected to the exclusivity of utili nd positivism. The utilitarians simply
emphasize the individual's rational ch
ignore pressure exerted on values by ¢
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knowledge and neglect the role of value: alts:
z
arsons proposes "action approach" to
the study of social systems.
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’
Action Approach of
Parsons
Parsons' approach to the social system i:
(utilitarian perspective) and values its p

his theory of social action, an intrinsic eleme
in
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1, Meaning: According to Parsons (Th of Social Action) — Any act consciously

performed is
a Social Action H
which starts because of tf
tion is an action of an individual or a group
mum satisfaction or fulfillment of the needs
and desires.
2. Various Elements of Social Action:
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¢ Actor: Actor is goal seeking and his action has means and orientation. Actor
he selects goals or means in negotiation with normative and situational constraints.
rational ~ is
Motive/Orientation: Action starts with a motive.
Various Means: Actor is
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presented with multiplicity of means to achieve goal and actor

makes choices among means to
reach goals.
¢ Norms and
Cultural Rules: Social Action is influenced by cultural shared norms and
cultural rules. Some cultural values do not regulate social action but guide the action in a
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particular direction. Culture offers a range of choices of action but culture also provides
normative restraints.
e Other Actors: The third element of a Social Action is the presence of other actors in the
situation with whom the main actor is
interacting.
¢ Situation: The situation where the action is taking place. This is less effective than the
motive, rules, and presence of other actors. Situation influences the behaviour or action.
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.»Social Goals: Social Goals also influence social action. The goal chosen by the actor is a
mutually agreed goal.
o Example: India, ‘moksha’- life after death is more important than life in this world.
In
In the USA the social goal is to earn as much wealth as possible.
¢ Individual’s Nature: Individual’s typical nature also influences social action. Parsons
called this idiosyncrasy. Oneindividual may be very interested in music, another may not
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like music.
3. Occurs in Constellations: Action, according to Parsons, does not take place in isolation. is It
not “empirically discfeté but occurs in constellations” which constitute systems.
4. Human Behaviour driviig Human Action: According to Parsons, action is derived from
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behaviour of human beings as living organisms. As living organisms they interact (orientate)
with outside reality as well as within their own mind. Behaviour becomes action when
‘
following four conditions are present.
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U
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R
s
&
Saas
a6&
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influenced by two factors:

¢ Motivational Orientation: As mentioned earlier, the motivational orientation refers to a
situation in which action takes place taking into account needs or motives, external
appearances and plans of the individual actors. It is affected by cognitive (understand the
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objectivity), the cathectic (emotional attitude) and the evaluative (organizing efforts for
optimum efficiency) needs.
e Value Orientation: Value orientation refers to the values, aesthetics, morality, etc. aspects of
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action. It is affected by cognitive (validity of judgement), the appreciative (emotional response

to object, its appropriateness or consistency) and the moral (value commitment of an actor)
standards.
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Means 1
Means 2
Means 3
Means 4
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N
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Criticism:
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@
Psychologist than Sociologist EG,
‘ons’s Action theory, the action starts
with a motive, which is more of a ps¥# word and a psychological phenomenon.
Parson has been criticised for being more of a psychologist than sociologist.
e Cultural Determini iging more on the role of
i
cultural norms and "

R
e Max Black: He pss aka gist, individualist and

*
conservative. He has not allowed any scope for violation of rules or for the perpetual rebels
etc.
e CW Mills: criticised Parsons for providing abstract empirical theories which are
He
baseless. According to Mills, rather than motivation of an actor, structure, powerful persons
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and interests are more important. Parsons has combined the whole concept of interest into
‘Motivation or preference into motivation.
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Conclusion:
Talcott Parsons idea of Social Action was a hybrid of macro and micro perspective. He took into
account not only the external factors in the form of ‘value orientation’, but also the personal factors
of the individual in
the form of ‘motivational orientation’.
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System of Social Action
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1; Introduction: Parsons argues that there are a number of systems that are part of a general
system of human action ~ social, cultural, personality systems and behavioural organisms ~
with the latter three being part of the environment of the social system.
'
¢ His primary focus is

on the social system, since this is the subject of sociology, concerned
with social interaction and relationships among individuals.
For social reality as whole, Parsons argues that there is
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¢
0 the physical reality or physical environment where we live and all
o the action systems of social action and interaction, separate from the physical
environment.
2. Multiple and Complex Relations: The relationships among systems are multiple and
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complex, with “zones of interpenetration” and “processes of interchange” among them. While
exact structure and relationship of the systems to
each other can be confusing, in broad outlines
and with the help of the schematic diagram, the general patterns should become relatively
is
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clear. The way that Parsons distinguishes the systems on the basis of the function of each.
3. Different Systems: .
Personality System: The personality defined as the organised system of orientation and
is
¢
motivation of action of the ind personality system, concerning human
motivation and orientation, u Stem.
n of biological drives and culture, first
¢
© Individual personality co
through socialisation as %
U d then through social approval and
disapproval of others. (Parso e role of the family is developing this
y
personality in children and
o The function of the personalj hievement, with individuals motivated
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by “optimization of gratifi
¢ Behavioural Organism: Dri behavioural or biological organism,
“the primary human facilities’ e source of energy for the rest of the
systems.
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o The function is adaptation to the

individuals.
o G.Ritzer notes
human behaviouw a
* Cultural System: Related to the social system is the cultural system, a system of patterned
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and ordered symbols. Culture is seen as a patterned, ordered system of symbols that are
objects of orientation to actors, internalized aspects of the personality system, and
institutionalized patterns.
o The function of this system is primarily pattern maintenance and “creative pattern-
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change”.
o According to Ritzer, while it is created by humans, this is the “social stock of
knowledge, symbols, and ideas”. This includes language and other forms of
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communication, systems of morality, and people’s shared knowledge.

© Parsons refers to this as the cultural tradition, and argues that elementary
communication is not possible without “some degree of conformity to the
‘conventions’ of the symbolic system.”
© Individual actors interpret symbols in different situations so the context may lead toa
variety of responses to
a particular symbol.
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o it
Forsocial interaction to occur, is important that there be a reasonable level of stability
in the system of symbols.
© Because it is composed of symbols, the cultural system can move easily between
systems, and strongly affects other systems.
© Itaffects the social system, creating norms and values that guide social behaviour, and
the personality system through socialization and learning.
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o Given the power of the cultural system to influence and control other systems, “Parsons
came to view himself as a cultural determinist”.
¢ Social System: The social system was Parsons’ main concern. This is society as a whole,
or the relationships and interactions among individual actors. It also includes societal
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institutions such as family, since these are created and maintained through such interactions
and relationships.
Characteristics of every Action System
of
interdependent parts called subsystems.
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e System is made up
Each subsystem can be treated as the system itself.
Each system has a boundary that separates it from other systems.
Systems are organised in a stab.
There are certain functions whi ed for the existence of the system.
Social System
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1, Definition: According to Parson: nsists in a plurality of individual actors
interacting with each other in a situ: pleast a physical or environmental aspect,
actors who are motivated.in term he “optimization of gratification” and
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whose relation to their situations s defined and mediated in terms of a
system of culturally structured an
¢ This definition seeks to define
Parsons’s work—actors, intera
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culture.
to,a,group of people, but to the
¢ According to Lapie
complex pattern of ey notamong and between them.”
Characteristics of Socia
e Interaction: It involves an interaction between two or more actors, and the interaction
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process is its main focus.takes

e Situation: Interaction place in a situation, which implies other actors or alters. These
alters are objects of emotion and value judgement and through them goals and means of
are achieved.
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action
¢ Collective Goals: There exists in a social system collective goal orientation or common
values and a consensus on expectations in normative and cognitive (intellectual) senses.
Status-Role: Despite his commitment to viewing the social system as a system of interaction,
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Parsons did not take interaction as his fundamental unit in the study of the social system.
Rather, he used the status-role complex as the basic unit of the system. This is neither an aspect
of actors nor an aspect of interaction but rather a structural component of the social system.
The actor
is of
viewed not in terms of thoughts and actions but instead (at least in terms position
in the social system) as nothing more than a bundle of statuses and roles.
¢ Status: Status refers to a structural position within the social system.
¢Role: Role is what the actor does in such a position, seen in the context of functional its
significance for the larger system.
© Role-expectations: The primary element of role, according to Parsons is role-
expectation. It implies reciprocity between the actor and his/her alter (the other
persons), and is governed by a range of motivational and value orientations.
© Institutionalisation of Roles in a Social System: Institutionalisation means that
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expectations from specific role, its values and motivational orientations are integrated
within the culture of a society. Society sets common standards for role expectations
from its members, and when an actor imbibes these standards common society in the
orientations and performance of his/her roles, the roles are said to have been
to
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institutionalised.
4, Functional Prerequisites of a Social System:
¢ Social systems must be structured so that they operate compatibly with other systems.
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Social system must have support ftom other systems.
Social system must meet a significant proportion of the needs of actors. its
Social system must get adequate participation from its members.
It must have at least a minimum isruptive behaviour.
|
Conflict becomes disruptive s
A social system requires a
5. Process of Internalisation:
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¢ This concept refers to the way iety come to make the requirements of
their various positions an int it
personality by ‘taking over’ these

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requirements and building the ictions about how and what they should
do.
¢ Example: When we see other of the road we may become indignant
because we feel that we person’ ‘ted by what was done.
¢ Since a social system is itself signi seUtionalised culture, when people internalise
)
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the social system, i.e. identify with their position in it, they also internalise culture because
their position in the sgejaksy¢te of institu ionalised culture. |
6. Collectivity as a Socia be Identtific’ only through the boundary of

a social system that deterfhines whic! bérs includedaiid which others are excluded
a
ate
from the membership of the collectivity. The boundary of collectivity varies from situation
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to situation.
¢ Membership Boundaries: All collectivities have membership boundaries (such
others, those based on kinship, qualifications or skills or faith). By boundary we mean the
among as,
a
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limits to which a social system functions as distinct identity.

¢
roles and statuses determined by
a
Example: A kinship system, as an example of social system has its members and their
the cultural pattern found in
that society.
Solidarity and Shared Values: Collectivity is characterised by solidarity of its
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¢
members;
as in a kinship group or in an association. This solidarity emerges from the
institutionalisation of shared values such as, the value of cooperation among certain kins
of sharing the beliefs and practices of religion. a
7. Characteristics of Society as a Social System: Social System must have specific traits when
|
referring to society or a general society. These aren't the core conditions of society, just generic
characteristics of societies India, China, and USA etc.
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of
¢ Differentiation and Coordination: No individual or group:can meet all of its needs, which
is why several groups and cooperation are required. :. os
maintaining their boundaries,
¢ Boundary Maintenance: Societies have the characteristic of
which entails identifying with the members of the entire society and labelling others as
foreigners; hence, there is a divide between insiders and.outsiders. This manifests itself
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through a sense of we feeling or shared belonging.
¢ Equilibrium: Equilibrium is a necessary part of any society that wants to stay same. It
meansthat people act and work according to how their roles, statuses, responsibilities and
perks are shared. Parsons said that all societies tend to stay the way they are.
e Maintenance of Rules: Every community must have some mechanism in place to keep
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the rules or patterns in place. This is also an essential condition or prerequisite of society
as well as a characteristic of society.
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Pattern Variables ue
Another feature of Parsons’ development of sociological theory was:the introduction of the pattern
variables. Pattern Variables explain the process socialisation, it explains how to compare between
two or more social structures and also to an: mena of social change.
to
.
1. Meaning: These patterns refer to finitions which are

claimed confront
action as a system of conflictin, they are. choices between alternative
variables while performing role:
U sonian idea of social action and social
system; while pattern variables _system is the solution. Thus, they
represent a broad framework whi risation of dichotomies of personality
v: ¢ are inspired from the Weberian idea
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system, normative demands and
of Ideal Types.
2. Categorising the types of Choice’ es provide a way of categorising the
types of choices and forms of ori social actors, both in contemporary
society and historically.
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e According to Turner: The variabl categorization of modes of orientation in

personality systems, th re, and the normative requirements in social
systems.”
t thés®aréinteans of guiding “individuals
:
3. Guiding Actor: Adam:

toward one or other of a set of dichotomous choices.” The pattern variables are constructed as
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polar opposites that give the range of possible decisions and modes of orientation for a social
actor. They ideal types of social action that, for Parsons, provided a conceptual scheme
are for
analysing action within systems.
4. Means of Describing and Classification of Institutions/Relationships and Societies:
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Pattern variables also provide a means of describing and classifying institutions, social
relationships, and different societies, and the values and norms of these. All of the norms,
values, roles, institutions, subsystems and even the society as a whole can be classified and
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examined on the
basis of these pattern variables.
5 Sets of Pattern Variables:
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Value-Orientstion .
:
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Collective, Self
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Motivational-Orientation
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1. Affectivity/Affective Neutrality:
e Affectivity: In affectivity, emotional impulses are gratified e.g. a child is allowed to show
love for his parents.
e Affective Neutrality: Emotional
or teacher grading papers, is it
i
inhibited e.g. a bureaucrat in organization
ionally neutral.
2. Self-Orientation/Collectivity O;
Self-Orientation: In self-ori on the actor's own self-interest, needs
@
on,2action!
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and goals e.g, a student decide: rmeeellege based on his/her own interest.
© Collectivity Orientation: In c on, action is based on what best for the is
collectivity e.g. a child quits sch
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3. Universalism/Particularism:
® Universalism: Universalism
and moral goods e.g. the Supi
whole community.
¢ Particularism: In particularism, ac based on the priority and attachment that
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actors play in the relationshi at situation e.g. friend without

you gives support to a
4.
considering whether
Ascription/Achieveme
A ©
ad
e Ascription: In the process of ascription, action is based on given attributes (race, sex, age)
G
for instance, being eligible for the draft or allowed to buy alcohol or vote because you are
within a specified age.
@
Achievement: In achievement, action is based on performance e.g. graduation from
college based on completion of the requirement.
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5. Specificity/Diffuseness:
e Specificity: In specificity, action is based on specific criteria or roles e.g. clerk/customer
role, teacher/student role, they are narrowly and defined.
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e Diffuseness: In diffuseness, open guidelines for action e.g, becoming friends with
teachers, going beyond the clear boundaries of teachers/students. In diffuseness, the scope
of interaction is
flexible, open and encompassing in nature.
Criticism of Pattern Variables:

@
Preconceived: Scholars argue that this theory of pattern variable is borrowed from Tonnies!
Gesellschaft,
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@ Vague: In reality decision making is more complicated and complex.
e Jesse Bernanrd: It
is too scientific to make a generalisation.
Conclusion:
Pattern variables not only describe the nature of role communication and role prospects in the social
system but deliver the complete direction in which most members of
a social system select their roles.
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It provides us with an indication of the nature of the social system.
Agil Model — Functional Prerequisites

A function is “a of activities directed towards meeting a need needs of the system”. Using
complex or
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this definition, Parsons believes that there are four functional imperatives that are necessary for
(characteristic of) all systems-—adaptation (A), goal attainment (G), integration (1), and latency
(L), or pattern maintenance. Together, these four functional imperatives are known as the AGIL
scheme. In order to survive, a system must perform these four functions:
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1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt its to
environment and adapt the environment to
its needs.
¢ Example: In the family or ho tion could include. obtaining economic
resources — earning an incom
Example: For larger social at produces the goods and services for
t
¢
members of
a survive, grow, change, and develop.
society allows
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2. Goal Attainment: A system must primary goals. The goals of the system
$
must be defined, means of attempt goals must be laid out, and then these
goals must be achieved.
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e Example: Within the social
important aspect of this, settif
“mobilising actors and reso’
~~ business and no:
piganisations
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3. Integration: A system !
manage relationship am HK
by which social relationships, and interrelationships among units or groups, are regulated.
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e Example: Any institutions that help disseminate the shared culture, and reinforce “that
culture through ritual celebrations of its values” help in this. Sporting events could be seen
in this light — anthems, rules of the game, common allegiances, etc.
4. Latency (Pattern Maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain, and renew both the
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motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain that motivation.
Parsons refers to these as fiduciaries that is, founded on trust.
e Example: At the level of
the social system, these are schools, educational institutions, and
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the major institution that is concerned with the latent function is kinship and family or other
forms of personal relationships.
Functional Prerequisites of a Social System
Adaptation Goal Attainment
External Example: Economic System - Resource Example: Political System - State,
utilisation, production, Distribution etc. Political Parties, etc.
Latency or Pattern Maintenance Integration
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Page 169 as
Internal Example:
~—
Family Scoialisation, Example: Cultural System ~ Religion,

Education etc. Ideology etc.
Types Of Structures Of Social Systems |
1. Difference between Social System and Social Structure: Parsons made distinction between
the concept of social system and social structure. Social system is manifested through the
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totality of the principles through which roles and related elements of social interaction are
organised. While, social structure reflects the specific manner in which these roles in an
interaction situation are configured or composed together.
e Family is a social system but its
social structure can be seen in the empirical clustering of
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kinship roles.
The economic system can be treated as another example of
©
a
social system, but
structure is characterised by roles related to production, marketing, management, etc.
social its
2. Types of Social Structures: Pattern variables illustrate in a precise manner the principal types
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of clusterings ofsocial structures. Parsons mentions four such types:
¢ Universalistic Achievement Type:
the values that promote achie
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is a particular framework for a social system where
d on legal rational methods among the
members of
society.
o It serves as an example of societies where equality, democracy,
business freedom, sane
U social interactions are the guiding
principles.
o Example: Modern Americai
e Universalistic Ascription P. onfiguration of roles that creates a
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certain social system in wh esponsibilities is promoted by the
principles of legalrationality, ff
thority is not based on democracy or
equality.
o Example: Nazi Germany.
e Particularistic Achievement Pattern
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s type combines achievement values with

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particularism. The pri is found not in universalistic
terms such as confi cy but these are focussed on
certain points of refer in
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relationalsystein itselfor are inherent

hé
the situation. ,
The emphasis on achievement leads to the conception of a proper pattern of adaptation

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which a product of human achievement and which is maintained by continuous efforts.

o Example: Classical Chinese society — along with birth and kinship, emphasis on
individual achievement too.
¢ Particularistic Ascription Pattern: Kinship and sociality serve as the main organising
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principles in this kind of social organisation. Such a system has typical normative patterns
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that are utterly controlled by the components

o Example: Traditional Indian Caste System.
ascription. of
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Cybernetic Hierarchy of Control |
This theory of Parsons aims to explore these relations among the subsystems of the overall action
system. The Social System is linked with other systems through energy flow or information flow.
1. Meaning: Cybernetic hierarchy
is
the notion that social systems, like animal organisms
complex systems, are governed by a hierarchical network of communications and regulating
any or
mechanisms, and that in social systems this means that cultural values and the state and
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government play a decisive role in shaping and maintaining the system. It is in this context, for
example, that Talcott Parsons refers to the political subsystem the of social system as involving
‘goal attainment’.
2. Parsons sees social life as organised in terms.of two interrelated hierarchies:
e four fold hierarchy running from culture, social systems, personality systems, to the
biological organism;
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Cultural System
¢ hierarchy within the social
system, running from ‘values’ Values.
and ‘norms’ to ‘collectivities’
Norms
and ‘roles’ Social System
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3. Flow of Information: Systems and Collectivities
subsystems are organised into a poles

cybernetic hierarchy, those systems Personality
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which have a high level of
information (such as the cultural
system, including norms and Biological Organism
,
values), controlling systems which @

.
()
have a high level of energy but lo fig. 8 Cybernetic hlorarchy,
in information (such as the hum
biological system).
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4. System and Subsystem: The fours ms sg,
fiépti
the general system of action of Parson
— cultural, social, personality, and:
prerequisite.
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¢ Similarly, the social system it s, these being (in hierarchical order)
the socialisation system (patt ocietal community or institutions of
social control (integration); the}
(adaptation).
e Each of these can, itself, be seen in irther, more specialised, subsystems.
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t
5. Social Change: Social Change occurs when there is chan e in the energy flow or the
information control as t
social control.
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Functional System Movement of Energy

Requisite Level and Information
information
L Cultural system |
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i Social system
a Personality system
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A Organismic system
Energy
the
Energy moves up it
hierarchy from the organism as takes in resources
from the environment, which informational controis move down the hierarchy
constraining how energy is deployed at each system level.
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Social. Change (
i
Apart from emphasising the element of value consensus and stability in a social system, Parsons also i
visualised the possibilities of social change. This results from the specific nature of individual social
'
systems as well as from the motivational orientations, which organise action systems of members a in |
society
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.
Changes within Social System:

1. Factors: .
a. Demographic: Changes in the demographic character of population through
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migration, racial intermixture (intermarriages), as well as changes in the mortality
and fertility rates of the population.
b. Physical Environment: Changes in
the physical environment, such as exhaustion
of physical resources (soil, water, weather conditions etc.)
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c. Human Efforts: The human efforts to better their lives or to produce conditions of
life may lead to change. For example — social welfare programs, reservation etc.
d. Conflict: Conflict is an impg
also in
ment for social change, if
people cooperate
they indulge cog produces change.
e. Technology: Change, plication of scientific knowledge for
the advancement of's
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f. New Cultural Config religious ideas, or the integration of
religious values with sci ogy might also trigger changes in the
social system.
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g. Cultural Factors: Cu
through a continuous
and beliefs.
° Rationalization (Similar
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custom, tradition
o Traditionalisati i
are eventually institutionalized, Consequently, vested interests grow. These vested

interests promote value preservation regardless of circumstances. This traditionalizes
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reasonable values.
o Example: The new roles and expectations in adult life may not always harmonise with
those of childhood. Thus, Family system has an inbuilt process of both stability and
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change.
Traditionalisation
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uopeaouuy
Cultural Values in Society pue
Rationalisation
ssuvyD
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1. Features:
¢ Independent Plurality: The above mentioned factors do not act individually but in a state
of “interdependent plurality”. Many factors act interdépendently, to bring about changes
ere
within the social system.
®
Re-establishing Equilibrium: Changes did not come about smoothly but almost
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invariably through the need for re-establishing equilibrium in the system which was
required due
values and interests.
to
strains in relationships between past and present patterns of relationship,
* No Prime Mover: Parsons does not place the responsibility for causing social strain on
any one factor; there is no ‘prime mover’ as
such in the making of social change.
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2. Change occurs at Two Levels:
¢ Slow and Adaptive: It occurs through role differentiation, socialisation and
institutionalisation processes, their attendant strains, innovation or rationalisation,
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institutionalisation of innovation, development of vested interest around new institutional
adaptations, and finally, traditionalisation of innovation. /
* Sudden Change: This type of social change results from ‘revolutionary’ movements
Q in the balance or equilibrium of the social
system. Example : Communi.
3. Conditions for a Sudden Chang
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e Alineative Motivation: Thi spread and distributed alienative
motivations among the peopl gé section of the population must feel
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¢ Deviant Subculture: The existggce deology that significantly differs from
the dominant one. This aids I
system participants in dodging the

punishment against the curren ts challenge openly.
¢ Ideology: Emergence of set a put forward and claim legitimacy for
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its values, symbols and institution
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¢ Power System: Organisation of a po ystem, specifically with the state in mind, in

order to promote an nevement’ hy lesophy and give it a practical
4,
form.
Consequences a Sud of ASmts:
Adaptive Transformation: Implementing
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e ideas generated by revolutionary

new
movements creates “a process of concession” to development of adaptive structures.
However, the more radical the ideology the moredifficult is the evolution of such adaptive
structures,
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© Gratification: A tendency among the followers to gratify or satisfy their own repressed
need-dispositions as a sense of command over the system develops.
¢ Conformity and Stability: With time, movement slowly moves towards “orthodoxy”.
are as
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Members socialised into patterns of conformity in the same manner the pre-
revolutionary society did. This contributes to the system’s stability.
Maintenance of Social System

A state of social equilibrium
through the following two ways:
is
attained when the various parts of the system being
in a state of balance,
1. Socialisation:
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>
e Adjustment: It is the process by which an individual is adjusted with the conventional
pattern of social behaviour. i
e Value-Transmission:
the next generation.
It
involves transmission of values from one generation to another to |
i
e Internalisation: Ina successful socialisation process the norms and values are internalised;
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that is, they become part of the actor’s ‘consciences’.
* Learnings: Child learns from his/her environment in the family and neighbourhood, both
the expected and prohibited norms and values with respect to different social institutions
and social! roles. As the person grows older, the school, the college and work-place make
the person learn and imbibe other sets of social values and expected behaviour patterns.
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* Socialisation is done at three levels:
Cultural Socialisation: Culture, norms, symbols, behaviour, language etc.
;
o Social Socialisation: Play the right role in the right situation, understanding position
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and role.
o Psychic Socialisation: Controls anxiety, apprehensions, tensions etc.
2. Social Control:
e Conformity: Like socialisation is also a system of measures by which
society moulds its members roved pattern of social behaviour.
¢ Discouraging Deviance: So maintained by various mechanisms of
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social control which discour
¢ Social control is
also done at
o Formal mechanism of cont
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©o Informal mechanism of c
o Coercive mechanism of ¢|
* Various Mechanism of Socia

° Safety Valve: Societies t
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Insulation: Some
if the governme
which
is
Extension:
allowed
When the rules areregularly
violated they are taken out from the code of
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societal rules. Or some occasions are provided by the society to ease out tensions for
all. For example - the dancing of women at marriage possessions in rural areas.
© Support: People are given support at
the time of distress so that they do not violate the |
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rule and become deviant. For example — when the demand for money neglected by
the child’s father, her mother tries to console her.
Criticism of Parsons' Theory of Social System

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e Grand Functional Theories: Merton criticised grand functional theories of Parsons and
instead middle range theories.
¢ Coercive injection of Values: Habermas argues that values are coercively injected into the
minds of individuals through education, family, mass media which are known as cultural
industries directly or indirectly controlled by the state. Thus, value consensus is not
voluntaristic as envisaged by Parsons.
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ec
rE
e of
Lack Distinction: Bryan Turner argues that Parsons makes no distinction beiw en Nazi
Germany, Fascist Italy, Communist china and Democratic America. For him all these are
social systems where AGIL is present. .
¢ Conflict Management: Ralf Dahrendorf says that conflict is endemic to every society and
society is largely involved in conflict resolution. Thus, conflict management
than value consensus.
more important is
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:
e Ends and Values: Alvin Gouldner states that while stressing the importance of ends and
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values that men pursue, Parsons never asks whose ends and values these are.
© Teleological and Tautological: C.W. Mills casts scorn on Parsons Theory by calling it
teleological (A view which mistakenly regards an effect as a cause or function as purpose) and
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tautological (means repetition of same sense in different words.)
Conclusion:
of
.
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Parsons played a crucial role in the development the theory "Social System and Social Action"
which was an attempt to integrate the different social sciences into one theoretical framework. His
main goal was
to
utilise multiple social science disciplines to create one single universal theory of
human relationships.
4.5 Robert Merton

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e Early Life: Robert K. Merton wa
class Eastern European Jewish im
Education: Merton attended Te
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e@
graduate work, studying sociology:

e Career: In 1941 he joined the
University's highest academic ran! , in 1974. Merton is another eminent
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American Sociologist and a student 8 contributed significantly to the growth
of functional analysis in sociology and
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O62,
of neo-functionalism.
e Later Life: He was one of the fir
i
tional Academy of Sciences
and the first American mber of the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences. é
¢ Major Publications: Social Theory and Social Structure (1949), The Sociology of Science
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(1973), Sociological Ambivalence (1976), On The Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript

(1985), On Social Structure and Science.
Function
N
1. Meaning: A function in sociology relates to how a social institution

or cultural practice
strengthens societal cohesion. In other words, society functions because its constituent pieces,
such asits diverse institutions or cultural practices, contribute to the establishment of social
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unity as well as order and cohesion.

¢ The contribution that brings order, unity, and coherence
to
a society is known as function.
¢ Functions
are those observed consequences, which make for
the adaptation or adjustment
of a given system.
2. Function: Objective Consequences and Subjective Dispositions
¢ According to Merton - social function refers to observable objective consequences, not
erceeene
subjective dispositions. Social scientists must go beyond actors’ subjective intentions and

| Telegram Channel: sunyanotesS0 Page 175°
dispositions to understand how social institutions and cultural practices work. Instead, the
social scientist must examine how the institution actually strengthens society.
© Example: Ask a bride-to-be why she's getting married and its function? She may say
she is marrying to satisfy her human and love needs. Merton would claim the
participant is confusing her subjective motives with martiage's objective function. The
objective function of marriage or family is not love but the socialisation of the child.
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o Example: A school child may think that he goes to school because he finds his friends
there; but the function of school is
something else; it is to add to and aid
in the growth
of knowledge that the society needs in order to
sustain itself.
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Dysfunction, Latent And Manifest Functions
1. Dysfunction: Functions are those observed consequences, which make for the adaptation or
adjustment of a given system. However, not everything is functional and not everything helps
it
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a system adapt. Merton calls it dysfunction and defined as observed consequences that hinder
system adaptability.
e Example: In modern India, the institution of caste, far from having a function, has
dysfunctions. Instead of intensifyi tic ideal, caste tends to lessen the degree
of mobility, democratisation a
‘ctive consequences contributing to the
adjustment or adaptation of the
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U led and recognised by participants in
the system, These are the subject actor. It refers to the micro aspect of
reality and mainly studied through proach.
Example: For a crime like the ction is obvious i.e. punish to create
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deterrence. Punishment remin ety would not permit his deviance.
3. Latent Functions: Latent funct e consequences contributing to the
adjustment or adaptation of th either intended nor recognised by
participants in the system. They ns, non-functions and unanticipated
|
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consequences. They usually reflect the

« Example: The punishment for crime
recognised. Punishri
is*
collective conscience; the
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punishment of the ifidsthe society of its force and its
collective morals.
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4. Example of Education:
¢ Manifest Function: To create educated youth with an understanding of their world and its
history as well as the theoretical knowledge and practical skills needed to contribute
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positively to society.
¢ Latent Function: To foster and reinforcing social ties, group identity, and a sense of
belonging, which are very important aspects of a healthy and functional society.
¢ Dysfunction: Ivan Illich argues that education promotes passive consumption and
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suffocates creativity.
Difference between Manifest and Latent Functions

Manifest Latent
Functions which are intended or recognized Functions which are unintended or
consequences any
of social pattern unrecognised consequences of any social
pattern
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5
The actor is
aware of the consequences The actor is not aware of his consequences
Manifest functions are beneficial in nature Latent functions can harm as well as benefit
society
Talcott Parsons was more interested in Robert Merton was more interested in
understanding the manifest functions of understanding the latent functions of social
social behaviour. behaviour.
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Manifest functions are generally expected Latent functions are generally not expected
from the institutions to be fulfilled. from the institutions to be fulfilled.
Example: Hospitals are expected to provide Example: Doctors while treating incurable
better healthcare to the people or treat the disease save the patient and discover a new
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method of treating that particular disease.
nena
patients.
Sener
Importance of revealing the difference between manifest and latent functions:
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1. Rationalisation: Merton presents an example of a rain ceremony among American Hopi
Indian. At first, their activity of gathering around one place and sprinkling water seems
irrational but by understanding the latent functions of it (strengthening unity and group
solidarity).
¢ Hopi rituals are induced to pr it is not true that these ceremonies will
actually cause rain. Howeve g the group together to engage in a
is
common activity. This strengtk
U d unity, which its latent function.
eveneeneenenanenc
2. Expands Social Knowledge: Th consumption assists the government in
identifying inflation trends (latent iety.
3. Expands the Research Horizon: ich are hidden from the common man
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are recognised by the sociologists 4 of research.
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e Example: For some people, dicrous storylines, music, dances,

romances, and battle sequence , these
films still have some positive
e triumph of good over evil, and
reinforces values that
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many fear will in a rapidly changing society. Commercial

movies may serve a
as
a safety valve and restoring
is
regard, acting
faith. vhs
4. Challenging Establishe
though that does not necessarily make it moral.
may have
mh
latent function,
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¢ Example: Merton claims that the "immoral" political machine of American: society
achieves what democracy cannot. American democracy treats voters as faceless hordes.
The political machine's sociological awareness sees the voter as a person living ina specific
neighbourhood with distinct personal concerns and wants. The political machine fulfils the
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important social function of humanising and personalising, the manner of assistance to

those in need.
5. Identifying Institutional Faults: Unequal opportunity structure to accomplish culturally
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prescribed goals presents institutional faults in American society.
Postulates Of Functional Analysis

Merton criticised basic postulates of functional analysis developed by anthropologists such as
Malionski and Radcliffe Brown.
1. Postulate of Functional Unity: This postulate holds that all standardised social and cultural
beliefs and practices provide the function of the unity of the system.
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¢ Criticism by Merton: Today's world is complex and functional unity is a matter of degree.
Not all societies are well
unified and have some difficulties,
Merton doubts whether
© all
societies are solidly integrated and hence every culturally
standardised practice or belief is functional for the society as a whole.
© Social usages
in the same society.
or
beliefs may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others
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e Example: Majority religious fundamentalism can be disasters for the minority. Example
ISIS. -
2. Postulate of Universal Functionalism: This postulate holds that all existing social and
cultural forms have positive functions.
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¢ Criticism by Merton: A social item may be functional in one context and dysfunctional
in another context. |
o According to. Merton, :functionalists must focus on a net balance of functional |
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|
consequences, positive as well as negative, but, by no means, positive only.

e¢
Example: Poverty may be seen.as dysfunctional for the poor but functional for the non-
poor and for
society as a whole.
* Example: Game of Cricket has ctions as it enables one to appreciate the
beauty and art ofthe game an an enhances patriotism. But, it has been
dysfunctional for a true spor icket has damaged other games like
football or hockey, which ‘ar
U the media. |
3. Postulate of Functional Indisp' stulate holds that all structures and

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functions are functionally necessa ssumption is that if a social pattern is

well established, it must be meeti of the system, and hence it must be
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indispensable. It is a double barre in functions are indispensable for the

survival of the social system; and c' forms are indispensable for fulfilling ;
these functions. , ‘
¢ Criticism by Merton: Merton te as formulated and suggests that the

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same cultural item may perform multiple ‘functions and alternative items may. fulfil the
same function.
fe Se
4 GP,
¢ Example: A worki hore be performed by day care
centres,
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Paradigms For Functional Analysis

1. Meaning:
2. Importance:
It
is a detailed method for the purpose of formulating a functional theory.
Conceptual: These are the minimum set of concepts without which the sociologist cannot
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adequately carry out a functional analysis

¢ Identification: They help to identify the postulates and assumptions underlying functional
analysis.
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¢ Sensitization: They seek to sensitise the sociologist to the political and ideological
implications of functional analysis.
¢ Theorising: They are necessary to properly modify a theory by reducing the randomness
and arbitrariness in sociological research.
¢ Guiding: They help to resolve the ideological struggle and to conduct functional analysis.
It reduces the possibility of randomness and arbitrariness in sociological research.
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What are these Paradigms?
1. Standardisation: The social item under consideration must represent a standardized, patterned
item such as social roles, institutional patterns, social processes, cultural patterns, culturally
patterned emotions, social norms, group organisation, social structure, devices for social
control, etc. It should have a regular occurrence.
e Example: Religion as a social practice, marriage etc.
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Social Context: Context of the social item under consideration should be clearly specified as
their meanings may change with change in context.
Description: The description of the phenomenon of interest to the investigator should be
exposed. i
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Investigation: Both primary and secondary sources should be used to collect facts and
theories.
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Meaning: Meaning of situation for the actors involved in the process should be described to
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understand the manifest function of certain events.
Motives: Investigator should identify the motive recognised by the individual to understand
the objective consequences or latent functions
Functional Alternatives: The inv highlight the functional alternatives by
comparing and identifying other e same function.
¢
Net Balance: Assessing the net

positive, negative or no consequé
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e Example: Media has its pos brings the world closer and informs
¢ its It
t
everyone about the happenings dysfunctions too have to be seen.
breeds consumerism and tends
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Criticism of Functionalism of Merton:
Lack of Rationality: Merton has
modern society. Merton was not cle:
and conflict in society.
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Lack of Objectivity: Merton presented an example from a simple society. Merton

for neglecting the uni i
criticised. is
entirely different meth j ugh empirical methods of
science. In particular, they attack the implicit assumption in Parsons and Merton that there
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exists a similarity between a biological system and a social system.

Lack
of Universality: He presented the example of a group to which he himself was a member.
Underplayed Conflict: Mark Abrahamson argued that Merton consistently underplayed
conflict and structural strain. Even when he referred to conflicts, he treated them as ‘deviance’,
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Methodological Issues: According to Francis Abraham (1982), the methodology of

functionalism tends to be weak, for it rests on intuition or the ability of the observer to see or
detect functions performed by particular elements.
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Ambiguities: A major difficulty with functional analysis is the ambiguity of the concepts like
function, integration, etc. which are used inconsistently and as often without clear definition.
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Issues of Terminology: The use of single term to cover several distinctly different referents
has caused confusion and disagreement even among outstanding functionalists. Although
Merton has done much
still persists.
to
clarify the most important concepts, the terminological confusion
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-
Conclusion: Merton’s work on functionalism is extremely important because of the framework
provides for later
functionalists. In addition, it moved functionalism away from dealing with only
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the positive and intended functions of an item and into an area more adapted to the study of the
consequences of an item on the social structure. As Nicholas Timasheff argued that
TL
LT
"functionalism is perhaps more promise than achievement, but it
is an important promise".
AL
NT
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Middle Range Theories
1. Meaning: The middle range approach was developed by Robert Merton as a departure from
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the general social theorising of Talcott Parsons. It is an approach to sociological theorising
aimed at integrating theory and empirical research.
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¢. Middle-range theory starts with an empirical phenomenon (as
opposed to a broad abstract
entity like the social system) and abstracts from it to create general statements that can be
verified by data.
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* This approach stands in contrast to the earlier "grand" theorising of social theory, such as
functionalism and many conflict theories.
e Examples of middle range. theories are theories of reference groups, social mobility,
normalisation processes, role co mation of social norms.
¢ Speculative: These theorie: d do not correspond to the empirical

realities,
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¢ Problem of Demarcation: an attempt to study every possible
dimension of social reality 1 that he field of sociology.
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¢ Abstraction: These theories ar ture and do not have much relevance
to understand the essence of was directly opposed to the abstract
theorising of scholars who are to construct a total theoretical system
covering all aspects of social It
3. Characteristics of Middle Range
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¢ Fact Based: Merton advocates that theory uilding should be fact driven and theories
should be coming ou ; , :
tic manner.
¢ Less Speculation: i
blems and issues related to

empirical situations if arding social systems.
¢ Uniformity: These are based on uniformities found in social life and take the form of
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causal laws.
¢ Consolidation: Merton aimed to generate an empirically verified body of social theory
that could be consolidated into a scientific foundation for sociology.
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* Data Driven: Middle range theories also involve abstractions but unlike general theories
they are family backed up by observed data.
e Systematic: Merton said that sociological theories must not derive from doubts and
to all
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incomplete information to come a conclusion one must arrange the facts and combine
them and then provide the conclusion.
e Simplistic: Middle range theories explain every topic without creating any doubt in
people’s mind and therefore said to be understandable and simple in nature.
e¢
Concentrating on Measurable aspects of Social Reality: According to Merton,
sociologists should concentrate on measurable aspects of social reality that can be studied
as separate social phenomena, rather than attempting to explain the entire social world.
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1 -.Sociology Optional
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4. Support:
*
:
coed
Empirically Oriented Discipline: The middle-range approach has played a key role
ceo
‘in
ES es
turning sociology into an increasingly empirically-oriented discipline.

In
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* Dominant Approach: the post-war period, middle-range theory became the dominant
approach theory construction in all variable-based social sciences. Middle range theory
to
has also been applied to the archaeological realm by Lewis R. Binford, and to financial
cen P
theory by Harvard Business School Professor Robert C. Merton, Robert K. Merton's son.
5. Criticism:
¢ Abstract: Pauline Durkheim, states that many sociologists criticise middle-range theory
because
it istoo abstract and does not help us understand society.
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TTT
Deterministic: Many sociologists are against the middle-range theory because they believe
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¢
it is too deterministic and does not take into account individual agency.
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Conclusion:
The research process can be organised in sociology using middie-range theories to make it more
‘semen
methodical and controllable. This is accomplish menting the broad concept of sociology into
more granular pieces. Thus, theories of midd) oncise, concentrated and complete and are
‘
universally accepted.
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Conformity And Deviance
1. Definition of Norms: Norms are guide and regulate behaviour
‘with
2. Definition of Conformity: Confor ion which is oriented to social norms and
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which falls within the toleration lev:
3. Definition of Deviance: Deviai
path/societal norms.
Difficulty in Defining Deviance

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1. Lack of Universal Definition: Norms v group to group, within a group, and over a
period of
time. It is not easy to identi behaviours that are universally defined as
departures from some n
e Example: Kissing i g
e Example: Free interaction between the sexes may not be considered deviant in a big
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cosmopolitan city. But it may be so in village or a small town.

2. Relative: Behaviours, notions and products of human interaction can be understood or
evaluated only within the context of the culture and society of which they are a part.
It
is acceptable for men to go topless in an informal occasion, but if women do
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¢ Example:
so, they are considered deviants.
3. Circumstantial: An act is deviant in one situation does not mean
situation.
it
is deviant in every other
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* is
Example: Murder a ctime but soldier is
permitted to kill an enemy soldier.
4. Based on Social Position: Deviance can also vary with social status (the position in society
that one occupies).
¢ Example: Certain behaviours are given greater approval for men than women. It is
acceptable for men to go topless on an informal occasion, but if women do so, they are
considered deviants.
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Types of Deviance (According to Horton and Hunt)
"1. Cultural v/s Psychological Deviance: While a psychological deviant, such as a psychotic or
neurotic, deviates from the norms of
personality organisation, a cultural deviant departs from
a
the norms of culture. One person may
fit
under both categories.
2. Individual v/s Group Deviance: Individual deviation occurs when a
person departs from a
subculture's norms. In cases of group deviation, the deviant subculture has norms that are
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disapproved of
by
traditional social morality.
Example: Individual Deviance - Boy from a well-educated and well-respected family
¢
might start using drugs and drop out
up of unemployed youngsters engaging
of
school. Group Deviance
in
a variety of illegal activities.
-
Street corner gang made
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3. Primary v/s Secondary Deviance: Primary deviance is breaking of social standards by a
person who is
essentially a conformist in
their life and is not labelled as a deviant. One's public
is
from:
identification as deviant can lead to secondary deviation and that person classified as deviant.
EE
¢ Example: Primary Deviance - Occasionally taking a cheaper flight, sneaking an extra
apple into your shopping cart without paying for it, etc. Secondary Deviance - A serial
killer or a history sheeter.
planation of Deviance :
1. Meaning of Anomie: Anomie tural condition in which there is either
conflict of norms or ambivalent
U s. Through anomie, Merton aimed at
showing how some social struct pressure upon certain persons in the
society, to engage in non-conformi rming conduct.
2, The American Dream: Merton us to bring more clarity on his anomie
Q
:
theory.
¢ Goals: The "American Dream’
mostly determined by their abifj
¢ Unequal Means: Merton argued
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distribution of resources in the USA mi
tne
3. Structural Strain:
fici
¢ Meaning: When rad i
goals it leads to structural lo APO
1 Sug |
¢ Cause: The strain is

the product of mismatch between opportunity structure in society and
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the culturally prescribed goals. Differential access to legitimate means and opportunities
to achieve goals results in strain, namely, a sense of frustration and injustice. Deviant
behaviour can be seen as a symptom of this strain.
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¢ Channelization: When people experience social strain, they channelize there strains in
different ways in order to manifest different forms of anomic behaviour as explained
below:
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18)
Robert K. Merton's Deviance Typolo:
institutionalized Means
accept reject
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Goals
accept
CONFORMITY
Cultural
reject
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o Conformists: It is a non-deviant adaptation in which members continue to attain
societal goals by socially acceptable means despite structural pressures towards deviant
behaviour. Example: Students preparing for a competitive exam.
© Innovators: They find and town way to achieve societal goals. The
individual accepts the cu e goal but does not internalise the
institutionalised norms. leaders, corrupt officials etc.
o Ritualists: They reject
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institutionalised means. E. eople, Bureaucrats etc.
o Retreatists: They reject bo mand institutionalised
means. involves It
complete escape from the pr
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vagabonds etc.
o Rebellions: They not onl.
substitute new goals and
Relevance of Deviance Theory of Merton

R
e Explanation of Crime In the 1940s, Merton's strain theory helped to explain why crime
persisted in nations lik sing economic growth and
t
wealth. It is a significantGustafson viance.

When Baumer and (2007) examined official data sets from the USA, they
G
discovered that places with a "strong commitment to money success" and a "poor commitment
to legitimate means” had higher instrumental crime rates.
Robert Bourgeois (1996): It is demonstrated in "In Search of Respect" that some of society's
most hated criminals have really internalised Merton's success criteria.
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On the Edge by Carl Nightingale: In the 1990s, Carl Nightingale used inner-city youngsters
to test Merton's Strain Theory.
Modern Crimes: Today's white collar criminals are those who are dedicated to pursuing
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material success but have had their possibilities for advancement obstructed by a lack of
opportunities
Criticism of the Theory:

1. Limited Analysis: Laurie Taylor argues that powerful people make rules that define deviance
and get benefits from them. Critics point out that his theory has also failed to explain why some
people choose one response, while others choose a different one.
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2. Incorrect Assumption: Merton wrongly assumes that there is a value consensus in American
society and structural strain is the only cause of deviance.
3. Exaggeration: Some critics believe that Merton over-emphasized over working class crimes
and under-estimated middle class or white collar crimes.
4. Non-Inclusive: Some have been pointed out that certain types of deviance-rape, the behaviour
of hippies in the 1960s-have not been accommodated his analysis.in
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5. Subcultural Theory of Deviance by Albert Cohen:
¢ Collective Response: Cohen argued that deviance
response.
is a collective rather than an individual
¢ Non-utilitarian Crimes: Cohen criticises Merton for ignoring non vegetarian crimes such
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as vandalism which do not produce any monetary reward.
¢ Delinquent Subculture: Cohen argued that deviance resolves their frustration not by
turning to criminal path to success but by rejecting success goals of mainstream culture by
EE
creating a delinquent subculture.
6. Labelling Theory by Howard Becker:
¢ Deviance is Relative: A person m be labelled as deviant by one group and can be
by another group.
* Goals are Subjective: Goals kent people.
©
Labelling: Behaviour becom{ label it as such
7. Delinquency and Opportunity
U d Ohlin:
¢ Different Responses:They 4 ailed to explain why different people
choose different responses.
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e Half Picture: Merton talks abo tunity structure but ignores illegitimate
opportunity structure to achie te means
8. Society's Reaction: Eshleman & ‘on's theory ignores the influence of
society's reaction in the developme
9. Walter Millar: He argues that cr
ays those who fail to gain legitimate
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opportunities but they may become deviant out ofthrill.

10. Marxists: They point oy e
ity,is at the heart of the Capitalist
system (Elites make the ges the lower classes).
nt
Conclusion:
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Despite all the criticisms, Merton's theory is appealing and has a significant impact on the subject of
deviance due to his capacity to elucidate a wide range of deviant events using a
relatively
straightforward analytical framework. His theory provides a framework for examining a wide
range
of social behaviour.
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Merton and_ Durkheim on Anomie and Deviance

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Durkheim Merton
Durkhiem considers anomie as result of Merton considers anomie as a structural
pathological consequences of certain social facts. phenomenon
Anomie
stages
is
a temporary stage during the transition Anomie is ever present in society due to
structural strain
Anomie is a pathological state and has negative Anomie
may lead to positive effects like
consequences innovation and revolution
PAPER
Reference Group
1. Meaning: Reference
is defined as a group with which one always makes a cornparison
group
to evaluate one's achievements, aspirations, role performance etc.
2. Characteristics of a Reference Group:
eae
Interaction: The frequency of interaction is the first objective criterion. A group in
P
¢
sociology is a collection of people who frequently interact with one another.
Identification: The interaction amongst the people who identify as members is a second
rere
e
(oer
requirement. In other words, they believe that they and the other members are ethically
bound
by certain patterns of expectations or modes of engagement.
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* Belongingness: The third requirement is that the people involved in the engagement are
regarded as "belonging to the group" by others. These others include fellow members as
well as non-members.
EE
erence
Types of Reference Groups
1. Membership Groups: These groups ai for the members of others who are willing to
join it with limited or no criteria.
eeeeeecne
e Example: NGOs, Civil Society
2. Non-membership Groups: Theg he members of others who
are willing
to join it.
U
e Example: Caste System.
3. Positive Reference Group: Posith ip is one, which one likes and takes
one’s achievements and performance.
Q
seriously in order to shape one’s be
« Example: Some natives att estyle of colonial rulers during the
freedom movement.
4. Negative Reference Group: The ference group which one dislikes and
rejects and which, instead providin
of , provokes one create counter-norms. to
R
« Example: Some natives rejecting the ifestyle of colonial rulers during the freedom
movement.
Determinants of Reference G ‘
Reference Individuals: People choose reference persons as well as reference groupings

G
.
because they to those with charm, status, and glamour.
are drawnTendulkar
e Example: Sachin as a
reference individual for those who even are not interested
in cricket.
N
Norms and Values: The choice of reference groups depends on the nature and quality of
norms and values one is interested in. It is not necessary that same groups uniformly serve as
reference groups for the same individuals in every phase of their behaviour.
Example: A highly religious person can his religious orientation in later life,
KI
¢ change his
which will eventually change his reference group.

Time Period of Membership: A class of undergraduate students which is not going last for
more than three years, is unlikely to be chosen as a reference group. But, instead, a group,
to
which
is, really going to last, a kinship, or a caste group, or a professional group, does indeed
serve as a reference group
PAPER 1
4, Isolation in own Group: Individuals excluded from their own group or isolated in their own
group actively look to be a member of some other membership group. They become “marginal
men”.
¢ Example: A Naxalite who wants to surrender as he himself feels non-aligned with his
organization's goals.
is
Tel
Power and Prestige: The selection of reference groups largely governed by the capacity of
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certain groups to confer some prestige in terms of the institutional structure of that society.
¢ Example: It has often been found that the university teachers in India often compare their
lot with the IAS Officers, because of the power and prestige these officers enjoy.
Open Societies: Social systems with relatively high rates of social mobility will tend to make
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far widespread orientation to non-membership groups
as
reference groups.
Functions of Reference Group
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Comparison: They can give people a point of comparison from which toassess their attitudes
and beliefs.
Standard: Establish a standard'of measurement that people can use to gauge their social
behaviour and sense of self.
Shape Values: In terms of what o wrong by allowing someone to choose
which values they wish to follow
Inspiration: Serves as a source’
U
work toward,
Goal Attainment: They serve not rk,©£current evaluation but also as sources of
aspiration and goal attainment.
:
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Normative: They serve a normat
and belief.
Structural Elements of Reference Group

1. Visibility and Observability: Generally
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authority have substantial knowledge of the

norms of the group, far gr i
18 of the group. Both norms

and role-performance h ‘ity is to operate effectively.
Privacy: Merton says,
t c
observability. There is also

the “need for privacy”. What is, therefore, needed is a “functionally optimum degree of
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visibility”.
Non-comformity: It
is about disregarding the rules and regulation of one's own group. Non-
conformity to the norms of an in-group is equivalent to conformity to the norms of an out-
group.
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Role-set: Merton says that a particular social status involves

various associated roles.
not
a single associated role, but
¢ Example: A teacher’s role-set includes not solely his or her professional colleagues, but
KI
also the influential members of the school board.

Role Conflict: The basic source of disturbance in the role set is the conflict associated with
role partners,
* Example: What the influential members of the school board expect from the teacher need
not coincide with what the professional colleagues expect from the teacher.
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6. Status-set: The same individual may find himself or herself in different statuses - teacher,
husband, mother, father, brother, sister, political worker etc. This complement of social
statuses of an individual may be designated as his or status- set.
her
7. Status Conflict: It is not always possible to reconcile the demands all the statuses one is of
occupying.
e Example: A politician, because of her commitment to
a larger public cause may not do
P
Justice to his other statuses, the status of a wife or thestatus of a mother.
ROLE
a hypothetical STATUS SET...
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Difference between Non-Conformity an
Nonconformity
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Non-conformist announces his dissent

Non-conformist is not an o
Non-conformist challeng,
the norms and expectations and reject them.
Non-conformists believe that they are gifted The deviant does not have any such vision of
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with a ‘higher morality’ and want to alter the morality.

norms of the group accordingly
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Relative Deprivation
@
Explanation: Merton’s understanding of relative deprivation is closely tied to his treatment of
reference group and reference group behaviour. Happiness or deprivation is not absolutes: they
reference of
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depend on the scale of measure as well as on the frame

e Example: Essentially, Merton speaks of relative deprivation while examining the findings of
‘The American Soldier’, a work published in 1949. In this work an attempt was made to
examine how the American soldiers looked at themselves and evaluated their role- ah
performance, career achievements, etc. Comparing himself with his unmarried associates in
the Army, the married man could feel that their induction in the army demanded greater
sacrifice; and comparing himself with the married soldiers, he could feel that he had been
called on for sacrifices which unmarried soldiers were escaping altogether”.
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Anticipatory Socialisation
1. Meaning: Anticipatory socialisation is the process. by which non-group-members adopt the
values and standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry into the group
and help them interact appropriately once they have been accepted.
Explanation: In this process members of the group become acquainted with the norms and
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interests of other members of the group. It
is like preparing oneself for the group to which an
individual aspires but does not belong. It is like adopting the values, life-styles of a non-
membership reference group.
e Example: Law school students learning how to behave like lawyers, older people
N
preparing for retirement etc.
Dysfunctions: Suppose a lower middle class village boy, aspiring to get entry into World-class
School, is emulating the behaviour of the boys of that school. But if the system is closed then
EE
anticipatory sovialisation would be dysfunctional for him.
Self Fulfilling Prophecy

1. Definition: A
self-fulfilling prophe al term used to describe a prediction that
causes itself to become true. T!
process by which a person’s {
about someone can lead to t Abelief about:

U the future:
behaving in ways which
expectations.
Q
term self--fulfilling prophecy to
false definition” of the situatio
‘Actions taken
behaviour which makes the ori Results of those
because of
‘actions-confim
conception come true. the original belief
having that belief
e Example: In the classroom,
R
fulfilling prophecy o wh
holds expectations ¢
through social inte ‘
students to behave in such a manner to as

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confirm the originally false (but now true)

expectation.
Merton and Parsons

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1. Similarities:
¢ Contribution to Sociology: Both of them are considered to be the two most outstanding
American sociologists who have left a lasting mark on our understanding of concepts,
of
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theories and methods sociology. .
¢ Scientific Discipline: The common elements in the perspective on sociology in the

writings of Parsons and Merton are that both considered sociology to be a scientific
discipline.
¢ Funetionalists: Both Parsons and Merton have followed a functional
in their sociology
approach of analysis
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¢ Concepts: Both Parsons and Merton have dealt with the concepts of “role”, “status”,
“social structure”, “social system”,’ “group” and so on.
¢ Theory Building: Considerable importance is given, both by Parsons and Merton, to the
role of theory in sociology and what should be the nature of such theories.
¢ Social Change: Both sociologists explain changes within the social system as arising out
of “strain” or pressure on members of groups in society to constantly relocate their roles
P
and statuses.
2. Differences between Merton and Parsons
Merton Parsons
Basic Merton takes a more modest view of His conceptual schemes are more
N
approach sociological theory. His emphasis is abstract and relatively free from the
on specific and not universal limitations of space and time.
.
questions of theory and
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methodology.
Theories Merton applies theory to specific Parsons talks of a “general theory of
issues as “reference ”, action”.
Functionalists
“anomie” or
“nature
Functionalism as
fe us
sons on the other hand does not take
h a specific or historical view on the
U ues of functionalism.
Social For Merton the b arsons’ approach is general and
Problems sociology is to utilisé ighly abstract to the understanding of
e social system.
Q
methods for the y
social problems.
Applications Merton prefers th considers a general and
.
theory” which is of niversally applicable theory possible

well-defined nature and covers a in sociology, which can be applied to
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any,society at any period of time.

Social Change Merton
systems”.
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4.6 George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead was born on Feb. 27, 1863, in South Hadley, Massachusetts. He was an
American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of
N
Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. ,
1. Education: In 1879, George Herbert Mead enrolled in Oberlin College. Later, enrolled in
Harvard University, where he studied psychology and philosophy.
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2. Career: At University of Michigan, Mead met sociologist Charles Horton Cooley,

philosopher
John Dewey, and psychologist Alfred Lioyd, all of whom influenced the development
of his
thought and written work. Mead is regarded as one of the founders of symbolic interactionism
and of what has come
to
be referred to as the Chicago sociological tradition.
3. Publications: Mead’s works were assembled posthumously from lecture notes and
unpublished papers by several of his students; these comprise his major works —
© 1932 - The Philosophy of the Present.
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1 -
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Sociology Optional
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1934 - Mind, Self, and Society
1936 - Movements of Thought in the Nineteenth Century
1938 - The Philosophy of the Act
1964 - Selected Writings
ET
SR
ER
1982 - The Individual and the Social Self: Unpublished Essays by G. H. Mead.
Father of Symbolic Interactionism: GH Mead is generally regarded as the founder of
P
symbolic interactionism.
5. Mead’s Theory of Self: It is known as non-dualistic, pragmatist, cosmological and
evolutionary.
TIO
OEP N
Symbols Communication, Language, Gestures and Significant Symbols
—
1. Symbol: According to Mead, human thought, experience and conduct are essentially social.
They owe their nature to the fact that human beings interact in terms of symbols, the most
sewer
in
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important of which are contained language.
TOOT
;
© Identification and Response: A symbol identifies an object or event in a specific way and
denotes a response to it,
rather than just representing
it.
© Example: The symbol chai a class of objects and defines them as
similar, it also indicates a action of sitting.
enepeenner
e Specific Meanings and Mea bols give specific meanings to objects
and events while largely ex¢
U tential meanings. Symbols enable
meaningful human-environmen y describe how individuals perceive
objects and events, not their essé man interaction and society would not
exist without symbols.
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Gestures: People communicate vg
earn to predict one another's actions
through gestures. It is the fund behind social behavior and social
interaction. Gestures also have the
e Example: In parks, we frequent! of elderly folks. Each continued to sit
for extended periods of time without speaking to one another, yet they could tell what the
R
other was thinking by,theig gestures, and,postures... 2, aon,

¢ Gesture is a Reaction to Particular Action: Consciousness of meaning is that which
permits the individual to
respond to her own gestures as the other responds. A gesture, then,
is an action that implies a reaction.
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Significant Symbol: According to Mead, “A significant symbol is

a gesture (usually a vocal
gesture) that calls out in the individual making the gesture the same (that is, functionally
is
identical) response that called out in others to whom the gesture is
directed”. Hence, gestures
become significant symbols when they arouse the same kind of response in every individual.
N
It is a gesture consciously made.

¢ Example: “You ask somebody to bring a visitor a chair. You arouse the tendency to get
the chair in the other, but if he is slow to act, you get the chair yourself. The response to
a
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the gesture is the doing of certain thing, and you arouse that same tendency in yourself.”
At this stage, the conversation of gestures is transformed into a conversation of significant
symbols.
¢ Example: When we say hello to another person it illicit same response from every
individual.
PAPER 1
E
EI
06
4. Communication: Significant communication may be defined as the compre! ensiun by the
individual of the meaning of her g: ures. Language, in Mead’s view, is communication
through significant symbols.
PE
¢ Social Act with Meanings: Mead describes the communication process as a social act
EE
ET
since it necessarily requires at least two individuals in interaction with one another. is
within this act that meaning arises. The act of communication has a triadic structure (as
It
AE
AC P
shown below) and there is no meaning independent of the interactive participation of two
or more individuals in the act of communi
ESI
WE
PST
PEP
PEPE
TEST
LETS
BEES
YOP8
ENTE
APOE
NPAT
TRNR EE
N
1. Mind is a Social Phenomenon: According to Mead's conception, “mind is a social
SECTS
STREP
ARITA
phenomenon--arising and developing within the social process, within the empirical matrix of
ESPON
social interactions." Mind is
the prod ocesses, not vice versa.
NEOTEL
2. Role of Communication and L: ind is a form of participation in an interpersonal
(i.e., social) process; it is the result of taking the attitudes of others toward one’s own gestures
IOGAEETNG
(or conduct in general). Mind, in brief, use of significant symbols - the language being
is
U the
prominent. .
¢ Mind is the individualized focus of the communication process — it is linguistic

behavior on the part of the individual. There is, then, no “mind or thought without
Q
language;” and language (the content of mind)
“is
a development and product
only
social of
interaction”.
3. Dynamic Process: According to Mead, mind is not reducible to the neurophysiology of the
organic individual, butis an emergent in “the dynamic, ongoing social process” that constitutes
human. experience.
R
4. Reflexivity: Mead was york and, the,notion of reflexivity plays a

J
fundamental role in he ability to put yourself

unconsciously into the p
* Reflexiveness brings the whole social process into the experience of the individuals
G
involved in it, allowing the individual to take the other's attitude toward himself and
consciously adjust himself to that process and modify the resultant of that process in any
given social act. Thus, social reflexivity is necessary for mind growth.
¢ Mind is developed not only through the use of vocal gestures, but through the taking of
N
roles (discussed later in the article).
Action
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For Mead, the mind arises out of the social act of communication. His theory of “mind, self, and
society” is a philosophy of the act from the standpoint of a social process involving the interaction of
many individuals. There are two models of the act in Mead’s general philosophy:
1. The Act-As-Such: In
his analysis of the act-as-such (that is, organic activity), Mead speaks of
the act as determining “the relation between the individual and the environment”. Mead saw
reality as a field of situations. Acts define and deepen the individual-world relationship. An
PAPER
1 ~
Sociology Optional
—
individual can act on environmental effects by selectively perceiving and manipulating objects.
Mead describes the act as developing in four stages:
P
N
trans- individual. Mead defines t
a collective act involving the
EE
to the social object. The social act is
e individuals; and the social object is
pai
U
a collective object having a comm participant in the act.
* There are many kinds of social imple, some very complex. These range ,
from the (relatively) basic int (e.g., dancing) to more complicated

le
Q
actions involving more than t eligious rite) to even more complex
acts carried out by social orga (e.g., law- enforcement, education,
economic exchange). The life 6} the aggregate of such social acts.
tis
t i
« by way of-the social act that persons in society create their reality. The objects of the
social world (common objects such as clothes, furniture, tools, as well as scientific objects
R
such as atoms and electrons) are what they are as a result of being defined and utilized
within the matrix of specific social acts,”
Role-Taking and Role-Play

to
|
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1, Meaning: Roles are constellations of behaviors that are responses sets of behaviors of other |
human beings. |
* Example: A child plays at being a doctor by having another child play at being a patient.
Role playing involves taking the attitudes or perspectives of others. To play at being a
N
doctor, however, requires being able to anticipate what a patient might say, and vice versa. |
2. Taking Others Place: The process of role taking involves one person taking on the role of
another by imaginatively placing themselves in the position of the people with whom they are
KI
interacting.
e¢
Example: If a person observes another smiling, crying and waving hand, they will put
themselves in
that person’s position in order to interpret the intention and meaning. On the
basis of this interpretation they will make their response to the actions
3. Role Taking Important for Human Interaction: Human interaction can be seen as a
the other. of
continuous process of interpretation, with each taking the role of the other. In order for
interaction to proceed, each person involved must interpret the meaning and intentions of
PAPER
others. This is made possible by the existence of common symbols, but actually accomplished
by the means of
process that Mead termed ‘role taking’.
e Example: An individual may view someone shaking a fist as an aggressive action, but
their interpretation does not invariably lead to a response. They may ignore, reciprocate, or
laugh to
alleviate the situation. The other person will then take their position, interpret their
response, and decide whether to continue or end the interaction.
P
Self
1. The Self as Social Emergent: The self, like the mind, is a social emergent. This social
conception of the self, Mead argues, entails that individual selves are the products of social
N
interaction and not the (logical or biological) preconditions of that interaction.
2. Arise in Social Interaction: The self is something which has a development; is not initially
there, at birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity, that is, develops in
it
the given individual as a result of his relations to that process as a whole and to other:
EE
individuals within that process.
3.. Reflective Process: The self
it is the reflexivity of the self that “
is
a reflectiv CeSs i.e., “it is an object to itself.” For Mead,
from other objects and from the body.”
Through the process of role takj elop a concept of‘self, By placing’
themselves in the position of oth back upon themselves.
e Mead claimed that the idea op if the individual can ‘get outside
U
himself (experimentally) in su e an object to himself”. To do this they
must observe themselves from th thers. -
4. Types of Self:
Q
¢ Triandis mentioned Three
© Private Self: It includes
o Collective Self: It includes a gut self by a specific group such as family,

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o Public Self: It ng from generalized others

(“People usually pg
yovert’), “Ol
’
t can be easily bullied”).
us
¢ Markus and Kitayama discussed Two Types of Self:

Independent Self: It takes one’s own thoughts, feelings and motives to be the basis of
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one’s behavior. Interactions with others produce a sense of being autonomous, separate
or distinct.
oO
Interdependent self: The immediate referent is the thoughts, feelings, and actions of
is
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others with whom the person in relationship. It is a sense of self as connected to,
related to, or interdependent with others.
Development Of Self -- Imitation, Play Stage And Game Stage

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1. Role and Self Development: The development of the self is dependent

on learning to take the
role of the other. Role taking requires that we imagine how our behavior will be defined from
the standpoint of others (as in Cooley’s “looking-glass self’), For Mead, role taking occurs
throughout the developmental process by which the self is constructed and refined. This
process consists of three distinctive phases ~ imitation, play-acting and generalised other.
2. kmitation:
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¢ No Meanings: For the very young (infants), role playing is simply a matter of doing.what
others do (Imitation), without any meanings.
. Play Stage (Specific Other):
eet
Taking Role of Other: In play, the child takes the role of another and acts as
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though she were the other (e.g., mother, doctor, nurse and countless other symbolized
roles).
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Specific Other: This form of role-playing involves single role at a time. Thus, the other
which comes into the child’s experience in
play is a “specific other”.
Separate and Defined: In
the course of switching identities and imaginary conversations,
the self through play becomes both separate and defined. The child is learning to.see a
unique self from the various perspectives of other role players.
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Development of
Idea of Self: In doing so, they become aware that there is a difference.
between themselves and the role they are playing. Thus, the idea of a self is developed as.
the child takes the role of make-believe others.
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. Game Stage (Generalised Other):
Consideration and Awareness of Ot articipants: The next stage in the development
of self is known as the game sta
NETTIE
me, children see themselves through the
eyes of other participants. In 9 Jike football or cricket, children must
become aware of their relatio: ers. To understand their position in the
game, they must assume the ¢ themselves through the eyes of the
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other players. In Mead’s term emselves from the perspective of ‘the
Srrrerrrnnrrnenententceee
generalized other’.
Complex: The game involves a more complex form of role-playing than that involved in
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play. In the game, the individual is
required to internalize; not merely the character of a
single and specific other, but the roles of all others who are involved with him in the game.
He must, moreover, comprehend the rules of the game which condition the various roles.
Generalized Other: This configuration of roles organized according to the rules brings
the attitudes of all participants together to form a symbolized unity: this unity is the
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“generalized other”. The generalized other is

“an organized and generalized attitude” with
reference to which the individual defines her own conduct.
Development of Self: When the individual can view herself from the standpoint of the
generalized other, “self consciousness in
the full sense of the term” is
attained.
of
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Development Personality: In this stage a sense of values and moral develops. With
selfhood, a definite personality starts to emerge. Children are able to function in organised
groups and are able to determine what they will do with a specific group.
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Importance of Self
e Essential part of Human Society: According to Mead, the process of becoming a human
being requires the development of a
self-consciousness. It
serves as the foundation for human
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society as well as for thought and action.
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Necessary for Interaction: Without an awareness of self, the individual could not direct action
or respond to
the actions of others. Only by acquiring a concept of
self can the individual take
the role of self. Unless individuals are aware of the self, they will be unable to converse with
themselves and thought will be impossible.
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e@
Set Present and Future Course of Action: By becoming self-conscious, people can direct
their own action by thought and deliberation. They can set goals for themselves, plan future
action and consider the consequences of alternative courses of action.
@ Awareness: With an awareness of self, individuals are able to see themselves as others see
them. When they take the role of others, they observe themselves from that standpoint and
become aware of
the views of themselves that others hold.
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® Cooperation in Society: The self-awareness provides the basis for cooperative action in
society. Individuals will become aware of what is expected of them and will tend to modify
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their actions accordingly. They will be conscious of the general attitudes of the community,
and judge and evaluate themselves in
terms of this generalized other.
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Land Me
Mead defines the “me” as “a conventional, habitual individual,” and the “I” as the “novel reply” of
the individual to
the generalized other.
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1. I: ‘T’ is the ego, the self that is consciously self, the one we perceive as being our self as an
individual.
2. Me: ‘Me’ is
the self that is reflecte uur actions if we act as ‘Me’ then we are
doing what society expects from ¢ of time, we can also act ‘I’. as
3. Me and I in Ongoing Conver: ng conversation between the ‘I’ and
the ‘Me’, when we negotiate whd ind how we do At times we comply, it.
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at times we manipulate and at time: e rebellion takes the collective form of
the generalised others, then societ If and a different kind of conversation
ensues. dem. .
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4. Example: If Abhishek is playing opening ra cricket team, it may reflect on his
position, but he must be able to think about “himself in relation to the game, the otherplayers,
and the laws. This cognitive object is his (opening batsman) cricket self or "Me." "Me" a is
position Abhishek plays in the game as a whole, but this self doesn't inform us how any
particular play may be made. An opening batsman (Abhishek) how he reacts is not
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predetermined. How he reacts is always to some degree different from how he has reacted in
the past. These reactions or actions of the individual, whether in response to others or self-
initiated, fall within the “sphere” of the “I.”
I:
_
5. Characteristics of
¢ tis the immediate response of an individual to others. It is an incalculable, unpredictable

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and creative aspect of the self.

People are not totally aware of “I”, they know “T” in their memories
Every response that the “I” makes is somewhat novel. Its responses may differ only in
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small ways from previous responses, but they will never be exactly the same. Example:
No
catch ina cricket game is ever identical to a previous catch.
¢ Mead declares that, “The ‘I’ gives the sense of freedom, of initiative. The situation is there
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for us to act in a self-conscious fashion.

e The “T” is
a “source” of both spontaneity and creativity. The responses of the “I” are non-
reflective. How the “I” reacts is known only on reflection, that is, after we retrospect.
6. Characteristics of Me:
©
Itinvolves conscious responsibility. It is conventional and habitual.
¢ Society dominates individuals through “Me”.
¢ The self that arises in relationship to a specific generalized other is referred to as the “Me.”
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¢ The “Me” is
a cognitive object, which is only known retrospectively, that is, on reflection.
© The “Me” carries with it internalized responses that serve as a commentary on the “I's”
SS
actions.
e “” reacts and initiates action, but the actions taken are comprehended, objectified, as a
“Me.”
I Me
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Actual behavior Behaviour based on Society
OA
Un-Learned Learned
‘Immediate Response of an individual to others Adoption of generalised others and
called as social self
is also
it
Unpredictable and Creative aspect of the self
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Conventional and Habitual individual
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We are never totally aware of the I, we know it We are aware of Me
AAA
in_our memories
Initiates change Promotes Status-quo
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f
Storehouse of Novelty and Creativity Storehouse of Conformity
Lis the one who knows how something e is that feeling itself.
Lis the self as a subject. the self as an object.
Unsocialised ed
Follow its own path, not based on s societal rules and norms
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Culture, Social Roles and Institutions
1. Role based on Culture: Mead ac! cieties have cultures, and that these
cultures offer examples of suitable &
cial roles. For instance, a culture can

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dictate that a doctor's job should could endanger their patients.
2. Social Role and Institutions: Pe e in ways that are compatible with.’
both the required behavior a giv: in
social institutions such as the family
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3. Different Behavior in
roles does shape human
how they behave. Mead gave a number of reasons why this so: is
G
e Many cultural expectations are not specific. Society may, for example, demand that people
wear clothes, but there is usually considerable freedom as to which clothes to wear.
e Individuals have considerable choice as to which roles they enter: for example, they have
an element of choice in what job they do.
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e¢ Some social roles encourage a diversity of behavior: for example, fashion designers are
encouraged to develop novel designs.
e Society does not have an all-embracing culture. Subcultures exist and people can choose
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which of them to join.

e Many cultural meanings indicate possibilities rather than requirements. Thus symbol
‘chair’ suggests possibility that people can sit on it, but they are not compelled to do so.
e
it
Attimes may be impossible to act in accordance with a social role: for example, parents
may find themselves unable to care adequately for their children. In such circumstances
new and innovative behavior is necessary.
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Criticism of Mead
e No Account of Social Structure: Skidmore argues that interactionism consistently fails to
give an account of social structure.
© Neglecting Class Relations: Marxists argue that meanings which operate in face-to-face
of
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situations are largely the product class relationships.
e Vague: Meltzer criticized the vagueness of essential concepts such as mind, self, I and me.
e Ignoring Large Structure: Weinstein criticized Mead's tendency to downplay or ignore large
scale structure.
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TTT
©
Neglecting Emotions: Petras argued that Mead ignored the importance of factors such as
ESA
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unconsciousness and emotions.
¢ Hyper Optimism: Hamilton argued that Mead
reflective
is
overly optimistic about contemporary man's
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capacity for intelligence.
©
e
Ignoring Genes: He
is criticized for ignoring genetic influence on human attitude.
Lack of Historical Continuity: Mead’s analysis lacks historical continuity as he sees social
NENTS
activities as only discreet activities.
‘
Conclusion:
Mead provided a foundation for the de nteraction. He was a true pioneer of
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sociological tradition, which grew to b enet of the field, If one considers his. .
discussions, then one begins to see how Mead our biological endowments coupled with
our social skills could assist us in shaping ell aid us in making moral decisions.
ou
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NOTE: Similar concept-
Looking Glass Self Theo:
The term looking glass self was created : sSgist Charles Horton Cooley in 1902,
and introduced into his work “Human. Nature ial Order”. It is described as our reflection
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of how we think we appear to

others
Cooley takes into account thre
e Step one is how one ima
¢ Step two is how one imagines the judgment of others based on how one thinks they view them.
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¢ Step three is how one thinks of how the person views them based on their previous judgments.
According to Lisa McIntyre's The Practical Skeptic: Core Concepts in Sociology, the concept the of
looking-glass self expresses the tendency for one to understand oneself through the perception which
others may hold of them.
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UNIT 5: STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY
5.1 Concepts
5.1,1 Equality
Definition: Equality is about ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most
their lives and talents.
P
of
Basic Principles of Equality:

1. Basic Needs: Every individual has a right to
the satisfaction of his or her basic needs. Everyone
has a right to have equality in the judicial (equal right to be heard), socio-political (equal
N
_
representation rights, equal capacities) and socio-economic terms (equal rights to have
opportunities).
2. Respect: Every individual has a right to have equal respect, which implies opposition to any
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form of degrading treatment or
circumstances; ideally, a society based on fellow feeling.
3. Acceptance: There has to be acceptance of everyone
welcome sexual, racial, ethnic and religious differences.
in
the society and the society needs to be
Thinkers View on Equality:

Peter Saunders: He distinguishes betw
¢ Formal or Legal Equality:
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¢ Equality of Opportunity: all
compete for success and those
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e Equality of Outcome: resul
undermines equality of opport
Challenges to Ensure Equality:

@ Social Challenges: It is the differen
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brought about by power, religion, kinsh:

orientation, and class.
© Political Challenges: [
and can quickly receive
favours politically close bureaucrats.
G
e Economic Challenges: Unequal distribution of income and opportunity between different

groups in society. It is a concern in almost all countries around the world and often people are
trapped in poverty with little chance to climb up the social ladder. Marxists see economic
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inequality as the fundamental conflict in capitalist society.

e Educational Challenges: Unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not
limited to; school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies to
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socially excluded communities. Raymond Boudon has said such education perpetuates
inequality,
¢ Global Challenges: Globalization is a phenomenon that has brought lots of advantages, but
it’s also been a driver of inequality. One of the many effects of this has been to lower the value
of unskilled labour, right around the world, pushing wages for skilled workers and unskilled
workers in different directions.
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A
ae
E
NII
Solution to Ensure Equality:
e Social: Provide a greater voice to traditionally oppressed and suppressed groups through
SE
Na
political rights (reservation) and by enabling civil society groups.
@ Political: Equal consideration of the preferences and needs of all citizens is fostered by equal
political activity among citizens; not only equal voting turnout across significant categories of
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citizens but equality in other forms of activity.
e Economical: By ensuring universal access to public funded high quality services like public
PIC
health and education, social security benefits, employment guarantee schemes etc.
e Religious: There has to be equal freedom to various religious groups to individuals to follow
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their religious orders. Religious minority groups need special attention through representation
in government jobs, provision of institutional credit, improvement of
their education access,
protection of their human rights.
APIO
Women Empowerment: For gender equality policies like affirmative action by reserving
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@
NERF
Emma
seats in legislatures at all levels, removing wage gap, making education curriculum gender
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NUNN
sensitive, raising awareness about women rights, and changing social norms through schemes
RENAE
like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao etc.
@ Governance: Enforcement of antee of equality as enshrined in
fundamental rights. Articles 14, a scheme ofthe Constitutional Right
to Equality.
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Conclusion:
It is particularly significant given the fact th: iety that is battling against various kinds
ive
i
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of inequalities. The idea of equality seemgite,be:th cern of modern politics and political
thought and rightfully so.
5.1.2 Inequality
Definition: The Cambridge dictionary descri as “the unfair situation in society when
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some people have more opportunities, etc. than other people”. The United Nations describes it even
more simply as “the state of not being
Different Types of Inequality

eq
NVR hts:and opportunities”.

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4. Social Inequality: Social

inequality occurs when
resources in a given society
are distributed unevenly,
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typically through norms of

allocation, that engender
specific patterns along lines
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of socially defined
categories of persons such
as women, lower castes,
tribals ete.
_
5. Political Emequality: It is
the difference brought
about by the ability to access governmental resources which therefore have no civic equality.
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4
25
iin
6. Economic Inequality: It is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between
different groups in society. It is a concern in almost all
countries around the world and often
people are trapped in poverty with little chance to climb up the social ladder.
7, Natural Inequality: It is defined as that inequality for which society is not responsible by
- Virtue of previous actions and policies.
8. Technology Inequality: It can be a driver of income and wealth inequality because of its
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skills-bias nature.
9, Global Inequality: The economies of the world have developed unevenly, historically, such
TIE
that entire geographical regions were left mired in poverty and disease while others began to
reduce poverty and disease on a wholesale basis. Like Global South vs West.
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10. Dahrendorf: He refers to four types of inequality. They are:
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TRY
¢ In relation to individual:
554A
o Natural differences ofkind in features, character and interests,
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o Natural differences of rank in intelligence, talent and strength.
Correspondingly in relation to society:
ANNO
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o Social differentiation of positions tially“equal in rank
oe Social differentiation based o d wealth and expressed in a rank order of
social status.
Causes of Inequality
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icky
e Economic Factors: The gap betw joor in terms of share of national income
_
is quite large, and growing rapidly 88
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coyernment policies that favour the affluent
i
.
elite. The richest 10% of the global

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the poorest 50% got only 8.5% of
e Political Factors: Countries are nts are becoming poorer. The share
of privately owned wealth in natio hile that of public wealth (buildings,
universities, roads, hospitals etc.) is
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e Social Factors: Inequalities are not only dr

by other factors - gende
religion. These factors di
ney
and between countries. “ss
¢ Technological Factor: It is a key driver of aggregate economic growth, through productivity
G
improvements, but its contribution to economic growth varies greatly across countries.
Technology can also be a driver of income and wealth inequality because of its skills-bias
nature and because innovators can capture high rents.
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_@ Educational Factors: Unequal educational outcomes are attributed to several variables,

including family of origin, gender, and social class. For instance, students from economically
poor families are more likely to attend schools characterised by worse infrastructure, fewer
qualified teachers, less ambitious peers and outmoded pedagogical practices compared with
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those in more affluent areas.
Thinker’s View on Equality:

e Bourdieu: He employs the terms symbolic capital and distinction, to identify social groups
in
ITERATOR
who enjoy more prestige and honour society simply because they are endowed with more
symbolic capital reflected in their pattern of behaviour and taste.
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A
© GD Berreman: He suggests that out of differentiation of persons, which is a natural or
universal phenomenon, inequality or social evaluation of differences arises.
e Marx: He views difference-in the relationship with the factors of production as the source of
social inequality. He sees inequality as a source of social conflict and social change.
@ Rousseau: He believes that biologically based inequalities are small and relatively
P
unimportant, whereas socially created inequalities provide the major basis for systems of social
stratification.
e David Marsland: He sees ‘inequality as a desirable feature of society because it rewards
unequal effort and ability, and in doing so, creates incentives for people to work harder.
Dahrendorf: He observes social inequality lies neither in human nature nor the historically in
N
e
It
Seen
dubious conception of private property. lies rather in certain features of all human societies,
which are necessary for them. Differentiation of social positions in terms of the division of
labour or the multiplicity of roles is a universal feature of all societies.
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How to Reduce and Eliminate Inequality?
e Nordic Economic Model: This Model ists of effective welfare safety nets for all,
corruption-free governance, the ‘fund quality education and healthcare, high
taxes for the rich, etc. Paul Krug t Gatsby Curve” found out that Nordic
countries which have lower lev ve higher mobility.
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¢ Political Empowerment: is the It overty removal. People with political
agency will demand and obtain b althceare.
¢ Redistribution of Wealth: Giv me of wealth concentration, modest
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progressive taxes can generate sig
¢ Increasing the Reach of Basic g universal access to public funded
high quality services like Public ocial security benefits, employment
guarantee schemes, inequality can extent.
ft
e Employment Generation: Labour-i ufacturing has the potential to absorb

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millions of people who are

leaving farming.
ization (ILO) recommends that
i
©
Mitigating Wage Inequalities:
Phe
al
Labor
a minimum wage floor he needs of workers and their
families with broader ecofiomi¢ factors:
G
¢ Promoting Civil Society: Providing a greater voice to traditionally oppressed and suppressed
groups, including by enabling civil society groups like unions and association within these
groups. Anthony Giddens believes in CS’s potential to solve societal challenges and thus CS
must be strengthened.
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¢ Imbibing Gender Equality: There is a need to remove barriers to women’s full inclusion in
the economy, including through access to the labour market, property rights and targeted credit
and investments.
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Conclusion:
Social inequality results from a society organised by hierarchies of class, race, and gender that
unequally distributed access to resources and rights. It can manifest in a variety of ways, like income
and wealth inequality, unequal access to education and cultural resources, and differential treatment
by the police and judicial system, among others. Social inequality goes hand in hand with social
stratification.
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1
Socio-Economic Inequality in India due to COVID
¢ Education inequalities: Covid has led to a worsening of education inequalities, induced
labour market scarring, and exacerbated income inequality which in turn, is quite likely to
depress social mobility.
* Impact on Education: The ASER 2021 attests the fact that extended closure of schools and
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the shift to online modes of education has widened the learning gaps between children from
poor and affluent households.
© ..Deprived of mediums: Younger children from low-income households were more
deprived of mediums. of learning such as smartphones, tablets, internet etc. Moreover,
-
over a fourth of children in households with a smartphone could not access it.
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* Impact on Jobs: Since the onset of the pandemic, there has been a decline in labor force
participation in India, especially among the women labor-force.
© Unemployment Rate: In the same period, the unemployment rate.has risen from 7.5%
EE
to 8.6% which implies that among those looking. for those unable to find
Jobs jobs,
perhaps even at lower wages, have risen.
° Growing Casualisation: The gro “ casualisation” “contractualisation” of: the
or
workforce implies an absence productive jobs. :
:
©. Unpaid Labour of Wome omen, had to take on more hours of

housework and carework w rther financial marginalisation.
U
5.1.3 Theory Of Capital
Bourdieu introduced the
notion of capital, f particular assets put to productive use.
For Bourdieu, such assets could take vario
>.
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referring to several principal forms of
capital: economic,-symbolic, cultural-and
«:, Social Capital: For Bourdieu, “
capital is the sum of the resources. Economic Cultural
as a durable network of more or
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Financial and other Knowledge, tastes and

institutionalized relationships of mutual
tangible assets cultural dispositions
acquaintance and recogni
e@
Cultural. Capital: C :
Symbolic Social
refers to assets, ¢.g., >
enable
skills, qualifications, which
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Qualifications, honours Family, networks and

holders to mobilize cultural authority. and reputation relationships
For example, working class children
can come to see the educational success
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_
of their middle-class peers as always legitimate, seeing what is often class-based inequality as
‘instead the result of hard work or even ‘natural’ ability.
e Economic capital: It refers to material assets that are immediately and directly convertible
into money and may be institutionalized in the form of property rights’.
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e Symbolic Capital: It is another form of capital closely linked to social capital. is a sub-form It
that tends
to
legitimize actors’ social positions, as well as the separation of economic, cultural,
and social resources.
How is Cultural Capital related to Economic Capital for Bourdieu?

¢ Inheritance: He thought that when one possesses more
children to obtain more cultural capital. The
economic capital,
two capitals are in direct proportion.
it
is likely for their
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¢ Directly Proportional: As one's parents afford to pay the fee for his language classes, he is
therefore able to speak those different foreign languages. By acquiring those languages, he is
likely to get a well-paid job in the future. His parent’s economic capital “buys” him cultural
capital which you can exchange to a higher social status in society.
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Relations of the Three Capital
According to Bourdieu, all forms of capital are determined by class and social location and all are
convertible and transmissible. (Converted into other forms and transmitted between individuals)
Capital in the Bourdieusian sense is of paramount importance for the power relations that exist within
the social field.
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e¢
Relation 1: Economic capital can be
G) G)
—— .
transferred into cultural capital. Affluent
parents can financially support their kid to .
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acquire more skills or knowledge which
i
helps to boost his cultural capital. In return,

he is able to get a well-paid job that brings
j
power, status and a higher salary: i.e. omic capital.
ikely to gain acceptance and status in
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¢ Relation 3: Social networks canipros nities and therefore obtain economic
capital which can be
re-invested irk,
,
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3.1.4 Hierarchy :
Definition: Hierarchy refers to the rankin; roups based on the power, influence,
or dominance they exhibit, whereby som or subordinate to others. In general,
inequalities lead to stratification and whe are arranged in a particular order, it
leads to formation of
hierarchies.
R
Division of Functions:
1
ne oftis an
ded into units, and sub-units.
@ Form of a Pyramid: Rai vnof Paid
Sy
one below the other
Distribution of Authority: Authority is distributed to various levels based on ranking.
G
@
Proper Information Flow: It observes the principle of ‘through proper channel’. All
commands and communications should come through proper channels. No intermediate level
can be ignored.
N
© Principle of Unity of Command: A person receives orders only from one superior officer and
not from anybody else. This means the principle of unity of command observed.
e Authority and Responsibility are Adequately Combined: Authority without responsibility
is
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is dangerous, while responsibility without authority is meaningless. So, in hierarchical

organisations for example bureaucracy, authority and responsibility are combined with
particular positions.
Everyday Hierarchy Examples

¢ Caste Hierarchy: According to the religious old caste structure, at the top of the hierarchy
were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals. Then came the Kshatriyas, or
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the warriors and rulers. The third slot went to the Vaishyas, or the traders, who were created.
_
from his thighs and the last to Shudras. This hierarchical caste system is still prevailing in
modern Indian society in one form or other.
Class Hierarchy: Sociologists generally posit three classes - upper, working (or lower), and
middle. The upper class in modern capitalist societies is often distinguished by the possession
of largely inherited wealth.
P
/
Racial Hierarchy: It is a system of stratification that is based on the belief that some racial
groups are superior to
other racial groups. At various points of history, racial hierarchies have .
featured in societies, often being formally instituted in law, such as in the Nuremberg Laws
Nazi Germany, White supremacy over Blacks in America.
in
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Political Systems: In India, hierarchy starts at top with president, Vice president, and then .’
:
prime minister, then speaker of house, then cabinet minister, followed by the minister ofstate.
Family System: Family System also represents hierarchical systems. In the Indian family
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system, the top rank is occupied by the
patriarch or the person (basically male partner) who
earning more. Women and children occupy the last position in this hierarchy.
is
Thinker’s view on Hierarchy
CH Cooley: He states:that the lyVedic period appears to be an open
class system of stratification. T made it a closed system, resulting in
U
social hierarchy. :
Weber: His theory. of ideal bure

:
based on formal hierarchy. This enables.

bureaucracy to function efficiently tof inistrative tasks.
Q
Louis Dumont: Hierarchy is a system where normative principles
determine the utilitarian and inst affairs of the society. Caste system
in India
is
strictly hierarchical, i.e.
Dipankar Gupta: He elaborates thi
hierarchical. He. also believed that cas
R
to classless society. Acc
How
is Hierarchical RelationStratification:
influenced by Social Mobility?
in
G
‘No Change Social A person changes his or her occupation but the overall
social standing remains the same. Certain occupations like Doctor, Engineer, and Professor
may enjoy the same status but when an engineer changes his occupation from engineer to
teaching, he has horizontally moved from one occupational category to another.
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Change in
Social Stratification: Any change in the occupational, economic or political status
of an individual or a group which leads to change of their position. When a big businessman
meets with losses in his business and is declared bankrupt, he occupies a low status.
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Availability of Opportunities: One generation changes its social status in contrast to the
preceding generation. People of lower caste or class may provide facilities to their children to
get higher education, training and skills.
Differences in Occupational Status: Different occupations’ are hierarchically arranged
because the incumbent of these occupations gets different economic rewards and enjoys
different power, prestige and privileges based on the economic returns, authority and prestige.
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Conclusion:
Hierarchical societies show great deference and respect to power and authority. They believe in overt
manifestations of wealth and power, whereas more egalitarian societies will often intentionally try to
blur the power distinction.
3
5.1,5 Exclusion
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Definition: Social exclusion is a process by which Symptoms of exelusion
individuals or households experience deprivation,
either of resources such as income or of social links
to the wider community or society.
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Thinker’s view on Exclusion
¢ Haralambos: Exclusion refers to a situation
in which multiple deprivations prevent
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individuals from participating in’
important
areas of social activities. .
@
Mary Daly: She states that exclusigg
wider concept than poverty as
not only resource availability bu
it @
Weber: He saw it as a way of's

©
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Marx: He
saw alienation as dine 6
Merton: He speaks of self-exclus

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Ghurye: He speaks of self-exclus
Dimensions / Forms of Exclusion:

Dimensions Manifestations vo “
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Social °
Economic °
e
Legal/Political e Lack of access to democratic decision-making processes,
.... ,
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e Isolation from processes and_ structures” that facilitate inéreased

participation.
—_ Restricted citizenship rights.
Cultural/Moral | Stigmatization.
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e Exclusion from broad cultural practices, i.e. language.
Forms of Exclusion
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¢ Social: Intimidation is a major form of control used by men over other men and women. Verbal
abuse, sarcastic remarks, and threats of harm are the main means of intimidation, which
excludes people from enjoying their rights fully.
©
Geographical: It is generally observed that the so-called untouchables (Dalits) and even
minorities are residentially segregated from the mainstream society.
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|
—
Economic: Particular groups ate prevented from participating fully and equally in the
economic life of their city or metropolitan area. Manual scavenging works are mainly
concentrated by Dalits.
Political: Groups of people and politicians have been excluded from political participation on
the basis of religion, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class, and disability throughout the continent.
e Environmental: Climate change is deeply intertwined with global patterns of inequality. The
P
most vulnerable people bear brunt of climate change impacts.yet contribute least to the crisis.
Digital Exclusion: Unequal access and capacity to use information and communication
technologies (ICTs) that are seen as essential to fully participate in society.
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Consequences of Exclusion: ,
1. Social: The existence of social exclusion makes it difficult to achieve particular social
objectives, such’as reducing poverty and malnutrition, because there are often hidden barriers
to reaching those who are socially excluded.
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2. Economic: Exclusion from economic opportunities- well-paying jobs, easy credit etc.
amplifies existing vulnerabilities. For example, feminization of poverty. |
3. Political: Substantial evidence poi ion of marginalized and minority groups

from political decision-making as tolitical and civil conflict and instability,
which in turn affects democrati ion.
For example, the debate ov
¢
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to include in politics and who is
“{llegitimate” has sparked civi arious countries.
4. Discrimination in Assessing Oppo Wve seen technological discrimination a lot
during the'COVID-19 pandemic, ag
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home and follow classes online.
5. Social Skills: When excluded fro:
contact with people their age. This 8
in younger children.
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Nature of Social Exclusion

1. Systematic: Social ex
2.
is
Exclusion
practiced re; ess t oF thé
,
Social exclusion in most of the cases is found to be an inbuilt mechanism to

Structural:
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deprive a few of their social rights. The ‘untouchables’ in India, were excluded from doing /
many things, for example, entering temples, sharing food along with higher caste people, |
drawing water from public wells, receiving education on par with others, etc. as a matter of
|
caste rule. In Andre Beteille’s Caste: Old and New, he has talked about the new exclusionary
N
elites of society- English-speaking, urban, educated class.

it
.
3. Voluntary: Social exclusion is sometimes wrongly justified by the voluntary logic, is said
that the excluded group itself does not wish to participate.
KI
« Example: Upper caste Hindu communities have often denied temple entry to the people
from lower castes and specially the Dalits. After decades of such treatment the Dalits built
their own temple or converted to another religion like Buddhism, Christianity or Islam.
After this they may no longer desire to be included in the Hindu temple or religious events.
But this does not mean that social exclusion is not being practised.
¢ Example: Women in
Indian families are often excluded from decision making processes
and hence after some time, they themselves stop giving any suggestions.
:
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—
4. Involuntary: Social exclusion is practised regardless of the wishes of those who.are excluded:
In the case of the untouchables of India, for example, it is forced upon them. They are prevented
from having access to something desirable, say for
example, having access to’ education, or
riding horse in their weddings etc. :
How to Ensure Inclusivity?
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.
e Socially: By improving the terms on which individuals and groups.take part in society. -
improving the ability, and dignity of those disadvantaged on the. basis. of
their
opportunity,
i
identity. , :
e Economically: Everyone is able to participate in the paid and unpaid economy. Being active
N
within the paid economy confers social and financial benefits, such as an
stable employment. madequateincome and...
e
.
Politically: Every citizen, regardless of class, age, gender, sexual orientation, ability, group,
bos
culture and ethnic or religious background, should have an equal right and: opportunity to
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engage with and contribute to.the functioning of democratic institutions and processes.:.
¢ Educational: Inclusive systems ‘provide a better quality education. for all children.and. are
instrumental in-changing discriminatg
° Digitally; Access arid use.of info ation technologies impacts individuals
and the community as a whol elf is the tool.;A digitally inclusive
community is important to e development, civic. participation,
ecd
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education, healthcare, and public
How are Hierarchy and Exclusion the in the transformation of-society?,

Q
__
Hierarchy
¢ Promotes conflict: According s poverty: Socially excluded ‘
hierarchy results in conflicts. Cast® ple are often denied the opportunities
in India. dvailable to others to increase ‘their
Deviance: Merton writes that income and escape from poverty by their
R
Presence: 0
©
subcultures limits the p own ,efforts. So, even. though :the

communication whil grow and general income
chances of deviance; ay"rise, éxcluded
be
|
left behind:
peopleare
* Discrimination: Hierarchical system favors likely to
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higher or dominant classes and result into the ¢ Conflict and. Insecurity: Social
discrimination towards lower class people. exclusion is a leading cause of conflict
¢ Lack of Opportunity: Disapproves of the and insecurity in many parts of the world
‘equality of opportunity’ status of most|¢ Harder to achieve the Development
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democratic societies. Goals: Social ‘exclusion makes’ it

¢ Centralization of power: Hierarchical difficult to achieve the SDGs in some}
structures centralizes power and authority at countries without ‘particular strategies
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the highest levels possible. that directly tackle exclusion

* Presence of closed groups on higher strata |* Marginalization: It causes social stigma
of hierarchy also limits possibility of and, hence marginalization of the already
learning the ways of reference groups. deprived communities.
Conclusion:
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Society is not a static element. Hierarchy and Exclusion are some of the major obstacles in
transforming a society. For the transformation of a society, measures need to be taken to overcome
such impediments and problems attached with them.
Why Prolonged Exclusion Leading to a Reaction Against Inclusion?

Prolonged experience of discrimination and. insult underwent by an excluded group often compels it
(Ta P
to develop a reaction against inclusion. As a result, it may stop making attempts for inclusion. For
example, the denial of temple entry for the Dalits in India for decades together by the upper castes
may ultimately compel the Dalits to build their own temple, or to convert to another religion like
Buddhism, Christianity, or Isiam (as we have seen above too).
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Conclusion:
The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from
participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. This may
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result in resistance in the form of demonstrations, protests or lobbying from the excluded people.
5.1.6 Poverty
Definition: Poverty is a social condition by the lack of resources necessary for
basic survival or necessary to meet a ce iving standards expected for the place
where one lives.
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¢ The income level that determines rom place to place, so social scientists
believe that
and shelter.
it
is best defined by co e, like lack of access to food, clothing,
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e It’s a multidimensional phenome: ariety of factors. Its manifestation also
differs from context to context. I of economic, social, psychological,
cultural and political factors whic nce and persistence of poverty.
e People in poverty typically experi ger or starvation, inadequate or absent
education and heaith care, and are usually’ ated from mainstream society.
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Thinker’s view on Poverty

1. Sinclair and Eden: T air and Sir Frederick Eden
observe that poverty is a social problem.
Dependency theorists like AG Frank argue that poverty in the East is a result of
Frank:
G
2. AG
prosperity in the West.
3. Oscar Lewis: He terms it
the culture of poverty wherein the poor not only lack resources, but
also acquire a poverty perpetuating value system.
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4. Peter Townsend: He mentions three conceptions of poverty:

¢ Poverty as a Subsistence Issue: Inability to obtain the minimum necessities for
maintenance of merely physical efficiencies. Per capita calorie intake is the measure
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deployed.
* Poverty as an issue of Basic Needs (termed as multidimensional poverty by Amartya
Sen): A state where an individual lacks the necessary physical goods like clothing, shelter
-
and access to services like education, sanitation and healthcare. It is measured on the basis
of per capita consumption on such basic human needs a family. by
¢ Relative Deprivation - refers to lack of resources or social conditions when compared
with that of other members in the society.
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5. Merton: In modern societies, poverty is generally relative, of which Merton talks about in his
reference point theory.
6. Marx: He spoke of pauperization of the proletariat due to increasing mismatch between the
exchange value of labour and use value of labour. However, the functional perspective
endorses such inequalities and calls them a social necessity.
7. Functionalists like Herbert Gans: Poverty exists because
it
is rewarding for a majority of
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section who wants various kinds of menial services.
8. Feminist perspective: Poverty of women is often hidden behind poverty of households-
Ruspini. Feminization of poverty occurs due to low income, employment discrimination,
unpaid work etc.
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Causes of Poverty
1. Social Causes: Gender inequality, caste system, marginalization based on racé or tribal
affiliations are all economic and social inequalities that mean the same thing and they
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accentuate the poverty of particular sections.
2. Political Causes: Conflict is one of the most common forms of risk driving poverty today.
Large-scale, protracted violence that wee areas like Syria can grind society to a halt, -
destroying infrastructure and causig He.

3. Environmental Causes: Climag tger, whether through too little water
(drought) or too much (flooding ute to the cycle of poverty in several
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other ways including dispropo women, creating refugees, and even
influencing conflict.
4. Educational Causes: There are man’ tion around the world, including a lack
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of money for uniforms and books, @
5. Economical Cause: Without a joUjg: will face poverty. Dwindling access
to productive land (often due Wes jpulation, or climate change) and
overexploitation of resources like fi3it increasing pressure on many traditional
livelihoods. aie :
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6. Geographical Causes: Location of industries and other resources also impact poverty level.
Rural areas are poorer b@@asf AVALMDIIRY, of Hesofitcog industries.
Or
LAS
offi
Types of Poverty
Types ofandPoverty
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(Social Economical Political Aspects)

|
| I I T T 1
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Situational Generational Absolute Relative Rural Urban

Poverty Poverty Poverty Poverty Poverty Poverty
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Sacial Aspect Economical Aspect Political Aspect

1. Economic Aspect:
e Absolute Poverty: Also known as extreme poverty or abject poverty, it involves the
scarcity of basic food, clean water, health, shelter, education and information. Absolute
Poverty is usually uncommon in
developed countries.
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¢ Relative Poverty:It is defined from the social perspective that is living standard compared
to the economic standards the population living in surroundings. Hence, it is a measure
of
of income inequality.
2. Social Aspect:
¢ Situational Poverty: It is a temporary type of poverty based on occurrence of an adverse
event like environmental disaster, job loss and severe health problem.
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¢ Generational Poverty: It is handed over to
individuals and families from one generation
to the next. This is more complicated as there is no escape because the people are trapped
in its cause and unable to access the tools required to’ get out of it. :
3. Economical Aspect: :
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¢ Rural Poverty: Rural areas have less job opportunities, less access to services, less support
for disabilities and quality education opportunities.
¢ Urban Poverty: Urban areas have some major poverty challenges like:
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3° Limited access to health and education.
Inadequate housing and services.
Violent and unhealthy environment because of ‘overcrowding,
oo°0
Little or no social protection me
Different Theories on Poverty

‘L Stratification Perspective: Accé ry, stratification results from lack of
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opportunity and discrimination ag ople of color: It is neither necessary nor
inevitable. For instance, toa confli wrong that a basketball player is paid
facher earns $35,000 a year.
1s
millions for an annual contract while

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Cultural Perspective: Oscar
shortcomings, but an outcome of
The lower class is seen as mia
characteristically different from th ant society and culture. These unique
intergenerationally through socialization and
t
patterns of behavior and values are transmit
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have become the

sub-cultyral determinants
Peron
lower socio~ economic status of the poor.
of ¢
Poverty and Power ilibandp 1 is lack of power. And that

lack of power ais
direct % ing 166" muioh’
power ultimately too much
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control over resources. Wealth comes from exploitation of people and the planet’s resources.
-
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Feminist Perspective: Poverty is gendered and whether women have lesser access to
resources in comparison with men. It is becoming clear that women, because of their being
women especially in rural households have suffered massive marginalization in almost every
sphere of life in developing countries.
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Dependency Theory: Poor nations have remained poor because they have been exploited by
rich nations and by multinational corporations according to scholars like AG Frank,
Wallerstein.
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e¢
Example: The poverty of poor nations stems from their colonization by European nations,
which exploited the poor nations’ resources and either enslaved their populations or used
them as cheap labour:
is
Situational Perspective: There the alternative situational or structural perspective according
to which the poor aré viewed in a very different light. Granting that the poor do manifest a
statistically unique pattern of behaviour, the situationist argues that these derive not internally,
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generated by the unique values of the poor, but rather externally, as the inevitable consequence
of their occupying unfavourable position in a restrictive social structure.
SOCIOLOGY OF POVERTY: FUNCTIONALIST AND CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES
Functionalism and Poverty
P
1. Definition: Functionalists view society as if it were a machine, that singular aspect of society
(ie. social structure) performs .a function that is
indispensable to the smooth running of society.
Hence, any ‘dysfunction’ of any‘aspect of society is a deviation from the norm and hence will
need to be fixed.
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2. Proposed by: Proposed by. 19th-century French sociologist Emile Durkheim every aspect or
structure in society performs a function in society. Later, Merton said that the function can
be either a latent or a manifest function. Manifest functions are the intended consequences of
a social structure, while latent functions are unintentional.
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3. Significance:
¢ Smooth Functioning of Society: On the surface, poverty appears to be a dysfunction,
however, according to Durkheim, ue stating instead that poverty or social
inequality is necessary for the f society.
9f
e Perspective on Social Str to the David-Moore thesis, social.

stratification and as extensio because it-performs
a
(latent) function
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and not a disfunction, The ex’ on is based on occupation means that
individuals will strive towards 6 st suit them, as well as occupations that
offer the most benefit to society, a at bring about the most rewards.
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4. Criticism:
¢ Ignore Other Factors: The mi of this theory is that it does not take
.into consideration how. other rs; such as race, gender, access to

education, generational wealth,
class one falls into.
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¢ Non-Consistent: Oftentimes the relationshi between social benefit and socio-

economic
reward is not cons t
entertainment, for ex! f
do they offer a societal reward greater than teachers.

of
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¢ No Measurement Social Benefit: It does not offer an absolute manner by which one
can measure societal benefit, nor is the correlation between complexity and income always
positive.
o Example: A teacher who specializes in educating individuals with learning disabilities
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has more educational requirements, but will ultimately work with fewer people. There
is no way to say whether this implies that a teacher who specializes in this field offers
greater societal benefit than a general teacher.
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Conflict Theory and Poverty

1. Definition: Proposed by Marx and Engels, conflict theory is the sociological theory that looks
at society in terms of a power struggle between groups within society over limited resources,
under a post-industrialised capitalist society. These resources are the modes
2. Use of Conflict Theory:
production. of
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er
ee
IT
¢ Stratified Society in Have and Have-nots: Here the two competing groups are the
proletariat (the working class) and the bourgeois (the capitalist class). One is the owner and
the otheris the worker.
© Social Conflict: Marx states that both classes are in regular conflict because of their relation
ere
to the means of production. The conflict between these classes is the central conflict in
society and the source of social inequality in power and wealth.
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3. Significance:
¢ Benefit only a Small Section: Unlike functionalism’s viewpoint of class stratification and
poverty being necessary to society, conflict theory argues the opposite. Stating instead that
social stratification does not benefit society as.a whole but instead only a small section- the
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bourgeoisie.
SOU
e Cause of Class Stratification: class stratification is caused by a lack of opportunity that
an individual is born into. Implying that individuals are either born into the bourgeoisie or
i
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the proletariat class.
EERE
TEEN
4, Criticism: Its emphasis on a two--group system, which is a system that is continually losing
TRAIN
relevance. For example, there are many small business owners, who according to Marx would
ERENT
be considered part of the bourgeoisi ndard living and power (especially when
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it comes to
influencing the super line with the working class.
Feminization of Poverty
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1. Definition: Feminization of po nd of increasing inequality in living
standards between men and women ing gender gap. This phenomenon largely
EEEEEEEEERmmeenNRONNENTNNNTEETELanar
links to how women and childre onately represented within the lower
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socioeconomic status community ithin the same socioeconomic status.
}
2. Causes:
e Single Mother Households? seholds are critical in addressing
feminization of poverty and can s households in which there are female
headships and no male headships.
R
e Employment: Employment oppo, ities are limit d

for
women worldwide. As per
ai vomen's employment, the quality
“Hewejobs such as textile/leather
:
Pr
work j the beauty

manufacturing or gig in sector can be highly exploitative with no job
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security or social security benefits.

¢ Sexual Violence: Poverty as a consequence lead to increase in trafficking of the teenage
gitls and women. Women who are impoverished and socially deprived, or at other
disadvantages are more susceptible to being recruited into trafficking.
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e Shifting Occupations of Men: As men migrate to

cities for better jobs, women are left to
handle agriculture/livestock/small scale manufacturing etc. which are not as remunerative
leading to feminization of agriculture.
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¢ Education: Women and girls have limited access to basic education in developing
countries. Strong gender discrimination because of patriarchy and social hierarchies in
society are the major causes.
¢ Climate Change: Women are more likely to face poverty by natural disasters and extreme
weather events than men. There is evidence to suggest that when households experience
food. shortages, women tend to go without so that their children may eat.
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Femonomies:
e In
addition to earning less, women may encounter "Femonomics" gender or
of money, to reflect many of the inequalities women face that increase their likelihood of
suffering from financial difficulties. Women are more likely to be financially illiterate and
thus have a harder time knowing how to manage their money.
_~
* Health: Gender inequality in society prevents women from utilizing care services and
eee
at
therefore puts women risk of poor health, nutrition, and severe diseases.
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e Women as a Solution to Poverty: Women are
expected to maintain the household as well
as lift the family out of poverty, responsibilities which can add to the burden of poverty
that females face in developing nations.
3. How can Feminization of Poverty be eradicated?
N
e By Practising Equity: Feminization of Poverty can be eradicated by practising equity,
presenting resources for the woman, practising gender equality in terms. of pay which has
the main impact on what kind of life a woman is living.
It
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¢ Attitude of Opposite Gender: is needed that along with women, men should voice their
(female) problems and encourage others to bring the change, it is need of the hour to
understand patriarchy from a woman
e Social Awareness: Deeply rootg
roles need to be addressed ands
¢ Structural Changes at Wo
safe work environment, crec
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e Family Support: Sharing of
equal opportunities for educati
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© More Effective Programs a
designed for disadvantaged wé
therefore more effective ways
used effectively for the empow
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Conclusion:
If poverty in a societyis sharply
would still
be a feminization o
specific poverty drivers is the n
COVID Induced Poverty
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Global Scenario:
¢ Poverty Rate: The global poverty rate has increased to 10.4% in 2020, after witnessing a
steady decline over the years. It was previously expected that the poverty rate would decrease
N
to 8.7% in 2020.
¢ Poor Class: The number of
‘global poor’ are estimated to have increased to 803 million in
2020, which isa significant increase from 672 million, the pre-pandemic prediction.
Middle Class: From 2011 to 2019, the middle class population globally had increased to
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*
1.34 billion from 899 million. Further, it was expected to increase by 54 million annually on
average. This population has felt the biggest burden of Covid induced poverty.
e South Asia: South Asia saw the greatest reduction in the number of middle class and the
largest ‘expansion’ in poverty in 2020. This could be attributed to South Asia experiencing
a sharp decrease in economic growth during the pandemic.
Indian Scenario:
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* Poverty Rate: The poverty rate in India likely rose to 9.7% in 2020, up sharply from the
January 2020 forecast of 4.3%.
¢ Increased Poverty: From 2011 to 2019, the number of poor in India was estimated to have
reduced to 78 million from 340 million. In 2020, the number increased by 75 million.
¢ Reduced Middle Class: The middle class in India is estimated to have shrunk by 3.2 crore
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in 2020.
e Shrinked Low Income Group: This group shrank from 119.7 crore to 116.2 crore, with
about 3.5 crore dropping below the poverty line.
5.1.7 Deprivation
N
.
“Deprivation” is one of the concepts closely associated with the discussions of social inequality.
Sociological analysis defines deprivation broadly as inequality of access to social goods. It includes
poverty and wider forms of disadvantage. It
refers to denial of access to resources required for self-
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development and fulfilment of basic necessities. Resources can be social, economic and cultural and
basic necessities vary from one culture to another.
Thinker’s view on Deprivation:

e Pierre Bourdieu: Deprivation
i
cial, cultural, symbolic and economic
capital. It is a broader phenome
r
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© Robert K Merton: He mentions other form of deprivation. In society,
relative deprivation always remai
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Two types of Deprivation: Relative De te Deprivation a
Dimensions Relative So Absolute .
Definition In this case, i It means the loss or absence of the

something compare th ¢ means to satisfy the basic: needs
whohave it,
and in so ense for survival - food, clothing and
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of deprivation. shelter etc. :
Limits inal It gan,threaten one’s very survival.
Measurement asures poverty in a. given

benchmarks. For example poverty level of country.
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Bihar w.r.t. Kerala.

Impact Relative deprivation often contributes to It is a potentially life-threatening
the rise of social change movements, such situation that occurs when income
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as the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. falls below a level adequate to

maintain food and shelter.
Indicators of Deprivation:
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¢ Underdeveloped Nature of Economy: There is a set of common characteristics of

underdeveloped economies such as low per capita income, low levels of living, high rate of
population growth, illiteracy, technical backwardness, capital deficiency, dependence on
backward agriculture, high level of unemployment, unfavourable institutions and so on.
¢ Overpopulation: Even if the national income increases, the per capita income remains the
same due
to an increase in population.
Unequal Distribution: Large inequalities in the ownership of earning assets such as land,
buildings, industry, -ete.
Low level of Productivity in Agriculture: Agricultural growth contributes to wider growth
and poverty reduction, to what degree is. dependent on the changes in productivity and the size
of farms. Increases in land and labour productivity can be central to pro-poor growth.
Regional Disparity: Because of regional disparities, the regions develop at a different pace.
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For example, economic development is much faster in states like Punjab. Haryana.
Maharashtra than in Bihar, Orissa and other north-eastern regions.
Causes of Social Deprivation:
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Social: Social deprivation is included in a broad network of correlated factors that contribute
to social exclusion; these factors include mental illness, poverty, poor education, and low
socioeconomic status.
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Economic: Economic deprivation induces psychological distresses. such as depression,
anxiety, and parental stress, due to the strain of having fewer resources available for day-to-
day living.
Political: Loss of power is associa f opportunity and political voice, which -
restricts participation in the com

Technological Divide: It create
modern information and comm
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restricted access.
Consequences of Social Deprivation:

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Social: Some traditional societies
that also leads to multiple depriva
Economie: Due to denial of access for self-development and fulfilment
..
of basic necessities lead to poverty in
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Political: Exclusion from the political right as a consequence of activities carried out under
the state regime. For exag lack of-politieal voice etc.
Conclusion:
Deprivation is a broader phenomenon than poverty. When compared to exclusion, deprivation is of
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resources, exclusion is from social participation. One may face deprivation despite relatively good
economic conditions.
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5.2 Theories of Social Stratification

1. Meaning: Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social
standing. Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings
based on factors like wealth, income, education, family background, and power.
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e All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality.
Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to
rank higher than others.
e Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more
or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”
2. Sub Process of Social Stratification:
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¢ Differentiation of Statuses: Status differentiation is the process by which social positions,
such as father, mother, teacher and employer, are defined and distinguished from one
another by assigning to each a distinctive role—a set
of rights and responsibilities.
e Ranking of Statuses: Statuses can be ranked on three criteria:
o Personal characteristics such as intelligence, beauty or strength;
0 Trained skills and abilities such as manual dexterity, knowledge of law, command over
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language etc.; and
© Consequences or effects upon others and upon society. Actors provide entertainment,
judges ensure justice, policemen preserve order.
¢ Evaluation of Statuses: It involves assigning to various statuses different places on a scale
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of value or worthiness. Several different kinds of evolutional judgments, such as
superior/inferior, better/worse, more/less need to be distinguished. .
¢ Rewarding of Statuses: Rewarding involves the allocation of various amounts of the good
in
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things life to statuses which have been differentiated, ranked and evaluated. In every
society there are rules or norms that determine how rewards will be distributed.
Principle of Stratification:
Mass Phenomenon: Stratificati Myved upon the whole community of a
society. It does not represent ary society. For example in India Hindu
a
gy, it is a collection of so many. people

religion is not used for a partic
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altogether. _
Universal: There is no society in h is free from stratification. Modern

stratification differs from stratifi societies.According to Sorokin “all
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permanently organized groups are;
Ancient: The stratification systert st all the ancient civilizations, the
differences between the rich and po ful existed. During the period of Plato
and Kautilya even emphasis was givelig Maiasesocial and economic inequalities.
Differential Effect: Although Stratification it
is a level of effects and
R
is global phenomenon,
happenings in a different g
Combination of Belief: i bination of beliefs and norms

which has occupied peopie*s rififids"frd
he ihaliality is not anybody’s agenda
but having beliefs different from others makes Stratification come into account.
G
Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences:

one is “life chances” and another is “lifestyle”. A class system not only affects the “life-
chances” of the individuals but also their “lifestyle”.
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How is Society Classified or Stratified?

° Economic Condition: There has always been a barrier between rich and poor people. The
amount a man earns tells his power in society.
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Social Class: It is a classification which is done both based on economy and caste. It is
popularly followed in
India.
Gender: It
is a basis of classification from the ancient times where for a long time male society
was dominated by women,
Religion: Every man his/her religion, but this is also a basis of stratification for a long
has
time. In India, although it is said that it is a unity in diversity kind of country, on several
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occasions, people can be seen. differentiating other religions openly. For example, the beef ban
has become a-hot topic because of the religion issue involved.
¢ Social Network: It-is a phenomenon which is generally observed
them the most powerful.
in
elite people. They have
connections with other high-class-people making
Two Systems of
Stratification: Open and Closed
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Open System Closed system
It
_-
It is.a system in which stratification. is. done This system can be linked with Ascribed Status.
based on merit. Achieved status can be is a-system which has given power to individual
linked to this
system. voy se, +, based. on. his/her birth. Stratification isindone on
N
_|_ parental influence, or position of parents society.
Mass of the system will vary with time.

|
Can exchange matter with the sumrounding. Cannot exchange matter with the surrounding.
Mass ofthe system is constant.
-|
Have boundaries which are not closed: »:,| Boundaries-are completely closed.
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Modern Society. | Caste System
we .:i.
5.2.1 Functionalist Theory of Stratificati
Functionalist theories of stratification ex) hin the context of wider conceptions of
society. They assume that society need: ctional prerequisites to survive. They
look at social stratification. to. see. if it, nditions. According to them, social
U
systems need order and stability to functi w social stratification maintains order
and stability. . .
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Basic Assumptions:
¢ Stratification is Universal: The fact that all societies are stratified.
_¢ Functionality: In other words, all’ ut by the various members of society
are functional for its
survival but thy
e Functional Prerequisites: The functiona ories of stratification attempt to explain how
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social inequalities occur and wh: they_are necessary. for society. The functionalists presume
that there are certain basi |§ e to,be met or
else there will
‘prerequisites.
_
be instability in society.
e Ranking: Functional prerequisites are ranked according to the importance that is granted to
G
them in that society. The people who perform these, functions are also regarded as superior to
others, i.e. those below them.
does not mean equality. It means thatall the different
e Integration but Inequality: Integration
groups together contribute towards stability but they do so because they are stratified in a
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hierarchy.
5.2.1.1 Talcott Parsons — Stratification and Values

:
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1. Introduction: Parsons saw social stratification as both inevitable and functional for society.
¢
systems,
it
Itis inevitable because derives from shared values which are a necessary part of all social
¢ functional because it serves to integrate various groups in society.

Itis
2. Value Consensus: According to Parsons, stratification systems arise from shared values.
Parsons believed that order, stability and cooperation in society are based on value consensus,
a general agreement by members of society concerning what is good and desirable.
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3. Ranking based on Value Adherence: In
any society, those who follow social values are better
rewarded. Parsons says incentives rely on what a community considers superior, Rajputs
traditionally valued bravery and valour. Those who displayed these abilities were praised and
promoted.
4. Punishments: In case a person violates the social values he or she is punished. Hence
society which places greater values on bravery a person who shows traces of cowardice will
a in
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lose rank.
5. Different Societies having Different Value Systems: Because different societies. have
different value systems, the ways of attaining a high position will vary from society to society.
Parsons argued that American society values individual achievement.and efficiency, and ‘puts
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primary emphasis on productive activity within the economy.
6. Stratification is Inevitable: Parsons's argument suggests that stratification is an inevitable
part of all human societies. oo os os
7. Stratification is Just: The stratification system is seen as being just, right and proper for
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maintaining order and stability. This enables different people to get different rewards.
8. Inequality in Power: Parsons argued that inequalities of power are based.on shared values.
is accepted as such because those in pg
It
hority use their power to pursue collective
goals that derive from societies ce
9. Check on Value System: Confli those who are rewarded and those who
are not rewarded, but this does ni system because it
is kept in check by
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the value system.
10. Functional for the Society: Complé jeties have specialized groups. No group
can meet its members' demands by ‘change commodities and services with
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other groups, so their relationshi al give and take). This relationship
extends to the strata in a stratific:
Criticism: ‘
e Beck and Baudrillard visualise that fu ‘atification is no longer valid as inequalities
oe
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are now individualised and

e Justification of
no
clear strata exists.
iis jo
¢ Jonathan Turner says m illegitimate teleologies.
5.2.1.2 Davis-Moore Theory

G
Introduction: Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore developed functionalist stratification theory. Both
were Talcort Parsons's students. They. explained their view in "Some Stratification Principles." Their
views are referred to as the functionalist theory of inequality.
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Basic Propositions:
¢ Functional Importance wrt Position: Every civilization has functionally significant
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positions. These jobs are well-paid and prestigious. A position in the Indian administrative
service is prestigious.
¢ Merit and Talent limits the Number: Few people have the abilities to perform these
positions. In the IAS exams, thousands appear, but only a handful pass.
e Rewards based on Training and Efforts: These jobs usually demand extensive training.
People who get these posts must sacrifice. Certain professions, such as medicine, engineering,
and chartered accountancy, require years of extensive, expensive training. According to Davis
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and Moore, this requires sacrifice and they should be compensated financially and socially for
their sacrifice.
Main Features: ‘
1. Functional Prerequisites: Davis and Moore support Parson’s view that the basis of the
existence of societies in order and stability. All societies have their own functional
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prerequisites which help them survive and operate effectively.
2. Effective Role Allocation and Function: One important. Functional Prerequisite is role
allocation, it has 4 different aspects:
e All roles must be filled: - All societies have different types of occupations, like
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industrialist, teacher, doctor, farmer etc. These occupations are necessary for their
existence.
e They must be filled by those best able te perform them - a doctor’s position cannot be
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taken by a person who herself is unaware of any medical knowledge.
© The necessary training for them must be undertaken - there must be proper training to
develop and expertise in the allotted role
¢ The roles must be performed consé
in the field, but if he does not
as a person maybe trained -and
ication the system will suffer.
the best is
3. Social Stratification as Selecti and Moore say all societies require a
the
way to identify and promote
U to them, thie most effective way to do
this is through social stratificatio
4. Efficient Functioning: Stratificatior gives various social classes’ differential
rewards and privileges. If everyone ards, nobody will work harder. Peopie
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may avoid responsibility or challe, erefore stratification is necessary for
the efficient functioning of the sys
5. Benefits of Unequal Rewards: o benefits. It motivates people to fill
certain positions. People work hard gher-paying jobs. Second, the benefits
ato motivate the selected to improve further.
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must be unequal even after the position is

6. Value Consensus: The most condition for such a system to survive is that there is
social consensus on the
of occupations in terms
CN] fa t ogcy atidns’ This means that the ranking
rNbityis Med on the’value Consensus of that society.
7, Functional Importance: Davis and Moore realized their theory had trouble identifying the
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most essential positions. High-paying jobs aren't always functionally important. They proposed
two techniques to quantify a position's importance:
¢ Degree of Importance: It's measured by the ‘degree to which a position is functionally
unique, with no other positions performing the same job satisfactorily’. Doctors are
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functionally more important than nurses because they have many of the abilities needed to
be a nurse but not vice versa.
¢ Degree of Dependency: The second measure of relevance is
‘how much other positions
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depend on it'Thus, managers are more crucial than normal office personnel, who depend
on management for direction and organization.
§.2.1.3 Criticism:
1. MM Tumin
¢ Functional Importance: Tumin questioned the functional value of positions. Davis and
Moore assumed the highest-paid jobs were the most important. According to Tumin, many
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A
ee
ee
vocations that offer little reputation or cash reward are important to society. Example?
aft
Nr
°
Farming.
¢ Power and rewards: Tumin contended that Davis and Moore neglected the power behind
unequal rewards. Differences in income and status.may. be attributed to power rather.than
function. In India, organized workers are higher paid and have greater social security than
eee
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unorganized workers. This is because unionized workers have more bargaining leverage
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than non-unionized workers, who have less protection.
¢ The pool of talent: Davis and Moore assumed that few people have the talent to learn the
skills for functionally significant jobs. Tumin doubted this for two reasons.
o Aneffective method of measuring talent and ability has yet to be devised.
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o The pool of talent in society may be considerably larger than Davis and Moore
enna
assumed. As a result, unequal rewards may not
be necessary to harness it.
¢ Training: Tumin criticizes the justification’ of higher pay for’ occupations requiring more
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training. He contends that training isn't a sacrificé because individuals obtain new abilities
‘SESE
and information. Such gains are disproportionate to training sacrifices.
* Motivation: Davis and Moore say unequal pay motivates smart people to take functionally
vital jobs. According to Tumin. fication might hinder talent motivation and
recruitment. Lower-class per. challenges that can discourage rather
than drive them. This is re for those from lower socioeconomic
levels to leave school earlier
U classes. ;
¢ Artificial Barriers: Tumin st core didn't examine the potential that

f
highly rewarded posts hinder
positions to increase demand f
Q
¢ Inequality of opportunity: ‘I
and Moore ascribed it by natu born into lower strata cannot enjoy
the same opportunities as thosd -In India, where social inequality is
high, it's hard for a poor person's ‘a better education.
Social divisions: Tumin doubted th:

R
¢ | stratification integrates society. He said

" i
uneven rewards can Spicion, and ¢distrust”.
2. Ralf Dahrendrof: He o rig) ates trom the closely related trinity of
norms, sanction and powé gidity“0f
functional theories of Davis and Moore and others.
the cis est
cannot be explained through
G
Alvin Gouldner: Stratification is not inevitable as Davis and

Moore predicted and criticizes
ad
them for providing a

justification for social equalities.
Conclusion:
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All societies have stratification: Every society has a hierarchy. Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis, and
Wilbert Moore questioned how people hold distinct roles and why we need
them.
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5.2.2 Neo Leiberal Theory Of Stratification

Meaning: This approach is based on 19th-century liberalism, which viewed the free market in
capitalist countries as the greatest way to organize society. Competition spurs innovation and
efficiency. Businesses must create cheaper or
better products to
thrive. Individuals’ spending, selling,
and buying decisions drive free market economies, promoting individual liberty. Neoliberal
sociologists believe excessive state intervention in the economy should be avoided. The.government:
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shouldn't redistribute resources or meddle with the market. They suggest that the free market go hand
in hand with innovation and freedom.
Peter Saunders - Stratification and Freedom

1. Stratification in Inevitable: Peter Saunders
stratification
is less critical than Tumin on Davis and Moore's
hypothesis. He points out that, even Tumin admits that all societies have been
P
;
stratified; there has never been an equal society. Saunders also thinks that unequally rewarded
positions can motivate people to work hard.
2. Social Order: Saunders thinks a society where all occupations are compensated equally in
material resources and formal status would have problems. Others wouldn't put in the effort
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needed to accomplish their jobs well. Saunders believes that without economic rewards and
consequences, the only sanctions. would be physical force.
3. Stratification of Economic Basis in i
Desirable not Inevitable: Saunders does not argue that
unequal rewards are the. only way ‘that a society can fill the important positions with capable
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‘people, Saunders rejects, the functionalist argument that economic inequality is inevitable. He
agrees that they're desirable, nevertheless.
_
4. Differential Treatment of People: at efforts to achieve equality of outcome

undermine equality of opportuni To achieve equality of outcome, you
must treat people differently. F ve action’ or ‘positive discrimination’
programs.
U
5. Inequality promotes Economic inequality is justified since it fosters
economic growth. Allowing and el nterest enhances societal interests.
6. Benefits of Capitalism:
Q
e Saunders believes competitiog
_
‘Meritocracy,
¢ Capitalism is dynamic because
will hinder initiative, creativity,
%
¢ Competition raises product quality UWers prices, making them accessible to more
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people.
e Capitalism generate for all backgrounds.
7, Opportunity and Inequality: the apparent inequality of
opportunity between classes in capitalist societies may be due. to the unequal distribution of
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ability and effort.

¢ Genetically Inherited Ability: According to Saunders, children from middle-class
families ought to be more successful than those from working-class families since they
have more genetically inherited talent and work harder. Considering this, it's not surprise
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that middle-class children receive better employment and more salary than working-class
children. °
8. Capitalist vs Socialist: He admits that capitalist countries are more unequal and the socialist
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societies are more restrictive than capitalist ones in enforcing responsibilities.
Criticism:
®
Playing Down of Harmful Impacts: Neoliberals may downplay stratification's impact on
social cohesiveness and integration.
¢ Generalizing Socialist Society: Saunders’ claim that socialist countries are more restrictive
than capitalist ones is a broad generalization.
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¢ Meritocracy Thesis: Swift and Marshall evaluated Saunders’ meritocracy argument. They
doubt that markets reward merit. Even when education was considered, class affected social
mobility, Even with the same degree of education, people from working-class families had less
chance ofjoining the upper classes. aa
criticized Saunders’ idea that class distinctions
:
© Genetic Consideration: Marshall and Swift

are genetic, Working-class people with degrees were nevertheless disadvantaged by class.
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e State Intervention: The free market doesn't ensure merit for all social groups. State
intervention to make job allocation merit-based may increase social justice.
5.2.3 Karl Marx View on Stratification
N
Through ‘Historical Materialism,’ Karl Marx offered a radical challenge to old perspectives. Marx
viewed social progress as class conflict and social stratification was central to his analysis. Marx
believed that social groupings’ ties to the forces of production determined stratification. Marx called
the main layers in all stratification systems "class." He saw stratification as divisive rather than
EE
integrating structure, but yet as necessary for social evolution. . :
¢ Historical Epochs: Marx believed that Western sociéty had developed through four main:
epochs: primitive communism, anci society and capitalist
vilization produced more for human
society.
‘e Division of Labour: As human
"survival. The community product as it grew. A surplus allowed people
to diversify their activities, leadi
U
e Control over Means of Production: |
gained control of production by exclud

roperty changed everyone's interests.
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¢ Different Interests and Formatiogf@f
These disparities contribute to th There is a ruling class and a subject
es.
class inall stratified societies. Mai inder industrial capitalism. The wage-
paying capitalists (Bourgeoisie) ari etariat).
© Dependency and Conflict: Marxists s sses as interdependent and in
conflict. Thus,
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bourgeoisie and proletariat are interdependent in capitalism. Wage labourers must sell their
to offprétuegign. They depend on
;
labour survive becaus capitalists

for their wages. As nonrgt alistsgpepend orkers' labour since without
The two mutual isn't symmetrical or
;
it, there would be no production. classes’ dependence

connection. The ruling class earns at the
equal; it's an exploiter-exploited, oppressor-oppressed
G
subject class's expense, causing a conflict of interest. /
© Class Consciousness - Class Struggle - Class less Society: Marx says class struggle is a
recurring and inevitable feature of all societies. Oppression - economic, political, and
a feature of this class-struggle. Exploitation causes alienation and class rise, A
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ideological - is
working class consciousness develops, and when they clash with oppressions, they destroy the
system, leading to a riew stage of social development and the eradication of private means of
ownership, resulting in class-lessness. Because of class consciousness, a
class from a class in
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itself becomes a class for itself.
Criticism:
© Class Division and Alienation of Workers: Marx has on the grounds of his
been criticized
conception of class division. Evidence reveals that 20th-century capitalism no longer alienates
the working class, as the standard of living, social services, and job stability have improved.
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© Emergence of New Middle. Class: New middle class growth contradicts class polarisation
theory of Marx. This-new class of workers, supervisors, managers, etc. introduces social
prestige based vocation, consumption, and lifestyle.
on.
e Rapid Mobility: Rapid rates of mobility present the persistence of class in the Marxian sense,
as a result, status groups become more important.
Class Consciousness: The working class is skill-divided, and hence classes aren't
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e@
homogeneous. The expanding middle class and rising living standards have embourgeoised
the working class.
Conclusion:
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For Marx classes and stratification were similar. Marx stressed on the role of class-consciousness as
an important instrument for realizing class objectives.
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5.2.4 Weber’s Perspective .
Max Weber's work is a major advance in stratification theory since Marx: Weber felt societal
stratification was caused by insufficient: resources, Although he. understood this conflict as mostly
about economic resources, it can also enco 3
_ 1. Class as Basic Form of Stratific: er also believed that class was a basic
form of stratification in. society Marxist. property ownership criteria.
However, unlike Marx, Weber did
U
..
Or true consciousness. ‘
2. Market Situation and Class: Webé

EClass
similar position in a market econgm eof that fact receive similar economic
,
Q
rewards. Thus, in Weber's termi
i
i
situation.
¢ Upper Class: This class comp

R
. White-Collar Work
-managers, administ
"
¢ Petty Bourgeoisie: |
lawyers, etc.
G
e Manual Workers: These people sold their physical labour in exchange for wages. The
working class was included in this class.
4. Class and Life Chances: Another part of the lesson that Weber emphasized was ‘life-chances.'
This term, refers to the opportunities that an individual has had during his or her life. Weber
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defines life-chances as the sharing of economic and cultural assets that are available in different
ways to different groups. Those in the same social class have similar life opportunities. The
market situation significantly affected an individual's life chances. The son of a worker became
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a worker since that was the best option for him given his background.
5. Status Situation: Weber claimed that class is just one basis for group formation, collective
action, and political power are others. In instance, groups form because individuals have
comparable status. Class refers to unequal economic rewards; status refers to 'social honour’.
6. Power: Power is
the third stratification principle. The principle of power a diffuse property
since it is not exclusive, unlike status and class. A group with better status or wealth may have
is
more power in
society. According to Weber's account of social stratification, power enables
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—
people or organizations to impose their will on others through justifiable coercion. Max
Weber's analysis of power as an element in social stratification appropriately emphasizes
politics, political parties, and their function in optimizing access to power.
Criticism:
@
Clarity on Class: Max Weber has been criticized
Oliver Cromwell Cox, when he writes,
by
P
"Max Weber is
not clear on class." Weber recognizes many types of classes: "possessing or
property class," "earning or income class," "social class and subdivisions of these, but here
e
a
class becomes classification rather than a sociological concept.
Correlation between Status and Class: According to Celia Heller, Weber asserts on the one
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hand that economic order and status groups are distinct, and on the other, that they are
frequently associated.
® Contemporary Relevance: Ulrich Beck emphasized that today's inequities are also founded
in risk situations. He argued that differences in modern society are a result of risk-taking, risk
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consciousness, and risk-aversion capability, rather than class and status . Beck and Baudrillard
introduced the concept of individualized inequality, which contrasted sharply with Weber and
others’ narrow framework.
Conclusion:
Weber's theory of ‘class, status, and pa is idea of three 'orders' in the society,
U
namely - economic, the social and p plies that social stratification is not
fundamentally class-based or economically by analysing social stratification from
economic, social and ‘political angles G ider perspective than the economic
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determinism of Karl Marx.
5.2.5 Marx vs Weber on Stratification

|
Marx Weber
Standard of Single - Marx adopts a single standard Multidimensional - Weber adopted
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Division of division Le fini hether multidignensional criteria based on

or not t f ndatket, ic. social stratification
production “arfd --
dimensions “Economical
order - Class, Social order — Status,
(i:e. economic basis) as the principle.
G
and Political order - Party”

Perspectives Inevitable & Destructive Antithesis
- Internal & Low Incidence - Weber
of Class between have and have-nots will believed that class conflicts are more
Conflicts and inevitably produce class contradictions likely to occur within classes. In
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Struggles and struggles derived from exploitation addition, the low incidence of class
and oppression by capitalist. struggle is believed by Weber.
Methodology Macro & Objective Criticism - Micro & Static Humanism - Social
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According to Marx, it is objective stratification is not only the product of

reality that is independent of human objective economics, but also the
consciousness. He prefers to analyze it subjective consciousness built on
resulting from social inequality from people, and thus Weber develops the
macro perspective -
Class multidimensiona! social stratification
Consciousness and Class Revolution standards centered on ‘human’
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5.3 Dimensions Of Social Stratification
5.3.1 Class
Definition: Class is a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status.
is broadly perceived as a social group having identical skills, incomes, wealth and material well-being.
It
Class endorses the idea of social distance and class distinctions get expressed in the form of social
P
inequalities and social boundaries.
Thinker’s View:
Marx: He defines class as a social group sharing the same relationship with the means of
production. He believes that when true class consciousness develops, a
class struggle will take
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place, and ultimately lead to a classless state of communism. According to Marx, in every
society, there are two major social groups — a ruling class and one subject class.
Weber: Weber defined a class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in a
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market economy, and by virtue of that fact receive similar economic rewards. Thus, in Weber's
terminology, a person's 'class situation’ is basically their market situation. Weber identified
four classes — Upper Class, White Collar Petty Bourgeoisie and Manual Labours.
Ralf Dahrendorf: He argues that more heterogeneous with time due to
specialized division of labour, ang ill be further bifurcated into skilled,
semi-skilled and unskilled.
t
U
Anthony Giddens: He suggests erearg, thre s - upper class which holds the means
of production, middle class whic he’teal skills and lower class which holds the
me
manual labour. .
Q
Frank Parkin: He that the middle, against the polarization as envisioned
by Marx.
:
Characteristics of Class System:

1. Basis: It is based on occupation, weal ge and sex.
R
2. Fluid and Open: Class stratification is

sanctions on mobility be!
and open. There are No legal or traditional .
own efforts rather than a:
Hierarchy and Rankin
G
based primarily on economic position.

o In general there are 3 classes ~ upper, middle and lower. Status, prestige & role is attached
based on the position in these classes. Upper class are less in number in comparison to the
other two whereas their status & prestige is most. This is like a pyramid.
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Feeling of Superiority & Inferiority: In these 3 classes there are such feelings the upper class
peoplefeel they are superior to the other two.
Sub-classes: Sub-classes are divided into different groups. Similar to the caste system, the
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class system is divided.

Social Restriction: In general there is endogamy in a class. To maintain their status and
position they mix among themselves and it is seldom that marriage between upper and lower
class is wished.
How does Class act as an Agent of

Social Stratification?
Social stratification is the hierarchical ranking of social groups based on unequal levels of wealth,
power, and social status. Class act as an agent ofSocial Stratification in the following ways:
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—
1. Structural Inequalities: Social class refers to differences in groups of people by income level,
occupation, education, and cultural values. Social stratification results from. struc tural
oes
.
inequalities that evolve along with social institutions over time.

.
i s
2. Social Inequality: It
is reflected in the ways that individuals have different access to reso'irces.
and opportunities based on class. :
social
to
P
¢ Values, norms, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors differ to some degree according
class.
e Wealth, income, and social class influence individuals’ political choices and political
affiliations to some. degree.
moti lity,
.
3. Mobility. myths: Mobility myths, cultural narratives about the possibility of upward
N
do not recognize the presence
in a society.
of
structural inequalities that serve as obstacles social mobility to
~Race, gender, marriage, and divorce affect individuals' ability tormove up ot down the class
EE
.@
ladder.
.
Structural mobility
:
changes
i
oa |
in response to such macro. influences as industrializatio) 1 and

globalization. -
:
{
lack resources compared to ojhers;

4. Relative Poverty: It refers to the deg groups
absolute poverty refers to a lack o; threatening.
e, and class, and responses to poverty
« Poverty is linked to factors
U
are connected to social and cul poverty occurs.
Conclusion:
others.
Q
All societies have some form of stratificatign than Class stratification can
:
extreme
exist independently or in intersection wit! as caste, gender, race etc.
How does Modernization presuppose : :
Wwledge is introduced in the society. with

R
the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and moresatis actory life in the broadest sense of thé term
inthe
rowing ways:
ion
ds , form of stratification nite
like
e Structural Changes: Modernity has introduced structural changes in social institution's
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matriage, family, caste etc. The concept of joint families is rapidly decreasing, everyone ‘wants |
to remain aloof from others. }
¢ Eliminative Changes: There are some eliminative changes like the disappearance of cv‘tural
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traits, behavioural patterns, values etc. i
© New Forms: Emergence of new forms because of the synthesis of old and new element’. For
example, a nuclear family in structure but functioning as a joint. boos,
Universal Commitments: Modernity assumes that local ties and parochial perspectives give
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¢
way to universal commitments and cosmopolitan attitudes, ‘
© Rational and Logical: The truths of utility, calculation, and science take precedence over
those of the emotions, the sacred, and the non-rational.
Conclusion:
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_|
Class is broadly perceived as
a social gro ag identical skills, incomes, wealth and matey
ideologies of caste, race and ethnicity by m,
being in general. However, despite rejec
these ideologies still exist in various forr
Relationships between Caste and Clas

e Determine the Position of an I tal: Caste and Class jointly determine the p
P
an individual in social strain. P
maintained itsrigidity, caste and
i
ly in rural communities where the caste s
‘tms the basis for economic and special life
e Both are Status Groups: Accor(
vith
caste is perceived.as a hereditary i a fixed ritual status, a social class'is‘a cat
N
people who have a similar so lomic status in relation to other segments
community or society.
e Cumulative and Dispersed Eq
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but class system is characterized
socio-economic status in relatio
have either a high or low ritual s
caste, class and power in

the Tai
cut across.
@
Convergence: In rural India, ca; with each other. Higher cast
have a larger share in the owne
U ction and hence occupy higl
positions. This nexus is also hig
production as a social formation, #4
Gough in her analysis of the
nterconnections between caste,;
family and marriage on the one luction and production relatioi
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other. :
e Different Status: in the caste sy:

the political privileges but by thy
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Characteristics
Basis A
Origin Based on birth
G
status
Relevancy of Norms- Norms Norms are fixed
-
Role Definitions challeng atte
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Self-definitions Labels ati! Rigid labels and awareness»

vague"
Change and Mobility Provided and expected Neither provided nor not expected
Material Possession Possession’.of:. valued objects Possession of valued objects
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increases as class position increases as caste position

increases increases
Justification of system Pragmatic Justifications Strong religious endorsement
(value definition)
PAPER
1 - Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: www,sunyaias.com |
ey
—
Caste within the class and class ¥, thin the caste
| ‘made castes synonymous
e Castes synonymous with sses: Several Marxist writer:
with classes. Accordingly, ¢:tes are nothing but classes w urse of time have mingled
into classes. The struggle oj,;ion-Brahmin classes for enhan¢ tof their status began when
Hindu society divided itselfi}tjto various castes and classes. |
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¢ Different Castes in one Chis: Caste organizations are cons! class organizations which
emerged when the rural po,; went beyond symbolic reforrt rade their caste status by
raising economic issues. A jasant class is nothing more
thar p of individuals belonging
to various castes and posseing land to
cultivate.
ener
Intermixture of Class and "vaste: Looking at India’s histor the millennia, one reaches
N
¢
i¢|
e@
the unavoidable conclusio| that the most important coné m while determining the
constituents of the classes i he caste, Ramakrishna Mukhe' rid the inter-mixture of caste
and class in East Bengal. i
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¢ Composition in Hindu so ty: According to B.R. Ambed ‘itiong Hindus, priestly class
maintains social distance f im others through a closed poli! ‘becomes caste by itself.
The other classes undergo ie into very minute groups.
For instance, Caste
is also 2": ‘al Commission in its report.
Role of Class in Mobility
U
Life Opportunities:
®
Opp,
We
than lower class people. Tiis 2

Q
and cultural spheres.
ersonality development of
i
e Personality Development}, Social
the child is affected in man sts and habits are affected
by the needs of the social
jrovide their members with
R
distinctive subcultures tha: ‘din society. It is said that the

social class is useful as
allocation, a society fixe :
, the society. Through role
e Shaping Life-Adjustmen Patterns: Social class affects t people deal with virtually
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every aspect of reality. Thé. jvay people handle life situation! with social class.
@
Explaining Group Differélaces: As the social class affects if {
oflife of its members, the
groups which live differently, also think and behave differes®
Defining the Conventional'Morality: Social classes do not! it differ in etiquette or mode
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©
v
of behaviour; they also differ in more judgments. se VEC
@
Cultivating Class Ethnocentrism: Social class directly or ‘indirectly helps in developing
stereotypes and prejudices against other than one’s own class. People at every class level tend
KI
to see those above themselves as pretentious, exploiters and those beneath as either disgusting
or pathetic, delinquents etc.
Conclusion:
Social mobility is highly dependent on the overall structure of social statuses and occupations in a -
given society. The extent of differing social positions and the manner in which they fit together or
overlap provides the overall social structure of such positions.
'
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TS

—
New Middle Class
© Context: A new middle class has emerged throughout the world, which is unique in the
sense that it is marked by the individual’s capacity to consume global iconic objects,
renowned sociologist Jeffrey C. Alexander of Yale University has said.
¢ What is
the New Middle Class?
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o A Young family: The New Middle Class is a young family where both husband and
wife have college degrees and both have to work to economically survive and achieve
their aspirations. Neither wants to have their parents to live with them.
© India in the 21st century: The most remarkable phenomenon characterizing 21st
century India is the emergence of the 350-million-strong middle class. This middle class,
N
currently estimated at 350 million or about 25% of the population, will rise to 583 million
or 41% of the population by 2025. These educated people, with annua! income ranging
between Rs 2 lakh and Rs 10 lakh, are to be found in tier-2, tier-3 and tier-4 cities.
EE
o Yogendra Singh differentiates between rural and urban middle classes in India as they
have competing interests. Urban Mi Class is market bound whereas rural Middle
Class is power bound.
e Characteristics:
o Consumerist: The new co
the production process but sume. In short, new capitalism is
U
characterized by producing such identities.
o Outsourcing: The New Mid
competency) to make thin sad, they outsource the traditional
Q
homemaking activities such d childcare.
1 change in values, opinions and
o Discontinuity from the pa'
activities from the previous g
o Values Personal Freedom:
become the scarce resource and since ork, there is a permanent time shift and time
R
limits for daily activities ppi orking, sleep and recreation.

How does
¢
it affect marke
Blurring Roles and R
Mi f
3 ,
parents in roles and responsibilities. The traditional role of the husband as the breadwinner,
wife as the homemaker and mission of marriage to procreate next generation who will be
G
better off than them has likely gone away.

¢ Friendship Replaces Kinship: Friendship has been replacing kinship for socialization and
support as The New Middle Class embraces new values, beliefs and activities.
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¢ Spiritualism Coexists with Materialism: As the New Middle Class disassociates with
heritage and embraces contemporary values and lifestyles, it
will increasingly struggle with
self-identity. They try to find solace in the new form of religious revivalism.
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© TK Oomen thinks of the Indian Middle Class as a harbinger of silent revolution as they have
raised many issues through NGOs, PILs and social movements.
5.3.2 Status Groups

Definition: Status in the language of social stratification means ranking of groups a society on the in
basis of their relative position in terms of honor or respect. Honor is a qualitative attribute which
members in a status group enjoy by birth.
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Achieved Status Ascribed Status
Achieved by an individual on merit and effort. Assigned on the. basis of birth, biological
= inheritance, parents status etc.
Based on choice. There is no individual choice. /
It can be changed on the basis of education, | It is difficult to change.
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i
income etc. :
Important role in modern societies Important in traditional societies.

Example — Class Example — Caste
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Thinker’s view on Status Groups :
@ Weber: He defined a status group as made up of individuals who are awarded a similar amount
of social honour and therefore share the same status situation. Hindu caste system was stated
of status groups by Weber.
EE
as an’example
e@
Pakulski and Waters: They argue that the status dimension is becoming more important in
postindustrial societies. Consumption is ed on status and not the basis of occupationon
or economic well-being. Rising con, oted status and class. eclipsed

@ WL Warner: He emphasizes ad of economic class as a form of
stratification. He considers educ ome as the determinants of status.
@ MN
Srinivas: He quotes the exar
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their economic and political power, al
to themselves as ‘Lingayat Brahmins
Q
Theory of Status Inconsistency
© Definition: A situation in which an
and negative influences on his or ciologists investigate issues of status
inconsistency in order to better underst stems and stratification.
R
e Dissatisfaction: Introduced by the sociologist Gerhard Lenski in the 1950s, status

inconsistency theories Slatuges qive inconsistent will be more
|
frustrated and dissatisfi tent stat sFor example, a teacher may

have a positive societal image (respect, prestige, etc.), which increases her status but she may
earn money, which simultaneously decreases her status.
little
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© Reasons: Increasing job instability, downward social mobility and flexible job arrangements
may increase social status inconsistency in modern societies. One of the most prominent
examples of status inconsistency is a doctor who.works a taxi driver. as
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© Political Preference: Gerhard Lenski originally predicted that people suffering from status
inconsistency would favour political actions and parties directed against higher status groups.
Conclusion:
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Status inconsistency theories suggest that people whose status is inconsistent tend to be more
discontented and dissatisfied. They also have a general dislike for the ruling classes.
Theory of Status consistency

¢ Definition: A situation in which an individual’s status is similar across several categories such
as education, income and occupation. For example, a highly esteemed professor at a prestigious
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institution who is
paid well has status consistency; a highly esteemed professor a prestigious at
school who
isnot paid well has status inconsistency.
¢ Perception based on Norms: Caste systems correlate with high status consistency, whereas
the more flexible class system has lower status consistency. For example, the Brahmins in our
society assume high status compared to the lower caste in our society.
e Economic Reasons: Wealth is passed from generation to generation. For example, Ambani's
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wealth is passed to future Ambanis.
. @ Political Reasons: People inherit political power through generations, and their-social standing
is primarily determined through past generations. For example, When Queen Elizabeth IT
retires or passes away, Prince Charles will be first in line to ascend throne. the
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Conclusion: :
Social stratification systems determine social position based on factors like income, education, and:
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occupation. Sociologists use the term status consistency to describe the consistency, or lack thereof,
of an individual’s rank across these factors. |
s, status groups are founded on the

differences in honour and prestige diff agent of social stratification from the
following ways:
U
@
Systems of social stratificatio the most ancient systems of social
stratification where ranking is done sition in terms of honor and respect. In
traditional societies it was attached ascriptive, but in modern societies is it
Q
more achievement oriented.
e Unity hindering Entry; Unlike
the same lifestyle, identify with t
interact with them.
e Social Closure: Status groups are more closed and try to influence their idea of superiority. or
R
difference by maintaini jn qualifiers on other people,

which Weber called So: :
¢ Perception of Society: In many societies” class and status groups are closely linked to each
other but that is
not always the case. For example firefighters and doctors for
the highest status
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groups inthe US, despite there being richer businessmen economically above them. Similarly,
nouveaux riches may not get the kind of equal status treatment as compared to
other elites.
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Conclusion:
Status groups may not necessarily be linked to the economic or political status of a person. Today, it
is also a question of legitimacy that is accorded to a person’s status by the way of his deeds. With the
rise of civil society, status is getting attached with nobility, transparency of deeds.
KI
Comparison between Status groups and Social Class:

Dimensions Status Group Social Class
Definition Social status is a person’s standing in Social class is division of a society
society in relation to others. based on social and economic status.
Basis The basis of social status involves factors The basis of social class is the
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—
like family descent, the prestige of an
occupation, and cultural position.
economic background of
a person.
Types We can divide social status into two: We can divide the social class into
ascribed social status and achieved.| five: upper, upper-middle, lower-
status. middie, working-class, and poor.
P
Conclusion:
Social status and social class are two important concepts in sociology. The main difference between
social status and social class is that social status is based on one’s factors like family descent, the
prestige of occupation, and position in society, while social class is based on socioeconomic factors
.
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but both exist in relation with one another to create and maintain a social order
5.3.4 Gender
Definition: Gender stratification refers to the inequalities between women and men regarding wealth,
EE
power, and privilege. Gender is a socially structured principle and represents a hierarchical,
asymmetrical, and unequal division between men and
women. Gender stratification is a relatively new
concept borne of the feminist perspective in s especially in sociology, around the 1970s.
® Gender stratification can be illust nequal participation of women in the
labour market, incomes, politics,
Gender distinctions are found in
©
U
Thinkers view on Gender:
Naila Kabeer: Biology is gendere
Q
e@
Mary Daly: She blames female op

e@
Rousseau: He argued that biologi
R
e@
Atistotle
was against
Shulamith Firestone:
c S' c
believes that women are disadvantaged by their biology (imenstruation, childbirth, feeding),
fc
due to which their dependence on men increased, which provided further grounds for different
G
forms
ofexploitation.
®
it
Michelle Rosaldo: She argued that is the division between the public and private (domestic)
world which is the reason for women subordination.
N
® Fredrick Engels: states that in primitive communism, women

He
had
a higher position than
men but as society developed and forms of private property emerged, the control of men
increased, putting gender equality on the backburner.
Parsons: Functionalist POV which maintained that women have the role of ‘home-maker’ and
KI
e
man as ‘bread-winner’, i.e., sexual division of labour.He believes that with the arrival of
modernity, hierarchy of genders has been converted into a competitive gender relationship
@ Helen Mayor: She dismisses class notions attached to women and instead terms them as a
minority.
@ Ann Oakley: Gender is
a social construct and patriarchal structures are geographically and
historically most universal.
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How does Gender act as an Agent of Social Stratification?
Patriarchy: The unequal access to resources, opportunities and rewards and rights between to
men and women are legitimized by patriarchy across societies and cultures.
Division of Labour: In most societies the tasks of women are clearly differentiated. In the
West as well as in the middle class sections of Indian society, men have been seen to be the
P
breadwinners and women were expected to take care of the house and raise children. This
cultural valuation is the foundation for gender stratification that is then reinforced-by gender
ideologies of male superiority and a high degree of sexual antagonism between men and
women,
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Reproductive Abilities: Women’s value is defined by their reproductive abilities rather than
—
by their productive activities. For example, Bride wealth is considered as compensation to the
bride’s parents or her kin for the productive and reproductive rights of the bride. .
Symbolic Representations: In feminist anthropology, the relationship of gender with social
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stratification has been conceptualised primarily in the way gender informs social structures as
a symbolic construct and as a metaphor action.
ial
How
is Physical
it Prevalent Today?
Appearance: An indi¥ us determined by society according to
menen they have a thin body and fair
their gender. A woman: gets co
U
complexion. Men become attracti height and a muscular body.
Profession: Women were not allo re deprived of pursuing their careers.
Women
areexpected to stay in th the family and children, and perform
Q
household chores.
Commodification of Labour: T , air hostess are
considered to be job
of face and beauty and hence, more’ @ominated by women.
Behaviour: Women. must be soft-spo and quiet. They should walk, talk, sit and
behave in a certain manner. Whereas men ought to be confident, loud, and could display any
R
&
behaviour as per their wi co
2
Characteristics: Womagy Ofaraiic gesmgise theit,veige against their fathers/elder

brother/husband or any other senior male family members.
Patriarchy — 6 structures of male domination

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Women are:
1. Exploited by the expropriation of their household ftabour
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2. Economically disadvantaged relative to men

3. Marginalised in state policies
4. Controlled by male violence or threat
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5. Experience a sexual double standard

6. Portrayed as ‘lesser’ humans by Cultural institutions
From Theorising Patriarchy by Sylvia Wailby (1990)
‘The primary purpose of religion is ta control women’
George Monbiot, Radio 4, Any Questions, 2007
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Conclusion: ,
:
:
The stereotypes of gender roles greatly impact every individual who goes through and chooses to fight
against them. Gender stratification has also moved beyond conventional male-female debate and
increasingly on LGBTQ+ community.
Case Study: Indian Advertisements furthering Gender Stereotypes
P
An
analysis of Indian advertisements on television and YouTube has shown that their portrayal
is problematic as they further gender stereotypes. Following are the key findings of the case
study: .
.
¢ Commercials Depiction: Female characters dominate screen time (59.7%) and speaking
time (56.3%), but one of the drivers of this is their depiction for selling cleaning supplies,
N
food and beauty products to female consumers.
¢ Depicted as Married: A greater percentage of female characters is depicted as married than
male characters (11.0% compared with 8.8%).
EE
a
¢ Depicted as Parents: Female characters are three times more likely to be depicted as parents
than male characters (18.7% compared with
¢ Making household decisions: Whi rs are more likely to be shown making
decisions about their future tha .3% compared with 4.8%), the. latter
are twice as
likely to be show ecisions than male characters (4.9%
compared with 2.0%).
U
¢ Less Intelligent: For characters wi
characters are more likely to be shov
part of their character the ad, male in
female characters (32.2% compared to
26.2%).
Q
to be shown as funny than female
in Indian ads have light or medium-

acters (52.1%).
1
i
¢ More Attractive: Female characters a ne times more likely to be shown as
R
pared with 0.6%). Female

characters arealso inva
in Indian advertising.
with a variety of body sizes
°
Conclusion:
G
Misrepresentation and harmful stereotypes of women in advertising have a significant impact

on women - and young girls - and how they view themselves and their value to society. While
we do see female representation dominate in
Indian ads, they are still marginalized by colorism,
hypersexualisation, and without careers or aspirations outside of the home.
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Gender Bias .
Definition: Gender bias is

the tendency to prefer one gender over another. It
is a form of unconscious
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bias, or implicit bias, which occurs when one individual unconsciously attributes certain attitudes and
stereotypes to another person or group of people.
Factors that affect Gender Bias:

© Political: Despite progress in political representation over the years, women arestill grossly
underrepresented in government and the political process. This means that certain issues that
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=
female politicians tend to bring up - such as parental leave and childcare, pensions, gender
equality laws and gender-based violence — are often neglected.
Economie: One of the causes for gender inequality within employment is
the division of jobs.
In most societies, there’s an inherent belief that men are simply better equipped to handle
certain jobs.
Social: Women are not free from social customs, beliefs and practices. The. traditional
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patrilineal joint family system confines women’s roles mostly to the domestic sphere,
allocating them to a subordinate status, authority and power compared to men.
Technological: Digital illiteracy and unfamiliarity with digital platforms deterred women
entrepreneurs from moving to
online marketplaces post COVID-19.
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Educational: Around the world, women still have less access to education than men. Of all
the illiterate people in the world, 2/3rd are women. 1/4th of young women between 15-24 will
not finish primary school. .
EE
Legal: According to research from the World Bank, over one billion women don’t have legal
protection against domestic sexual violence or domestic economic violence. Both have a
significant impact on women’s ability tg.th d live in freedom.
,
Religious: When religious freedo: en suffer the most. According to the

World Economic Forum, when e: as ISIS) come into a community and
restrict religious freedom, gende: ‘When there’s more religious freedom,
an economy becomes more stab!
U rticipation.
How Can We Stop Gender Bias?

Gender Gap Report in 2020, 88% of
Q
Equal Access to Education: Acc; £
females had primary education cd to 91% s: The 2021 report stated that with
current progress, it
will take just o¥g e gap entirely.
be tackled by offering paid leave and
Empowering Women at Workplateg
childcare, supporting more women s¢
in and reviewing salaries.
R
Protect Reproductive Rights: To protect rights, solutions like universal health coverage are
important. Protecting r
ignored, like trans peopl
ct
NYRR” @fifig data on those historically
a)
Strengthen Legal Protections: Laws related to women need to be actually enforced and
strengthened when necessary, especially since the pandemic contributed to an increase in
G
violence. Laws that address economic inclusion are also needed.

Provide Better Medical Care: Improving healthcare includes training medical staff on gender
bias (including racial bias and bias against trans people); improving research methods and data
N
collection; and empowering women, trans people, and non-binary people to take leadership
roles in health organizations. Better health outcomes can also be attained by reducing poverty
and empowering people economically.
KI
Better Political Representation: Better political representation can be gained by eliminating

the intersectional barriers that make it
difficult for women to enter politics, like lack of access
to funding, more responsibilities at home (like childcare), and cultural/social biases. More
political training can also help empower women.
Prioritise the Most Marginalized: Gender bias won’t be eliminated using a “trickle-down”
method where resources are focused on more privileged groups. Those who are most
marginalized, who are at the most risk, should be prioritized.
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1 ~
Sociology Optional
EI
Conclusion:
is
SS
Gender so pervasive in contemporary society that we often do not notice gender bias in our everyday
lives, However, gender itself is not a variable that stands alone. Our race, ethnicity, social class, sexual
orientation, and other social positions affect our everyday gendered experiences. Therefore, gender
CT
bias regularly intersects with other forms of bias such as ethnocentrism, racism, classism, and
UR P
homophobia,
\
Difference between Gender and Sex
nate
Dimensions Gender Sex
SES
SRP
Definition Gender refers to the social,
N
cultural, Sex refers to biological and
PLA
behavioural and emotional differences physiological differences
between men and women. between male and female on bolt
of their reproductive structures.
EE
TUTE
Categorisation Main categories of gender are masculine Sex has two main categories i.e.
and feminine. Male and female.
Factors Gender isinfluence
behavioural fact
ral and Sex is determined
Birth.
inherited by or
Role
Functions
and
| It is a flexible
changed by tim
be Generally SEX ROLE cannot be
an changed by time and culture i.e.
|
4
U
perform Men's R of only women can give birth to
Men) i.e. be a Doc Men children and only men can
can also adopt wo ‘such impregnate.
Q
as feeding and. car,
:
Norms Gender distinctio Sex is created by reproductive

1)
norms. needs that is

biological feature. |
Factors Influencing Gender Identity :

R
e Biological Factors: It shaping, children physical development. For

oS
3
instance, boys and gir feOrgans, and become further |
differentiated when seco

e Social and Environmental Factors: Children's upbringing and social environments also
impacts their developing gender identities. For instance, girls who are informed that boys are
G
innately better at maths than they are may report that they dislike maths and disclaim their 1
interest in that subject.

|
¢ Cultural and Religious Norms: Some cultural and religious norms also accentuate gender
N
identity. For example — Girls and Women going through the menstruation cycle are not allowed
to do Puja or enter temples.
e Family Role: Parents who do not support gender nonconformity are more likely to have
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children with firmer and stricter views on gender identity and gender roles.
* Commodification of Professional Roles: Like professions valuing more beauty like reception
jobs orair hostesses.
Conclusion:
Gender identity can lead to societal security issues among individuals that do not fit on a binary scale.
In some cases, a person’s gender identity is inconsistent with their biological sex characteristics,
PAPER 1 - Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com | Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 Page 236
resulting in individuals dressing and/or behaving in a way which is perceived by others as outside
cultural gender norms.
TL
Problems related to Gender
YP
1. Unpaid Labour:
Unpaid Care and Domestic Work: On an average, women spend 2.4 more hours per day
P
¢
HN
than men on unpaid care and domestic work.
Contribution in the Economy: Among people who participate in paid economy, women
¢
spend an average
2. Discriminative Policies:
of
4 hours more per day than men on paid and unpaid work combined.
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¢ Vulnerability by Policies: Beyond complex gendered norms, some of the economic
vulnerability imposed on women also comes from policy and political decisions that have
APIS
persistently deprived them of compensation in the form of equal pay, paid maternity leave,
EE
universal health, unemployment and care benefits.
3. Effect of COVID:
LEDER
* Losing Income and Job: Women ha been hit harder than men by pandemic, losing
income and leaving labour mark ate. This vulnerability is due to gender
inequality.
Poverty: Women are 25% mgfe
ve in extreme poverty.
U
lll
|
uo
¢ Economic security: Only one. yid territories, however, have policies
addressing women’s economi cording to the Covid-19 Global Gender
Response Tracker.
Q
¢ Social Security: Covid-19 Gl Tracker is an initiative of UNDP and
UN Women which shows tha d
jobs response to the pandemic has
largely overlooked women’s ni
Initiative taken by India to tackle the

R
e Ministry of Women & Child Developm

boost employability of
©
Maternity Benefit (A a Int women to take leave for a
total of 26 weeks. out of lip S*wetks"cart
fo be ‘claimed before delivery. The woman is
to
G
also supposed get paid a benefit at the rate of her daily wage for three months before she
goes on maternity leave.
e Sexual Harassment of Women at
Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act
2013: It has been enacted covering all the women, in spite of their age and employment status,
N
and protects them from sexual harassment at workplaces, in both the public and private sectors
of the industry where the women are employed.
e Social Security Code, Code on Occupational Safety, Health & Working Conditions Code,
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and Industrial Relations Code, 2020: Under the new codes, women have to
be permitted to
EEOC
work in every sector at night, but it has to be ensured that provision for their security is made
by the employer and consent of women is taken before they work at night.
Suggestions
e Technological: Use of Technology like the ‘Himmat’ app released by Delhi government. This
must be replicated throughout the country for the safety of women.
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e Social: Awareness among youth about ills of inequality and better focus on the issue from
schools itself by including separate
chapters or divisions from childhood to promote a sense of
equality:
@
Different Initiatives: Creation of ‘SheCabs’ like that of Hyderabad where employment,
empowerment is
possible.
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e Legal: Strict implementation of laws like Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace,
2012.
e Training and Grievance Mechanism: Training to employees on gender equality and to
women mechanisms toreport their problems.
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e Promoting Gender Equality: Visible policing, checks at public places, night patrolling,
increase in women staff, separate women police stations (like that of Bangalore) must be
implemented so that along with employment, safety security will be ensured.
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Conclusion:
is a sense of urgency in this issue of gender inequality. A country like India which aspires to be
i
There
a leader or ‘Vishwa Guru’ cannot ignore
for
its
all-round development.
towards half of its population
such es is vital which
Ethnicity
5.3.35
U
Definition: An ethnicity, or ethnic grou category of people
il
who identify with
each other based on common ancestral, soi ational experience.
Q
Thinker’s view on Ethnicity
Thomas H. Eriksen: He sees etf
e@
lationships between groups whose
members consider themselves di ups are often ranked hierarchically
within a society and are biological
e Fredrick Barth: He sees ethnicity is a elastic concept as compared race or caste. to
R
It is usually used for invoking the political milieu.

e Karl Deutsch: Accordi city “tastrumental for balkanization
and the rise of so many HOO! 2
@ Paul Hirst: He advocates that ethnicity is used by capitalists to keep the working class divided,
G
so as to prevent any revolution from happening.

Gellner and Wallerstein: They advocate that the merit-based nature of modern society will
e@
dissipate any divisions on the basis of ethnicity and abilities will spell out class positions.
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Critical and Primordial Theorist’s View

e Habermas and Borris and Richmond: They argue that ethnicity becomes more prominentin
modern times to preserve itself from drastic changes and is
present in covert forms even in
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modern societies.
@ Glazer: He has contended that not only does ethnicity not cease to exist in a modern society,
but is actually 'revived' and the increasing importance of ethnic identities or ethnicization can
in fact, be attributed to the very conditions of modernization.
© Clifford Geertz: He states that ethnicity will continue to exist, not because of functions but its
because of emotions.
PAPER
Ethnicity as a Form of Stratification
Ethnic stratification. shares a lot of things with the other forms of stratification, such as, ranking,
inequality, discrimination, exploitation etc. However, there is one crucial difference. Ethnic groups
have the capability to acquire an independent nation, an option which is not available to class and
gender groups. Therefore, Ethnicity act as an agent of stratification in the following ways:
1. Ethnic Nationalism: Membership of an ethic group tends to determine a person's status in
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society. This can occur in two ways:
¢ Social rewards: Like money, prestige and power are often allocated along ethnic lines.
¢ Dominate others: In most societies one or more ethnic groups dominate. others in
economic, political and cultural matters.
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2. Nation and Ethnic Group: Nationalism refers to the expressed desire of a péople to establish
and mairitain a self-governing political entity. It has proven to be one of the most powerful
forces in the contemporary world, both a creator and destroyer of modern states. Many states
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in North East India, consider themselves not as only ethnic groups but as different nations too.
3. Development of
a Nationality: According to Brass, there are two steps in the formation of a
,
nationality. .
¢ Transformation: First there is of an ethnic category into a community ;
which involves changes like scious linguistic unity, formation of a

caste association etc.
e Articulation and Acquisitio
U olves the articulation and acquisition
of social, economic and politi
whole.
:
bers of the group
or
for the group as a
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, Communism, Nativism and Ethno-
Nationalism-has posed four serio
Conclusion:
Ethnic stratification involves the separation
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horizontal in nature and is typically connected e distribution of opportunities, privileges,

advantages, material rewards, and power among ethnic ‘oups within a society.
¢
How is Ethnicity Prevalent To ed

Ethnic diversity is one form of the social complexity found in most contemporary societies. It is
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prevalent today in the following ways:

1. Political: The political function of ethnicity is more important today than ever, as a result of
the spread of doctrines of freedom, self-determination, and democracy throughout the world.
2. Nation-state along Ethnic lines: In 19th-century Europe, these doctrines influenced various
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movements for
the liberation of ethnic minorities from the old European empires and led to
some partially successful attempts to establish nation-states along ethnic lines, as in the case
of Poland Italy.
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and
3. Ethnic Complexity: After World War II
the rising tide of democratic aspirations among the
colonial peoples of Asia and Africa led to the breakup of empires established by European
conquerors, sometimes in areas of enormous ethnic complexity, without regard to ethnic
considerations.
¢ Most of the new countries in Asia were relatively homogeneous, but the majority of those
in sub-Saharan Africa were composed of many relatively small ethnic groups whose
members spoke different languages.
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4, India: Ethnic identities have historically been formed on the basis of
e Language, i.e., ethno-linguistic: For example, Dravidian movement leading to states
reorganisation along linguistic lines.
¢ Tribal, racial characteristics. For example, the Naga movement.
¢ Religion. For example, Khalistani incident or 2002 Gujarat Hindu-Muslim riots.
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Ethnicity and Deyelopment Imperative: A Case Study of North-East India
On
North East India composed of different ethnicities is plagued with ethnic assertions and regionalism
with centuries of alienation.
Backwardness: Movementfor separate homeland, regionalism, tribalism, ethnic clash, crime,
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¢
mass poverty, etc. in the region are caused by backwardness of the region.
© Hotbed of Ethnic Strife: The distinct geo-ethnic and socio-historical characters of North-East
India constitute the hotbed of ethnic strife and extreme radicalism.
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Solutions:
©
Resolving the Conflict: The solution lie rt! in resolving the conflict between primordial
ethnic loyalties or ‘ethno-nationalis jonalism of the nation state’, and partly a
conscious and voluntary effort to unholy alliance between the militants
and the politicians in the region
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e Ethnic Reconciliation: In any
ethnic violence of all kinds and wot Sre law and orderin the region.
e Strengthening the Institutions: W snance in the region will be spared from
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combating militancy or appeasing
for strengthening the institutions
development inthe conflict-ridde:
Conclusion:
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Development is one big issue that needs to be addressed in the region. North East India after
i decades
of independence is still lagging cultural and
cation, political,
social development.
Comparison among Caste, Race and Ethnicity

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Ethnicity Race Caste

Definition An ethnic group or
ethnicity It refers to concept of It is pattern of social
is a population group whose dividing people into behavior in which
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members identify with each populations/ groups on groups and

other on the basis of basis of various sets of individuals are guided
common nationality or physical characteristics by a prescribed set of
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shared cultural traditions. (which usually result norms, values and

from genetic ancestry). sanctions.
Significance Ethnicity connotes shared Race presumes shared Caste influences the
cultural traits and a shared biological or genetic structure of society in
group history. Some ethnic traits, whether actual socio economic and
groups also share linguistic or asserted. In the early political scenarios.
or religious traits, while 19th century, racial Caste values and caste
others share a common
| differences were interests influence
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group history but not a ascribed significance persons’ political
common language or in areas of intelligence, thinking, awareness
religion. health, and personality. and participation.
Ae
There is no evidence
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validating these ideas.
Genealogy It is defined in terms of Racial categories result Caste system has its
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shared genealogy, whether from a shared origins in ancient
actual or presumed. genealogy due to times, and was
Typically, if people believe geographical isolation. transformed by
they descend from a In the modern world various ruling elites in
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particular group, and they this isolation has been medieval, early-
want to be associated with broken down and racial modern, and modern
renee
that group, then they are in groups have mixed. history, especially
fact members of that group.
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Mughal Empire and
RARE
AUER
British Raj.
Distinguishing Ethnic groups distinguish Races are assumed to Castes are perceived
Factors themselves differenti stinguished by as hereditary groups
vOADCR
one time period to facial type, with a fixed ritual
They typically ever, the status. The caste
define themselves basis of system has religious
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are defined by st tinctions is connotations.
Nationalism Caste as an institution

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-
nationalism has created a
political ideology divergence between
nationalism nation and
nations based on pr race over nationalism.
shared ethnic origins ( her within a
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Legal System In 1948, negative

century, the discrimination on
nations, the legal system as legal system as well as basis of caste was
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well as the official ideology the official ideology banned by law and
prohibited ethnic-based emphasized racial further enshrined in
discrimination. equality. Indian constitution.
Conflicts Often brutal conflicts Racial prejudice There is every
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between ethnic groups have remains a continuing possibility for caste

existed throughout history problem throughout conflicts to occur.
and across the world. But the world. However, These conflicts have
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most ethnic groups in fact there are fewer race- their origin in
ROTO
get along peacefully within based conflicts in the casteism, which refers
one another in most 21st century than in the to hatred of one caste
nation’s most of the time. past. by other, or attempts
made by 1.
caste
members to gain
personal advantages
PAPER
=
—
to detriment of
interests of other caste
members.
TS
Nc
Examples of Conflict between Tamil and Conflict between white|On Dec 1997,
{1
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Conflict Sinhalese populations in Sri and African-American Ranvir Sena killed 58
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Lanka, or the Hutu and people in the U.S. Dalits at Laxmanpur
ane
seit P
Tutsi people in Rwanda. Bathe, Jehanabad, in
, retaliation for Bara
massacre in Gaya
where 37 upper castes
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were killed. In
aime
particular, specific
Bhumihar community
was targeted in
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retaliation for their
opposition towards
handing out their land
for land reform.
5.3.6 Race
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Definition: Race is a group of people wh given society as biologically or culturally
edple more or
less bound together by shared
(Nineenanennerpevemcsrmannnanneesnit
and selected history, ancestors, and physica se people are socialized to think of
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themselves as a distinct group, and others
Thinker’s view on Race

@ Steve Jones: Geneticist Steve Jones "st
the overall genetic difference “races” - sa

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between different countries within Europe or within Africa.

e@
Herbert Spencer: Fol
‘Social Darwinism’ by tliat niugh
feion
Sertain
3
in 1859, the concept of
racial groups were more
successful and thus superior to others. However, Racism as a term entered common usage only
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after 1900.
¢ Merton: Merton states that victims of racism respond in various ways and can become
retreatists, innovators, rebellious or
ritualists
¢ Richardson and Lambert: They view race as a social construction with no biological basis.
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It has more to do with what people make of physical differences and the everyday or
commonsense notions which influence them
¢ Park and Burgess: They call race a product of history and culture.
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e John Rex and Paul Hirst: They see race as a product of capitalism, where economic
opportunities were seen in outside labour and slave trade brought down the costs.
Race as_a Form of Stratification

¢ Human History: From early in human history we see a move to classify and categorize people
on the basis their perceived differences. In the 17th century, with European expansion to
of
PAPER
new parts of the world, we see a rise of the ideology of racial stratification with Europeans
placing themselves at the top of the scheme.
e Prejudice and Discrimination: Racism as a system of stratification is loaded with both
prejudice and discrimination based in social perceptions of observable biological differences
between peoples. ,
e Socio-political: It often takes the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political
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systems in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior
to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.
® Minority Category: In a given society, those who share racial characteristics socially-
perceived as undesirable are typically under-represented in positions of social power, i.e., they
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become a minority category in that society.
.
© Overt Racism: It usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social
status. For example, members associated with a particular race may be assigned slave status,
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a form of oppression in which the majority refuses to grant basic rights to a minority that are
granted to other members of the society.
e@
Covert Racism: It often feeds into strati stems
as
an intervening variable affecting
ela Davis goes on to argue that state is
income, educational opportunities, a
complicit in perpetuation of racic igh systemic racism.
Conclusion:
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Today, greater openness and diversity am s led to the questioning of the concept
of race on the basis of the growing number ntifying as multiracial, multiethnic, or
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even multinational. 7
How is Race Prevalent in Present Socie

The forms of prejudice we live with today HA
prejudice has not disappeared, it has mutated: 4 ‘ |
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e Stereotyping and misinformation: T he anonymity of the internet has allowed racist

stereotypes and inaccurajesinfprr ato ,
ch
7 onset of the pandemic, traffic
to hate sites and specific mAstag
e Structural Forms: Structural” forms of
discrimination, including micro-aggressions and
everyday indignities, remain widespread.
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@
Techno-racism: The use of new technologies and artificial intelligence in security raise the
spectre of ‘techno-racism’, as facial recognition programmes can misidentify and target
racialized communities.
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@
Prejudiced Attitudes: Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory acts, whether subtle or overt,
aggravate existing inequalities in societies. For example, A study published by The Lancet
drew attention to the social dimension of
the Covid-19 pandemic and
of ethnic and racial minorities, who have been disproportionately affected.
the
greater vulnerability
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Conclusion:
Today, prejudiced attitudes are expressed in more subtle and nuanced ways. Derogatory comments,
racial slurs, racial insults, racist killings etc. should cease to exist. After all, Lord Krishna and Lord
Shiva are also known to be the dark-skinned Dravidian Gods, dark, yet beautiful.
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|
Page 243
Case Study: Northeast Indians and Racial Discrimination
A study commissioned by the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) on racial
discrimination and hate crimes against people from the northeast States found that the “northeast India
seamlessly fits an Indian’s imagination of a Chinese person”. Following are the findings of the study:
@
Physical appearance: 78% of the northeast people believed that physical appearance was the
most important reason for prejudice against them. Itappears as if northeast India seamlessly
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fits Indian’s imagination of a Chinese person.
e Hate crime and racial discrimination: A series of attacks were reported in various parts of
the country where people from the region were “harassed, abused, and traumatized” and were
disparagingly called ‘coronavirus’.
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© Offensive and abusive language: Offensive and abusive language were reported to be most
common across major cities, North East Indians are called by names like ‘chinki’.
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Conclusion:
Skin colour or caste do not define the character of
the person, passing judgmental comments on their
skin colour and looks does nothing good, but makes them feel isolated and alienated from everyone
else. We should embrace and appreciate y are and not on the basis of how they
look.
Initiatives Against Racism

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@ UNESCO’s Actions Against Raci tions against racism through education,
the sciences, culture, and communicati ple of a way forward.
e oalition of Inclusive and Sustainable
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Platform for City-level Planning
Cities of UNESCO provides an a -level planning and a laboratory for
in
good practices the fight against
e@
Global Forum against Racism:
against Racism and Discrimination 2021, in partnership with the Republic of
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Korea.
@ Coalition of Organizatigtts nofiic Forum launched a coalition
of organizations commit in the workplace.
e Social Movements ~ Black es Matter’ protests gained
momentum in not only the United States but the whole world. People, as well as many
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governments across different countries, came forth against the prevalence of racial
discrimination worldwide.
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Provisions against Racial Discrimination in India:

e Constitutional: Article 15, Article 16 and Article 29 of the Constitution of India prohibit
discrimination on grounds of “race”.
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@
Legal: Section 153A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) also refers to “race”.
e Global: India also ratified the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (ICERD) in
1968.
Way Ahead
@ New Approaches: Through new approaches tointercultural dialogue and learning, youth and
communities can be equipped with skills to eradicate harmful stereotypes and foster tolerance.
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e Anti-racist Action: Recent and new manifestations of racism and discrimination call’ for
renewed commitments to mobilise for equality. Racism will not be overcome with mere
professions of good faith but must be combatted with anti-racist action.
@ Global Culture: A global culture of tolerance, equality and anti-discrimination should be built
first and foremost in the minds of women and men.
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5.4 Social Mobility
Definition: Itrefers to transition of individuals or
groups from one position in hierarchy, to another,
i.e., ftom one stratum to another (Pitrim Sorokin). en
Famef
Socal mobility
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Q /
vein
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¢ The shift can either be higher, lower, Villager!
intergenerational, or intra-generational, \_ Labour worker

vi
per employee Novel
and it cannot necessarily be determined ~-~~--— —
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if the change is for good or bad. Example: Shanan caste ih Tamil Nadu achieved social
mobility after political representation.
Thinker’s views on Social Mobility

¢ Pitirim Sorokin: Anything that ha ified by human activity can experience
social mobility.
Karl Marx: Mobility in capitalis
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@.
to homogenisation, pauperisation and
proletarianization among the workii
@ Max Weber: Social mobility pansion of the middle class ie.,
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embourgeoisement.
@ MN
Srinivas: Mobility through ssible even in a closed system like
@
caste; however it was only a posit
Andre Beteille: Education, migra'
the nexus between class caste and powe acted as an agent of social mobility.
R
@
Seymour M. Lipset and Reinhard Bendix: Fully industrialized, bureaucratically organized
societies like the United@fa
industrial, especially agrig,
i
e Thomas Fox and S.M. Miller: Vertical mobility (movement from one social position to
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another position of higher or lower rank) is the result of more industrialized societies.
Systems of Social Mobility

Dimensions Closed system Open system
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Definition A closed system of mobility is one where In the open system the norms are
norms do not prescribe mobility. prescribed and encourage
mobility.
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Characteristics The closed system emphasizes the There are independent principles
associative character of the hierarchy. of ranking like status, class and
power.
Social In such a system individuals are assigned In this, individuals are assigned to
Structure their place in the social structure on the different positions in the social
basis of ascriptive criteria like age, birth, structure on the basis of their
Lo Sex.
~_|
merit or achievement.
1
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Values It justifies the inequality in the The dominant values in such a
distribution of means of production, system emphasize on equality
status, symbols and power positions and and freedom of the individual and
discourages any attempt to change them. on change and innovation.
Considerations Considerations of functional suitability In such systems the hold of
or ideological notions of equality of ascription based corporate groups
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opportunity are irrelevant in deciding like caste, kinship or extended
positions of individuals to different family etc. declines.
statuses.
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Critical analysis: Is any society completely open or completely closed? - No
© Sorokin: On mobility, Sorokin was ofthe opinion that there is no society which is completely
closed (Caste System in India) and no society which is completely open (Class System). No
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twosocieties are exactly the same in the amount of movement allowed or discouraged. Further
the speed of movement or change may differ from one period oftime to another. The rate of
change depends upon the level of modernization of a given society.
@ Gidden: If the rate of social mobili
would explain why in industrial
lidarity and cohesion will be high. This
solidarity is quite low.

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¢ Frustration: Some individuals whi
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sufficient ability and may experieng
e Impact of Personal Relations: 1
e may feel they are giving up their
principles, reducing the time spent surrendering other values in order to
devote more energy to achieving hig
e@
Chances of Inverse Mobility: On
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downward mobility.
@ Change in Interests:
their interests and behav
P¢ ve, froma lower to, a:higher social
_therebyalasin,
fri
ir
class may change
Conclusion:
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Social mobility is a very crucial aspect of any given society. In a society there exists a balance
which holds onto a, say, fixed hierarchical cooperation between social groups, but it permits
different social groups to vie for the same resources through hard work, education, ability, luck,
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matriage etc., so their relations are competitive.
Types of Social Mobility

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Definition Examples
Absolute It is quantifiable in absolute terms for an If certain agrarian society undergoes
Mobility entire group of people. rapid industrialization, leading to
more free time for education for all
its citizens, this sort of economic
development renders entire society
socially mobile in a way it wasn’t
before in an absolute sense.
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Meritocratic, rags-to-riches stories
eT
Te
Vertical The movement of individuals into either
Mobility a lower or higher position in the social are examples of vertical mobility.
structure is known as vertical social
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mobility.
Horizontal Horizontal social mobility is when one If a lawyer stops actively practising
Mobility moves from one position in the law and becomes a law professor or
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occupational structure to another without business consultant instead, some
necessarily losing or gaining a new class might consider this a horizontally
status as a result. mobile move.
Inter- Generational mobility from one If the children of a next generation
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TTT
LLL
generationa generation to the next is
intergenerational experience a higher standard of living
I Mobility social mobility. than their parents did, that newly
acquired high status is an example of
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intergenerational mobility.
Intra- Generational mobility within a specific When a clerk gets promoted to the
renerationa generation is intragenerational mobility. rank of section officer, it is a case of
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Mobility intragenerational mobility.
Relative Measure of pers A child’s ranking in the income
Mobility downward movem: istribution compares to her parents.
compared to m
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members of their inh
Structural It is a kind of vertical i A promotion or demotion, a change
Mobility to mobility that bro income, marriage to a person of
in
b
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stratification hierar! igher or lower status, a move to a
vertical movement 0: etter or worse neighbourhood-all
class or occupation erve as examples of vertical
stratification system. mobility.
Forced It is a type of forced mobility Historical circumstances or labour
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Mobility hanges may lead to

the
rise
of an occupational group
fe social hierarchy.
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Does Vertical Mobility bring Structural change even in a Closed Social System? - Yes
1. Structural Change: Vertical mobility has the potential to bring a structural change even in a
closed system.
Prior to industrialization, Britain was a closed system with feudal setup. With rapid
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¢
advancements in technology and investments by the lords of Britain vertical mobility took
place and the closed society witnessed structural changes and ultimately led to Britain
becoming
an
open society.
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2. Cultural Change: Traditional caste system in India is an example of a closed system.

Sanskritization has helped in social mobility even in a closed system of caste.
Conclusion:
In modern times vertical mobility is due to emergence of new occupations, modern education system,
democracy, welfare state technology etc and all these brings a substantive structural change even in
closed social systems.
PAPER
Is vertical/horizontal mobility problematic?
1. Yes
1. Dissociation Theory: According to Pitirim Sorokin social mobility (vertical) contributes
to instability of social order, cultural solidarity.
o Example: Disintegration of Jajmani system.
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Social Inequality: Vertical mobility can make the same individual upwardly mobile, while
others may face high downward.mobility.
o Example: Oxfam inequality report highlighted splint in the richness of billionaires
while masses jumped into poverty.
in
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Status Quoism: Horizontal mobility may not often lead to improvement life chances of
individuals and individuals may end up in the same ladder throughout.
Marginal Men: Robert E Parkin used the concept to donate to individuals who are trapped
value social mobility among migrants lead to growth
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between two socio-cultural systems,
of such marginal men.
o Example: Rising suicide rate among migrant workers.
2. It is not problematic
e@
Social Progress: M N Srinivas f migration in the form of remittances,
in
education, he
investment
¢ Social Solidarity: Harold W:
U ls with good career mobility are more
‘likely to have interaction with community on a continuous and long-
term basis.
:
Meritocratic Society: High de social mobility provides for open
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©
competition based on talent a ;

meritocracy and prevents growth of
spoils systems,
e Social Justice: According t ¥
welfare state should promote equal
opportunities for all irrespective ic and cultural background.
a
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o Example: Equality commission in USA
to provide representation to minorities.

e Social Stability: Ve ing to Kin
sleygavis ensures most functional
positions are filled “algo acts as a safety valve by
accommodating ind nto'uppersStratum,
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Conclusion:
In the transitional phase vertical or horizontal social mobility can be dysfunctional but gradually
individual and systemic adaptive capacity lead to adjustment to stress produced by mobility.
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Factors that Affect Social Mobility

1, Demographic Factor:
Social Structure: Factors like age, sex and race affect social mobility. Today advances in
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medical care and other factors have caused an increase

of this is a rise in the retirement
in
life expectancy. One consequence
age, and the consequent loss of vacancies for new recruits.
Not a purely Biological Phenomenon: The demographic factor definitely has a bearing
on social mobility, but is itself not a purely biological phenomenon, as social factors in
general have a bearing on demography. For example - how cultural factors such as son
preference have affected population structures.
2. Economic Factor:
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A
Mode
of Production: AR Desai, states that during British rule, transformation from
feudalism to capitalist mode of production rule led to the breakdown of traditions.
Neo Imperialism: Dependency theorists pointed out third-world poverty is the result of
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developed countries exploiting the labor and resources of poorer countries. Example:
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Development projects in amazon forest caused displacementof native communities such
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as Awa, leading to
their social mobility.
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Migration: People migrate from rural to urban areas, underdeveloped/developing
countries to developed countries for better economic growth.
3. Social Factor:
Talent and Ability: Sorokin states that usually, the abilities of parents and children do not
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match. In ascriptive societies, children may not always be as suited to their inherited status
positions as
their parents.
New supplies of Talent: Lipset and Bendix state that there are always new supplies of
talent which must be absorbed somewhere or the other. Example: under feudalism’s first
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age, individuals with military prowess could rise.
Social Reform Movement: It leads,to improvement in position. Example: SNDP
Movement by Sri Narayana guryd of low caste.
deus
Social Inequality and Soci: g to Paul Krugman in his, The Great

Gatsby Curve 2012, found th enmark, Norway and Finland that have
untries like Chile and Brazil that had
lower levels of inequality ha
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very high inequality had low s
Sanskritization: Sanskritizatio:
of life in the direction of a higher or
its
customs, ritug]
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group changes
more often twice-born caste. {
Westernization: The British b itional social institutions and created

new institutions. Example: Sec’
4, Educational Factors
is
Aspiration of most people: High educational achievement the aspiration.of most people.
R
ae for upward mobility.

J
:
nates
is*highly correlated with income
and occupation, leadinff to Higher
afnual ificofhe. ‘Th
tun is associated with property,
prestige, social status and power. Examples of Jyotiba Phule, Brahmo Samaj show how
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education heralded social change and mobility for such sections of society.
Universal source of Social Mobility: Despite criticism of schooling, education can be the
most universal source of social mobility to enhance one’s standing in
the social hierarchy.
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5. Political Factors:
Ideology: Different ideology attracts different sections of society and religion or political
beliefs lead to mobility. Example: Bolshevik revolution is based on communist ideology.
Political setup: The types of political systems remove barriers to social mobility and
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provide different avenues for social mobility. Example: democracy, theocracy, dictatorship
etc.
6. Cultural Factors:
Cultural Capital: Cultural capital is a valued trade by virtue of one’s social position, aids
or hinders social mobility. Example: Poor boy lacks soft skills in elite college.
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¢ Religious Belief: It motivates individual action and facilitates mobility. Example:
protestant ethics lead to capitalism and wealth accumulation.
7. Environmental Factors: :
* Natural Disasters: Natural disasters and climate changes like flood, drought, cyclone
etc.
leads to social mobility. Favourable changes like timely rain support agriculture and allied
industries in the developing countries leading to prosperity.
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8. Technological Factors
¢ Diversity in society: Reflecting a wider society in technology is vital for its growth and
the impact it has. With the diversity issue being so big in the technology
sector, it would
be beneficial for tech companies
to
look for individuals from socio-economic backgrounds
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to increase social mobility as well as diversity in the workplace.
9. Legal Factor
¢ Law and Constitution: The reservations and other social benefits for the marginalized
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communities helps in social mobility of these social groups. Example: Hindu Succession
10.
Act has given equal rights to the daughter in
the family property.
Subjective Factor
¢ Aspirations of People: Acco The Theory of the Leisure Class 1899,
individuals will always seek t
n the eyes of their fellow men. They
will aspire for those position: to be worthwhile.
Reference Group: Merton
¢
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determining social behaviour ing asathagent of social mobility.
11. Pitrim Sorokin gave four primary ffecting mobility:
¢ Demographic Factors: Age, s¢
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e
¢ Faulty distribution of individ
¢ The Change of the Social En
Are Hierarchical Relations Influenced by Social Mobility? - Yes

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Since ancient times, India has ed sacieby b
~« different castes in hierarchy on

Restriction on Social
©
their members restrict the
social mobility between different castes so that hierarchic structure must be maintained,
to
In this
G
way
in
traditional Indian society, social mobility has been found in negligible amounts.
¢ The concept of Sanskritization: According to MN.
Srinivas, sanskritisation has resulted in
the related castes mobilising in upward ladder. But as a result of
Sanskritisation, related
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mobility is only positional change in the system and not any structural change. In this
way
hierarchical relation gets affected due to this process of Sanskritization.
© Role of achieved status: Increasing role of achieved status caused by economic, educational,
political and other reasons due to modernization, westernization, new social roles have also
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affected the hierarchical relation.
Conclusion:
Today
in this era of globalization, knowledge, skill and its utility have speeded the
mobility due to which the hierarchical gap has been reduced too much as compared to the
process social of
past but its

presence is clearly seen today in traditional and backward society.
PAPER 1
—
Consequences of Social Mobility
1. Social Consequences:
¢ Heterogeneity of the Working Class: The Enlarged and Fragmented Middle Classes:
In advanced and advancing industrial societies, due to progress in science and technology,
in its application to industry, are influencing the very character and content of the working
class. The working class has become increasingly heterogeneous or dissimilar.
in
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¢ Social Change: Social mobility often results in social change, brings change social roles,
relationships and structures. Example: Change in family size and functions (nuclearization
of family) due to occupational mobility.
¢ Impact on solidarity: Social mobility decreases social cohesion and collective
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effervescence.
o Example: Decreased class-consciousness among affluent working class members
found by study of Goldthorpe in Luton.
Impact on Social Order: Social mobility could disrupt existing authority structure and
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¢
lead to formation of new patterns of relationship, resulting in cultural lag.
o Example: Generation gap results
i
flict between elderly and young members.
2. Economic Consequences:
e Change in Mode of Produ itilist class in ultimate phases of feudal
mode of production paved way’ new mod
for duction (capitalist system).
Feminization of the Labor Force: refers It easing participation of women in the
¢
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labour force.It is brought by modern education, ccupational diversification.
o Example: Germany, Boardroom Quota
the corporate world.
a
policy to enhance women’s representation in
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e Dysfunctional Consequence: ial mobility gould increase economic inequality
between individuals, regions, af
o Example: Oxfam reports ng economic inequality.

3. Political consequences
Rise of neo-elites: Neo elite are different from old elite in terms of composition, outlook
R
and orientation.
o Example: Dominant aa
bo ge
é
fier Mandalizati
By
* Rise of Women ain ar ginalised: olitical participation of women and other

marginalised sections has resulted in their social mobility.
G
¢ G. Mosca and V. Pareto's theory of ‘elite circulations: when the superior elements of
the elite get exhausted, then of necessity they have to recruit new individuals of superior
quality from among the
lower strata. This is a continuous process.
4. Psychological Consequences:
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e Wealth and Power: Some people may reject the dominant values of
the upper classes. In
which morally deny
such cases, rejection may take the form of lower-class religious values
the values accorded to wealth and power, hindering mobility.
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® Reform Movements: Another form of rejection of dominant values and assertion of self-
worth could take the form of rebellious ‘Robin Hood' bands, or formal revolutionary, or
social reform movements.
Education: A majo x Key to Social Mobility

1. Aspiration of Most People: High educational achievement is
the aspiration of most people.
At the same time,
it
is a sufficient but not a necessary condition for upward mobility.
PAPER
2. Correlated with Income and Occupation: Education is highly correlated with income and
occupation. The higher the educational level, the more prestigious the occupation, leading to
higher annual income. This in turn is associated with property, prestige, social status and
power.
3. Brings Fundamental Changes: Mass education brings fundamental changes in social
structure.
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« Examples: Jyotiba Phule, Brahmo samaj showed how education heralded social change
for such sections of society. It facilitates both intergenerational and intragenerational
mobility.
Alternative view:
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¢ Mark Twain: He famously said ‘I never let my schooling get in the way of my education’.
¢ Raymond Boudon: He shows that the role of education in providing for social mobility is not
very significant. In fact, education based on equality only perpetuated inequality.
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¢ Commercialization of Education: It
has diluted the role of education in social change as there
is now unequal access
to
quality education based on one’s class.
¢ Paul Willis’ View: Working class grking class jobs as differential education
kids
leads to differential reproduction gj
A f
e Althusser’s View: He treats edification as the mportant ideological state apparatus

appropriated by the ruling classés ‘to pursue the ideas and interests, and it reinforces
dominant ideology and thus hinders real social chan,
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in society.
Conclusion:
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Despite criticism of schooling, educatio ‘ugiversal source of social mobility to
enhance one’s standing
in the social hieraké
Does Social Mobility lead to Social Chanst
1, Argument in Favour:
a
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Sanskritization:
|
¢ Raj Gonda acguir dfairly highly status within Hindu society by mobility
through Sanskritizatién,, ow
ot oddane
© Westernization: Introd Of Mh
ation, universalistic legalistic framework
challenged traditional authority based on caste. Example: entry of backward classes into
white collar jobs.
G
©
Decreasing social impact of Patriarchy: Due to liberalization, occupational opportunities
have increasedfor women, resulting in increased economic independence.
* Example: Ulrich Beck highlighted men take household work where they live for
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welfare.
¢ Change in Family Structure: From joint to nuclear is caused due to social mobility
facilitated by industrialization and urbanization.
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¢ Secularization: Social mobility in the religious sphere has reduced rigidity, Example:
Black Muslim
e New Class Structure: Rise of middle class due to globalization privatization and
liberalization.
¢ Example: The NCAER Report mentions growth of the Indian middle class since 1991.
2. Arguments Against:
PAPER
© Elite Self-recruitment: David glass study and oxford mobility study shows elite self-
recruitment is rampant.
of
Ey
¢ Example: Ken Roberts in Britain studies found hardening class inequalities.
e Safety Valve: Mobility of few to the upper stratum of society acts as a safety valve to
absorb frustration and strain. Example: Tribal elites act as a safety valve.
¢ Cultural reproduction: Education as a tool for mobility replicates existing social
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architecture. Social mobility is between immediate upperstrata and long-range mobility is
rare.
e Regressive social change: Social mobility could negatively impact social change.
e Example: Rise of Taliban in Afghanistan.
Positional Change: Processes such as Sanskritization caused only positional change.
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¢
Thus, social change in qualitative terms was not achieved.
Conclusion:
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Social mobility breaks the exclusiveness of classes and makes them open. It makes social hierarchies
more fluid and less rigid. Equal access
modern societies, where absolute equality ¢
all toecomes an extension of the idea of equality in
st
, but mobility at least ensures that there

is equal opportunity to all.
Social Mobility treated as an Index of Econiomic Devel

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e Measuring Parameter: Social mobility can. be méasured against a number of outcomes
ranging from health to educational achievement and income.
e Sticky floors Phenomena: Researclskas shown that in high- income countries, since the 1990s,
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there is stagnation at both the bo
in
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move
up the ladder ina give
Suggestions: wf“ea
e Creating a New Financing Model for Social Mobility: improving tax progressivity on
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personal income, policies that address wealth concentration and broadly re-balancing the
sources of taxation can support the social mobility agenda. Most importantly though, the mix
of public spending and policy incentives must change to put greater emphasis onthe factors of
social spending.
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© More support for Education and Lifelong Learning: Targeted at improvements in the
availability, quality and distribution of education programmes as well as a new agenda for
promoting skills development throughout an individual’s working life. This includes a new
to
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approach jointly financing such efforts between the public and private sector.
¢ Developing a new social protection contract: This would offer holistic protection to all
workers irrespective of their employment status, particularly in a context of technological
change and industry transitions, requiring greater support for job transitions in the coming
decade.
PAPER
ee
A:
Conclusion:
Social mobility is found to be of prime importance in the process of economic development of
underdeveloped or developing countries. It is known that while some forms of mobility serve to
stimulate development, others prove to be detrimental this process. to
Barriers/Challenges to Social Mobility
1. Neo liberal Perspective: The prospect of social mobility is hampered by a lack of education
P
and soft skills.
Example: Paul Willis highlighted working-class children who were provided education
e
suitable for low state jobs.
2. Marxist Perspective: Control of ownership of means of production by bourgeoisie is a major
N
hurdle.
e Example: Failure of land reforms to alleviate poverty due to caste and class factors.
3. Feminist perspective: Radical feminism advocated strike on marriage and mothering role as
EE
they pose challenges in women social mobility.
¢ Example: Withdrawal of women from the labor force after marriage.
4. Symbolic perspective: Motivation, ; ocial image, prestige also affects social
;
mobility.
e
i
Example: Fall in of Ma wie after: adui L
profit scandal.
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increased rationalization inherent in social life, parti¢tflarly in Western capitalist societies. The
"iron cage” thus traps individuals in systems based purely on teleological efficiency, rational
calculation and control. Excessi affliction with rules and procedures could lead to
2
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displacement of goals. £
6. Lack of Institutionalized Means?

but does not provide adequate institut
° Example: Sacchar committee
‘
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7,
;
as outsiders, exactly as dames o-cornp

barriers.
G
Conclusion:
Capitalist societies are no longeras inegalitarian as Marx had predicted they would become, and that
there is a reduction in inequalities. It is doubtful whether this is true of the western countries today,
it
N
but is certainly not true of countries like India, where groups of various kinds have systematically
been denied access to things that are valued.
Role of Social Class in Social Mobility:

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e Determining Life Opportunities: Opportunities and rewards of a person are greatly affected
by his class position. Wealth and income confers power and members of the upper class have
more power than lower class people.
©
Colouring Personality Development: Social classes act like subcultures, the personality
development of the child is affected in many ways by social classes.
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rr
ge
—
e Assigning Social Responsibilities and Privileges: Social classes provide their men: ors with
distinctive subcultures that prepare .m
for specialized functions in society.
th
e Shaping Life-Adjustment Patterns: Social class affects the way people deal with virtually
of
reality. The way people handle life situations varies with social class.
TS
every aspect
*®
Explaining Group Differences: Social class affects the style of life of its members. The
groups which live differently, also think and behave differently.
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e Defining the Conventional Morality: Social classes do not merely differ in etiquette or mode
of behaviour; they also differ in moral judgments.
e Cultivating Class Ethnocentrism: Social class directly or indirectly helps in developing
stereotypes and prejudices against other than one’s own class.
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Conclusion:
Besides being important in social theory, the concept of class as a collection of individuals sharing
similar economic circumstances has been widely used in censuses and in studies of social mobility.
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in
|
Social Mobility and Classes India
In the traditional set up caste system was a ant system of
stratification. In the present
set up classes and castes have co-existed nd have interacted to create a complex
as
and multi-dimensional empirical realit;

© Social Mobility in Agrarian Classes: The introduction of land reforms in the 1950s which
U
aimed at abolishing the intermediaries, such as ihe Zamindars and providing land
generated vertical mobility - both upward and downward. The Green Revolution programme
the tillerto
launched by the government in
1960's hasalso altered the pattern of inequalities in the villages.
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¢ Social Mobility in Urban Classes ng the pre-British period, there were a large number
of cities with a distinct pattern 0! and. admiftistration. After industrialization, the
resultant urbanward migration hag Stidrmous. This has grossly affected the
nature of the social classes. There are es that can be identified in an urban setup
~
capitalists/bourgeoisie; Entrepreneurs, Traders and Shopkeepers; Professional Classes and
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Working Class. :
G
N
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PAPER
rr
re
—
UNIT 6: WORKS AND ECONOMIC LIFE
6.1-Work
6.1.1 - Definition
ES
Work refers to any activity requiring mental or physical efforts, aimed at achieving social goals. It
results in paid or unpaid employment which can be accrued through direct (contract labour) or indirect
eee P
payments (barter system). Sociology interprets work in terms of money as well as obligations. For
example, domestic division of labour.
6.1.2 -Thinkers
1. Emile Durkheim: Durkheim emphasised that organisation of work (DoL) shapes the social
N
EEE
structure. As per him:
¢ Traditional society has a simple DoL based on mechanical solidarity. Mechanical solidarity
refers to connection, cohesion, and integration born from homogeneity, or similar work,
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education, religiosity, and lifestyle. It is found in people having common values and beliefs.
e Modern Society has a complex DoL based on organic solidarity. It comes from the
interdependence thatarises from workand the complementarities between
os
;
people.
2. Karl Marx: Marx said that produ cal act and had been universally a part
of human history. Work is an and hence a way to happiness and
fy
satisfaction. When workers lose

U
y feel alienated. Marx says that the
dialectical nature of work relation: “in the ‘production process causes revolution and
es
polarisation. His classified societie: ‘Aasts of MoP:
Q
© Primitive Society
e Ancient (Slave) Society
© Feudal Society
e Capitalist Society °
3. Herbert Spencer: says that the DoL is the criteria for social organisation and
Spencer
R
institutional structure. ip{

5
sgcieties ..have minimal occupational
differentiations while m saga m difigrentiation.
4. Herbert Marcuse: As peel: oe Brblika ention, Work is given a sorrowful feeling.
For example, Adam & Eve were expelled from the garden of Eden to work for their survival.
5. Hindu philosophy: Notion of karma in Hindu philosophy is linked to work in the material
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world and one of the pillars of the four Purusharthas.
6.1.4-Types of workers
it
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e Paid and non-paid: is the classification of work based on the payments received for work
done. For example, regular workers, contractual workers, daily wage workers, house-work etc.
e Portfolio worker: It is a person working at different organisations at the same time for a
specific skill requirement. For example, photographers, consultants etc.
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e
¢
Voluntary work: It is the work
Non class of workers: It
done for charity. For example, Sikhs in Gurudwaras.
is coined Andreby Gorz for rising unemployment and increasing
penetration of part time jobs.
6.1.5-Importance of work
1. Social
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¢ Goal Attainment: Work leads to
allainment of goals as set by a society. For example,
innovative work makes India a pharmaceutical hub, auto-parts hub at global level.
¢ Solidarity; Regular participation in DoL promotes social solidarity, leading to
consolidation of norms and values. For example, worker unions in industries or doctors
and nurses in a hospital.
¢ Stability: Work provides stability to social structure. For example, the Jajmani
relationships-based work model-maintained Varna system in ancient Hindu society.
P
Similarly, the estate system in France in medieval times.
¢ Social Contracts: Social contracts, if implemented properly at the workplace, promote
security, cooperation and responsibility among teammates.
¢ Social Change: Work also leads to change in the social structure and institutions. For
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example, Talcott Parsons highlighted that industrialization led to the nuclearization of the
family system and reducing the
role of religion in society.
2. Economic
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* Monetary: Work provides a source of income to people. For example, in traditional
societies it was paid for in kind, while in.modern societies payment is
in the currency.
»,engagement of human resources in
:
e Development: Works promotes

developmental activities like fal services etc. For example, the more
Of
¢
a
work tailor does, the more
Innovation: Work promotes tinovative dis
: a garment. It enhances his skills.
in societal production, For example,
the Industrial Revolution led to machine-based
Umarket-oriented production.
3. Cultural
*Consolidation: Work promoteg:gonsolidation of existing cultural norms and values. For
tural occasion§ like Holi, celebration of festivals by
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example, professional holiday:
employees together their of in al
e New Culture: Work culture lea new organisational norms and values.
For example, Work from Home cultill ndemic society.
4, Political
tla
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aprpvide a platform. for political mobilisation.

¢ Mobilisation: Workgaadew For
example, trade unions afafc hots
ffiliaation with political parties
¢ th
Revolution: Marxian eory stipulates that unjust division of labour within the society
leads to revolution, causing change in socio-economic systems.
5. Psychological.
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¢ Purposeful Direction: Work directs the human energy into productive activities, instilling
a sense of purpose in the individual psyche. For example, Protestant ethics philosophy of
work is worship.
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¢ Diversity: Work breaks the monotony of domestic life by separating professional and
domestic life. This leads to sustained enthusiasm and energy in an individual.
¢ Identity: Work provides personal identity to a person. For example, respect to doctors in
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society
¢ Stability: Work provides temporal structure by scheduling people’s life in a proper time
table, instilling discipline and stability in everyday life. For example, 9 AM to 5PM are
_
usual office hours.
PAPER
6.1.6-Social Organisation of Work in Different Societies
Organisation of Work: It
refers to patterning of activities technically and socially, which involves
division of labour and Normative structure of society (stratification order, power relations, social
err
mobility, alienation, obligations of work etc). For example, modern societies have technical
component as dominating, while traditional societies have normative component
6.1,6.1- Slavery
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Definition: Slavery is defined as "a system in which one is subject to the power of
the other contrary
to nature". The slave as a "possession" or "property" or “commodity” of his or her master without any
freedom or choice of action.
Thinkers View
1. Aristotle: Aristotle described the slave as a "property with a soul". He says that slavery is
N
natural and beneficial to both the masters as well as the slaves.
2. John Locke: Locke had two notions on slavery:
¢ Legitimate slavery: Locke called legitimate slavery as the captivity with forced labor
EE
imposed by the
just winning side in a war. For example, Gauls captured by Romans wars in
were legitimate slaves. :
©
Illegitimate slavery: Locke called the authoritarian deprivation of natural rights as
illegitimate slavery. He theorised social contracts to protect the natural rights of man.
3. Karl Marx: Marx defined slave society based on DoL between two classes i.e. masters (haves,
control MOP) and slaves (have nots). Slavery is the start of private property and dialectical
U
it
materialism. Thus, is the earliest form of class society.
Types of Slave Societies

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Types Definition é& ‘
Primitive In wars for resources, the losers

were forced into slavery (no payment, no rights,
Slavery no trade). For example, the dasa and dayus.
Ancient Slaves were acquired by means of war and the losers were traded in the market
Slavery as slaves (no payment, no rights). For example, slavery during ancient Rome.
R
Medieval European serfs and captive prisoners of wars remained perpetual debt in
their of
Slavery feudal lords, giving up all their rights for economic sustenance.
Modern Intercontinental trade of slaves by colonial powers. Slaves were captured
Slavery (Africa) and transported to colonies (America). Eg, “shanghaiing” was a
G
popular practice of tricking or kidnapping men to work on sailing and fishing

vessels, while able-bodied men were forcibly press-ganged into Royal Navy.
Post-modern
Slavery
|
It is argued to be existent in the form of bonded labour, sex trafficking, forced
child labour etc.
N
Social Organisation of Work

in
Slave Societies:
Slaves are owned by masters as a private property and can be sold and traded like common goods a in
off
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market. They acquire and dispense skills as per the needs and requirements of their masters. For
example, Delhi Sultans had fighting slaves, whereas the Americans had agricultural slaves.
1. Economic
¢ Agriculture: People learnt to cultivate plants and animals on a large enough scale to
supPort large populations.
PAPER
1 - Soci@logy Optional
e Private Property: Land ownership is especially important during a time of agricultural
development, leading to privatisation of property.
2. Social
e Class: The idea of class first appears in slave society. There is always a slave-owning
ruling class and the slaves themselves.
¢ Religion: Polytheism dominated the ancient slave societies like Greece. For example,
P
Greece has gods like Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Thor etc.
3. Political
e No Role: They did not choose their government, did not attend the public councils.
e No Rights: Were limited to the masters and their families. Slaves had no rights.
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Organisation of work in ancient slave society- Features
Major economic activity- Hunting and food gathering
Mode of production is ancient- Agriculture, animal rearing, hunting to produce only for
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sustenance needs
Low division of labour
Little or no surplus 2 “ey,
Low
stratification- Mostly only 2 groups existed, the ruled and the rulers
Religion dominates economic life’
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Family plays an important role in production as production is mostly community based,
backyard work
Source of power- Animated source of power in
form of human labour and animal power
Low level of alienation- Workers are allowed to enjoy fruits of their production in ancient
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societies (not in later slave societies).
sree
Abolition of Slavery = Need and Significance, ofFeudal
1. Social f
Capitalism: Requirement of cheap labourin factories was fulfilled by abolishing slavery
R
e
through political and social initiatives.
¢ Rights: Slaves increased in numbers and demanded civil rights through mass
mobilisations. For example, Campaign to end slavery
1865 in USA.
resulted
in its end in 1833 (UK) and
G
¢ Population Increase: Population increased in medieval Europe. This led to increased

pressure on family income and slaves became unviable.
e Slave Revolts: Empowered by their economic contribution in agriculture, slaves began to
demand more rights and recognition. The negotiation ended in a feudal structure.
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¢ Incom patible: Slavery was incompatible with Christian conceptions of charity and justice;
some argued against all forms of slavery.
Economic
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¢ Population Expansion: Jt increased demand for food, and slave labour was freed for
agricul tural expansion. For example, the feudal tendencies in India during the Mauryan
and the Gupta times.
¢ Agricultural Expansion: Increased demand for foodgrains brought new lands under
cultiva tion with labour from slaves (later serfs),
PAPER 1
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¢ Productivity: The productivity of slave economy was not efficient enough to sustain the
growing population and subsequent city state’s needs. Innovation was non-remunerative
for slaves. This led to stagnation of efficiency
3. Political
e¢
Frequent Wars: More manpower was needed in the army, than in the household. Slaves
were converted into civilians (through land grants) in return for military service.
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* Monarchy: Monarchical states were rooted in agrarian productivity. It needed more labour
in the fields, hence discouraged slavery.
¢ End of wars: As large-scale wars/conquests stopped, the door to acquisition of slaves
closed. Slaves settled down on farms as serfs.
4. Technological
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e Innovation: It
made services of slaves redundant and costly. For example, in USA, slavery
dissipated with rise of mechanised agriculture.
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Conclusion:
Slavery is one the worst and most extreme forms of inequalities in work and although started in the
ancient times, it has prevailed under capitalism in different forms. It must be rooted out in entirety to
it
ensure fair and decent opportunities of work to everyone
6.1.6.2- Feudalism
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Definition: It is a social system in which people were given land and protection by people of higher
rank, and worked and fought for them in return. For example, in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttaranchal,
a labourer from untouchable castes of Doms and Koltas borrows money from a landowner for
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marriage. He subsequently becomes bonded torhis
landowner-moneylender,
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Shelter
t
Protection . ”
J
G
i Millimy Santee
ne (WASSALS TOLORDS}
AIT) i
; nah ra —
ri
N
the veasanis Rent

(SERFS}
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Thinkers View
¢ Marx and Engels: They emphasised the lords' exploitation of the peasants as the essence of
the feudal mode of production.
e Adam Smith: Smith says feudalism is a stage of social development marked by the absence
of commerce and by the use of semi-free labour cultivate land. to
PAPER 1
- Socioiog y Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com |
Features/Social Organisation of Feudalism
1. Economic
Specialisation: Feudal society saw an increase in small scale specialisation in work. For
example, carpenters, swordsmiths, painters etc. .
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Productivity: Feudal systems saw an increased economic productivity in initial years.
Surplus started to increase. For example, the Gupta period (Golden Age of India).
2. Social
Interdependence: Work was divided between interdependent classes of society. For
example, serfs provided goods/services, the lord gave security.
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Rights: Serfs were entitled to protection from their lords and the right to cultivate certain
fields within the estate to maintain their own subsistence.
Hereditary Classes: Classes of fiefs and serfs were hereditary. Royal status was ascribed.
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Kingship was inherited by royal descendants. Social mobility was low.
Alienation: Alienation was higher than slave society because of new intermediaries but
still not very high.
3. Political
Monarchy: Feudal states w ected by matrimony and treaties. This
maintained the feudal lord’s ure and uniform.
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Religion: Theocracy was th o-social structure of feudal society.
The
clergy class legitimised t
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Transition from Feudalism to Capitalis
Why: Marx’s dialectical materialism de; P
could not sustain the social needs,
they become dialectical to the social re change follows. The factors behind
rise of capitalism are as follows -
1. Economic
R
e Productivity: Productivity of the fe

consequent demand,
Mercantilism: Expa
to new economic occ
Capitalism: Capitalism promoted abolition of feudal structure and shifted manpower from
G
agriculture (serfs) to factory (workers).

2. Social
Population Expansion: Continued population growth in the Middle Ages made the feudal
N
system inefficient to provide for the rapidly rising demand of food, clothing and shelter.
Enlightenment: Human inquiry into natural phenomena challenged the authority of the
church. For example, the heliocentric theory (Copernicus).
of
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Renaissance/Reformation: Artistic works, independent divinity, arose. For example,

Mona Lisa by Da Vinci.
Middle Class: New mercantile class grew due to education and new occupations of
banking and overseas trade. It demanded more rights that led to social tensions.
3. Technological Innovation
Inventions: Like the Steam Engine reduced the need of human labour inthe production
process. Hence lords freed the serfs.
—
Industrialisation: Serfs were either freed or evicted from the land to set up factories. For
example, the Enclosure Movement in the UK.
4. Political
Reformation and Protestantism: It
brought new religious ideas, undermining the catholic
legitimacy of the monarchs. For example, Weber attributes the rise of Capitalism to
P
Protestant ethics.
Nation States: Nation states rose from wars fought along religious/ethnic lines. These
drew inspiration from the works of enlightenment/protestant scholars. For example, the
French revolution and American revolution. /
Parliament and Constitution: The concepts like social contract (Locke) and liberty,
N
equality, fraternity (French Revolution) culminated in Parliament (UK), and written
constitution (France). These governments supported more efficient capitalist production..
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How Feudalism is present in Modern India - Case Study:
1.. Emergence
|
Economic: Agricultural expansion ed up pace during the Mauryan times, and
continued even now. Slaves, or ade to work under the legal supervision
of a state appointed superv: “emergence of feudalism in India. The
activities were:
U
o Conversion of forest land§
o Reclamation of waste lands).
o Hiring local residents, or wba
el
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’
o Capturing neighbouring fe:
Political: Land grants were g val times to people in lieu of their

military and administrative s ese people were known as Samant
(ancient), Iqtadar/Jagirdar (me
Social: Lands like devadhana a fa were given to temples and brahmins
R
respectively for their sustenance and maintenance. These lands led to the rise of Brahmin
feudal lords.
2. Continuation in Pre —I
Economic ; a ‘
o Zamindari: The prevalence of landowning class in modern India, especially under

G
colonial rule, largely dependent on agricultural income, rent accrual from properties,
and absentee landlordism.
o Tenancy: Indian agrarian society has a large presence of tenant farmers, sharecroppers
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and contract farmers, similar to feudal serfs.

Social
© Jajmani System: It is feudalism in delivery of services by the lower castes for safety
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and income from upper castes.

the landed
o Caste System: Encroachment of all properties by the upper caste perpetuated
feudalism, where lower castes were like serfs.
Politica]
o Revenue: Feudalism sustained revenue collection for empires (Mughals, British), and
hence were state sponsored (iqta, ijarah).
o Support: Feudal lords provided military (samants, mansabdars) and_ political
(zamindars) support to state machinery.
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3. Post-Independence Era: Despite the industrialisation and globalisation post-independence,
there still exist feudal tendencies in India: .
Economic
o Agrarian Structure: Presence of absent landed class, and land is still tilled by tenants,
contract farmers and sharecroppers.
o Landlordism: Apart from agriculture, landowning classes with rent accrual from
P
properties exist in rural as well as urban areas. :
Social
o Urban: It
is predominantly rational, objective and scientific. It marks the prevalence
of achievement oriented modern values in a complex DoL. For Example, cities like in
N
Noida, the state is favouring land ownership to ‘mall modernity’ in place of rustic-rural
feudals.
o Rural: It is traditional, guided by religion, caste and feudal values. It is dominated by
EE
ascription, value bias and simple DoL. There is presence of dominant castes in agrarian
i
belts., There is also a trace of class struggles in the form of naxalism. For example,
gender-based feudalism is arising al India. Men migrate to the city while women
take care of agriculture witho
i
o Caste System: It
is the or em, still present in Indian society.
Political
U classes are critical in Indian polity.
{ph and Rudolph highlighted ‘Bullock
¢
to land ownership.
Wit
Q
4. Conclusion: As feudalism maty ed, inch in production, surplus, trade etc.,
mechanisation and bigger market tarted to take root.
§6.1.6,3- Capitalist Society

R
market centric and controlled by private owners forpro

based economy for maximum profit accrual.
Thinkers View
1. Karl Marx: Marx talked about various aspects of capitalist society like:
G
Social Structure: Marxian social structure is shaped by dialectical relationships between

bourgeois and proletarians.
Fetishism of commodities: Marx says that material social relations exist between objects
N
and individuals, losing the humane approach.

Commodification of labour: Marx emphasises that labour is bought and sold as a
commodity in designated markets, at market determined wages.
Alienation: Private ownership of MoP becomes reified and leads to alienation of labour at
KI
multiple dimensions like:

o Alienation from products.
o Alienation from the production process.
o Alienation from the production environment.
9 Alienation from self.
Division of labour: It forms distinction between owners of means of production and those
who must sell their labour time to the owner.
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¢ Social classes: It arises out of the acts of production and class consciousness.
Durkheim
¢ Durkheim says that the capitalist MoP is the one involving industrial production, with
diverse work specialisations, organic solidarity, complex DoL.
¢ However, if there are insufficient moral constraints and social restrictions, growing social
P
differentiation could result in anomie.
¢ This can be resolved through greater integration, moral education, supporting occupational
associations, and creating an ethics code.
Weber: Weber understood capitalism as a market-oriented system. He says:
Production and distribution were an important feature of the open market.
N
Market forces ensure the efficiency and competition in production process
Commodification of work happens, which is bought at contractual wages.
Occupational diversifications and specialisations lead to job oriented educational
EE
specialisation in schools and colleges.
C.W. Mills: In his ‘White Collar Alienation’, he claims that a worker's personality, not always
his skills, is what the market buys. As ertain aspects of personality are valued, and
man has separated himself from hi
¢
effort to pursue these aspects.
Herbert Marcuse: In
his ‘One ‘gues that False needs and a false sense
of happiness prevent the emplo uine nature of estrangement. Leisure
U
tums into a way to recharge befor
Robert Blauner: In his work ‘Alié > he highlights that Higher degree of
job content, responsibility and job iety and reduce alienation. He divides
Q
alienation into four dimensions:
e Degree of contro! of workers
« Degree to which they are invo
e Degree of meaning and purpo
¢ Degree to which they are socially 1 their work.
R
&
‘Richard Sennett: He gave the concept of ‘Corrosion of Character’ whereby demand of social
mobility, adaptability andémm ze
dict sogietaklong- term goals. This weakens
social bonds. For exam q
witching jobs for better pay,
while the previous generation went for ‘stability infobs" even with exploitative working
conditions.
G
Organisation of Work in capitalism- Features:

Major economic activity- mass production of goods in factories
N
Complex division of labour

Production is for exchange and profit- Commodities now have ‘exchange’ value instead of
‘use’ value.
KI
Production is based on competition not cooperation

Alienation is at an all time high as workers lose control over their work and products.
High surplus is
produced
Arrival of money economy replaces barter and labour
Inanimate sources of power replace animal and human power
is
also commoditised
Occupational mobility is high

Secular economic settings prevail and religion does not guide business anymore
Work life separation emerges and family is no longer a unit of economic production
T
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$i
How Capitalism emerged
1. Economic
e Shift from feudal to market system of economic distribution.
e Emergence of universal solvent in
the form of ‘money’.
e Industrial MoP replaced feudal mode.
P
¢ Surplus driven activities in trade, agriculture, factory production.
2. Social
* New class-based (bourgeois and proletarians) stratification system.
Dialectical, exploitative relations of production (RoP).
N
¢
* Worker alienation is rampant.
¢ New rights-based legal rational system (parliament, constitution, bureaucracy).
3. Technological
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¢ New inventions reduced production time and increased efficiency.
e Start of factory-based mass production.

4. Political
¢ Parliamentary supremacy replagg mytocracy.
e National glory was measured capitalism began.
ch).
U
¢ Capitalists sponsored the gov and duties (Crony Capitalism).
5. Philosophical
e Adam Smith: Smith’s concept elled capitalist mercantilism and later
Q
industrial growth through an oj
e Jeremy Bentham: He founded dvocating material happiness as the
prime solution to social evil.
6. Features
e Economic
R
o Industrial Production: Capitalism is mass mechanised production in

industrial setups,
or factories, on a Ci fe
per inificost, =
o Market Oriented; duptig ociisedGn¢thg demand of
the market, rather
than sustenance. So, new markets come like labour, raw materials etc. For example,
up
G
McDonalds introduced veg burgers for the Indian market’s demand.

o Consumption Based: Capitalism focuses on increasing consumption of goods to
maximise the profit. Hence, salary increase, discounts, tax incentives etc are done..
© Surplus Focused: Capitalist production maximises the surplus of enterprise by
N
maximising labour efficiency via longer work hours, economy of scale ete
¢ Social
© Specialisation: Capitalism requires large scale specialisation of work. For example, a
KI
person to be a machine operator specialising on the machine.

o Diversification: New occupations ushered in
the era of capitalism. For example, the
posts of managers, consultants, legal advisors etc.
© Alienation: Marx says that the alienation of workers from the production process,
products, production environment and self. This happens due to
lack of time for self,
focus on production, specialisation and mechanical nature of work.
¢ Political
»
www.suny jas.com | Telegram Channel: sunyanotess0 Page 265
o Rule Based Order: Capitalist political order is rule based, like constitutional or
parliamentary or both.
o Support: Capitalists support public finances through taxes and funding to political
parties. They also support social welfare policies through CSR activities.
7. Advantages/Disadvantages:
e Advantages-
P
o Economic
“ Competition: Capitalism promotes competition in markets. This leads to
availability of better products at reasonable prices.
*
Efficiency: Competition incentivises production efficiency by maximising profit
N
and achieving social goals like equity.
o Social
* Social Mobility: Diversification of occupations breached traditional stratifications,
EE
opening new scopes for mobility.
" Meritoeracy: For profit maximisation, capitalism promotes achievement,
innovations, efficiency, and healthy competition. For example competitive CAT
exam to become manage
" Feminisation: Capitali ed female labour force participation on
the basis of merits. F orn start-up, is run by Falguni Nayar.
© Technological
U
* Innovations: Innovati cy. Hence capitalists invest in new
research and technolog 1
education,
¢ Disadvantages-
Q
o Economic
«Exploitation: Capitali
maximise their surplus.
economic resource distributio!

R
ally. For example, Andre Gunder Frank terms

this as ‘development of
interdependence’.
_
o Social
*"
Alienation: Ali
free and rational thinking, encaptivating the mind in the process of money focused
G
mechanical production.
“ Inequality: Global inequality has risen consistently throughout the period of
industrial production. For example, as per World Economic Forum’s report 2022,
The poorest half of the global population possess just 2% of the total
N
wealth, whereas the richest 10% of the global population own 76% of all wealth.
© Political
*
Plutocracy - It is a state or society governed by the wealthy. Capitalists have
KI
dominated state power through lobbying. For example, Joseph Stiglitz wrote an
article entitled "Of the 1%, by the 1%, for the 1%", claiming that the United States
is increasingly ruled by the wealthiest 1%.
o Environmental
“Degradation: Capitalism has led to blatant and rampant exploitation of natural
resources globally, causing a sustainability crisis. For example, developed nations
PAPER 1
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are called ‘Historical polluters’ and have to achieve carbon-neutrality earlier than
developing nations.
®
Pollution: Pollution, air, water and land, has been a trademark of industrialisation,
from London, to
Delhi and Beijing.
8. Conclusion:
As we have moved into a ‘postmodern’ world (information society) from the 18th and 19th
P
century modern society, some philosophers like Francis Fukuyama have predicted the ‘end of
history’—meaning that there are no future alternatives to capitalism and liberal democracy.
Capitalism has however also seen sharp criticism in recent times because of increasing
exploitation, inequalities and failure to solve critical problems like climate change, wars,
N
injustice etc.
6,1.6.4--Taylorism
is
EE
Taylorism, developed by Frederick Taylor in the 20th century, a scientific production system that
divides the manufacturing process in small steps that reduce the degree of skills required to perform
each activity. Its main aim was to increase productivity and efficiency within factories and production
processes
Characteristics of Taylorism
mplex processes into small simple
e Process Simplification: Taylo:
U
processes. For example, car manu. ed into setting chassis, setting engine,
adding transmission, finishing exter
¢ Skill Reduction: Taylorism reduce: each step, allocating less skilled jobs
Q
vat
to less paid workers. This saves caj
e Sequential: Taylorism involves
These tasks are arranged in seque
@ Worker Motivation: Taylor favo
innovation. For example, monetary ince!
R
Contemporary Significance
1, Economic
small steps. This increases the
¢ Employment: Taylorism breaks the process into
G
employment prospects for less skilled workers.

©
Quality: Simplification of process into smaller steps provides scope for micro-level
intervention and improvement, and a better product quality.
Efficiency: Simplification and serialisation increases the manageability of the entire
N
¢
production process. This improves the efficiency of production.
¢ Mass Production: Taylorism has motivated mass production techniques like assembly
line, leading to economies of scale, cheaper products.
KI
2. Social
* Poverty: Monetary motivation, meritocracy, employability of less skilled labour has led to
social mobility as well as reducing poverty.
¢ Complexity: Complex DoL results from simplification and division of work into smaller
interdependent steps based on skills required.
3. Political
PAPER
Globalisation: The disintegrated industrial management
*
of
Taylor has been used by MNCs
to outsource production activities globally. For example, the Indian automobile industry
assembles parts, which are manufactured in China,
4. Psychological
* Motivation: Small work processes are easy to complete. It instills confidence and
motivation among workers.
P
Conclusion: ;
Taylorism is the basis of almost all industrial processes today. It has enabled the global production
process to generate more employment across all skill levels, leading to diversification of opportunities
N
in the production process.
EE
U
Q
6.1,6.5- Fordism
e Fordism, specific stage of economic d a
of mass production using assembly line production technique that was pioneered in the early
R
20th century by Henry Ford in the Ford ‘
e Fordism, for Antonio @ ‘labour to promote production.

Fordism peaked in the p iWiflance and mass consumerism
but collapsed in the 1970s.
G
Characteristics of Fordism
1. Economic
* Standardisation: Fordism is focused on uniformity of product quality and skills at each
N
level. This is an inherent feature of industrial society, retained in Fordism.

* Mass Production: Henry Ford focused on mass production through the concept of
assembly line production, reducing the per unit cost of automobiles.
KI
* Mass Markets: Fordism engages in mass production of standardised goods for mass
markets. This distinguishes Fordism from other production methods.
* Monopolistic Competition: Fordism consolidates and benefits from monopolistic
competition. For example, the Indian automobile market is dominated by a few firms like
Maruti, Mahindra etc.
2. Social
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}
_|
—
¢ Poverty: Simplification of processes and consequent job opportunities lead to poverty
eradication.
Consumption: Society is driven by mass consumption of mass-produced cheap goods like
.
¢
cars, television etc.
¢ Nuclearization: Fordism induces nuclearization of families even for the unskilled strata of
workers.
P
3. Political
¢ State Intervention: Fordism depends heavily on state from incentivisation of production,
to liberalisation of market, to maintain market dominance globally.
.@ Liberalism: Fordism depends on liberalism to sell products in mass markets. is achieved It
N
by state intervention and intensive lobbying with the market regulators.
Contemporary Significance of Fordism

1. Economic
EE
e Production Line: Conceptualised by Henry Ford, the production line is mainstream in
industrial production, especially for egnsymable goods.
e Post Fordism: It
is delivery of. specialised goods rather than a massive
wf
batch of uniform goods. For gon R comes in 3 models - the LXi,

the VXi and the ZXi.
2. Social
U
¢ Globalisation: Globalisation pt of liberalisation of mass markets and
their interconnectedness as envi
¢ Digital Labour: Digital labo
Q
services today, using Robotic PA) and AI/ML.
F
¢ Feminisation: Fordism and it sation and information society have

led to large scale feminisation lly, breaking gender stereotypes.
88
Criticism:
R
Harry Braverman, in his “Labo

Century, 1974” provides criti
perspective. He argues that work"
are coerced into servitude in a factory system.
G
Conclusion:
Fordism has deep roots in Taylorism. It
is scientific in organisation of production processes simpler in
steps, focused on mass production for mass markets. It
inherently is an industrial design, with similar
N
shortcomings like labour exploitation, environmental degradation, alienation and money-centricity.
Convergences and Divergences

KI
Parameter Primitive Society Ancient Society Feudal Society Modern Society

Major Hunting, Gathering Agriculture Agriculture Industrial
Activities Production
Source of Hunting and fighting Tool Ownership Land Ownership Capital Ownership
Power skills
_|
Division of Simple Dol - Minimal Little Complex,

Labour uniform skill set specialisation specialisation specialised e.g.
PAPER
1
_|
e.g. itronsmiths, like artisans, managers,
goldsmiths etc carpenters etc accountants, etc
Major Simple and mostly Master and Feuds, Serfs, Complex, highly
Roles Uniform Slaves King, Priests diversified
Alienation Least, almost absent Moderate Moderate Maximum
(refer to Marx)
P
Value Ascriptive, Ascriptive, Ascriptive, Achievement
System community-based Religious Religious oriented, rational,
‘|
work allocation objective

:
Aim of Sustenance Sustenance Sustenance and Sustenance, .
N
Work surplus for Surplus,
(Productio calamities Market focus,
n) Max. profits
Social Strata absent due to| Rare, difficult Rare, difficult Easy, dominant,
EE
.|
Mobility simple DoL due to ascriptions due to achievement

ascriptions oriented
Gender igiaae
DARED
Biologically »|
Rigid, Highly flexible,
Roles influenced, flexible, Iturally challenges cultural
non-discriminatory escribed, norms,
strictive, constitutional and
U
“fiscriminatory rational
6.1.6.6 - Additional Information: Post

Q
e Post-modern slavery is the expl¢ urces for economic gains through
underpaid jobs, social relations, f6 passing the existing legal and social
provisions associated with such ac
a
e Global incidence of modern slavery
R
i
Different Manifestations of Mo
1. Forced/Bonded Labou G&S
e Definition: [LO de Work OfSerViee which is exacted from any
é aiff
person under the threat of a penalty and for which the person has not offered himself or
herself voluntarily. For example, exploitation of the lower caste by upper caste people.
G
© Constitutional/Legal/International Measures
© ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930: Each ILO member which ratifies this
Convention undertakes to suppress the use of forced or compulsory labour all its in
N
forms within the shortest possible period.

© The Constitution of India under Article 23 has banned forced labour.
© The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 makes all forms of bonded labour
KI
illegal.
® Who
©
is affected?
Socially marginalised and economically backward groups like the Blacks in the West,
the tribals in India etc.
© Vulnerable social groups like children, widows, old men/women.
e Causes for Modern Slavery
© Social Causes
PAPER
IL
IT
= Social conventions: Identification and discrimination like the caste rules a Indian
societies provide for forc.d labour of one group by another. For example, lower
caste people in rural hinterland are still exploited as labourers by higher caste
SE
aN
ata
people.
TT
= Migration: Modern migration flows also mean that a large supply of vulnerable,
exploitable people can be tapped into for global supply chains the agriculture, in
P
beauty, fashion and sex industries. For example, young girls/boys from rural and
backward areas in
India are lured for a job and forced to work as domestic helpers
RT,
ITE
TEI
ILL
in metropolitan areas.
= Population: As per Global Slavery Index, the top 10 countries with the highest
number of victims are also some of the most populous.
N
NPS
" Violence: People with no social security are vulnerable to disasters, violence,
kidnapping etc. For example, migrant poor people are usually worst affected during
SEPT
natural disasters.
PTET EE
o Political Cause: Lack of political power and poor representation in power corridors
NONE
makes social groups vulnerable to forced labour. For example, displaced migrants and
immigrants are vulnerable to
o Legal Cause: Absence or legal safeguards such as the Juvenile
Justice (Care and Prote irectly encourages the employers to
engage forced employme:
o Economic Causes:
U
=" No
Source of income: Pc UGaccess to public resources pushes workers
towards bonded labour
Q
in Indian hinterlands e
= Less costly affair: Tw aders faced costly voyages and high
mortality rates. Mod ser overhead thanks to significant
®
from the prods

R
industry for i ‘They

hire migrant workers
m etc.
= Informal Economy: Keith Hart highlights the exploitative character of informal
economy. For example, Low skilled jobs in the Gig economy has given rise to
G
platform-bondage of labour. They don’t have social security benefits

THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF FORCED LABOUR
DEMAND
N
Ree)
eet ce
KI
e Impact
1 | |
AAA
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o Social: Social retardation and backwardness are a direct impact on groups under forced
employment. Deprivation from health and education opportunities are predominant.
© Political: Poor political participation results from forced labour and
voter turnout, caste and religion-based voting. Employer influences the voting choices
it
manifests in low
of the worker and his

family.
o Economic: Forced labour leads to non-realisation of economic value of the labour
P
potential. It goes unaccounted for in the national income, and makes the economy
inefficient.
o Environmental: Forced labour is not concerned with the environment. is focused on It
harnessingall possible ways for minimum sustenance needs. For example, Capitalists
employ African workers in mining sector leading to unsustainable mineral mining
N
e Solutions
o Social: Social awareness and education programmes, aided by good education at young
and adult levels will go a long way in addressing the problem of forced labour.
EE
© Political: Political will is an absolute necessity for eliminating forced labour. It should
be aided with better political represe tation and motivating voting participation among
the marginalised sections.
o Economie: Accurate iden: escheme beneficiaries (PDS), adequate
employment opportunitie
basic requirement for end
d good healthcare (PM-ABY) the is
U
o Governance: Proper leg;
requires active governance nd the executive level.
2.. Forced Marriage: A forced marria
Q
with learning disabilities, cannot
pressure put on people to marry
violence) or emotional and psycho e on their family) or financial (taking
your wages or
not giving you any
*
, Green Cards marriage in the US.
R
fall
women of ionality or religion, have the
right to marry ai
;
equal rights as to marriage,
during marriage and at its di solution.
o Article 21: The Supreme Court of India has judged that the right to marry a partner of
G
one’s choice is a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution.

@ Who
is affected?
o Women: Women are
the main victims of forced marriage, especially in traditional
N
society where they are attached to the prestige of the family.

o Children: UNICEF refers to child marriage as any formal marriage or informal union
between a child under the age of 18 and an adult or another child. For example- child
marriages increased in Karnataka during lockdowns as weddings were restricted to
KI
households.
o Unemployed: Unemployed men and women from poor social backgrounds are more
likely to be forced irito marital communion.
e Causes
PAPER
o Social: Social codes like prestige of the family, the traditions of the clan, rigid
the.
religious and caste identities etc override the freedom to choose partners in a marriage.
For example, Khap Panchayats in north India.
© Political: Poor participation, negligible will and patriarchal caste and religion based
politics undermine efforts towards equal conjugal rights.
o Legal: Poor provisions like restitution of conjugal rights, variable age of marriages etc
P
restrict the options to choose time and partner in marriages.
o Geographical: Geographical problems like water scarcity in arid regions promote
marriage as a means to
gather and reproduce workforce for fetching water from far off
sources. For example, Folk songs like Paniharo showcase the plight of women who are
in
the deserts of Rajasthan and missing her husbands.
N
carrying water
o Economie: Financial dependence of people on others, like of a wife on her spouse,
causes the submission of conjugal choices for resources. For example, Marxist
feminists highlights women help to produce reserve army of labor for the capitalist.
EE
o Environmental: Climate driven displacement forces immigrants to submit to
unwanted marital relations to rightfully settle in new countries. For example, a young
girl is forced to marry at 13 because climate change has flooded her family’s crops and
they can no longer afford to keep her at home.
e Impact
o Social Forced marriag
-
workforce white washed
U
trustworthiness in institutions
© Political - Forced marriages u
Q
certain groups (like wom
© Economic - Forced mari
cause further perpetuation Q
ent in caste marriages where women
take care literally
of every#! ‘d, without any remuneration.
© Solutions me
R
© Social: Education and awareness about fundamental and conjugal rights, advantages
of informed mar maitiagts iff'Social
if,
.
well-being is important
to bring a change:
o Political: Proper representation (e.g. Bihar
sovides for 50% reservation for
PO
Qe
women in
PRIs) is important to bring about wider deliberations and legislations in these regards.
G
o Economie: Financial independence via proper employment generation, moving

beyond pink collarisation (e.g. Pink taxis in Noida) critical. is
o Governance: Proper legal and physical safety to vulnerable sections like women in
is
N
transport and at the workplace critical. For example, women-coaches in Delhi Metro
o Sustainability - Sustainable environment friendly economy like those among tribes
have been known to promote consensual communion in marital relations. Such little
traditions should be universalised,
KI
3. Human Trafficking: According to UNODC, human trafficking is the recruitment,

transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of people through force, fraud or deception, with
the aim of exploiting them for profit. For example, the fraudulent employment of Indians in
Arabian countries.
© Constitutional/Legal/International Measures
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~
4.
ee
ep
© United Nation Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime: UNCTOC
Protocols on Prevention, Suppression and Punishment of Trafficking in Persons
provide for protection against human trafficking, particularly Women and Children.
© Article 23: This article of the Constitution of India bans human trafficking.
© Other Legislations: CrPC, Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, POCSO Act, 2012
etc. are statutes in India providing for protection and relief in cases of trafficking.
eee
is
P
© Who affected?
o Women and Children: They form the majority of cases in human trafficking. They
are trafficked to provide for labour in
illegal industries like drug trafficking, forced
prostitution and organ trade.
Poor: Economic distress drives people to voluntarily fall for traps of traffickers,
N
©
EEE
especially in prostitution and organ trade.
© Mentally Challenged: Mentally challenged people are vulnerable to human trafficking
as they cannot express distress and protest in a comprehensive manner against their
rRNA EE
forceful exploitation.
e Causes
PAPER
o Social
Ostracization: Social
=" ivation make certain groups like the
SEBCs, the tribals, w: le to human trafficking. For example,
sex trafficking in Ni
" Violence: As per UNODE,
U Armed groups and terrorists turning to trafficking to
show they have control over the community, or to increase their force. They either
TENCEEEeneneennNnNNNNC
recruit child soldiers or giving sex slaves as a reward for their recruitment. For
example, Male prisone ars and
Q
d sailors become labourers, women
become concubines.
o Political: Absence of stro: ines efforts to bring the matter of
trafficking to political fore a migrant whose visa has expired can
be threatened with
deportation if she doesn’t do what the trafficker demands.
ee
R
© Geographical: People living in harsh terrain (Tribals in forests), difficult geography
P|
(North East) ai ters) fall victim to human
©
trafficking for s a
Economie: Poverty, financial exclusion, illegal organ trade and flesh trade have created
demand for human trafficking. For example, Qatar saw abusive practise on migrant
G
workers who helped to build its infrastructure for the 2022 World Cup.
© Environmental: Climate change, disasters and zoonotic pandemics have driven people
to poverty and social vulnerability, aiding the illegal business of human trafficking. For
example, Natural Disasters in Bihar and West Bengal lead to migration of Biharis to
N
Western India as domestic workers.

@
Impact
© Social: Human trafficking promotes social exclusion and deprivation by creating new
EERE
KI
in lower strata like the prostitutes,
Ronee
groups beggars etc.
© Political: trafficking a burning political issue in international relations. For
Human is
example, the US-Mexico Border crisis, UAE’s Kafala sys.
© Economie: Trafficking results in loss of human resource, its
economic potential to an
illegal, unregulated and unaccounted black market.
PAPER
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—
oO Human Rights: Human rights violations are a direct result of human trafficking.
Trafficking deprives one of his/her choice to education, occupation, movement and
marriage among manyothers.
Terrorism: Proceeds from trafficking have been known to
directly and indirectly aid
in funding terror activities through arms purchase, human bombs etc. For example,
Boko Haram is using children as human bombs in
Nigeria for suicide terrorism.
P
e Solutions
° Social: Proper integration of vulnerable groups in social strata, avoiding exclusion and
ensuring mobility through channels like education and social support schemes is
important.
N
Political: Political voice of the trafficked and the resulting human rights violations
should be highlighted and adequate resolutions be adopted to cope with new forms of
trafficking like online auctions etc.
Economic: Economic safeguards like enforcement of tax provisions and bringing
EE
occupations like prostitution into legalised channels is important. For example, New
Zealand legalized prostitution in 2003. People work in licensed brothels, accompanied
with health and social benefits
Governance: Law enforg of wilful prostitution, and active
intelligence on human rucial in curbing the illegal act. For
example, Operation AA
U
Technological: It is imp cyber techniques to track, trace and
eliminate ontine buying and and their organs. New technologies like
3D-printed organs, cultured s can help reduce trafficking in organ
Q
trade.
4. Child Labour: ILO defined ch’ is mentally, physically, socially or
morally dangerous and harmfu terferes with their schooling. For
example, full time employment of
e Constitutional/Legal/Internationa
R
oO ILO Minimum Age Convention, 173: Minimum age for admission to employment
or work is set at ie
mififmum age for hazardous work
at (16
18 under
st git
article of constitution of India
—s
Article 24: This says. that no child below the age of
fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any
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other hazardous employment.

Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986: It designates a child as a
person who has not completed their 14th year of age. It aims to regulate the hours and
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the working conditions of child workers and to prohibit child workers from being
employed in hazardous industries.
© Who
is affected?
Children: Children are unaware of their rights and privileges. This makes them more
KI
O°
prone to exploitation.
Girls: New avenues of labour and online pornography has made young girls vulnerable
°
to child labour rackets.
oO
Poor: Poor households and families force their children to work for sustenance
Lack of meal Covid led
the of
family needs. For example, midday availability during to
children working as rag pickers.
PAPER 1
@ Causes
° Social: Social consensus regarding child labour, poor parental awareness, large
families and lack of education makes
family business or petty hazardous work.
it
apprehensive for children to get employed in
Political: Vote bank politics appeases the employers of

child labour like the brick kilns.
It narrows the scope for
required political interventions.
P
Economie: Poverty, lack of access to education and proper nutrition pushes children
into the labour force at an early age.
Environmental: Climate change and natural disasters aggravate the situation of
poverty, which in turn manifests in incidence of child labour. For example, many
youngsters prefer to work and earn money to
help their families through Covid crisis
N
rather than attend school, according to the NGO Child Rights and You (CRY).
Governance: Poor implementation of laws, corruption and bribery in executive
undermines institutional efforts to uproot child labour. For example, States like
EE
Haryana, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, have diluted their labour laws since the beginning of
the pandemic. :
.
© Impact
3° Social: Child labour cai poverty, backwardness and social
retardation. It
intensifie ig lower strata.
Political: Employment lead to loss of global reputation, poor
political participation and
U
Economic: Child labour res
human resource,: and boycott
Labour labels goods suspeg
Q
Human Development:
impacts their nutrition, and health. For example, Children
inhale harmful chemicals in ustry.
This ts how child labour affects. the natiern:
R
ry 2yg
Family Poverty
Bxploltative
chiid Labor
Poor Wages ane y
G
Low Lewel ag
Unionization Beterliorating
Limkeeow za wach za red
Adult Unemployment
N
©
Solutions
° Social: Proper awareness programs for parents, employers and frequent social checks
via anganwadis is important to
eradicate the menace of child labour. For example, the
KI
Smile Foundation spreads awareness regarding child labour.

Political: Political will and strong representation for children rights is needed. For
example, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment. Act, 2016
criminalises hazardous employment of adolescents as well.
Economic: Good social infrastructure wrt health, education, upskilling and
employment, adequately aided by public funding is needed. For example, Delhi model
of Government school infrastructure
PARER
4
@ Technology: Technology must be harnessed for identification and redressal of cases
of child labour. For example, PENCIL portal to register complaints of child labour.
Conclusion: :
Modern slavery is the antithesis of sustainable development. Yet, in 2022, it

continues to underpin our
global economy. It is a man-made problem, connected to both historical slavery and persisting
P
structural inequality. In a time of compounding crises, genuine political will is the key to ending these
human rights abuses.
6.2 - Formal And Informal Organisation Of Work
N
6.2.1 - Formal Organisation
1. Introduction
Formal organisation: It
is a system of well-defined jobs, each with a definite measure of
It
EE
authority, responsibility and accountability governed by set rules and regulations. enables
the enterprise to work most effectively together in accomplishing goals.
Formalisation: It is the rational organisation of work towards achievement of certain
social and institutional goals. T' he processes are meticulously articulated
in documents with rational, sci basis.
Data: As per latest report mately 10% of India’s population is
U
engaged in formal employm:
2. Thinkers View
David Silvermen: He talks ab sfmal organisation as follows:
Q
© Itarises at an ascertainable
o Patterns of social relations 6t taken for granted.
© Organisational participant: ate and control.
© Considerable attention is p: and to plan changes in them.
Arthur Lewis: Lewis assumed t odel of economic development:
of
R
o Presence an unlimited supply of labour in most developing countries.
i
d be ab:
orbed,as the pagem industrial sector in these
x ar oe oS
countries grew.
ers; einai préducers and casual jobs would
/
© The traditional s 2
eventually be absorbed into the formal economy and disappear.
a.
G
Meyer and Rowan: They depict formal organisations as systems of coordinated,

controlled activities that arise when work is embedded in complex networks of technical
relations and cross-boundary exchanges. .
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© Modernity produces formal structures in highly institutional contexts.

© Organisations incorporate practices defined by prevailing rationalised and
institutionalised concepts of work. For example, Policy to build créche near work so as
to reduce losses from paid maternity leave.
KI
e Weber: He emphasised bureaucracy as a system of formal organisation of work (rational,

objective, rule-based, meritocratic) related to exercise of power.
3. Characteristics: ormal organisation has the following features:
Job-oriented: Formalisation focuses more on jobs than on people. It allocates jobs to
people to achieve the formal organisational objectives.
-
~
PAPER 1 Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: wWw.sunyaias.com | Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 Page 277
¢ Delegation: Work is officially delegated from top to lower levels. The DoL and its
assignment to people down the scalar chain is delegated. For example- DIGO IGG Sub-
inspectorl] Constable.
e Accounting: The economic contribution of formal work in the overall society is well
accounted for. For example, Monthly pay-slips of employees an organization. in
P
¢ Specialised DoL: Formal work is divided into smaller units and assigned to individuals
based on
their skills and
abilities leading to specialisation.
¢ Departmentation: It
refers to division of work into smaller units and their re-grouping
into bigger units (departments). For example, the Ministry of Finance comprises
departments of expenditure, revenue, economic affairs, financial services, DIPAM, and
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public enterprises.
¢ Legal Status: Formal work has legal provisions backing certain employee welfare and
industry specific regulations. For example, EPF.
EE
¢ Deliberate: It is a deliberate structure of official relations amongst people in the
workplace. For example, hierarchy in public bureaucracy.
¢ Formal authority: Authority is lin position in a formal setup, and through the
position, in the person occupying
¢ Coordination: Coordination inking the activities of the various
epartment of Agriculture coordinates
U
0
based on formal principles of organising,
that is, unity of objectives, organis; y, division of labour, authority etc.
Q
4. Shortcomings
¢ Loss of initiative - Excessi
organisational tasks. For example,
fn
Ritzer highlights that the trend

dehumanizing as innovation is c
leads to increasing rationality. This is
R
°
rationality’ where men turn into mere cogs in a machine in
a bureaucratic work structure.
Dissatisfaction: Socighnegdsg'e sungatisf chain of command discusses
or example, Elton Mayo’s
Hawthorne study highifig! ips for ofganizational success.
Total Institutions: The social structure and power structure of every organisation affect
G
*
its architecture. For example, Foucault’s study on prisons, Gramsci on schools.
5.. Significance
e Economic
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© Optimisation: It results in optimum utilisation of limited organisational resources

through sharing, coordination and efficient production.
© Career: Career advancement and promotional avenues are clearly defined in the formal
KI
structure of the organisation. This helps in social mobility. For example, with 10-12
years of service, Tehsildar can get promoted to Sub-divisional magistrate.
© Productivity: The rate of absenteeism and labour turnover remains low as clear
objectives, policies, strategies etc. are present.
e Social
oO
Objective: Formal organisation defines the organisational objectives and authority-
responsibility relationships among workers for goal attainment.
PAPER
o Communication: DoL and relationships amongst people develops an effective system
of communication in the organisation. .
© Distinctiveness: The organisational hierarchy avoids overlapping between two posts

of two departments through distinct work allocation. For example, Policy formulation
by legislature while implementation by executive.
:
Synthesis: Formal organisation integrates formal goals of the organisation with goals
P
o
For
of individuals working in the organisation. For example, the Diwali Bonus of
individuals is linked to the amount of profit in the company.
© Social Security: Formalisation of work includes social security to workers in the form
of paid leaves, sick leaves, pension funds, etc.
N
Political
o Mobilisation: Formalised DoL provides formal platforms like Trade Unions to
demand policies from the state.
better
EE
/
o Transparency: Formal DoL latently shows. how the policies of the state permeate
down
to
the employees e.g. Tax structure, exemptions etc. /
o Decentralization: Giddens notes that when organisations grow in size, power

dynamics loosen and decisio: s more decentralised. As size increases,
:
a top-down strategy canno ple, Transnational organizations can be

ethnocentric — where p ides: me country. For example autonomy
enjoyed by Google’s Indi§ office from
U body.
Technological .
o Uniformity: Formal wor'
institutions like IEEE, SIA
Q
o IPR: Intellectual Property
in formal production setul
maintains the secrecy of it
to prescribe and consolidate a standard
R
Laws: Formal DoL requires p is

o
example, recent labour laws
i
i
organisational structur i workers. ,
like Wage code

o Institutions: Le;
©,
SE! RBl.etc play an important role in

enforcement and maintenance offormal DoL structure.
G
Conclusion:
Formal organisation has been touted as the panacea for long standing social issues like
poverty, communalism, fundamentalism, patriarchy among others. It promotes objective
and rational organisation of work, which permeates into other institutions of society over
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time.
6.2.2 -Informal Organisation of Work

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1. Definition
Informal organisation of work consists of small units engaged in the production of goods
and services, in absence of proper organisational structure and permanent workforce, and
absence and social security to the workers/institutions. Workers are not governed
of legal
by definite rules and regulations but by directions of the employer. For example, the
Jajmani system in India.
Informalisation is a trend where informal DoL dominates economic production.
PAPER
2. Data
° As per ILO report named “Women and men in the informal economy: A statistical picture
2018”, two billion people — more than 61 % of the world’s employed population — make
their living in the informal
economy.
93 % of the world’s informal employment is
in emerging and developing countries.
per latest Gol report, more than 85% of the Indian labour force is engaged in
P
As
informal
work,
3. More Detail
Informal DoL in simple societies: Traditional societies with high labour supply, simple
tech has more informal DoL based on personal relationships. For example, more than 90%
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of economic work in India is informal in
nature, especially family labour in agriculture.
Informalization in developing/underdeveloped countries: ILO reports indicate more
—
informalisation in developing and underdeveloped countries due to traditional MoP,
EE
absence of proper legal framework, compliance and enforcement.
4, Thinkers View ‘
Elton Mayo: He (voluntarist sch his Hawthorne studies at Western Electric

company, in a formal organisati ut that:
o Employees have social an alongside financial needs.
o Work satisfaction and pe on of formal rules alone.
© Informal culture of an o
U important role in job satisfaction and
worker performance.
© Leisure time, creativity and pe are more in informal org.
JH Boeke: He defined inform:
Q
me marginal activity which provides
income for the poor and a crisis. It is excluded from modern
employment. For example, During
Covid, companies retrenched found job opportunities through
gardening, small business, agri
R
Emile Durkheim: Structuralism of mile Durkheim would view informal Dol as

subordinate economig, and «workers with more,mechanical and less organic
solidarity.
Hernando De Soto: tor’as
economic development and led to economic stagnation.
) :
>
lol
tive, an impediment socio- to
G
Keith Hart: Characteristics of the informal sector

©
-
Low levels of skill. Workers have low levels of education, skills and are engaged in
jobs involving low technology.
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o Easy entry and low paid employment.

© It is largely composed of immigrant labour.
Peter Blau: In his “The Dynamics of Bureaucracy, 1963”, he highlights inter-dependent
relation between formal and informal organization of work. Informal structures exist in
KI
forma] organizations. Similarly, when small informal organizations grow big, they require
formal rules and procedures of working for better task management. For example, Alvin
Gouldner observes that inside a mine, supervisors and workers share an informal relation
to overcome hazards and maximize efficiency but in industry they follow a more rule
bound and hierarchical relationship.
Sharit Bhowmik: There are two kinds of Informal sector:
© Informal Economy: Made by
up
street vendors, rickshaw pullers, home based workers
PAPER 1 gy Optional | | Subscribe from: www,sunyaias.com
¢
oO Informal Employment: Made
Martha Chen: She provides 4
of
up
models of
casual and contract labourers in formal economy
informal economy:
O Dualist: all economies have 2 sectors- formal and informal. It
can coincide with urban-
rural, agriculture-industry dichotomies.
° Structuralist: Informal sector is necessary for functioning of formal sector. For
example, Flexible specialization due to Global capitalism leads to the de-skilling of
P
workers who enter into the informal economy.
° Legalistic: Informal sector flourishes because of attempts by small-scale entrepreneurs
to reduce cost of formal structure like filing tax returns.
Voluntaristic: Entrepreneur voluntarily wishes to belong to the informal sector.
N
oO
5. Characteristics
e Economic
o Low Skills: Informal sector has simple skills among workers producing at a small
EE
scale.
o Low Pay: The Reserve army of labour is the human capital in the informal economy.
This reduces the wages.
o Low/Nii Taxes: Informal se ff-the records and thus out of the tax net
o
which allows
Unorganised:
it
to be cos
Informal
deprives it of an organis
U
e Social
o False Class Consciousnes:
of a regular polarisation an
Q
o Unplanned: Informalisati
to an informal setup co-exi
o Needs: The basic purpose
needs of people like friendship .
formal structure:
R
o No Informal ofgantsation does not have any formal structure. It

cannot be precisely shown on the organisation chart.
i
="
Changing r j
mong workers, which keeps
changing as .
= Consultation: It
occurs among workers or managers wrt personal problems rather
G
than the production manager and vice versa.

= Absence of
hierarchy: People communicate with each other
horizontal and diagonal.
in
all forms; vertical,
Informal leadership: It is informally elected by group members. It influences

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group activities, formal goals (positively/negatively).

© Informal Communication: The system of communication is informal as the chain of
command is
absent. It may operate along with the formal channels of communication
KI
as well and works faster.

= Communication flows in every direction; vertical, horizontal, diagonal and
connects people throughout the organisation.
o Feminization of Labour: Women disproportionately occupy a larger share of informal
jobs as compared to formal jobs. They are easy targets for low wages, exploitative
working conditions etc.
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w.sunyaias. com Telegram Channel: sunyanotess0
|
Page 281
{
="
Example: Indian textile industry is the largest employer of women. As per 2018
ILO study, In India, more than 95% of working women are
classified as informal
workers.
="
Example: Naila Kabeer’s study of Bangladeshi women employed in Garment
industry in London and haka
Emotional Labour: Women are
P
* also believed to be more emotional. Their pleasing
personalities are the need of the hour for customer-management in the service
sector. For Example, Arlie Hoschild in her work ‘Emotional Labor’ highlighted
how the service sector employs women in the market of emotions. These jobs
include air hostess, call centers, receptionist, sales girl, midwives, nurses etc.
N
Glass-ceiling effect: Only 17% women are able to occupy managerial positions
workplace. They mostly held jobs of less power.
the at
Stigma: Women dominated fields like ‘sex work’ are seen as stigmatized jobs. They
EE
are not recognized by the government, thereby making them more vulnerable.
Feminization of poverty: Women have lesser wages than other genders, thereby
perpetuating their poverty. For ex: , the WEF global gender gap report 2022 ranks
India at 136.
° Flexibility: Surinder Jod) en are flexible workers, hence are
employed more in infor
¢ Technological
U
o Simpler Technologies: In s complex technology in the production
process. For example, the int
thetic yarn in Ahmedabad and Mumbai
led to factory shutdowns. W ho found opportunity in the informal
Q
sector.
e Legal
© Regulation: It has no fi tions that govern functions of the
organisation. Rules are con changed by people.
id
R
© Insecurity of tenure: It is formed ‘Will of people and dissolves at their will. It

does not operate for any legally prescribed fixed time périod.
6. Reasons for Informal
e Economic
° Education and Skills: Low literacy, education and skill levels disqualify workers from
G
taking up formal employment.

° Lack of Opportunities: Slow economic growth, less diversified social needs limits
formal job growth in the society.
Inefficiency: Economic activities with less people and resources suffer financial
N
inefficiency in formalisation. For example, the beedi makers.

Irregularity of Work: Sectors such as agriculture, event planners etc have business
based on seasons, and hence have informal work structure.
KI
Profit motive under capitalism: Informal sector allows capitalists to outsource

production of goods and services to cheap, hire and fire labour which saves them cost.
Globalisation: Multinational companies have distributed their supply chains across
developing countries to leverage their cheaper informal sector. For example, Nike
apparel is manufactured in Bangladesh and Vietnam.
e Social
PAPER
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o Traditional Society: Traditional DoL promotes informalisation. For example, hair-
cutting by the hajam or naayi community.
o Unprecedented Events: Events like COVID-19 pandemic, or economic crises lead to
collapse of formal structures. This leads to informalisation.
o Free Choice: People choose informal work for absence of organisational restrictions
P
and compliances. For example, increased freelancing in IT.
e Legal
o Poor Framework: Absence of legal framework in certain sectors lead to informal
outsourcing of work. For example, e-commerce.
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o Complexities: Complexities of legal compliances wrt social security, wages etc makes
informal labour more profitable.
o Policy vacuum: Policy vacuums in
certain sectors like e-commerce and food delivery -
services promote informalisation of DoL.
EE
© Political
° Will: of political will, like not hiring adequate numbers of civil
Absence servants, aids
unemployment, which results in informalisation of labour.
° Policy Paralysis: Absence ments for formal provisions for workers
pg
of
like women (no resolution rassment) and disabled excludes them

from the purview of fo:
U
7. Significance/ Advantages
e Economic
©.
Flexibility: Informal labour’ cant degree of freedom to work outside
Q
i
rigid organisational hierarchy,
o Management: Informal goperation and coordination amongst
people of different groups 2 the managerial load.
© Creativity: People explo! skills, bringing in new ideas and
practices without the fear of
R
fe
o Quick feedback: Managers can g

informal channels of icati
¢ Social /
o Promotes ValueStd¥ irganisationsistiare common thoughts, social

G
and cultural beliefs. For example, agricultural labourers.

© Social satisfaction: Members satisfy their social needs of interaction, recognition and
acceptance in informal organisations.
o Communication: Words travel faster in informal organisations than formal
N
organisations. People discuss their work and non-work problems and find solutions
without the support of superiors.
o Women: Informal sectors like SHGs and Cooperatives have provided very good
KI
employment opportunities and social upliftment of women.

©
Psychological
° Emotional Security: People’s need for friendship, love and support are satisfied in
informal connections in organisations.
° Better relationships: Cordial relations with managers of informal organisations
promotes an environment of understanding. This helps to achieve formal goals of the
organisation efficiently.
PAPER
| Telegram Channel: sunyanotcs50 Page 283
4
° Self-control: Employees frame their own targets and self-control their activities.
Control need not be exercised from the top.
© Political
° Innovation: Successful informal sector initiatives have prompted political and policy
innovations like the Ministry of Cooperation.
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O°
Participation: Informal sector increased participation of subaltern and vulnerable
sections in political sphere though organisations like SHGs.
¢ Technological
oO
Indigenisation: Informal sector has teamed up with formal sector in indigenisation of
N
technology. For example, lactose-free milk by Amul.
° Proliferation: Informal sector plays an important role in spread of critical day-to-day
tech in work like digital payments, soil and water testing etc.
8. Disadvantages
EE
e Economic
o Money Laundering: Informal transactions involve cash unaccounted in the formal
channels. .
o Malpractices: Practices li g, tax evasion, monopolistic practices,
o
collusive bribery etc are ci
Insecurity: Insecurity o
ganisations
-
s prevalent in informal DoL, where
U
employers can hire and fi :
© Exploitative: Legalists like iew the informal sector as

exploitative,
an impediment to socio-ecoric and lead to economic stagnation.
Q
e Social
© Non-conformity: Inform formal organisations. These groups
make their own norms an ce.
© Attitude: If leaders pro: terests against the group interests,
informal organisation will wé orgzanisational goals.
R
of lack of formal organisational set up based

fs
© Role conflict: Role conflict aris

on
rules, regulati
© Resistance to chi
and values. They y
o Social contract: Itis the basis of informal organisation and not code of conduct the of
G
company. Therefore, it bypasses the legislation and rules.

o Labour safety: It is not ensured neither in economic terms nor in social terms. For
example, accidents in fire cracker manufacturing units.
N
e Legal
© Safety Net: Assimilating a diverse informal workforce in formal legal provisions has
been tough. It puts workers outside the legal safety net.
KI
* Technology
° Small Scale: The technological innovations. and interventions in the informal sector
are small scale due to lack of formal legal security to IPRs.
o IPR Violations: Technological malpractices like IPR violations (duplicate mobile
phones) are prevalent in
informal sectors.
Standardisation: Informal sector technology and output do not adhere to legal/market
slandards, and may compromise on worker/consumer safety.
}
9. Conclusion: Informal organisation of work is characterised by social interactions beyond the
purview of established rules and regulations.
choice of people in developed countries.
It
is a problem in developing countries but isa it
6.2,3-Blurring Formal-Informal Divide
1. Reasons
P
¢ Dichotomy: Increasing informal setup of the office (formal organisation) in a casual
environment. For example, office space at home, working from a cafe etc. Similarly, Ela
Bhatt highlights that the informal sector includes
earlier employed in the formal sector but were laid off.
a
significant category of people who were
N
e Flexibility: Office times and work hours have become flexible, diluting the time bound
culture of both formal (office hours) and informal (hourly wages) setup.
¢ Contractualization: It has become dominant in WFH culture of formal (e.g, contract
online workers) as well as informal (e.g. gig workers).
EE
2. Impact
© Positive
o Productivity/Efficiency: P: , workers has increased; however, the
managerial efficiency has gf
ation) in WFH culture.

© Digitisation: Provision fd to households has gained momentum.
It will help towards lowe
U
o Gender perspective: The 021) noted that working from home or
job flexibility are particular’
of dealing with office and d
omen as
it
will reduce their dual burden
ies, :
Q
o Functional perspective: ain tlieir jobs as they were able to
contribute to organizatior® ring of Domestic Work as Male
understand the importance}
o Kinship: Familial bonds spouses have equal responsibility in
housework.
R
o Urbanization: Reduce pressure on urban housin: g/land as people can work even from
suburban areas. i
a Sn:
SS
© Violence: It
decr’
work from comfort of home.
tidk Ane |Séxual Harassment as women can
« Negative
G
o Dual responsibilities: WFH exposed workers to dual responsibilities (formal, or

official and informal, or domestic) in the same time frame, especially for women.
o Increased Stress: WFH known to increase stress associated with dual
is
N
responsibilities, and simultaneous exposure to work and social cultures.

© Stratification:
skills are excluded.
It
gives rise to technological elites. Hence, those who don’t have digital
o Organization of work leads to:

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= Tt causes decrease in workplace and Gender socialization.

"It blurs the lines between personal and professional life.
“Itday. creates Toxic productivity culture, with a compulsion to work at all hours of the
" Informalization of the workforce and increases contractual employment.
PAPER
—
o Marxist Perspective: Alienation is caused as workers have lack of time to explore
creativity. Alienation also occurs from co-workers
© Political: State surveillance increases with webcams and the role of security agencies
to curb cyber crimes.
o Technological Deviance: This leads to Ulrich Beck’s risk society. For example,
increasing phishing crimes as in the case of Jamtara.
P
o Decreased worker security and welfare: Some employers ‘informalise’ working
conditions of their formal employees. Such informalisation is mainly focused on
cutting employment costs and setting earnings below the minimum wage.
* Conclusion: Work from home is not a novel concept. It has been a characteristic of
informal work since ancient times, and has now become handy achieving formal
N
organisational goals. It has made use of informal means formal ends. to
6.2.4-Organisation of Work and Social Mobility
EE
Mobility Informal Dol Formal Dol
Quantum e Low e High
Factor e Low wage is 4
‘a e Achievement determines wages,
than achieveme and hence mobility.
Stratification « Rigid hierar e Flexible hierarchy with flexible
employee i.e. positions i.e. an employee can
U he
labourer and alwai tise hierarchy over others with
hierarchy.
S
promotion. ,
e Low (Though not nil).

i
Effect of |e High (though not Enc
Q
class, e High incidence e Achievement dilutes social
ethnicity, women in info: divisions e.g. Barack Obama,
gender or agriculture. Narayan Murthy etc.
race e The US has a
R
Conclusion:
Formal DoL represents a mord&
inherently promotes achievement oriented mobility. However, certain residues of social discrimination
pop up occasionally within institutions like recent cases of police actions against blacks in US (Black
G
Lives Matter movement).
6.2,5-Work from Home and Division of Labour (DoL)

is
N
Definition: Work from home a system of DoL where a person, whether formal or informal, works
in a casual setup (e.g. home) for a formal organisation (e.g. school, MNCs etc). It gained importance
as a mode of work due to lockdown imposed globally in response to COVID-19 pandemic.
Industrial Globalised Post-COVID
KI
WFH Primitive Feudal

Was Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
WFH
Present
Nature Well Weill Rare, Not so Very
of WFH Established Established restricted to common Common
women
PAPER
Nature Simple Simple Differentiated Highly Highly
of DoL differentiated Differentiated
Enabling Availability Availability Social norms Telecomm, Digital
Factors of labour & of labour and Internet, solutions like
for WFH simple DoL. and working patriarchy. For Organisation Google Meet,
Eg, capital. For example, al factors like Telecom and
P
everybody example, women lack of office internet,
had same high class involved in space. Specialised
skill set as people like informal work solutions like
ores
result with landowners like stitching, VPN,
unre
simple passing sewing and
N
Corporate
enna
EEN
technology. work working from profits, saving
Everybody instructions home. on
tester
ences
took WFH from their infrastructure.
EE
:
like making home.

tools for
daily lifeuse.
Example Potters Serfs W. Online or Engineers
TENNTRt
WFH but but Knigl telephonic WFH but
rerersanaanic
Hunters/gat don’t. meetings for Soldiers don’t.
herers don’t.
U employers
and
employees.
Q
6.2.6-Tertiary Sector and DoL,
Factors Informal Dol : prmal Dol
Nature of Work « Labour intensive™ Skill Intensive e.g. Doctors
vendors. e Labour intensive (Contract labour)
R
Modeof Finance
e
;
Unorganised, Ad-hoc e
_
aes
Organised, Institutionalised
Banks, thstitutional credit
Taxation ° «; ilfistitationalised taxation (e.g. TDS)
(mostly) .
Institutions Mostly MSME, SHG, Corporations, Companies, Govt.

G
e «
Cooperatives
Mobility ¢ High in tech and skill incentive « Overall high mobility (relatively).
sub-sectors only
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Social Security e Absent « Mandatory (EPFO/ESIC)

Dominant Sub/e Construction, Trade, |e Financial services, public
Sectors Accommodation, Food services administration and defence and
(IMF, 2017-18)
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Transport and Storage, other services.

Communication & broadcasting,
Real estate.
Conclusion:
Services sector have contributed significantly to socio-economic growth post LPG reforms. Their
contribution in formal and informal sectors have been rather balanced. Informalisation has increased
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in specialized day-to-day services (law, education, accounts, tuitions) while formalisation increased
in certain quinary sub sectors.
6.2.7 - Self Help Groups as Informal Organisation of Work

1. Definition: Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are informal associations of people who choose to come
together to find ways to improve their living conditions. It can be defined as a self-governed,
P
peer-controlled information group of people with similar socio-economic background and
having a desire to collectively perform a common purpose.
2. Features of Self-Help Groups
e Economic
Particular: SHGs are generally formed in response to
a particular issue, ¢.g. access to
N
o
education, child welfare etc.
o Clear goals: These goals originate from the needs of group members and are known
and shared by all members.
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o Effectiveness: Informal structure and basic rules, regulations and guidelines to show
members how to work effectively
« Social
o Voluntary: SHGs are run mbers, have regular meetings, and are
open to new members. I onal mechanical solidarity (especially
in rural areas) and organ of
endence (by economy scale).
U
o Participatory: SHGs wo ip, sharing knowledge and experience,
giving help, and learning to
o Shared responsibility: Res group members — each member has a
Q
clear role and contributes ces to the group.
e Political
© Democratic decision-maki members promotes democratic values
in the larger politico-social
© Federation of groups: Possibilit ing together to form a federation of groups
R
across a wider area, and carry p litical bargaining power.

e Technology
o Simple Tech: S duc S
fSminated by human labour. For
example, mass production of Lijjat Papad by a Mumbai SHG.
3. Importance of SHGs for
society
G
e Economic
o Employment: It helps in elevating the employment opportunities through micro
entrepreneurship, diversifying sources of income for the members. For example, Ela
N
Bhatt, who formed SEWA, organized poor and self-employed women workers such as
weavers, potters, hawkers, and others in the unorganized sector, with the objective of
enhancing their incomes.
Standard of living: It improves the standard of living by providing employment
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o
opportunities through microfinance entrepreneurship.
© Financial discipline: It helps in improving financial discipline as the members are
encouraged to save in short marginalised Savings.
« Social
o Women: SHGs help in women empowerment through financial independence and
intellectual growth. e.g. Grameen Bank of Bangladesh.
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o Social evils; SHGs play a major role in combating the social evils like gambling,
alcoholism, drug addiction etc by instilling better habits in the members.
e Political
© Participatory democracy:
members
It
increases the active participation in the democracy of the
o Local Governance: SHGs have contributed to aspects of the local government via
P
cooperation in economic activities. They generate their own resources when local
institutions lack funds and functionaries.
4. Challenges
e Economic
o Education: SHG members usually lack education and skill to take up suitable and
N
profitable livelihood options.
o Banking: PSBs or MFIs are unwilling to provide financial services to the poor as the
cost of servicing remains high for small loans. It leads to high interest rates, and
EE
subsequently more NPAs.
o Security: SHGs work on mutual t t of the members. The deposits of the SHGs are
not securedor safe.
© Sectors: SHGs are limited sectors like agriculture (Amul), textiles
°
(Kochadai
Social
Garments) et
|
U
o Patriarchy: Primitive th Obligations discourages women from
participating in SHGs thus mic avenues. :
o Subaltern: SHGs are domi sroups. The affluent avoid participation

Q
owing to outflow of wealt
e Sustainability
© Quality: Sustainability an pis of the SHGs have been a matter of
considerable debate.
© Production Process: SHGs productioif’ processes are primary and less efficient. It is
R
labour intensive, redundant and time consuming.

Technological
¢
Low Skill: Indi
© stlH
e bd ik bs and work. This hampers
technology adoption on large scale.
o Mechanisation: SHGs in 3rd world countries are marked by low levels of
G
mechanisation due to costly inputs and training programmes.

5. Way Forward
e Economic
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© Inclusion of Sectors: SHGs should be promoted across sectors like small scale ,
manufacturing (handicrafts), services (data entry using mobile) etc.

o Expand Banking: Expansion of banking services would reduce cost of credit for
SHGs. PSBs should take a lead, crowding in the private sector.
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o Credit Guarantee: Governmentcan introduce credit guarantee schemes like ECLGS

has been introduced for MSMEs.
o Upskilling: Upskilling and education of SHG members will go a long way
their literacy and quality of life.
upscaling in
e Social
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—
o Awareness: Awareness of socio-economic rights, privileges would help in descaling
the impact of patriarchy in SHG productivity.
o Empowerment: Women empowerment, financial schemes (like widow pension) and
adult education will be prominent tools to counter patriarchy.
o Incentivise Participation: Affluents should be encouraged (allowing CSR, exemption
under 80C etc) to contribute to SHG movement.
P
Political
is
©
© Political Will: Strong willed measures like establishment of Ministry of cooperation

essential to strengthening policy making for SHGs.
o Legislation: Adequate legal/statutory provisions should be enacted for credit
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guarantee, security of SHG deposits (like DICGC).
¢ Technology
o Small tech: Handheld/small tech. like sewing machines should be incentivised (CSR,
grants etc) to promote skilled/semi-skilled production.
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© -Adoption: Adequate training, post purchase support should be taken up for
technological inputs.
e Conclusion: SHGs have emerged a: for financial inclusion, inclusive socio-
economic development, in the po: potential of SHGs has been recognised
by international forums like th World Bank in bringing disruptive
behavioural change in the socia! nd blending the informal sector in a
U
formal structure.
Industrial Democracy
Q
e It refers to the use of democrati ent of industrial units. In industrial
-
democracy, workers are treated n the organization and thus play an
active role in making decisions. V
right to express themselves and an
equal chance to communicate their he policies of the company.
Thinkers View
R
« Peter Drucker: He provided principles of industrial democracy like Management by

objectives, decentraliza goals, etc.
e Ralph Dahrendorf: In
aie wo
MART
infereStgroups have a larger say in day-
to-day activities of management.
Ralph Miliband: He argues that strikes are temporary form of protest and calculative in
G
¢
nature.
e Philip Slater and Warren Bennis: Democracy
costly principle of management.
is
a nice wayof life but a luxurious and
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e Harry Braverman: In his ‘Labor and Monopoly Capital, 1974’, he said that Fordism and
automation has actually led to ‘deskilling’ of the labor force’. Labor has lost control over its
skills and due to specialized production, they learn just a part of whole production activity
renee
and they become more dependent on the capitalist system. This enables trade union culture.
KI
¢ Michael Burawoy: He rejects Marx’s explanation that workers work hard due to coercion.
The arbitrary power of management was substantially abolished with the rise of labour
unions and other reforms. Workers give their consent to work hard under the capitalist
e
system, at
least in part, and some of that consent is generated at work.
Post-Fordism era: There is renewed focus on customized products. There is more flexibility
at the workplace and there is also more differentiation of work.
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A
Characteristics
« Equal Participants: Workers are given the opportunity to engage in management and are
considered as equal participants in the organisation.
A?
e Management: It involves participation of workers via unions, work committees, joint
management councils, etc in the management processes in the production environment. For
example, milk collection and transport in AMUL.
P
¢ Participation through representatives: Most of
the time, workers can take part indirectly,
AA
through their representatives. Only certain parts of management are open to this kind of
participation. Workers are only asked to take part in things that have to do with them directly.
e Consultation: It involves consultation with workers within the. organisation to reach a
N
SPN
certain organisational decision. For example, joint consultative practices at Tata Steel.
Pros/Significance
EVN
AAA
©
Democracy: Participation of workers in industrial production and management promotes
democratic values within social structure. It brings forth real issues.
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¢ Motivation: The participation of workers in collective bargaining promotes their sense of
OGRA
purpose and value of self. It leads to a healthy psyche.
TOLER
OTERO
e Labour Commitment: Participatio of ownership of the production process
TSISMIS
PUENTE
prompted labour to commit more
e Innovation: Consultation pro
promoting innovation and effici
U
Cons/Dysfunctions
e Efficiency: Industrial democracy
labour and machines.
Q
e Violence: Industrial democracy
causing unwanted violence
plant during workers’ protests
ti at
« Mismanagement: Malpractices a
organisations and hierarchy. For example}

R
Conclusion:
Industrial democracy is im
the workplace. It promote:
Types of Exchanges
G
Exchange is engagement that is

carried out in hopes of receiving something return. in
is based
on reciprocity. People are motivated by their self-interests in their interactions with other people.
It
As
per Karl Polanyi, it is of 3 types:
N
e Reciprocity (Barter): Economic interactions were always conducted on the basis of

exchange since there was no money to operate as a value store, unit of measurement, or
medium of exchange. For example, silent trade (trading parties do not know each other),
Jajmani system, Potlatch system of gifts.
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© Redistribution (ceremonial): The ceremonial exchange increases prestige of both the

donors and recipients of the gifts. The goal of trading products is frequently to preserve
goodwill between communities, reduce the likelihood of violence or display superiority.
For example, Malinowski studies Kula exchange in Trobriand islands.
/
¢ Market exchange: It is done for money. For example, work done in exchange for regular
wage salary is called an occupation.
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6,3 - Labour And Society
6.3.1 - Definition Of Labour
e Labour is
the amount of physical, mental, and social effort used to produce goods and services
in an economy. It supplies the expertise, manpower, and service needed to turn raw materials
into finished products and services.
P
is
differentiated from a labourer in terms of choice as labour doesn’ t have much ofa
ene
e Aworker
nen
choice of work due to paucity or social exploitation. Terms like child labour, agriculture labour
etc. are used in a different sense than a factory worker.
neta N
6.3.2- Thinkers’ views
is it
TEA
1. Karl Marx: Marx says labour the force that men apply to act upon nature and change
totheir will. It results in work being done. The level and intensity of interaction of
NDA
according
necne
labour. with nature shapes the quantum and quality of economic production. Economic base
EE
shapes the dialectical social relationships between -
¢ Haves: They provide and control the material MoP of social needs. They indirectly control
the humans involved.
* Have Nots: They provide the jred in the production process, without
any control over any other asp
2. Durkheim: Durkheim views n within the society as the main
f
U
characteristics of social developm
* Traditional society: It is chara
DoL specialisation (mechanic:
Q
¢ Modern Society: It has tech
solidarity among people with
3. Malinowski: He looked at labou
tribes of south Sudan and stereotypic: Sle of man in warfare, production, rituals,
sacrifices etc.
R
4. Parsons: He advocates that D arises out of,the Sultural and social systems via
find
a
1 ov
socialisation. For exam
5. CW Mills: He says thal artificialesmiles, leading artificial life.
Professional men are enslaved in social conditions.
6. Feminist: Feminists like Ann Oakley and Shulamith Firestone criticise traditional gender
G
based DoL. as institutionalised exploitation of women by men.
6.3.3 - Informal Labour

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Informal labour is the workforce employed in informal sectors, under unregulated conditions, minimal
or no social security, and characterised by more traditionality than rationality and objectivity.
Reasons for Informal Labour (Same as Reasons for Informal work in Part B)
KI
1. Economic
¢ Education and Skills: Low literacy, education and skill levels disqualify workers from
taking up formal employment. For example, minimum educational requirements for
governmental jobslike in the army, railways etc.
¢ Lack of Opportunities: Slow economic growth, less diversified social needs limits formal
job growth in the society.
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©Inefficiency: Economic activities with less people and resources suffer financial
inefficiency in formalisation. For example, the beedi makers.
¢ Irregularity of Work: Sectors such as agriculture, event planners etc have business based
on seasons, and hence have informal work structure.
2. Social
P
© Traditional Society: Traditional DoL promotes informalisation. For example, hair-cutting
to the hajam or naayi community.
¢ Unprecedented Events: Events like COVID-19 pandemic, or economic crises lead to
collapse of formal structures. This leads to informalisation.
Free Choice: People choose informal work for absence of organisational restrictions and
N
e
compliances. For example, increased freelancing in IT,
3. Legal
¢ Poor Framework: Absence of legal framework in certain sectors lead to informal
EE
outsourcing of work, For example, e-commerce.
.
wages etc makes

* Complexities: Complexities of legal compliances wrt social security,
informal labour more profitable.
e Policy vacuum: Policy vacuu rs like e-commerce and food delivery
services promote informalisa’
4. Political
U
© Will: Absence of political wi uate numbers of civil servants, aids
unemployment, which result labour.
¢ Policy Paralysis: Absence of po its for formal provisions for workers like
Q
women (no resolution against sit) and specially abled excludes them
from the purview of formal
w4
Challenges
1. Economic
R
© Social Security: Informalisation inhibits“social security benefits, incomplete GDP

at.
For exe pls, only those employees are
reser
accounting, poor sc]
covered in Provident
e Scale: Small economic scale of in ormial industries makes’ eir formalisation difficult to
fu
G
achieve.
2. Social
* Social values: These values project employment in the formal sector as an achievement.
This demotivates the informal sector. For example, Corporate employee v/s daily-wage
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worker identities
¢ Child Labour: It is informal illegal labour. Informal labour reduces family financial
security, prompting children to work. For example, Shivkashi firecracker industry employs
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children as labour in Tamil Nadu.

3. Legal
¢ Safety: Assimilating a diverse informal workforce in formal legal provisions has been
tough. It
puts workers outside the legal safety net.
¢ Implementation: Poor implementation of labour and tax laws motivates illegal informal
work,
4. Technology
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¢ Small Scale: The technological innovations and interventions in the informal sector are
small scale due to lack of formal legal security to IPRs.
IPR Violations: Technological malpractices like IPR violations (duplicate mobile phones)
PE
*
are prevalent in informal sectors.
e Standardisation: Informal sector technology and output do not adhere to legal/market
P
standards, and may compromise on worker/consumer safety.
nee
5. Political
* Consensus: Lack of political consensus between right and left wings inhibits policy
interventions in formalisation.
Diversity: Diverse nature of informal work makes formulation of a uniform policy quite
N
¢
ENE
difficult.
Solutions
EE
1. Economic
e Social social security schemes like Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi
Security: Implementing Suraksha Bima
ntri Yojana, etc.
* Income Security: Formulation, Q lation for employment of people in the
informal sector would ensure e and income of informal labour. For
| ee
example, PM-SVANidhi for
U ble condition for the formalisation of
¢ Up-Skilling: Upskilling the
labour. For example, PM Kaushal Vi
2. Social
Q
¢ Awareness: Awareness about id to self employment and integration
”
with formal tax channels:
3. Technological
eSubsidy: Subsidising safe tec! on techniques would increase their
adoption in the informal sector.
R
4. Legal
¢ Formalisation: It i industeys,via rules and laws for the
1,
production process, ;anitem ployment conditions.
¢ Flexibility: Flexible Tabouf laws ‘(for gig/p atform workers) would go a long way in
resolving issues within the informal sector.
G
6.3.4-Labour Commitment
1. Definition: Commitment is an attributed expectation of the entire range of personnel in
N
industry, including the clerical, technical and managerial categories. It involves dedication of
the workers towards creating value in the industry or the workplace.
2. More details: Workers cannot be expected to be committed unless the management itself does
so. Here, the following three contexts of commitment are -
KI
¢ Workplace: In the workplace a worker has to interact with machines, other workers and
supervisors. In these relationships, it is important that the worker concerns himself only
with the tasks assigned to him, leaving it to others to coordinate the process of workflow.
* Market: Industrial society is a market dominated society, which implies that any resource
is transferable to the highest bidder. The two major attributes of the perfect market are -
o Extensity: It refers to the total volume of goods and services available for the sale and
purchase.
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o Purity It refers to the purity of the market principle, unhampered by non-market
-
considerations such as, for example friendship, kinship, caste and class.
¢ Society: The institutional order of society provides the norms of conduct which facilitate
commitment inthe context of the workplace and the market. For example, the karma theory
motivates labour commitment.
P
o The kinship group is most consistent with individual mobility. Accepting a small
nuclear family is a reflection of new occupational roles.
o Extended kinship obligations can be a major barrier to mobility. It reduces labour
commitment aspeople devote more time to kinship.
o Commitment leads to the rejection of such kinship obligations, and implies acceptance
N
of a system of meritocratic stratification.
Significance
EE
1. Economic .
¢ Value Generation: The labour is represented by the value they receive from the owner as
wage or salary for the work they do.
¢ Labour consciousness: It is the accounting of labour contribution in appropriation of
surplus. Hence capitalists uw labour welfare/motivation to maintain
be
competitive value addition. of the Month awards.
2. Social
U
.
¢ Discipline: Labour commitment is necessary to integrate people in a punctual and
disciplined lifestyle. This helps to achieve personal benefits by means of
shared well-being
the
Q
of labour and the industry. For example, Biometric attendance of employees.
’e ~©Justify Selection: The labourers are motivated to bring out their skills/talents, decrease
absenteeism to justify their selection. For example, Promotion depends on skills, team
cooperation, and a smaller number of leaves taken.
¢ Nuclearization: Labour commitment builds up on insignificance of kinship bonds, which
R
result in nuclearization of family.
Conclusion:
Making the labourers fully invofa AM
responsible for achieving the organisational goals, on the other side they prefer some personal benefits
G
as well.
6.3.5-Informalisation of Labour
N
Broadly defined, the informalization of the labour market represents a situation in which the ratio of
the informal labour force to the formal labour force—or the share of the informal labour force in the
total labour force—increases over time.
KI
Thinkers View
1. Sanyal and Bhattacharya: Globalization aggravated informal economy in 2 ways:
* Accumulation without proletarianization: Capitalist structure is itself responsible for
creation of an informal economy ‘outside the capital’. For example, MNC’s extract bauxite
resources in Niyamgiri but do not absorb the local population as workers.
¢ Dismantling barriers to trade and capital flows: Dismantling of trade barriers, increase
in Capital flows, global competition and cost-cutting outsourcing of production processes
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to informal units where wage costs and costs associated with complying with labour and.
environmental standards are considerably lower. Thus giving impetus to the informal
economy.
2. Piore and Sabel: Globalization leads to flexible specialization. This involves reorganization
of skills of workers. Those who get
deskilled enter into the formal economy. For example, with
P
the introduction of printing screens in Sanganer, hand-block printing skills had to be upgraded.
3. Guy Standing: Globalization causes fall in men’s employment rather than women because
women can do more precarious work.
Causes
N
1. Economic
©
Capitalism: It
is based upon maximising surplus wealth creation. Informalisation reduced
the-cost of production.
EE
¢ Post-Fordism: Instead of mass production of goods at
a centralized location (Fordism),
wé have moved to
a system flexible production at dispersed locations (post-Fordism).
of
¢ Liberalism: The growing competition between firms and countries makes

firms to organize production suiting the changing market conditions and
essential for
reducing costs.
it
This leads to flexible production and decentralization of work.
e Linkages: The organized sector gets inputs and cémponents at cheaper rates from the
U
unorganized sector while the latter depends on the former for marketing its products.
2. Social
¢
-
“Rey,
Globalisation: It has distributed capitalism globally. MNCs promote informalisation to
Q
exploit the labour of developing countries. It happens in
following ways-
¢ Calamities and Pandemics: Calamities and pandemics like COVID-19, tsunamis etc
disrupt formal production, forcing people to seek informal work.
* Choice: According to the ILO, in
the developed countries, people opt for informal work
out of choice,
cal
|
R
3. Political
¢ Imperialism: Imperial countries developed based on formalisation while colonies were
:
informalized to get cheap labour.
ew EWA FA EP! Sr
G
Significance
e Efficient: Informal labour is cost efficient, commands more labour commitment to ensure
timely remuneration. Absence of red tapism and legal procedures makes informalisation
lucrative for
capitalist firms with respect to time and money.
N
© Women empowerment: Informal labour employs women in large numbers, for example,
agriculture, textile, domestic work etc. Women become more financially independent and get
decision making powers, social upliftment etc.
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e Freedom: Informal employment provides freedom of time, place and work to the employees.
For example, A freelancer can work with multiple clients as per his own time.
© Diversity: Informal employees can work in multiple setups, with multiple skill sets. For
example, A man working as a cook, driver, delivery boy etc.
@ Less Compliance: Informalisation reduces compliance requirements firms, for
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Shortcomings
Social Security: Informal labour faces the immense problem
is quite an important aspect of the informal sector.
of
social security for workers. It
Low Skill: Informal labour predominantly includes low skilled workforce, in low paid jobs.
ree
e
For example, waiters at tea stalls.
eee
Financial Insecurity: The project-based hire-and-fire system, as well as preferential
gee P
employment reduces the financial security of informal labour. :
Exploitation: Low skills, financial insecurity and preferential treatment force informal labour
to engage inactivities against their like and interests.
N
Way forward
Bringing under the ambit of Social Security: More and more workers need to. be brought
under the ambit of the social security system, thus ensuring financial independence and
EE
formalization. For example, EPF.
Skills upgradation: There is an urgent need to upgrade the skills of workers ‘through
vocational training so that workers can get well paid and stable jobs with good future prospects.
For example, Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, etc.
Government intervention: Gov E“Gem must ensure that the interests of the
workers are protected at any cq Sing stringent laws to make firing of
employees difficult.
U
Targeted employment-intensiv can also facilitate the transition to
formality. Providing employment ta
through micro finance institutions e

Q
Case Study w.r.t. Indian Society
Post-Independence: Increase in ent, as well as employment with the
formal sector. Modern institutions HR&g omoted formal employment alongside
inued to dominate the larger workforce due
R
modern PSUs. However, the informal se

to nascent legal provisions and awareness. na tg
Globalisation: Globalis§
mainly due
to
stiff comp
Vain
ING@s. no} Mfg & or industries like MSMEs,
vantage, scaling issues and
market access issues contributed to informalisation in LMICs. Globalisation also induced
G
choice based informalisation due to the presence of diverse well-paid jobs.

Pandemic: COVID-19 pandemic led to supply chain disruptions globally. This has caused
reduction in industrial production. Industries have retrenched workers 'on a large scale to
maintain buoyancy and stay afloat. The surplus labour released has engaged in informal sectors
N
like agriculture and petty jobs for sustenance. -

Conclusion:
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Informalisation of labour has significant contributions in social context. Working mothers especially
benefit from part time informal labour, helping them cope with dual responsibilities. It also has some
significant deformities like lack of social and financial security.
enna
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ig
Page 297
6.3.6-Various Determinants of Economic Development
1. Economic
©
Money economy: The spread and penetration of money economy is very crucial for
.
economic development of
nations in modern societies. For example, money is a universal
solvent to trade between different countries. Exports lead to growth.
¢ Urbanisation: It determines the developmental nature of society. In India also,
P
urbanisation is increasing post LPG reforms led economic development.
2. Social
¢ Education: It determines the job type for an individual, whether skilled or unskilled based
on education qualification. As per Pierre Bourdieu, it provides social, cultural and
N
economic capital. For example, MBA, MBBS, B. Tech etc. leads to skilled employment.
¢ Religion: Weber’s study of religions and capitalism said that religion (Protestantism) plays
a significant role in economic life (capitalism).
EE
e Social stratification: Societies with purely ascriptive stratification are less economically
developed. For example, caste-based society of India.
¢ Personal values: Values like achievement orientation, determination, individualism etc
are pro development.
e Demography: The demogr nes the present and future course of
socio-economic developmen
3. Technological
U
« Innovation: Technological in
development. For example, Steam
Q
¢ Simplicity: Simplification of g
economic development to vari Phones.

4. Political
e Institutions: Political institutids
example, the British Parliament a: i
R
© Policies: Policies like Digital India;:Make in India etc

promote economic development in
2
:
a society.
.7-
How Industrialisation
1. Economic
G
e Urbanisation: Industrialisation promotes urbanisation and hence, labour became more

affluent to meet the demands of industrialisation.
¢ Mass Production: Industrialisation brought mass production in effect through Taylorism
N
and fordism. As a result, intensity in people-to-people interaction increased leading to

social change.
e Skill development: People work on enhancing their skills everyday in order to get better
KI
opportunities. Thus, people are able to grab lucrative jobs, making them affluent.
2. Social
¢ Social mobility: Mobility is achievement oriented. There are immense opportunities to
change the position in hierarchical structure. For example, Industrialization brought
changes in the ascriptive based land system (Hukou) in China.
¢ Culture: Value system is achievement oriented and not ascriptive in nature. It promotes
social change and doesn’t retard it.
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—
¢ Family: Nuclearization of family at the cost of kinship met the demand of industrial labour
as smail families are easier to manage and move.
¢ Individualism: Individualism is more important than collectivity. It allows a person to
decide independently from kinship rules, norms etc.
¢ Women: Women's position has improved, but she has to face the triple burden of working
P
at home, office and child rearing.
3. Political
i
/
¢ Democratic values: As democratic values proliferate throughout society; people enjoy

more freedom. This has a cascading effect as it leads to change in interaction pattern
between people and state.
N
¢ Conflict: New forms of conflict emerged in terms of MoP and RoP between various
groups. For example, power conflict between workers unions and MNCs leading
tules to fire workers.
tough to
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4. Technological
the lives of
e Breakthrough in Technology: Advancement in tech brought changes in
workers, labourers etc. For example- AI and data science are making lives easier.
¢ Health: Technology made he: ffordable to formal workers, motivated
to ensure continuous supply 9; xample, Health insurance policies by
LIC.
U
5. Legal ,
:
legal systems like the Parliament. It

i
e New Laws: Industrialisation bit t ‘few
brought new laws w.r.t. wages,

Q
wages, social security, industrig
e Legal Institutions: New insti
its social outcomes. For exam
R
Introduction: The Human focuses on matiagers more interest in the workers,

i
Relations School aking
recognising them as valuable realising that employees like
connecting with one another. hé-General Electric Company in
Chicago found out that (Hawthré
G
¢ Communication: Worker communication was more important in guiding employee behaviour

than physical conditions and the organisational work practices. n
e Wage levels: They were not the dominant motivating factor for most workers.
at
N
Key findings of Elton Mayo studies (Hawthrone):

¢ Employee behaviour: Worker’s behaviour depends primarily on the social and organisational
circumstances of work.
KI
* Determinants: Leadership style, group cohesion and job satisfaction are major determinants
of the outputs of the working group.
¢ Task Completion: Employees work better if they are given a wide range of tasks to complete.
Working Group: Standards set internally by a working group influence employee attitudes
and perspectives more than organisational standards.
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Group Orientation: Individual workers cannot treated in isolation, but must be seen as
be
members
the group.
of a group. Monetary incentives and good working conditions are less important than
6.3.9- Reserve Army of Labour
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Definition: Marxist term for unemployed people who are
willing to work for very low wages
in temporary jobs because they don't have any other options. A reserve army of labour serves
the interests of the bourgeoisie and takes advantage of the proletariat.
Marxists Feminists: They propose that the capitalist setup treats female workforce as a reserve
labour, which is cheap, more disciplined and has weak bargaining power owing
to
N
patriarchal
social residues. For example, more than 90% ofthe female workforce is employed in the
-informal sector in India because they accept low wages.
EE
Features
Low Wages: Marx says that presence of
and maximises profits for capitalists.
a reserve army of labour reduces the effective wages,
Unemployment: Unemployment a is of the reserve army of labour. Hence, the
Technology: Technology gen It replaces human labour in the

production process (Industrial
U
ple, Computer revolution in the 90s
led to lay-offs of clerical jobs.
Poverty: Unemployment and low 2overty and hunger in the reserve army.
Q
@ Gender: When the male labour becg lists try to hire cheap female labour to
maintain production competitiven
¢ No
Socialism: Socialism is not a pitalism. If the state is not active in
resolving unemployment, creat it jour.
R
Yay forward
of
_
© Employment: Addressing the challenge the Reserve Anny of Labour requires creating new
fonefp
©
employment opportunit haves co ne, to create vegetarian-meat
using 3D printing. This
eel,
sppartiittié
@
Gender Equality: Inducing gender sensitivity and gender based on meritocracy can
G
address the problem of genderization of labour.

¢ Child Labour: ‘Children serve as reserve labour for informal and cheap industries like eateries
due to poverty and social backwardness,
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© Formalisation: Reserve army is ready to work at minimum possible wage, and inhumane and
unsafe conditions in unregulated occupations. So, ensuring formalization of occupations will
provide better wages and social security net to workers.
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Conclusion:
Marx has
rightly highlighted the presence of the reserve army of labour in modern capitalist society.
This demands significant attention towards the dichotomy arising between economic production of
industries and social development of the labour class.
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“ite, ay
6.3.10-Feminisation of Labour
1. Definition: Term connotes the fact that more and more women are
entering the workspace as
paid workers. Some the phenomena that
of fuelled this concept are the growth of trade, the rise
of competition, the rise of demand, the flow of capital, and the spread of globalisation. The
term “feminisation” in “feminization of labour” also describes the following processes:
e Increase in
the labour force participation by women across the world.
P
e Relative fall or stagnation of men’s employment.
¢ Substitution of men by women in
certain jobs traditionally held by men.
e Flexibilisation of labour where women are expected to work in informal, part time,
contractual or home-based activities.
Feminisation of working conditions for both women and men workers. ‘Initially, informal,
N
e
flexible and contractual employment was used to be reserved for women.
2. Why feminisation
e Economic
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o Industrial: Regular manufacturing Jobs for men has declined along with a decline in
state welfarism resulting in incr ome insecurity for the families.
o Production Cost: Female the labour supply, reducing the cost of
production.
o Human resource: Wome are of the population. They need to be
tapped for the economic on. For example, Ann Oakley points
U
out that 25-40% of the wedi countries is due to unpaid labor of women
at home.
e Social
Q
o Modernity: Rational an neated through the traditional social
structures, assisted by mas:
© Fertility: Increasing popu earning hands in the family. This
prompted economic particip
o Globalisation: Globalisation has coincided with a global increase in female labour
i
R
ed thegs nder,gap 10 from 32 to 26percent.

©
isal haVe,contributed to this, including

eveloy ine"World (Camila et al, 2012).
¢ Political
o Wars: World Wars and other wars reduced the male labour available for industries.
G
This prompted the employment of women,

o Movement: Feminist movements for equal rights and against gender discrimination
prompted feminisation of labour.
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3. Positive Impact
e Economic
o Independence: Feminization increased financial independence of women, and overall
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investment in women health and education.

© Financial Literacy: Women can manage finances better once they start entering the
labor market. For example, The All India Rural Financial Inclusion Survey 2016~17
indicated that women have equal and very strong financial knowledge and have better
poSitive financial attitudes than their male counterparts.
e Social
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—
o Empowerment: Feminisation has led to empowerment of women in financial terms,
eT
which has emboldened their social status. For example, Pepsico CEO Indira Nooyi.
o Gender Sensitivity: Feminisation of labour has increased gender sensitivity in larger
social structures like equal pay for equal work.
© Participation: Social participation of working women has risen in family decision
making, legislatures, military and academia. For example, Permanent commission to
NT P
women in the Indian army.
o Weakened Patriarchy: Feminisation has weakened the patriarchal tendencies in
societies. For example, now educated working women disapprove of “purely arranged
marriages”, as well as of “purely love marriages”. More of them are now approving of
the “Modern type of arranged marriages” and the
“rational type of love marriages”.
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anny
© Political
o Elections: Increased electoral participation has occurred post feminisation of labour in
globalised societies like India. For example, As per ORF research paper, In the 1950s,
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_»
In terms of those who actually cast their votes, the ratio was 793 females per 1000
males. By the 2010s, gender gap in sex ratio of voters & electors had narrowed
Neutralisation of dultery and homosexuality has been
0.
seen
to
o Rights: gen
in feminised economies.
© Participation: Women participating in political movements
(Farmer protests, 2021)
4. Negative Impact
U
'@ Economic
o Opportunities: Presence of; d glass ceiling limits the opportunities
Q
for women.
o Remuneration: Women u . jobs, or receive lesser remuneration
for the same. work as com
o Career Growth: Career pi émen is hampered by misogynist and
patriarchal values at the workpla
R
e Social
a
o Gender hierar i), Workplaces with male owners,
managers, and s
Rieoet
p
‘Orkexs.
o Sexual Violence and Abuse: There are many repeated cases of sexual harassment
inside and outside the work premises.
G
© Poor working conditions: Poor conditions and long hours work leadof
health issuesto
and loss of jobs for women (like during maternity).
‘
¢ Political
to
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© Ban on unions: Socio-political systems lack proper provisions for women’s unions
collectively demand a better bargain at work.
© State paralysis: Many states do passively promote patriarchy at work. For example,
Centre’s inactivity on Vishaka Guidelines.
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5. Conclusion: Feminisation of the labour force is an important phenomenon

society. Despite serving several like weakening patriarchy,
post-industrial
empowering women;
of
purposes
there exists several challenges to feminisation like patriarchal residues, conservatism, gender
violence and social change induced anomie which needs to be addressed too.
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6.3.11- Globalization
1. Definition: Globalisation is the process by which the world and its markets are becoming
increasingly interconnected as a result of massively increased trade and cultural exchange.
2. Information Capitalism: Castells calls the modern IT driven connection of markets and
economies as “Information Capitalism”. He observes that. information and computer
technologies have aided capitalists with economies of scale.
P
3. Theory of Globalisation by David Held: Three schools of globalisation:
Hyperglobalists: Believe that globalisation is happening at a rapid pace and knowledge
and capital are being shared by the West to the East to ensure social development,
modernisation and democracy Re
Skeptics: Believe that globalisation is not happening and instead*their is growing
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regionalism. For example, BREXIT, formation of mini-laterals.
|
Transformationalists: Believe that globalization is a slow and two way process unlike
what hyperglobalists believe. Thus, there is
rise of glocalisation and hyphenated identities.
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Impacts of Globalization
1. Economic Impacts
DoL: Globalisation has led to ivision of labour’. For example, India
emerged as a global hub for t]
Surplus labour: Globalisat! tion, destroying traditional MoP in
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developing world, disengagin ur force as surplus.
Informalisation: Globalisatio formal jobs, where traditional labour
surplus could not work, leadi
Q
Service Sector: New secto
communication. For example,
Labour Mobility: Globalisa'
R
Rajasthan started a b
Self-employment: abdtir and jobs, deepened by
informalisation, induced self-employment tendencies in sectors like retail, services,
G
transport, agriculture ete.

2. Social Impacts
Value Change: Globalisation led to change in social values. For example, India has
witnessed increased public presence of women.
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Patriarchy: Feminisation of work and resulting financial independence of women has led
to weakening of the patriarchal structures.
New Institutions: Globalised society has witnessed new institutions like virtual
KI
marketplaces, telemedicine facilities etc. For example, Amazon, Flipkart, Alibaba. _
Education and Health: Globalisation and ICT have opened dimensions to health and
education like medical tourism, education visa, etc. For example, India as Surrogacy
capital, Yoga tourism in Rishikesh (Beatles Ashram).
Cohesion: Globalisation has increased cohesion among societies among rational lines. For
example, Indo-American connectivity wrt Yoga and IT.
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Conflicts: Conflicting traditional values have come in
contact due to globalisation. For
example, resistance to western values in the Arab world.
3. Political Impacts
Sovereignty: Political sovereignty of states wrt law making and environment allegedly is
subservient to market forces. Eg, Geo-economics in case of India-China relation even
though high geo-political tensions.
P
Independence: States have been virtually under economic captivity of the developed
world (Sri Lanka and China) due to neo-colonialism.
Institutions: New institutions like WTO, market regulators for share market, IT industry
etc have arisen out of globalisation.
4, Technological: Impacts
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Proliferatibn: Globalisation led to outsourcing of technology from big MNCs of
developed world to MSMEs in
developing countries. Eg, Cryogenic tech from Russia.
Diversification: Diversification of technological roles occurred due to globalisation. For
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ample, the USA is a research hub, India is a BPO hub.
e IPR Regime: It
led to cooperation a)
of developing countries. Eg, Gey
nflicts for IP rights, especially to disadvantage
e way to tweak IPR protections.
—
Globalisation and Informalisation

1. Introduction: The informal secté win developing economies, Developing
U
economies suffered from a large s n of the labour force post globalisation
due to technological and market fac’
2. Globalisation exacerbated informalisa
Q
Mobility: Unhindered mobility of commodity and capital across national boundaries
created tough competitis ‘or formal sectors. For example, due to cheap Chinese products
in the Indiari:tnatket local sellers are facing tough competition.
Cheaper imports: Led to contraction of import-competing industries in formal sector.
Less exports: Expansion of the. export sector has failed to generate sufficient employment
R
to compensate for the loss. a

Job Destruction: Global compet
oR
8 BR OW
has forced enterprises to raise labour productivity
and large-scale retrenchment of workers. Be ae
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Globalisation and Feminisation

1. bitreduction: Globalization has helped dilute the traditional conservatism regarding gender-
based division of labour in oriental and other traditional societies. New movements like
feminist movements, pro-abortion protests etc mark a financially independent and well-
N
connected feminine workforce.

2. Globalisation has led to feminisation in the following ways:
New Jobs: Globalisation and modernity has created new less labour-intensive jobs like
KI
consultants, counsellors, IT sector etc.

Value Change: Globalised world is driven by ideas of objectivity, rationality and self-
gratification, diluting traditional values.
Demand: Globalisation increased demand for goods like textiles and foods. These
industries absorbed cheap female labour.
Rational Workspace: Gender neutral work focused requirement of modern industries has
promoted employment of women.
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3. Globalisation also has inherent drawbacks for female LFPR:
*Informal sector got impetus: Informalisation induced by globalisation has increased
female labour in
informal sectors like garment, agri. etc.
Unequal Wages: Recent case of Google Inc. has exposed the wage inequality biased
e¢
against women in modern industries.

¢ Objectification: Modern industries and jobs like advertisements, modelling, etc have
objectified women as eye candies in the market,
P
e Harassment: Interaction among diverse values has led to conflict, resulting in harassment
and exploitation of women at work.
4. Conclusion: Globalisation has brought in immense potential for economic growth in the form
of new jobs and industries, especially of the female workforce. Hence, it is important that the
N
dysfunctions and anomie arising out of globalisation like informalisation, value conflicts,
exploitation of labour etc be controlled and regulated and move towards functional social
development with the view of universal brotherhood.
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GIG ECONOMY
A labour market characterized by the prevalence of short-term contracts or freelance work as
opposed to permanent jobs. So, instead of age, workers get paid for “gigs”. A slowdown
arg
in both regional and global economie ve contributed to the rise of gig economy.
Features of Gig economy:
¢ Temporary employment: Na
U
emporary and unpredictable. Eg, during
COVID many Urban Compan did not get work for months.
e Rise of Portfolio Worker: A m
mployee and employer characteristics (job
seeker and entrepreneurship). For'é: ‘lance website developer can work on their
Q
own website or do contractual
wa
« ICT revolution: The worke location, the job can be done. from
anywhere, so employers can sel able for a project without being bound
by geography (Unbound jobs).
¢ Amillennial phenomenon: is m: It postmodernism and individualisation which
R
has arisen since the internet age.
°
« Globalization aids :
Borde le: s-gonnectivity through improved
telecommunications aif &x ap elance worker sitting in India
working for companies'‘h t intenfiet.
of
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e An absence social security: like provident fund, medical benefits, retirement corpus etc.
« Atomization of Work: Replacement of long-term, full-time work with benefits, and career
path, with occasional, short-term contract gigs without benefits or escalating career structure.
e The rise of Risk society: As said by Ulrich Beck — modern society instead of reducing risks
N
to its populace
it is increasing it and it passes on to the weaker and vulnerable sections.
e Power Asymmetry: As there is lack of Unionization and collective voice, many gig workers
are at the mercy of their contractors. For e.g: Ola, Uber driver demands falling on deaf ears.
KI
e Better work-life balance: Since time and amount of work can be decided by the worker
herself, it can help balance personal and professional time.
e Deliberate or forced: It can be a deliberate choice due to lack of interest in work or a forced
one due to career breaks, inability to find full-time employment etc.
e Identity crisis: Sociologists say though independence may be appealing in beginning once
competition. increases it becomes
Conclusion: Due to
a
fight for survival and self-development takes a backseat.
the sheer size of the gig economy in it
India is crucial to plug the legal and
policy vacuum to protect the millions of workers, especially women who are prone to
exploitation.
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UNIT 7: POLITICS AND SOCIETY
7.1 Power
© Definition: Power is a person's ability to influence the behaviour of another person or a group
of people in accordance with his or her own desires. Power indicates a subordinate-
P
superordinate relationship between individuals. Weber defines power in his “Economy and
Society” as ‘the chance of men, to realise their own will, in a communal action, even against
the will of others, who are participating in a social action’.
@ Power Impacting Relationship: Power imbalances relationships. Those with better access to
limited resources, such as funds, ownership, or production and distribution means, are more
N
powerful. Power differs from influence in its use of sanction to impose one's will.
7.2 Sociological Theories In Power And Power Elite
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7,2,1 Marxist Theory on Power
® Minority holding Power over Majority: Marxist philosophy says power is
concentrated
in a few people, creating power differentials. Marx and Engels contend that minorities hold
power and advance their interests.
@ Power Source (Control over Resources): Marx and Engel say individuals who control
economic resources have power. The dominating class owns the means of production and
is
U
coercesits people. Coercion the illicit use of
power to subjugate inferior subjects against
their will.
e False Class Consciousness: When subjects accept the ruling class's exploitation, false
Q
class consciousness emerges in the form of ‘class in itself’. Marxists contend that
socialisation makes subjects unaware that they're being exploited.
e Social Institutions (Superstructure) Justifying Class Inequality: Social structures
justify inequality and minority class dominance, leading to acceptability of social inequity.
The ideology is so powerful that it promotes dominant class interests through various
R
agencies of society like family, marriage, media, education, etc. i.e. social superstructure.
¢ Community Ownership of Resources: Marx sees collective ownership of economic
resources as the solution to power redistribution. As everyone shares the resources,
everyone shares the power.
Development of Class Consciousness: When members of the exploited segment of
G
e@
it
society realise their exploitation and belongingness to the same class, results in the birth
of class-true consciousness with a wider goal of emancipation of all worker class.
© Social Revolution: Powerful and powerless interests clash, causing social conflict. Class
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consciousness, contradictions, and alienation cause eauses revolution. The revolution

replaces established power structures with a more egalitarian economic framework.
Critical Evaluation of Marxist Perspective

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1. Positive Aspects:
¢ Relation between Social Relations, Power & Class Dominance: Marxists analyse
relationship between power, social relations, and class dominance. It implies that those
who own producing means (haves) rule the populace (have nots).
¢ Economic Infrastructure influencing Superstructure: In the process of studying
relationship between the both, it also addresses about how the economic infrastructure
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—
influences the superstructure and how different social institutions like family, education
system, religion etc. contribute to dominance of ruling minority.
Evolutionary historical materialism: Power soutces change through historical stages
(Primitive, Ancient, Feudal, Capitalistic) but remain concentrated in the hands of the few
‘haves’. There is a continuous power struggle between the two classes through the process
P
of dialectic.
Solution of Capitalism: It
provides an evolutionary theory in which communal ownership
of means of production will result in proletariat revolution, consequently tesulting in fall
of bourgeoisie.
State Supporting Minority Domination: Westergaard and Resler argued welfare states
N
redistributed wealth inadequately. They believe the ruling minority promotes private
property, profit, etc. to preserve capitalism's dominance. AR Desai terms this as the myth
of the welfare state.
EE
o Example: It was witnessed that during the regime of Margaret Thatcher in United
Kingdom, there was significant decrease in the amount of spending on welfare
schemes.
Emergence of False Class Consciousness: Numerous studies reveal that, as Marx
claimed, the capitalists can create false class consciousness in
the proletariat. Example: Gig
economy workers are termed as ‘partners’ but given very few social security benefits and
U
have very long hours.
Negative Aspects:
Neglecting Multiple Power Sources: Marxists fails to address there can be other sources
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of power except wealth. Example: Legal authority and Charisma etc. as shown by Weber.
Marxist futuristic communist utopia never arrived: The working class movements have
weakened and most countries have adopted a welfare-capitalistic-democratic approach.
Exaggerating Effect of Economic Power: Marxists overestimate economic power's
importance on state decision-making.
R
Exaggerating State’s Role in Promoting ‘Minority’s Interests: Marxist concept that state
serves ruling minority isn't always accurate, Anthony H. Birch argues that Marxist data
demonstrates only economic growth constraining government policy.
Ignoring Other Social Dominance Factors: Marxists do not address other modes of
social dominance like patriarchy, ethnic domination, regional hegemony of few players
G
etc. Catherine Mackinnon views state as reflecting interests of male rather than interests of
capitalists.
o Example: In patriarchy, men hold the authority over women and women are considered
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as inferior subjects.
7.2.2 Weber’s Theory of Power

as
the chance of a man or a number of men to realise
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1. Definition: Max Weber defines power

their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others.
2. Zero Sum Concept of Power: According to Weber, there is only ever fixed amount
the of
a
power
called
of
in any society - those who
are powerful are powerful at expense others, as
"constant-sum"” or
"zero-sum" theory of power. The powerful utilise their power to advance
their sectional interests.
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3. Different Power Sources- Trinetarian Model: Unlike Karl Marx, Max Weber did not see
economic resources as only source of power. According to Weber, the scope of sources of
power also includes social, political and ec: .omic factors- i.e., status, politics, class.
4. Authority: When power
is
legitimised, it's called authority. Authority is obeyed voluntarily.
In formal organisations, authority is specified by rules and laws. Power may be executed in
formal organisations as institutionalised authority and as institutionalised power in informal
P
organisations. .
.
¢ Example: Because of his/her position and prestige, a senior bureaucrat has authority to
assign work and transfers subordinates.
5. Three types of Authority:
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* Charismatic Authority: Based on Charisma of
the leader. Example — Mahatma Gandhi’s
influence on Indian Freedom Movement, authority of god-men.
¢ Traditional Authority: Based on traditions, customs and beliefs. Example — Patriarchy,
EE
the domination of the eldest person the family.
/
¢ Legal Rational Authority: Based on Jaw and rationality. Example — Bureaucracy, the
authority exercised by the Tax Collectors, Policemen, Bosses the office. in
6. Inevitable Conflict: Weber says power holders and powerless will always be in conflict. The
powerful try to consolidate/expand their privileged social positions, while the less powerful
want to remove power from the powerful.
U
7. Power and Prestige: In itself power becomes the basis of prestige i.e., when a
person has
power, he / she has prestige but when
e Example:
If
person
a
has prestige he / she may not have power,
a lower-caste person wins MLA, his social status increases as he joins the
power circle.
Q
Critical Evaluation of Weberian Perspective
¢ Gives Cause of Power Inequality: Weber’s theory provides an explanation on the power
in
R
differentials existing in the society. Accotding to Weber’s Constant Sum theory, Power
a system is constant and the quantum of power is
therefore limited. In simple words, as
amount of poweris constant, only few individuals can possess them while others have to
give up some of their power.
¢ Gives Ideal Types of Authority: Weber’s model of authority encompasses three
G
dimensions of source of authority and explains the reason behind such leaders, for example,
priests, military commander etc.
¢ Influencing Pluralist View: Weber’s attempt to define power and authority have been
N
highly influential. The pluralist view of power and the state has adopted Weber’s definition
as a basis for measuring who
2. Negative Aspects:
has
power in
industrial societies.
¢ Functionalists Criticism: Power is a variable sum of concept and not the constant sum
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defined by Weber. This was held by Talcott Parsons in his “Power as a bank” model.
¢ Steven Lukes’s Power: A radical view combines concise summary of community power
debate with his own substantive contribution: argument in favor of a “third face” or “three-
dimensional view” of power, whereby power includes, not only capacity to get one’s way
in public decisions; and to prevent certain issues from being considered for decision
but also by shaping preferences and beliefs of those subject to
at all;
power.
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¢ Power with the oppressed: As per Tim Gee, power is
also possessed with the oppressed as
“counter-power” visible at times of social movements, protests etc.
7.2.3 Talcott Parsons Theory of Power

© Power as Community Owned: Parsons considered that the whole society possessed power.
He, like other functionalists, believes that cooperation, stability and order within society that
P
is based on value consensus.
e@
Power Used for Collective Goals: He believes that the power is
the capacity that used to for
achieving collective goals, derived from shared beliefs and values between members of
society.
e Variable Sum Concept of Power: Parson’s views ate called as Variable Sum Concept of
N
Power which says that power in
society is not seen as fixed or constant but as a variable which
may increase or decrease. As collective welfare increases in
society, the amount of power held
by society also increases.
EE
¢ Relationship based on Peace and Cooperation: He viewed relationship between the social
“groups based on peace and cooperation rather than conflict and chaos.
e Power Ensures Compliance: Parson argues that the use of power ensures compliance of
@
members of
society. The means of compliance can be positive or negative.
Power Ensures Stability: Parsons argues that the power differential within society is essential
for stability in the society. He suggests that if members pool in
their efforts and resources, they
U
are more likely to realise collective goods than only individuals.
Critical Evaluation of Parsons Perspective

Q
1. Positive Aspects: :
¢ Tool to Achieve Collective Good: According

to achieve collective good that benefits the whole
to
functionalists like Parsons, power is used
society and not few individuals.
© Collective Good acts as a Basis for Co-operation: Parson suggests that the benefit to
whole society acts as a foundation to cooperation, peace and stability which are essential
a
R
for well-being of society.

¢ Social Positions as a result of Limited Power: Parsons views that the social positions are
created in order to exercise power in an efficient manner as
society to exercise power on its own.
it
is difficult for the whole
G
¢ Idealistic View: Many sociologists argue that Parson’s view that power is used for
collective good as too idealistic and calls Parsons ‘naive’. Parson is overly focussed on
cooperation in society and ignores conflict and exploitation happening due to power
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concentration with the few.

¢ Fails to Acknowledge Power as
a Tool to Advance Interests of Ruling Class: Parsons
fails to acknowledge that power, in a society, is often used to promote interests of few
of society and Sum
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sections rarely is used for collective good.

e Parson’s Variable — on Power: Elite power theorists
concept reject this idea on
power that suggests that the power is held by the whole society. For example, CW Mills
says only a few sections of ‘power elite’ capture all high institutional posts.
e Idea of shared interests: Pluralists also disagree with Parsons on common interests of
different groups of society. They suggest that different groups in society have different
interests.
1
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:
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7.2.4 Elite Theory on Power

1. Society Divided into Two Groups: Elite theory views society as divided between two major
groups — The Ruling Minority and the Ruled. The ruling minority consists of members of
economic elite and individuals involved in policy planning and holds maximum power.
Small Group sharing Power: Gaetano Mosca was the
first to draw a distinction between
elite and the masses. He explained that in
all societies there are two classes of people: one that
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rules and the other that is
ruled.
¢ The class which rules performs ali
political functions, monopolizes power and enjoys all
the advantages and privileges that accompany power. The Classical Elite theorists identify
governing elite in terms of superior personal qualities. The class, which is ruled larger in
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terms of numerical composition and is governed and controlled by the former class through
ERR
legal, sometimes arbitrary and violent means.
Shared Background of Elites: Elites tend to be a relatively small, wealthy group of
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individuals sharing similar values and a background of privilege, usually drawn from business,
government, civic organisations, educational and cultural establishments and mass media. The
ONAN
defining feature of power is
the institutional position. They exert power over state institutions
via commercial transactions, interlocking directorates, etc. The theory seeks to explain elite
behaviour and the consequent state outcomes.
4, Classical Elitist Theorists:
¢
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Vilfredo Pareto, “Mind and Society”: Pareto (1935) explained the concept of elite the
terms ofa class of people with highest indices (referring to sign of capacity e.g. a successful
lawyer has highest index, one who does not get a client has the lowest index in their branch
of activity). This class of people is referred to as the elite.
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¢ Mobility in Power Elite: There are atleast two channels through which the
idea of mobility
of elite may be explained — Circulation of Elite and Decay & Renewal of Aristocracies.
o Circulation of Elite: Circulation of elite refers to the process in which individuals
circulate between the
elite and the non-elite groups. It
also refers to the process in which
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one elite is replaced by another.

« Pareto also repeatedly refers to circulation of individuals between the
elite and non-
elite classes. ‘Lions’ rule by force e.g. dictators and ‘foxes’ rule by cunningness
e.g. 19th century European democracies and they replace each other.
“ He suggested that the governing class constituting the elite might induct those
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people in the lower classes from whom they perceive threat or danger. When such
people are inducted into the elite group they change their character completely and
adopt the attitude and interests of the established elite.
of
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o Decay & Renewal Aristocracies: Pareto observes “the governing class is restored
not only in numbers but — and
families rising from a lower classes”.
it
is that the more important thing — in quality, by
= Sometimes the mobility of elite leads to increase of degenerate elements in the

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classes which still hold power and increase in the elements of superior quality in
the subject classes (i.e., non-elite class).
= In such a situation social equilibrium becomes unstable. A new elite comes to
power and establishes a new equilibrium after a conquest or a revolution.
¢ Unavoidable Elite Rule: Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca viewed elite rule as
unavoidable. However, they ignored any possibility of proletarian revolution which will
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lead to establishment of a communist society. They were of the view that the political
power lies in the hands of small elite minority and ideas of establishment of egalitarian
society is not real.
o Intellectual and Psychological Characteristics: Vilfredo Pareto focussed on the
psychological and intellectual characteristics of members of elites. Example: Cunning,
intelligence etc. He talks about two types of elites — Governing and Non Governing
P
Elites. He argues that elites possess lion like and fox like qualities which are necessary
to rule.
o Personal and Social Skills: Gaetano Mosca focussed on sociological and personal
characteristics of elites. Unlike Pareto, Mosca believed that qualities of the elite vary
from society to society and from time to
time. Example: Organisational Skills.
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¢ Sub-Elite: Mosca explained that between the elite and the masses, there is
the category of
the sub-elite constituted of the ‘new middle class’ of civil servants, managers and white-
collar workers, scientists, engineers, scholars and intellectuals. The sub-elite provides new
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recruits to the elite class. The sub-elite itself is a vital element in
the government of society.
Thus, Mosca admitted that elites in modern democracies are open to some degree.
¢ Iron Lawof Oligarchy: Robert Michel’s developed the concept of Iron Law of Oligarchy.
In his study of socialist parties in Europe, he observed that all political and social
organisations contributed in development of dominant elite who are at the top of the
organisational structure. The iron law of oligarchy views political parties to become
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bureaucratic in nature and enable concentration of power in hands of few.
C Wright Mills Power Elites - Contemporary Elite Theorists

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In his book ‘The Power Elite’, C.W. Mills carried out a detailed study on power systems.
© Power runs from Institutional Positions: Mills studied elite rule on basis that it was more of
institutional term than a psychological term. He rejects the view that members of elite rule
factors in
possess unique qualities like organisational skills, intellect etc: Due to various
-
American society like Fragmented and localised political power, International Conflict etc.
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led to concentration of power within hands of command posts of these institutions.
A
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its Layer - Power Elite

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2nd Layer - Middle levels of power (constituted of

diversified and balanced plurality of interest groups)
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3rd Layer - occupied: by mass society (constituted

of powerless mass of unorganised people who are
controlled form above)
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1 - Sociotogy Optional
¢ Monopolised by Command Post holders: Mills suggest that in the institutional structure, the
power is monopolised by those individuals who are
placed the top. at
0 Mills provides three key significant institutions — Military, Major Corporations and Federal
Government
© Mills suggested that those who occupied the command posts within these institutions form
the three elites,
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© Mills suggested a term ‘Power Elite’ who are a confluence of interests of elites from these
institutions. The power elites involved the coincidence of economic, military and political
power.
* Circulation of Elites: Mills also acknowledges the fact that there can be interchange of
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personnel occupying command posts within the three institutions. Example — A Colonel with
a military background can become a politician or A CEO of a company can become a part of
federal government in form of an MLA or MP. :
o Members of the power elite, Mills said, see each other socially and serve together on
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the boards of directors of corporations, charitable organizations, and other bodies.
© The shared social backgrounds between the personnel from these three elites played as
an important factor in cohesiveness of the power elite.
¢ No Accountability of Command Holders: C W Mills argued that the
power elites enjoyed
“unprecedented power and unaccountability’ within the American Society.
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Critical Evaluation of Elitist Theory of Power
© Practical in Nature: Elite theorists rejects the Marxian idea of a classless and egalitarian
Q
society resulting after a class struggle. They rejected communism as a utopia and called
Marxism as an ‘Ideological bias’.
¢ Focus on personal characteristics of Elites: Classical theorists like Vilfredo Pareto laid
to
importance
members.
the superior personal
the
qualities:among those who held power and other elite
However, contemporary elite theorists lay less importance on them.
R
¢ Importance to Structural Organisation: Unlike previous theories, Elite theorists viewed

institutional framework as a primary reason leading to power differentials. They suggested
that the hierarchy within an organisation allows few individuals to monopolise
power.
Example: In a corporation, CEO possess more power than a manager and
influence decisions at greater lengths.
likely to is
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¢ Inevitability of Minority Rule: Elite theorists believe that the minority rule is
unavoidable. When one elite becomes irrelevant, other elite replaces him. Example: In
Elections, when orie party’s ideology and patterns of actions become irrelevant to the
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citizens, they use their votes to replace the party with another one whose ideology is more
relevant.
o Case study of American Society: Results obtained from studies conducted by G.
is
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William Domhoff in sync with the Elite theory and suggested that an elite class that
owned large income producing properties also dominated the American society
politically as well as economically.
¢ Criticism by Pluralists: According to Pluralists like Robert A Dahl, power
in society which is opposite to Elite theory as well as C W Mills
distributed is
concept of power elite.
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¢ Ignoring Different Ruling Systems: Classical Elite theory ignores differences between
different ruling systems like democracies, feudal societies, dictatorships etc.
© Inadequate Method to Measure Power: Many sociologists argue that the elite theory
It
.
fails to measure power adequately. largely assumes that elites possess power which is
used to advance their own interests.
No Empirical Evidence: Robert A Dahl criticises Mills on the
basis that he did not conduct
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*
any researches to support his claim that the power elites had the potential for control and
they used this potential power to advance their interests.
¢ Elite circulation not always present: TB Bottomore says in India, Brahmins survive for
long as elite because of the closed nature of the caste system.
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¢ Limited Area of Study: Mills Power Elite theory is criticised on the basis that it was
developed on the application & observations in America only.
e Power
is Visible more with the Consequences: Westergaard and Resler suggest that
is
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power does not lie in the hands of those who take part in decision making process but
visible in the consequences of those decisions.
7.2.5 Pluralist Theory on Power ‘
Pluralist theories are opposite to the elite theory and other theories which suggest that power is
concentrated in hands of few individuals. The theory tries to explain the distribution of power in
western democracies.
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1. Distribution of Power: The Pluralists Theory is based on three major factors:
¢ Resources and potential power is
scattered throughout society.
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e At least some resources are available to everyone.
¢ At any given time, the potential power is
greater than anount of actual power.
2. Similarity with Functionalists like Parsons: The classical pluralists have similar views as
Functionalists like Parsons.
* Both agree that the populations as a wholeare source of power.
R
¢ Both accept that the state and the governm ental authorities work for the best of interests
of
the society.
¢ They view the nature of governments in. States like USA ~ Democratic — as the most
efficient form of government to exercise power.
They view the exercise of power by state to be legitimate which is based upon cooperation,
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peace and acceptance.

3. Multiple Theories of Power: Elite pluralist theorists as classical pluralist theories believe that
there can be multiple sources of power — money, charisma, legal authority, prestige etc.
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However, the plurality is not ‘pure’ or absolute. People or group of people have power, The
difference lies
in the extent of power. Some have more power than others. Thus, creating a
:
power differential.
a
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¢ He defines power as realistic relationship such as A’s capacity for acting

Robert A Dahl:
in such a manner as
to control B’s responses.
4. Pluralists on Weber’s Zero Sum Concept: Pluralists agree with Weber’s Constant Sum
concept of power. However, pluralists do not agree that the members of society share values,
beliefs, interests under every circumstance.
5. Pluralists on State: Pluralists view state as an ‘honest broker’ which takes account of all the
conflicting demands within the society by different sections them. in It
acts as a bridge between
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different sections of society and ensures that all demands of different groups are incorporated
into government decisions.
6. Pluralists on Government: Robert Dahl in “Who Governs?” says that governance becomes
an activity of bargaining and compromising because of multiple groups like trade unions,
pressure groups etc.
7. Pluralists on Multi-Party System: According
to
pluralist theorists, multiparty system in a
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vast and diverse country like India has enabled democracy to perform more efficiently.
8. Pluralists on role of Civil Society Organisations: International bodies like United Nations,
|
Pressure groups, Non-Government Organisations are practical examples of pluralist theory of |
power where they influence the policy and decision making of government by giving voice to
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voiceless. .
Critical Evaluation of Pluralist Approach

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©
Rejects the Idea of Centralisation of Power: Pluralist theorists are of the opinion that
there exist multiple centres of power unlike the elite theory which viewed that power lies
within hands of few individual.
¢ Views State as a Mediator: Unlike conflict theorists and elite theorists, pluralists view
state as a mediator who considers varied demands from diverse groups in society and
includes them in government policies. According to Raymond Aron, Government becomes
U
a business of compromise.
* Acknowledges Role of Public: Karl Mannheim says that people make their aspirations
expressed at regular intervals like elections, which keep the
elites in check.
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¢ Multiple Power Sources: Arnold M Rose, through his Multiple Influence Hypothesis,
suggests that there are multiple centres of power and the economic and political elite do
not work hand in hand as asserted by C W Mills.
© Diverse Interests: Pluralist acknowledges that there are diverse groups in the society with
different interests unlike functionalist who believe that there exists shared interests and
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goals, wes . :
¢ Potential and Actual Power: Robert A Dahl suggests that the elite theorists are confused
between potential and actual power. Through his Decision making model, he asserted that
no single group dominates the decision making process and the process does not only rely
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on economic factors.
* Creation of Elites: Some sociological researchers argue that although power is shared
among groups, within the groups there may be individuals who take up on leadership roles
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and hold more power. This leads to a system of creation of elites within the group.
e Ignorance of Non-decision Making and Safe Decision Making: The people who hold
power exercise their power as per their interests, i.e. the demands that do not hurt their
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interests are conceded while those which threaten their position is suppressed.
¢ Ignore the Consequences: Westergaard and Resler power does not lie in the hands of
those who take part in decision making process but
decisions.
is
visible in the consequences of those
¢ Misuse of Powers: According to Robert Michels, individuals holding power may misuse
it in ways that can benefit them. Example: The act of corruption roots from misuse of
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IE
power where people having power demand benefits in form of money etc. to perform their
functions.
7.2.6 Neo Marxist Approaches to Power
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em
The Neo Marxist approach to power provides with fresh perspective which is immensely influenced
by Marx’s Writing.
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1, Antonio Gramsci (1891 — 1937): Gramsci’s major contribution to sociology has been
P
contained in his book “The Prison Notebooks’ (1971). Gramsci suggested that ownership of
IES
the means of production was not sufficient to guarantee that a ruling class would monopolise
power in the society. In order to maintain its leadership and dominance, or as he called it,
‘hegemony’, a ruling class had actively to try to win support from other members of society.
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Role of Economy: Gramsci believed that the superstructure and the economic
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.
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infrastructure were interrelated and affected each other.
o Gramsci divided the superstructure of society into political society and civil society.
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The political society consisted of the state while the civil society consisted of private
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institutions — mass media, political parties, trade unions etc.
of State: Gramsci viewed state as a whole that consisted both political and civil
EReSee
Relevance
society. He suggested that in the modern society, the political parties forms the state.
o Gramsci believed that State played a very important role in the process wherein the
bourgeoisie have established hegemony over proletariat.
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o Gramsci did not believe that ruling class could ever rely upon false class consciousness
to guarantee its position, since all members of the subject classes had some awareness
of their exploitation. The ruling class needed to make some real concessions to other
groups in society in order to win their support. Thus, the state could not always act
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exclusively in the interests of the owners of the means of production.
Hegemony of Dominant Class: Gramsci believed that when the domination of
ruling class
he believed
was accepted by the members of society, Hegemony was achieved, However,
that the ruling class remained in power or maintained control only to the limit that they
beliefs of population through civil society.
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could command the .
Relations based on Power and Class: Gramsci view all

relations of
civil society revolving
around the issues of power & class relations.
2. States role in Capitalism:
Louis Althusser: He believes that state is completely involved in the capitalism and
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functions in order to reproduce the mode of production. “

o Repressive State Apparatus: Ruling class controls government, police, military and
even state. People submit due to
fear of legal prosecution and police action.
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© Ideological State Apparatus: Ruling class control the ruled through dominant
ideologies propagated by religion, schools, families etc. People submit due to
socialisation and fearof social ridicule.
Bob Jessop: Another neo Marxist writer, suggests that the capitalist system exercises a
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strong influence over State. However,he rejects the idea of direct control of capitalists over
the State. He also believes that state does not necessarily promote the interests of the
capitalism. For example, free healthcare provided by state.
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Critical Evaluation of Neo Marxist Approach
Difference from Marxist Approach: Neo Marxist scholars are heavily influenced
by Marxism.
However, they differ from Marxist approaches in several ways —
Antonio Gramsci views that not only the economic infrastructure influences the events within
the superstructure but there also exists reciprocity between them,
i.e., both influence the
functioning of each other.
“He also disagrees with Marx’s notion
_
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on false class consciousness. He believed that the state
remained hegemonic only when it compromised and considered the demands of
_
Class.
the exploited
According to Gramsci, Power derived only in part from economic control, He also believed in
the proletariat revolution. ‘However, the method through which revolution
_
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took place was
different for Gramsci.
Unlike Marx, Neo Marxist scholars like Bob Jessop did not
_
suggest that the capitalist directly
controlled the state.
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;
3 Bureaucracy
‘Meaning: According to Weber, Bureaucracy
is
a hierarchical organisation designed rationally
to coordinate the work of many individuals in the pursuit of large-scale administrative
_
tasks
and organisational goals. Weber saw bureaucracy as an organisation with
'
a hierarchy of paid,
.,. full time officials who formed a chain of command.
»
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“Modern Society and Process of Rationalisation: Weber believed rational action had become
“the dominant mode of action in modern industrial society ~ ‘process of rationalisation’.
Rationalization is the replacement of traditions, values, and emotions as motivators for
*
in society with concepts

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behaviour based on rationality and reason. He saw it expressed in
a
wide variety areas -
of
instate administration, business, education, science and even in Western
Classical music, Bureaucratisation is a prime example of
this process.
Bureaucratic Organisation: Bureaucratic organisations are increasingly dominating the
institutional landscape - departments of state, political parties, business enterprises,
the
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_
military, education and churches are all
organised on bureaucratic lines.
7.3.1 Ideal Type of Bureaucraéy’
Weber constructed an ideal
“iG
type of the rational-legal bureaucratic organisation. He argued that
bureaucracy in modern industrial society are steadily moving towards this ‘pure’
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type. The ideal type

of bureaucracy contains the following elements:
Task Specialisation: Each administrative official has a clearly defined
area of responsibility.
Complex tasks are broken down into manageable parts, with each official
specialising in a
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particular ‘area. Example: State administration is divided into various departments such
as
education, defence and environment etc. With each department every official has a clearly
defined sphere of competence and responsibility.
Hierarchical Layers of Authority: The organisation of bureaucracy follows the principle of
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“hierarchy. A chain of command and responsibility is established whereby officials’

are
accountable to their immediate superior both for the conduct
of everybody below them. of
their official duties and
for that
Abstract Rules and Regulations: The operations of the bureaucracy
_
are governed by ‘a
consistent system of abstract rules’ and the applications of these rules to
particular cases’.
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These rules clearly define the limits of the authority and-fixed procedures for ‘the performan
of each task.
: :
e Writing Records: Administrative acts, decisions, and rules are formulated and recorded in
writing.
¢ Impersonal (Impersonality & Personal Indifference): The activities of the bureaucrat are
governed by the rules and notby the personal considerations such as
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feeling towards colleagues
or clients. The actions are therefore rational rather than affective.
¢ Formai Selection: Officials are appointed on the
basis of technical knowledge and expertise.
Hiring and on-boarding of employees in
the bureaucracy are done exclusively according to the
specialties and technical skills of the candidates. These skills may have been acquired by, the
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candidates through education, training and experience.
¢ Personal vs Professional Sphere: Bureaucratic administration involves strict separation of a
private and official income. Officials do not own any part of the organisation for which they
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work, nor can they use their position for private gain. Weber included this principle in his
theory because he felt it would eliminate nepotism, politics and outsider involvement.
¢ Specific: Goals: Every bureaucratic organisation works for the attainment of specific goals.
For example: Indian bureaucracy has a goal of attaining ‘Good Governance’. Government
want to reach everyone and every corner of the society and for that the real execution part lies
with the bureaucrats.
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* Career Orientation: The Weberian model of bureaucracy selects employees on the basis of
technical skills, which helps optimize human capital. According to Max Weber, selecting
candidates according to their competency and skills ensures that the right people are in the
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right jobs.
7.3.2 Importance of Bureaucracy — Ma

e Efficiency: A bureaucracy is
capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency.
e Rational: Bureaucracy is formally the most rational known means of exercising authority over
R
human beings.
© Reliable: It is superior to any other form in precision, in stability, in the stringency of its
discipline, and in its reliability.
e Ease out the Bigger Tasks: Bureaucracy makes possible a particularly high’ degree ‘of o
calculability of results for heads of the organization and for those acting in relation to it.
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It its
_
e Superior: is finally superior both in intensive efficiency and in the scope of operations.
and is formally capable of application to
all kinds of administrative tasks.
e No Conflicts: The duties and responsibilities of each job are clearly defined there is no
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question of overlapping or conflicting job duties.

¢ Optimisation of Human Resource: The selection process and promotion procedures are
based on merit and expertise. It
assists in putting right persons on right jobs. There is optimum
utilisation of human resources. i.
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e Increasing Expertise: The division of labour assists workers in becoming experts in

their jobs.
The performance of employees improves considerably.
© Helps in Policy Making: Professional politicians lack the technical knowledge controlled by
the bureaucracy and may have little awareness of its
inner workings and procedures. They are
largely dependent on the information supplied by the bureaucrats and on their advice.
—
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“Page 317
7.3.3 Issues with Bureaucracy — Max Weber
Limits Creativity: The strict control of officials restricted to very specialised tasks is a
limitation of human freedom. The uniform and rational procedures of bureaucratic practice
largely prevent spontaneity, creativity and individual initiative. The impersonality of official
conduct tends to produce ‘specialists without spirit’
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Tron Cage: Bureaucratic organisations produces an iron cage that imprisons and restricts
people.
No Relationship with Work: Weber foresaw the possibility of people being trapped in their
specialised routines, with little awareness of the relationship between their jobs and
organisation as a whole.
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:
Occupied with Uniformity: Weber also foresaw the danger of bureaucrats becoming
preoccupied with uniformity and order, losing sight of all else and becoming dependent the on
security provided by their highly structured niche in the bureaucratic machine.
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Rational but Irrational: To Weber, the process of rationalisation of bureaucracy is highly
irrationaland is ultimately aimless.
and purpose to life.
It
tends to destroy the traditional values that give meaning
Ineffective at Crisis Times: Particularly in times of crisis, bureaucratic leadership would be

ineffective. Bureaucrats are trained to follow orders and conduct routine operations rather than
to make policy decisions and take initiatives in response to crises. Example: The bureaucratic
helplessness during Covid 19 crisis.
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May Develop Capitalist Tendency: In
capitalist society, top bureaucrats may be swayed by
the pressure of capitalist interests and tailor their administrative practices
to
fit the demands of
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the capital.
Superseding the Politicians: As the work of professional politicians depend on the
bureaucratic advice, the politicians may end up being directed by the bureaucrat.
Red Tapism: This system suffers from too much of red tape and paper work.
Resisting New Changes: The employees become so
used to the system, they resist to any
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change and introduction of new techniques of operations.
1. Positives Aspects:
IVA IA@
¢ George Ritzer: George Ritzer (1996) supports the Weberian view that, far from dying out,
G
bureaucratic organisation is becoming increasingly important. Like Weber, he argues that

the drive towards bureauctatisation and rationalisation is largely motivated by profit.
Companies believe they can cut costs and increase profits through rationalisation.
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* Paul Du Gay: In his In Praise of Bureaucracy, argued that Bureaucracies have an

unmatched ethos which includes equal treatment of all despite race, color and caste.
¢ Stewart R Clegg: In the contemporary world, almost all organised institutions rely on
bureaucratic structures to manage information and administer complex systems, despite the
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fact that there is a decline of paperwork due to widespread use of electronic platforms and
it has significantly altered the way modern bureaucracies function.
¢ No Dominance of Bureaucracy in Post- Modern World: Postmodernists generally argue
that bureaucratic organisations are no longer the dominant institutions in contemporary
societies. They believe that organisations have become much more flexible, less governed
by rules rule and less hierarchical.
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—
© Bureaucracy is Not Inevitable: Larry Ray and Michael Reed believe the ‘iron cage’ of» ~
bureaucracy can be challenged. Organisations are not always successful in persuading
people that what they are doing can be justified simply in terms of its rationality. There
could be increasing emphasis on democratic control of organisational ends.
¢ Marxist: Role of bureaucracy can be eliminated only by a change in
the infrastructure.
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According to Lenin, administrative tasks should be simplified to the point where basic
literacy and numeracy are sufficient for their performance so that bureaucratic control is
weakened systematically.
¢ Merton: Bureaucracy leads to dysfunctional aspects too. Excessive focus on means lead
to rigidity and goal displacement. As bureaucracy became rule oriented, the objectives are
N
~
side-lined.
¢ Informal Bureaucracy: This concept is
adopted from the works of Peter Blau and Alvin
Gouldner. According to them, Weberian bureaucracy is only a theoretical construct and
EE
in reality, a more workable proposition exists in the form of informal bureaucratic
structures. The presence of both formal and informal structures in organisations enhance
their performance.
:
7.3.5 tron Law of Oligarchy - Robert

© Power Craving: Michels believed that the craving for power inherent is
the nature of humanin
it.
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beings. Those who acquire power, seek to perpetuate
© Complex Nature of Work: It may be understood that the large collectivity of people. in an
organisation cannot govern or administer their common affairs. Over the period of. time,
Q
specialisation develops and division of labour evolves. Organisations become increasingly
complex.
e Democratic Perpetuating Oligarchy Rule: According to Michels, democracy calls for
organisation, which leads to oligarchy. The trend towards oligarchic rule in party organisations
is better known as the
Iron Law of oligarchy. According to him every organisation however
R
democratic in the beginning develops an oligarchic character.

@ Role of Leadership: Michels was convinced that masses await leaders to govern them and
take care of their concerns. The leaders derive power from the incompetence of the masses in’
m
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e Revolution: Democratic Currents lead to renewable of democracy — by overthrowing the

oppressive oligarchy. The oppressive conditions in themselves, do not lead to unrest. is the It
awareness of those conditions that generates class struggle.
N
7.4 Pressure Groups/ Interest Groups

1. Definition: A pressure group is an association of people who have common interests and try
to achieve their interests by influencing the government. Pressure group a pluralist concept is
KI
as it represents sectional interest.

« Itcan be interest group whose members share common beliefs, opinions, ethnicity, political
philosophy and goals and try to influence policies of the government to promote a cause
and fullfil their goals. They mobilize popular opinion of the masses in their favour by
campaigns in
order to change the law or legislation. t
¢ Example: Campaign against arms trade, Greenpeace, Naz foundation;
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2. According to Anthony Giddens, pressure groups are the carriers of democracy. With
increased industrialisation, division of labour also increased, and thus emerged various
sections, with specialised interests.
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nner P
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7.4.1 Types of Pressure Groups
Almond and Powell talks about 4,.Pressure Groups:
¢ Associational Pressure Group (Registered Body): Organised groups formed to pursue
limited goals. Example Trade Unions like:AITUC, Teachers association (DUTA).
R
* Non Associational Pressure groups: Nofi-Associational groups are informal groups that are
racial, ethnic, class, linguistic, etc. are seéri,. Dignity and class-based groups are also part of the
non-associational pressure group. Example: Caste groups (Harijan Sevak Sangh and Marwari
associations), Tribal groups (NSCN, language groups (Hindi sahitya sammelan and Tamil
G
sangh), Ideology based groups (Narmada bachao andolan, Gandhi Peace Foundation, Women
Rights Organisation, Civil Liberties Associations)
©
Institutional Pressure, groups (Present within Institution): They are strictly part of the
government machinery and strictly raises its
protests with constitutional means. Such groups
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are seen in the legislatures, political parties, bureaucracy, and so on — like West Bengal Civil
Services Association. Whenever such an association raises protest it does so by constitutional
means and in accordance with the rules and regulations.
KI
Anomic Pressure groups: Some pressure groups are alienated from the political system and
ere
¢
they take law into their own hands. Moist, terrorist organisation and criminal gang. Example:
Kashmir Liberal Front.
Robert McKenzie and Maurice Duverger:

e Protective Groups: Defend interests of a particular section of society e.g. trade unions,
ASSOCHAM
1
: .
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Promotional Groups: Support a cause and defend rights ¢.g. PETA, Greenpeace
7.4.2 Methods used by Pressure Groups

Pressure groups can apply pressure in various ways:
Electioneering: By making contributions to
the funds of political parties or by illegal payments
to elected representatives and state official bribery.
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Lobbying: Lobbying state members and the Parliament via petitions, letters and deputations.
Public Opinion: By appealing to the public opinion. An effective campaign by a pressure
group can mobilise extensive public support, and can help them to gain an indirect influence
over government,
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Using their Expertise: By provision of. expertise. Government can’t operate without
specialised knowledge of PGs.
Different Means: By various forms of traditional and modern means ~ like, publicity,
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propagandising, public’s debating, maintaining contacts with their legislator.
7.4.3 Functions and Features of Pressure Groups

Act as an Intermediate: They serve as vital intermediary institutions between government
and society. They convey the
issues of the people to the government.
Social Colhiesion: Pressure groups increase social cohesion and political stability by providing
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‘safety valve’ outlet for individual and collective grievances.
Political Participation and Access: Provides platform to participate in political discourses
staying outside party politics. It is hallmark of democracy.
Improvement of Governance: Consultation with affected groups is a rational way to make
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decision in a free society. Pressure groups enhances quality of governance: Debate —
Discussion — Deliberation — Dissention (4Ds).
Advocate Democracy: They become the
“voice” of
the people, helping others express their
opinion and bring forward their message. Bernard Barber calls them the third sector of
democracy. Durkheim also mentions their importance as
tools for “associative democracy” in
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his “Professional Ethics and Civic Morals”. /
Social Progress and Voice of the Margiiialised: Interest groups enable new concerns and
issues to reach the political agenda, there by facilitating social progress and preventing social
stagnation, especially issues of the marginalised and disadvantaged. They protect and promote
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linguistic, cultural and religious interests.

Checks Dictatorship: Democracy cannot be converted to autocracy due to the presence of
pressure groups. They scrutinise public policies, indirect way of participating in democratic
process, making government conscious about its rights, duties and obligations.
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Influencing Legislation: These groups try to bring changes in public policy. They influence
the political power to
a great cxtént and that is why Finer termed them as ‘Anonymous Empire’.
Example: VHP and RSS.
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Suggesting Alternatives: Pressure groups play a significant role in terms of identifying

possible policy alternatives or options. In the democratic functioning of a polity, pressure
groups playa vital role.
Promote Public Discourse: ‘hey seek to promote, discuss, debate and mobilise public
opinion on major public issues. In this process, they educate people and widen their vision,
enhance their democratic particijation and raise and articulate various issues.
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Funds Political Parties: Some pressure groups funds political parties like in USA, where
lobbying is done by particular political parties to support the candidates.
Talent Poll for Future Politicians: Pressure groups serve as a pool of talent for political
recruitment.
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Contribution:
Oe
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Sirota)
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7,4.4 Dysfunction of Pressure Groups
1. Anti-development: Sometimes they take anti-development stance. Example: Singur could
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have been a boost for Bengal's youth suffering from unemployment.

2. Ulterior Motives: Pressure groups like separatists and naxalists have ulterior motive to
overthrow the political power.
3. Elitism: Some pressure groups have developed elitism and this has creates class boundaries
within pressure groups. Example: The civil society organisations in Maharashtra have largely
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been holder by upper class.

Unequal Participation: Pressure groups improves participation, but not necessarily in an
equal manner, Many a time participation of women neglected.is
Shifting Ideologies: Few pressure groups lack of ideological commitment and they keep
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shifting loyalties based on political situation.

Use of Unconstitutional Methods: Pressure groups do not hesitate in using mob violence.
Example: Jat agitation, farmer’s protests.
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Corporatisation of Pressure Groups: Few pressure groups have attained the corporate
structure or work for corporate lobbying only, like the implementation of GST was demanded
by the corporate world and various pressure groups had lobbied for them.
e Conflict theorists on the other hand argue that although a few organizations work on
behalf of the poor and disadvantaged, most of the pressure groups represent the vested
interests of the business leaders, the lobbies of multinational companies, rich professionals
and political leaders.

=
8. Further Marginalising: Few pressure groups result in further marginalisation of deprived
sections. In rural India, caste based pressure groups prevents participation of dalits in the
various SHGs or other government schemes resulting in the further marginalisation of the
already deprived section.
9, Biasness: Unlike the pressure groups of the west, which are invariably organised to safeguard
economic, social, cultural interests, etc., in India, these groups are at times, also organised
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around narrower basis like religious, regional, caste and ethnic.
10. Pluralistic Stagnation: Group’s opposition can often slow down or even block desirable
changes.
11. Social Disharmony and Dislocation: In egalitarian operations of groups or power
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differentials between groups increase social discontent and political instability.
12, Politicisation: Vote bank politics have led to politicisation of pressure groups.
13. Non-organised Structure and Lack of Governance and resources: Pressure groups are
highly unorganised without any proper leadership and lack standards of governance. Thus they
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are often sporadic and short lived.
NAAN
recente
7.4.5 Limitation of Pressure Groups in Ind.
e Influencing the Administrative Process Only: In India, organised groups largely influence
the administrative process rather than the formulation of policy.
Representing Interest of Certain Groups: Unlike the pressure groups in the developed
©
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countries of the West, where these are invariably organised to safeguard economic, social,
cultural interests, etc., in India these groups are organised around religious, regional and ethnic
issues.
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¢ Biasness: Many a time factors of caste and religion eclipse the socioeconomic interests. The
result is that instead of serving a useful purpose in
the political administrative process, they are
reduced to work for narrow selfish interests.
Lack of Resources & Short Life Span: Many ofthe groups have a very short life because of
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e
the lack of resources. This explains the reason for'the mushroom growth of pressure groups as
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well as their withering away as it becomes difficult to sustain the interest of the persons,
initially attracted to form these pressure groups.
® Use for Political Interests: In a country like India the tendency to politicise every issue,
whether
it has social, economic, cultural import, restricts the scope, working, and effectiveness
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of pressure groups. Instead of the pressure groups exerting influence on political process, they
become tools and implements to subserve political interests.
7.4.6 Pressure Groups ys Politica! Parties

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Political Parties Pressure Groups

Associations of individuals sharing Pressure group refers to any interest group whose
common values and preferences which members because of their shared common
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promotes candidates, contest elections for attributes make claims on-influence and pressurise
the aim of capturing power- Weber other groups and on political process
Organised on ideological line °°. -
Many time they don’t have any ideological basis
and keep shifting their bases
Proper organisation and leadership Lack proper organisation and leadership
Vision for future Generally formed to solve immediate problems
1 |
LNAI,
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Use
of constitutional means Many pressure groups indulge in the use of
unconstitutional means to fulfil their interests
Well trained cadre engaged in continuous Generally they do not have cadres and do not
political mobilization directly deal with people
Social base, like BJP has its social base as They have a very small base
upper caste and middie class Hindus
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They are generally permanent nature in Relatively more temporary than political parties
Limited Flexibility in their functioning. Pressure groups have far greater flexibility
They have proper division of labour compared to political parties as they do not go to
people and stake their claims for power
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They contest elections They do not participate in contesting elections, but.
few of them become support groups of political
parties like RSS supporting BJP
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‘In principle they have to maintain internal They don’t have to maintain accountability and
|
emcee
democracy, accountability and transparency.
transparency
Pressure Groups turning into Political Parties:

Although, pressure groups differentiate themselves from political parties, pressure groups may
develop into political parties by adopting a more open, less restricted platform and some pressure
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groups may have special relationship with a political party, as illustrated by trade unions and the
Labour Party in Britain. Similarly, in India also, Akali Dal is an example of
turning into a political outfit.
a
religious pressure group
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7.5 Political Parties
© A os :
Meaning: political party is a group of individuals, often having some measure of ideological
,
agreement, who organise to win elections, operate government, and determine public policy.
© Max Weber: A political party is an organised structure which promotes candidates, contest
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elections for the aim of capturing power. Weber further argues that at times parties may
represent class interests or status interests. In most cases, they are partly class parties and partly
status parties. Max Weber said, parties ‘live in a house of power’ and ‘are always structures
struggling for domination’.
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7.5.1 Characteristics of Political Parties

1. Organised: Political party is a body of like-minded people having similar views on matters of
public concern. Gilchrist defines a political party as “an organized group of citizens who
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profess or share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit, try to control
the government”.
2. Common Ideology and Goal: The organized group of people believe in common principles
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and common goals. According to Joseph A. Schumpeter, a political party is ‘a group whose
to
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members propose act in concert in the competitive struggle for political power.’
3. Leadership: Leaders of the party provide direction:and guidance in party policies, and
obviously, they exercise authority in public policy-making.
4. Seeking Political Power: A political party operates and seeks political
power through
constitutional means to
translate its policies into practice.
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© Gettell defines political party as - “a political party consists of a group of citizens, more or
less organized, who act as a political unit and who, by the use of their voting power, aim
to control the government and carry out their general policies”
5. Use of Constitutional Means: Political parties employs constitutional and peaceful methods
in seeking control over the government through elections.
6. From objectives to Policies: While in power, it translates its declared objectives into
governmental policies. According to Maelver, political party is the agency by which public
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opinion is translated into public policy. Example: BJP converted the objective of abolishing
Art 370 in Jammu and Kashmir into policy after coming into power.
7.5.2 Functions of Political Party
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1. Contest Elections: In most democracies, elections are fought mainly among the candidates
put up by the political parties.
2. Suggesting Policies and Programmes: Parties put forward different policies and programmes
and the voters choose from them. A party reduces a vast multiple of opinions into a few basic
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positions which it supports.
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Framing Laws: Parties play a decisive role in making laws a country. for
Form Government: Parties form and run governments. Parties recruit leaders, train them and
then make them ministers to run the government in
the way they want.
Playing Opposition Role: Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition
to the parties in power, by voicing different views and criticising government for its failures
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or wrong policies.
Making Public Opinion: Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues. Many
of the pressure groups are extension of political parties among different sections of society.
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Parties sometimes launch movements for the resolution of problems faced by people.
* According to the Functionalists they are the guardian of power in the society and they use
it for the collective wellbeing of the society.
Acts as Linkage between People and Government: Parties provide people access to
government machinery and welfare schemes dmplemented by government. According to
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Robert Dahl, political parties act as a linkage between the government and people and provide
a platform for interest articulation and act as conduit for pressure groups.
7.5.3 Types of Political Parties

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1. Maurice Duverger:
* Mass based: Unite hundreds of millions under a party, for e.g. China, Cuba (mostly
socialist/communist countries)
Cadre based: Organise a small number ofparty adherents, headed by elites usually, for
*
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eg. USA
2. Robert Dahl:
¢ Exterior: Emerge due to external influence, for e.g. CPI due to China, USSR
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¢ Interior: Emerge due

to internal reasons, for e.g. Aam Aadmi Party
3. General classification:
e Right: View certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable and want return to “glorious
past”, for e.g. Conservatives in Britain
¢ Left: Supports social equality often in opposition to social hierarchy and want reforms and
welfare, for e.g. CPI
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© Centre: support of a balance of social equality and a degree of social hierarchy, for e.g.
Congress.
7.5.4 Political Participation

1. Meaning: Political participation can be loosely defined as citizens’ activities affecting politics.
Participation in electoral processes involves much more than just voting.
© Political participation derives from the freedom to speak out, assemble and associate; the
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ability to take part in the conduct of public affairs; and the opportunity to register as a
candidate, to campaign, to be elected and to hold office at
all levels of government.
2. Strengthening Democracy: Political participation is relevant for any political system, but
is an indispensable feature of democracy.
it
is
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* According to Verba & Nie, “Where few take part in decisions there little democracy;
the more participation there is in decisions, the more democracy there is”. Thus, the extent
and scope of political participation are important, perhaps even decisive criteria for
assessing the quality of democracy.
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e Seymour M. Lipset has pointed outthat high level participation cannot always be treated
as good for democracy: It may indicate the decline of social cohesion and breakdown of
democratic process
3. Democratic Control: Wider political participation must include some degree of democratic
control either over or within large-scale economic enterprises, decentralisation of government
to smaller units, such as region or locality, considerable use of referenda etc.
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7.5.5 Types of Political Participation
_,,
e According te Milbarth: Milbrath conceptualized participation in a hierarchical manner.
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Involvement in
politics is conceptualized in terms of different levels, allowing for a plausible
more or less intensive involvement; divided into spectatot activities, transitional activities, and
gladiatorial activities. Most notably, at the bottom of the hierarchy are added apathetic citizens,
as well as non-voters.
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“ie
|
SE Gladiator
(Ones who enter the arena an
| contest elections - Mainstream
| Transitional
| (Attend public meetings an
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Part in occasional events —
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and general
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Apathetic
(People are unaware of the
political activities in the state.
Political participation _is
discouraged, like aristocratic

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rule)
e Increase in Political Participation: There has indeed been an upsurge in political

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participation in India with increasing competitiveness of the political parties, increased voter
turnout, emergence of new forms of participation such as new social movements, institutions
of grassroots politics, local level democracy and political assertions of the historically
disadvantaged castes and ethno-regional groups. Apparently this represents a healthy trend
towards further deepening of Indian democracy.
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7.6 Nation And Nationalism as Lo eal i ry

e Nation: A nation is a group of people who see themselves as a cohesive and coherent unit
based on shared cultural or historical criteria. Weber defines a nation as a community of
sentiments.
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e Nationalism: Nationalism can be defined as a set of symbols and beliefs providing the sense
of being part of a single political community. It is an ideology based on the belief that a
community of people with common characteristics such as language, religion, and ethnicity
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constitutes a separate and distinctive political community. The developmentof nationality is

defined more of a psychological phenomenon neither political nor racial.
7.6.1 Features of Nations

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1. Socially Constructed Units: Nations are socially constructed units, not given by nature. Their
existence, definition, and members can change dramatically based on circumstances.
2. Not Validated by Boundaries only: The nation often ignores political boundaries such that a
single nation may “spill over” into multiple states. Furthermore, states: not every nation has a
state(e.g. Kurds, Roma and Palestine). Some states may contain all
or parts of multiple nations
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—
3. Psychological Concept: Nation is a psychological concept or a subjective idea and therefore
it is impossible to find out any common quality or definite interest, which is everywhere
associated with nationality.
4, Anderson assumes Three Core Features of the Nations such as follows:
e Imagined Community: Nation is an imagined community as members never come face
to face and despite the prevailing inequalities amongst themselves, they have a feeling of
cohesion.
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o Communities are bound together by notions of unity that can pivot around religion,
ethnic identity, language, cultural practice and so forth
* Limited & Exclusionary: It
is limited and exclusionary as no nation in the world is global
in its nature and includes some people and excludes the rest of the world.
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e Sovereignty: It also presupposes sovereignty as all nations strive to preserve their
independence and self-governance.
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7.6.2 Elements or Factors of Nationality
1. Common Territory and Common Identity: People residing in a common territory are one
of the primary components of nationality. Because these individuals are likely to create a
shared culture, the countries are referred to as motherland or
fatherland. We also see an identity
of people with their country. Thus people of India are called the Indians, America as the
Americans and so on.
J W Garner: Nationality is a culturally homogeneous group that
©
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its unity.
¢.
Anthony Smith: Nationalism is not necessarily a modern phenomenon and many modern
nations emerged from erstwhile ethnic communities. Example: Unification of Germany
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and Italy.
Common Identity but Uncommon Territory: Common territory is not an absolutely
essential element of nationality. The Jews were scattered all over the world before the creation
of Israel. They had no common territory, yet they constituted a strong nationality. Similarly,
the Poles were denied their homeland for’a long time before 1919 but they were a nationality.
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Common Race: Racial Nationality comes from the concept that one belongs to the same race,
real or imagined. Common race strengthens language, traditions, and culture. Due to
immigration and intercaste marriages, race purity is nearly impossible today and today this
phenomenon has become a myth.
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Common Language: Literature links nationalities via shared history and traditions. A
common language creates a cohesive society. England, France, and Spain emerged from a
shared language. This is optional. Many nations are bilingual or multilingual.
Common Religion: A shared faith fosters nationalism. England fought the Spanish Armada
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to safeguard Protestantism. Modern times, nationalities tend to become multi-religious, and

religion is seen as a private matter and secularism is the norm. Religion cannot always be a
cementing agent, after India was partitioned, religion divided the Indian Subcontinent.
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Common Political Framework: Another aspect of nationality is the existence of a common

political framework or a State, whether in the past or today. Living under one common state
fosters a sense of belonging. Various situations, such as-wars, foster feelings of patriotism.
e Ernest Gellner: Nationalism is a political principle’ that holds the national unity i.e. nation
and political unit i.e. state should be congruent.
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7. Economic Factor: People bond through economic activity. The Marxists also believe that
nationality emerged due to economic factors. Nationality only emerged with capitalist
production, they claimed.
8 Common Subjugation: Common subjugation has been a dominant factor in the rise of
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national movements in
the Afro-Asian countries. Subjugation generates a sense of nationalism
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by uniting people. Colonial exploitation created a common Indian nationality.
¢ Ramsay Muir: A nation may be defined as a body of people who feel themselves to be
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naturally linked together by certain affinities, which are so strong for them to live together,
they are dissatisfied when disunited and cannot tolerate subjection to people who do not
share the same ties.
,
9. Common Political Aspirations: Some consider the desire to be a nation to be the most
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important aspect in determining nationality. Prior to World War I, Poles have always desired
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Poland.
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David McCrone Concept of Nationalism
Team
in
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David McCrone his work "Fall and Rise of Nationalism" gives out factors responsible for
the growth of nations such as:
1; States: The nationalist sentiments are tied to the belongingness of the state. E.g. The
United States of America, where the common citizenship unites the people from different
ethnic groups to a feeling of nation. McCrone called this sense of nationalism a Civic
Nationalism.
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2. Ethnicity: The common ethnic feelings brings out the sense of belongingness to the
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nation. E.g. Serbs, Kurds were more united based on the common ethnic belief.
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3. Modernity: Several western nations such as the United Kingdom, France, etc. evolved
as a form of nations due to the advent of modernity and development of industrialisation.
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¢ Gellner: Nation, nationalism and nation-state are all modern concepts starting from
the late 18" century.
* Pilkington: Before industrialization huraan habitations were largely isolated. It was
only when communication media spread and people identified others as totally
distinct from them. The presence of “other’” is'a precondition for risd of nationalism
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according to him. nae .

4. Colonialism: The miseries of colonialism and imperialism brings out the nationalist
ideals in the minds of masses, thereby leading to the formation of nations. E.g. India.
5. Strong Economy: The globalisation and the stronger economic ties can develop the
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sense of regional identities which ultimately resulted into the sense of nationalism.
McCrone called this Neo-Nationalism. E.g. Scotland.
6. Authoritarianism: The totalitarian government and a strong curb on the freedom of
people resulted in a strong sense of nationalism in the erstwhile communist countries.
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E.g. Post-Communist countries - Ukraine and other Central Asian nations.

7. Religion: Religion has a strong potential to
bring out the sense of belongingness. E.g.
Pakistan, Iran.
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7.6.3 Types of Nationalism

1. Western and Eastern Nationalism: Hans Kohn in his book “The Idea of Nationalism”
Nene
distinguished the western and eastern nationalism as follows.
¢ Western Nationalism: It has arisen as a rationale for already cohesive political systems.
and the other European Nations.
E.g. France, U.K.
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1
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¢ Eastern Nationalism: It
arose as a rationale for the formation of new nation-states and the
adoption of new political systems. E.g. Third World Nations such as India, African
Nations, etc.
2, Ethnic Nationalism: Ethnic nationalism is the most overtly racist of all forms of nationalism.
It is the belief that a nation should be ethnically homologous. This type of ethnic nationalism
grows with the sense of shared ancestry, language and culture and is extremely region-specific.
¢ Example: In Sri Lanka, Tamil nationalists have been engaged in a violent struggle for an
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independent state for decades. And in Rwanda, Hutu extremists perpetrated a genocide
against the Tutsi minority in 1994.
3. Civic Nationalism: Civic nationalism is a liberal nationalism that defines the nation by
principles and dedication to civic democracy rather than bloodlines or ethnicity. This sort of
its
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nationalism defines a sense of belonging by voluntary engagement and gives the state political
legitimacy through its
citizens. This broad concept of
nationality ensured that all people were
treated equally under the law, helping modern democracy emerge.
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e Example: Today, civic nationalism is prominent in the United States, where there is a
belief that the USA is objectively the ‘best nation’ not because of its
culture or ethnicities
but because of its
founding myth and constitution.
4, Liberal Nationalism:
and
It
is a form of nationalism that links communities with the values of
inclusion, tolerance, equality. John Stuart Mill maintained that an individual needs a
national identity to exist and that liberal democratic politics is the only way to achieve such
identity.
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Thus a nation has diverse bases and may precede a state or vice-versa. A nation needs a state for
its sovereignty while a state needs a nation for emotional integrity and internal harmony.
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Criticism of nationalism:
Rabindranath Tagore: He placed society above nation as society does not have an ulterior purpose
unlike nation which
is
founded on greed, jealousy, suspicion, and the desire for power. takes away It
freedom of individuals and it is exclusionist and jingoistic.
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7.7 State (
1. Meaning of State: The state represents the process of political centralisation. According to
Weber, state is a political association which successfully claims a legitimate monopoly of
coercion within a definite territory.
State is sovereign: It has a monopoly of coercion. its
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e territory, the state is supreme

Within
over all ie.
religion, family, society etc.
Authority: State is allowed to maintain an army as its
right over coercion legitimate.
Political Association: State is a political association of people, thereby concerning the
is
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well-being of the people.

¢ Territorial Association: State is a territorial association. It has a power to exercise its
authority over a definite territory.
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7.7.1 Different Perspectives on State .
1, Marx & Engel’s Views on State: Engels provided an interesting theory for
emergence of
State. re
"© Primitive Societies — State Less: According to them in primitive societies, the concept of
state did not exist. Such societies were initially agricultural in nature where the produces
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a)
were for subsistence and surplus was not produced. The means of productions was
communally owned with little division of labour.
¢ Surplus Production and Emergence of State: Once societies began to produce surplus,
this led to emergence of a dominant class which had an upper hand over ownership of
economic resources. This led to emergence of
State.
e Why there is a need for State?
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o An Institution of Control: There was a need for institutions to keep check on the
majority of the people who were exploited by the powerful minorities. Engels viewed
State to be that institution. The state could control the dominated class through
application of force leading to social actors like Police, army etc.
o Advance the Interest of Ruling Section: With evolution of nature and function of
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state, the tools through which state controlled the repressed became less coercive in
nature, Engels viewed that the state acted as a medium to advance interests of the ruling
section of societies.
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¢ State is Non-Permanent: Marx and Engels did not view ‘State’ as a permanent feature of
society. This is because the original function of state is to protect the position of dominant
class and their control over the subjects. Once the power differentials (class) disappear, the
institution of state will become redundant.
¢ Stateless Society: As a consequence, the proletarian revolution will take place wherein the
proletariat would take over the control of state. This will result in consolidation of position
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of proletariat and establish ownership of economic resources by the community as a whole.
It will also lead to fall of bourgeoisie.

,
2. Antonio Gramsci: The state is the entire complex of practical and theoretical activities by
the
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which ruling class maintains its domination and also manages to gain active consent of
those over whom
it rules. In a way, he said the state maintains hegemony over the civil society
i.e. people through ideology (not by force).
:
3. Nick Poulantzas: The state was relatively autonomous as the bourgeoisie classes were
internally divided and it needed to make concessions to
diffuse protests to promote the myth
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that it represents the whole society. He provided the post-modernist view of state i.e. though
state was not directly ruled by capitalist class, it represents the interest of the capitalist class
4.
through its activities.
Functionalists: State is controlled by many parties and organisations through important
positions and represents the interests of all. Talcott Parsons explained this through variable
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sum theory and foundation of value consensus and shared goals for functioning ofthe state.
5. Elite theorists: State represents only minority, elite interests. For e.g CW Mills’ Power Elite,
Roberto Michels’ iron law of oligarchy.
of
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as
Bluntschli: “The State is the politically organized people a definite territory.”
Garner: State is “a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a
definite portion of territory, independent, or nearly so, of external control, and possessing an
organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”
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8. Laski: State is “a territorial society divided into governments and subjects, whether individuals
or associations of individuals, whose relationships are determined by the exercise of this -
supreme coercive power.”

9. Woodrow Wilson: State “is a people organized for law within a definite territory”.
10. Welfare State: It implies that the state provides for certain measures to promote the well-being
of citizens in social and economic spheres. TH Marshall described the modern welfare state as
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a unique combination of democracy, capitalism and welfare. Marxists like AR Desai term
welfare states to be myths because the state represents elite interests. Neoliberalism argues that
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it creates a ‘dependency culture’ and creates perverse incentives.
11, Anarchists: They claim that state is an apparatus of exploitation and repression and reject the
:
idea of state altogether. Gandhi was also of
a similar view of a
stateless society.
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7.7.2 Elements of State
A
enn
1. Population: state is created by its inhabitants. Since it has no inhabitants, Antarctica is not
a state. Population must be adequate to create classes that govern and are governed, as well as
to establish a political organization. The population's quality is also essential. A nation needs
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. law-abiding, educated, and disciplined individuals. Another crucial factor is the population's
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_
composition. A state with a homogeneous population is simple to rule.
2, Territory: No state exists without a definite territory. Living on a shared piece of land unites
‘.- people. Patriotism is fostered by affection for one's homeland. Defining the region is
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necessary for the exercise of political authority. Only with the establishment
had distinct did the a state with a
of
Israel, which
., a region, Jews become defined territory.
3.:.Government: Organization and norms are necessary for people to
live together. Government
. enforces regulations and ensures obedience. Government determines common. policies,
:. regulates common affairs, and promotes common interests. The state cannot exist without a
«government, regardless ofits form. It may have a parliamentary form of government like India
U
and Great Britain or a presidential form of government as
in the United States of America.
RiTETEDSTTASR
e State has a legal and administrative order.
ereeeernsnentnernnememmenemernne
¢ State has an administration which works as per legislative orders i.e. associated with public
Q
institutions.
9. There is an institution (government) of dominance and control. It has binding authority
over allits members.
* State enjoys legitimacy. It can use force that is legally prescribed and permitted.
4, Sovereignty: A population with a government and a defined territory do not establish a state
it
R
without sovereignty. India was not a state before 15 August 1947 because lacked sovereignty.
The state commands and enforces political compliance through sovereignty. A state must be
internally supreme and free from external control.
7.7.3 Difference between Nation and State

G
Nation State
A nation is a group of people with a A state is an association of people characterized by
common language, history, culture, and formal institutions of government, including laws;
N
(usually) geographic territory. permanent territorial boundaries; and sovereignty

(political independence).
Nationality is Subjective Statehood is Objective
Nationality is is
KI
Psychological Statehood Political

Nationality
We-feeling
is
is
a spiritual possession
important for a nation
Statehood is an enforceable obligation
Sovereignty is emphasized as an essential element
of state
Nationhood
is
not enforceable
A nation may be represented in (or ruled
It has coercions power and enforceable actions
A state may comprise one or more nations (as did
by) one or more (usually contiguous) the Roman Empire and Austria-Hungary)
PAPER
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ee
states, as in the early modern principalities
of Germany
Nn
7.7.4 Nation-States
ern
GS
:
1. Definition: A nation-state is a territorially bounded sovereign polity—i.e., a state—that is
P
ruled in the name of a community of citizens who identify themselves as a nation. —
2. Ernest Gellner: According to Ernest Gellner in his 1983 classic Nations and Nationalism, a
nation-state is a place where the territorial boundaries of a state and the cultural boundaries of
a nation coincide.
3. A Modern Concept: The nation-states are the new concepts to describe the new political units
N
of modern day. The nation-states evolve to the present context with the rise of nationalism.
Nation-states are states which confer citizenship rights as a means of political unity and in
return, citizens declare themselves as a part of a single nation, thus giving emotional integrity
EE
to the political units.
4, Legitimacy to Govern: The legitimacy of a nation-state’s rule over
a
territory and over the
population inhabiting it stems from the right of a core national group within the state (which
may include all or only some of its
citizens) to self-determination. Membersjof the core national
group see the state as belonging to them and consider the approximate territory of the state to
be their homeland. Accordingly, they demand that other groups, both within and outside the
U
state, recognize and respect their control over the state.
¢ Rogers Brubaker put it in Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question
in the New Europe (1996), nation-states are “states of and for particular nations.”
a
Q
5. Principles: As political model, the nation-state fuses two principles: .
:
e the principle of state sovereignty, which recognizes the right of states to govern their
territories without external interference; and eh
e the principle of national sovereignty, which recognizes the right of national communities
to govern themselves. National sovereignty in turn is based on the moral-philosophical
R
principle of popular sovereignty, according to which states belong to their peoples.
Bonds That Create a Nation-State

G
culture |
N
KI
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1
7.7.5 Characteristics of Nation-states
err
Modern Nation-states have the following major characteristics:
1. Sovereignty: Power to govern themselves without any outside influence.
2. Citizenship: Provides some duty and rightsto its
citizens in order to bring out overall welfare
of the nation.
esp P
3. Nationalism: Brings out emotional connectivity to bring out unity and integrity in the minds
of people.
4, Population and Dynamics: They
are
constantly changes in population size and power because
ATI
of the limited restrictions of their borders
paar N
e The degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in
entre
economic, social and cultural life. Example: The creation of the Zollverein in Germany,
by abolishing customs and tolls, preceded National Unity.
5. Centralised and Uniform Administration: The nation states typically had a more centralised
EE
NNET
and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors as they were smaller, and the
ANNE
population less diverse.
NEETU
ACUTE
neernetn
é
7.7.6 Challenges to Nation-States
of
‘ Be
Most‘current challenges to nation-states are not new, and some them are as old as the nation-state
itself. For decades, globalization has challenged nation-states’ ability to restrict, manage, and harness
eaanenasiainies
U
LULNNENNNNN
flows of people, economic wealth, and cultural materials and to constrain politics to public spaces and
institutions and to partnerships with other nation-states. A "crisis of the nation-state" has resulted from
internal and external forces. Among the pressures imposed in varying degrees on all nation-states are
Q
as follows:
1. Immigration: The influx of migrant workers and refugees to nation-states has increased
cultural and ideological fragmentation and friction, especially in circumstances where the
immigrant's religion and culture are considerably different from those of the host
community. Under such conditions, majority-minority tensions and intergroup violence
R
increase.
¢ Example: The Rohingya Refugee crisis in Myanmar leading them to Bangladesh and
India.
2. Globalisation and Neoliberalism: The late 20th century globalization of production,
consumption, and finance and the rise of big multinational businesses have diminished states!
G
ability to implement national protectionist measures and prohibit cross-border migration.

Neoliberalism's global spread and the
creation of international institutions like the World Trade
Organization and the International Monetary Fund have hampered countries’ ability to manage
N
and regulate macroeconomics and maintain collectivist social welfare systems,

e Example: In the IMF, a British person’s vote today is worth 41 times more than a
Bangladeshi’s vote.
KI
3. Minorities Challenge Nation-state based Citizenship: In some nation-states, ethnic

minorities have challenged the traditional model of nation-based citizenship because they
claim rights based on principles alternative to citizenship i.e. they rely on international
NOUR
conventions that recognize individual human rights or the collective rights of minorities and
indigenous peoples.
¢ Example: Opposition to grant of citizenship to Hajongs in Arunachal Pradesh and North-
east.
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—
4. National Disintegration: Increasing economic inequality between regions within nation-~
°
states and the rise of identity politics since the late 20th century have increased the likelihood
of national disintegration in some countries through the development of secessionist
aspirations among some ethnic groups, a phenomenon sometimes called Balkanization.
e Example: The United Kingdom and Spain.
P
5. Global Civil Society: New social movements and NGOs that highlight issues such as the rights
of indigenous peoples, the rights of sexual (LGBTQ) minorities (gay pride), animal rights, and
environmentalism present two complementary challenges to nation-states.
e First, they demand that political conversations within the nation-state be expanded beyond
N
the core issues of national politics (i.e., national security and resource distribution or the
allocation of public goods) to include issues related to the identities and ways of life of
non-national communities such as preserving the cultural traditions and languages ethnic of
or racial groups and protecting the rights of sexual minorities as well as issues related to
EE
cosmopolitan ideals.
e Second, such movements and organizations tend to form transnational eoalitions and to use
advanced media technologies to expand their struggles to the public spheres of other states
and to the diffused virtual space in which a global civil society has emérged. oy
6. Religious Extremism: The contemporary reinvigoration of religious extremism, which some- *
scholars believe to be a counter-reaction to globalization, poses two types of challenges to
U
nation-states. .
¢ First, within nation-states, religious extremists threaten interfaith coexistence, and they
challenge the institutions that help to maintain ethnic, religious, and gender diversity
Q
through integration, inclusion, and power sharing.
e Second, asa force external to nation-states, religious extremism (e.g., the variant of Islamic
fundamentalism represented by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant - ISIL) seeks to
replace nation-states with theocracies.
7, Cultural Globalization: The free flow of ideas and information through the internet,
R
particularly social media, and the increasingly global distribution of consumer goods have
eroded the role of nation-states as producers and disseminators of national ideas, norms, and
tastes, collectively sometimes called “national culture.” In most countries many citizens are
frequently exposed to
cultural materials that contrast with the core ideals of nationalism,
G
¢ Example: Secessionist ideologies spreading through the internet, Homogenisation of

dress, food, music etc.
8. Global Risks: Environmental problems that threaten the survival of humankind, along with
the international attention these problems have attracted, contrast with the traditional tendency
N
of nation-states to prioritize their particularistic national interests. Transnational social

movements (networks of activists from different countries that are committed to act for a
common cause) and NGOs that focus on global issues (currently, especially global warming)
KI
have challenged nation-states.
7.7.7 Is India - a Nation-state?

Several political analysts and sociologists differ from calling India as a Nation-state due to the
existence of diversity in every aspect of India as follows:
¢ Cultural Diversity: In the Indian context, we don't really have a shared culture. The cultures
of India are roughly distinguished from each other by states and in some cases, like the North
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1 - Sociolagy Optional
East Indian states, they can differ from tribe to tribe. The cultures of India are autonomous
cultures in their own right, not sub-cultures within the framework of a primary culture.
¢ Diversity in History: A shared history, with a common
past and common experiences not is
common to the whole India and
of varies by the region. Even up to 1950, the history of India
wasn't based on a common past or common experiences. The British colonial character, for
P
example, was different in Shillong than in Kanpur. Along with it, a lot of independent
kingdoms and enclaves in India were either not a part of British India and/or were a colony of
other European empires.
© Multiple Languages: Union of India has more distinct languages with their
own character
than the whole of Europe.
N
® Diversity in Ethnicity: India have people from different ethnicity — North East have different
ethnicity than south India, South have different than north etc. In India, we have different
geographic regions where different ethno-racial groups are localised.
EE
From a sociological perspective, India is far from being a nation-state. Thus, India is a democratic
republic constituted, as a 'union of states’ (Article 1(1), the Constitution of India); a politically
sovereign state, 3
i
7.8 State-Nation
1. e
Nations-Staté vs State-Nation: A nation-state insists on alignment between the boundaries of ;
U
the State and nation, a state-nation allows for a multiplicity of “imagined communities” to
coexist beneath a singlé democratic téof. It recognises that citizens can have multiple,
overlapping identities that need not detract from a larger sense of national unity.
is
Q
©
The societiés that possess strong cultural diversity, at least some of which territorially
based and backed by strong sub-national identitiés, the nation-state model is ineffective.
For these complex cases, Linz, Stepan, and Yogendra Yadav suggest an alternative path -
a “state-nation”.
2. Working of State-nation: State-nation'work on two levels - They strive to create a sense of
to
R
belonging with respect the larger ps | community, and at the same time they put in place
institutional protections for politically’safient diversities having to do with language, religion,
‘or sacrosanct cultural norms. If such diversities
are territorially specific, they normally require
the protection afforded by federal arrangements.
___
3. Example: Belgium, Canada, India, and Spain are state-nations, as are Nigeria, Pakistan, the
G
Philippines, Sti Lanka, and Thailand. Each has geographically concentrated ethnocommunal
differerices.
,
7.8.1 Is India - 4 State-Nation?

N
¢ Diverse Culture: India is a diverse nation, having multiple cultures.

# Unification through State Power: Séveral sociologists
argue that India as a state-nation
brings out the present unity of India amidst the separatists movements in Jammu and Kashmir,
KI
Northeast and Left wing extremism in Central and Eastern India for years through the use of
political, police and constitutional power of the Indian State.
* Lack of Homogenization: According to Yogendra Yadav, the term of State-Nations
very
apt for India as we have failed in the project of homogéfization. In his opinion, India has an
is
asymmetrical féderal character. In practical and political terms, Uttar Pradesh holds more
power than any North-East state; or Tamil Nadu holds more powet than Sikkim. This is
because India’s polity is shaped that way.
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—
e Different States — Different Challenges: An overarching notion of nation-state cannot be
valid for India. There is no common thread tying northern India to Southern India. It broke
away from the western tradition of nation-state, and began their journey towards building a
state-nation, where each state has its own set of unique challenges that may or may not reach
the central administration.
P
7.8.2 India - a Civilisational-State
According to Abhinav Prakash Singh, India
e A shared civilizational legacy justifies the
is
a civilisational-state.
political union of most of India's adjacent regions.
A civilisational-state is political unification under one state. A civilisational-state represents a
N
unique civilisation, not just an ethnic, linguistic, or religious group.
@ Over millennia, civilizations can produce kingdoms, empires, and republics. As seen in India,
many political formations can coexist within civilisational borders with varied territorial
boundaries, as shown by Bharatvarsha's acceptance of kingdoms from diverse regions.
EE
© Multiple languages, religious communities, and ethnic groups can coexist within civilisational
boundaries, as they have in India for millennia. This civilisational barrier becomes a
civilisational-state when united under single political unity like the Indian state today. The
Republic of India's territorial boundaries depend on civilisational boundaries.
7.9 Stateless Nations v

U
1, Meaning: Various cultural communities came to consider themselves nations and were also
able to establish a modern nation-state based on that identity. Many, however, never
established their own nation state. They are thus calied “stateless nations”.
:
of
Q
2. Examples stateless nations:
¢ The Kurds currently reside in Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey, but they have not established
an internationally-recognized state based on their national identity.
The Jews were a stateless nation until 1948 when they declared Israel a state, and
*®
immediately gained recognition from the U.S., followed by the rest of the world.
R
¢ Palestinians are currently members of a stateless nation, although the sovereignty of

Palestine has been recognized by 135 member countries of the U.N. The term “State of
Palestine” is only used officially by Sweden.
7.10 Citizenship
G
1. Meaning: Citizenship, relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual
owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection. Citizenship implies the status of
freedom accompanying responsibilities. Citizens have certain rights, duties, and
with
N
responsibilities that are denied or only partially extended to aliens and other noncitizens
residing in a country. Citizenship is the most privileged form of nationality.
2. Marxist: Citizenship is a myth as there is no equality in a capitalist society.
KI
3. Features:
¢ Legal Membership of Political Community: Citizenship means full and responsible and
legal member of the political community.
© Two Way Relationship: In a democratic society, there must be a two-way traffic between
the citizens and the government. All governments demand certain duties from the citizens.
But, in return, the state must also admit some demands on itself. These are called rights.
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o Example: The Indian government owes the protection duty of its citizens from
external
and internal aggression through the constitution. In return, the Indian citizens owes
certain duties to their country’ by paying taxes, defend the country when it needs, etc.
¢ Basis of Governance: Citizens’. participation is the basis of responsible, limited and
TE
ET
constitutional government.
PN
4. Parameters of Membership: The principle premise of citizenship is that nation-states can set
OE P
and control the parameters of membership.
5. Principles of Citizenship: Attribution and acquisition of citizenship are structured on two
principles: jus soli (the conferral of citizenship to persons born in the state's territory, or soil)
and jus sanguinis (the conferral of citizenship to persons with a citizen parent or parents, or
blood). Most nation-states base their citizenship laws on a combination of jus soli and jus
N
ETE
TET
NPR
NTT
sanguinis.
NNN
7.10.1 T.H. Marshall on Citizenship
EE
T.H.. Marshall in his study "Citizenship and Social Class" draws a link between the evolution of
citizenship rights and the development of industrial society. He defined citizenship as a status, which
is enjoyed by a person who
political, and social.
is
a full member of a community. Citizenship has three components: civil,
1. Civil Rights:
are
.
* Meaning: Civil rights are necessary for individual freedoms and institutionalised in the
U
law courts.
¢ Evolution: Late 18th century England - The first set of rights gained were the civil rights
such as right to freedom of speech, thought and belief, right to personal liberty, right to
Q
equality before law, right to religion, property, conclude contracts, and right to justice.
2. Political Rights:
¢ Meaning: Political citizenship guarantees the right to participate in the exercise of political
power in the community, either by voting, or by holding political office.
¢ Evolution: Second of the 19th
century England - Once the civil
rights had been
acquired,
R
people began to campaign for political rights such as right to participate in election, right
to hold public offices.
o These rights were the product of capitalism as they were demanded by the bourgeoisie
vis-a-vis monarchy and feudal lords.
3. Social Rights:
G
e Meaning: Social citizenship is

the right to participate in an appropriate standard of living;
this right is embodied in the welfare and educational systems of modern societies.
¢ Evolution: With increasing grip on political power, people began to
fight for social rights
N
such as development of welfare state, campaign for socio-economic rights, etc.

© With the establishment of the welfare state, the rights such as right to certain standard
of socialand economic well-being such as health, poverty, unemployment, etc.
KI
© These rights were the product of the rising socialism and communism as they were
demanded byproletariats against the bourgeoisie.
o These rights providing a degree of equality among citizens, thereby reducing inequality
through the establishment of the socialist and welfare states.
o Example: USSR
in 1930s.
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—
TH Marshal Capitalists Societies: Permanent Tension and Contradiction
—
The important feature of Marshall’s theory was his view that there was a permanent tension or
contradiction between the principles of citizenship and the operation of the capitalist market.
Capitalism inevitably involves inequalities between social classes, while citizenship involves
some redistribution of resources, because of rights, which are shared equally by all.
While the industrialists aimed for more profits and no taxation, the welfare state of social
P
citizenship needed to increase taxation.
The capitalist ideology is based on inequality and exploitation of workers and thus the concept
of social rights hurt the capitalist ideology.
The state dealt with these two opposing interests by granting some rights to the working class,
N
preventing them from proceeding to a greater conflict that could overthrow the system.
Criticism of Citizenship of TH Marshal:

1, Based on One Country only: Critics argue that it is a description of the English experience
EE
2.
only, it is
not a comparative
and of citizenship.
analysis
Non-consideration of Social Processes: It has an evolutionary and teleological view of the
inevitable expansion of citizenship, and does not examine social processes, which undermine
citizenship.
* The Marshallian theory of citizenship has become highly inadequate in attending to the
new categories-immigrants, guest workers, refugees and other mobile groups-that
U
constitute a pivotal feature of the contemporary world.
¢ These new forms go beyond the Marshallian citizenship trilogy of civil, political and social
rights, and entail the following statements.
Q
Gender Insensitive: It does not address gender differences in the experience of citizenship.
Voting rights in many countries were given before women were given full equality before the
law; i.e. before they were given civic equality.
4. Non-Consideration of Other issues: It fails to address other types of citizenship, such as
economic citizenship; and it is not clear about the causes of the expansion of citizenship.
R
7.10.2 Is demucracy - a Perfe

TH Marshall set in motion a questioning of the righteousness of democracy, which only carries on the
capitalist expansionism with the veil of equality.
Citizenship places Unequal Demands on Diverse individuals: Citizenship is a status
G
bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess the status are equal
with respect to
the rights and duties with which the status is endowed. Thus, Citizenship places
unequal demands on diverse individuals, precisely in order to equalise those who are not
N
naturally equal.
Mlusion of Equality: The introduction of citizenship rights thus did not end inequalities, but
only gave an illusion of equality, further pushing back the working class into the exploitative
KI
system while consoling them with external improvements.

Gail Omvedt: Citizenship in India has been paradoxical as
it theoretically grants equal rights,
but caste dynamics makes Dalits lesser citizens when it comes to enjoying democratic rights.
Bryan Turner: Modern citizenship is largely a passive citizenship as there is lack of direct
democracy.
Ramchandra Guha: In the east, unlike the west, citizenship was awarded suddenly as
countries got independent and hence people don’t appreciate citizenship rights and duties.
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—
e._
Representative democracy narrows down the
scope of exercise of various rights and duties.
Simon Duffy - Citizenship and Welfare State °
The active support for equal citizenship is the life giving purpose
state.
the root at
the welfare of
The welfare state takes different forms in different countries and has changed over time.
The welfare state which once mainly emphasised labour welfare ultimately shifted to the
P
overall people welfare and development.
The welfare state provides various provisions to its citizens especially social security,
minimum wages rules, rules for minimum hours of work, minimum working conditions,
occupational safety and compensation in case of accidents at the workplace, etc.
N
In welfare states, the equality of status is more important than equality of income. Thus
the welfare state provides equalization than equality which means general reduction of
risk and insecurity, an equalization between the more and the
less fortunate at all levels
between the healthy and the sick, the employed and the unemployed, the old and the
EE
~-
active, the bachelor and the father of a large family.
7.10.3 Globalization and Citizenship

1. Meaning: Since the 1970s, increased flows of goods, services, money, ideas, and people across
national borders, i.e. globalization, have led to economic integration and interdependence
among nation-states. This shift from an autonomous nation-state to a world of blurred
U
boundaries has helped change the traditional notion of citizenship.
With the rise of globalization, the concept of citizenship as a form of membership and
identity in one nation-state has changed. The increase in the number countries allowing of
Q
dual citizenship and noncitizen rights has made the acquisition of citizenship less pressing.
The rise of nativism, in part the result of globalization and concerns about the risks of
immigration linked to terrorism, has reinvigorated debates about national membership and
loyalty to one state.
2. 3 Problems related to Citizenship because of Globalization:
R
Migration: First, the intensification of migratory movements from poorer to richer

countries in the context of growing inequalities between North and South has led some
authors to contest the state’s moral right to choose its members by selectively closing
borders. Migrants’ transnational behavior has made national citizenship less relevant. As
its
G
legal scholar Linda Bosniak has written, national affiliations do matter, but they are not
necessarily paramount in many people's experiences.
Availability of Rights: Second, what R. Baubéck calls the “mismatch between citizenship
and the territorial scope of legitimate authority” has prompted a growing questioning of
N
the acceptability of the different rights accorded to citizens and non-citizens living within
the same state.
Multiplicity of States: The 2" problem raises a third set of issues as it assumes that the
KI
democratic nation-state is the only institutional contcxt in which citizonship can thrive.
This is contested by those who claim that citizenship can be exercised in a multiplicity of
‘sites’ both below and above the nation-state.
7.10.4 The Growth of Multiple Citizenship

1. Growth in Dual Citizenship: Today, holding citizenship in more than one country has
become more common. The increase in mobility, the ability of children to acquire the
PAPER
citizenship of not only their father but their mother, the development of new norms and human
rights standards, and changing policies have contributed to the growth of dual and sometimes
multiple citizenship. According to some reports, about half of all countries allow dual
citizenship. Of 15 EU countries studied by political scientist Marc Howard, 10 allow
immigrants who naturalize to hold dual citizenship.
Example: A child born in a foreign country to US citizen parents may be both a US citizen
P
¢
and a citizen of the country of birth.
2. Immigrant Dual Citizenship: "Immigrant dual citizenship" permits immigrants to maintain
their origin citizenship while becoming a citizen of the settlement country. An increasing
number of migrant sending states- Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Italy, Mexico,
N
and Turkey - have changed their policies to allow dual citizenship. These policies are beneficial
to sending states, especially in light of the growing importance of remittances and investment
from nationals living abroad.:
EE
e Example: In response to deteriorating economic conditions at home, Argentines in
particular have used ethnic claims toItalian and. Spanish citizenship to legally migrate to
the EU in search of better economic opportunities. As EU citizens, they are able to reside
and work anywhere in the EU, not only the country for which they have citizenship.
7.10.5 The Growth of Quasi-Citizensh

1. Migration: Immigrants today are more likely be members of two states, either as citizens of
U
one and settled migrants (also known as quasi-citizens or denizens) of another, or as citizens
of both.
Geneva Convention on the Status of Refugees (United Nations 1951) calls the principle of
Q
«
“non refoulement”: signatory states are not to deport refugees and asylum seekers to their
countries of origin if this threatens their lives and freedom.
2. Rights of Immigrants: The rights of quasi-citizens can include long-term or permanent
security of residence status; protection from deportation (except in exceptional circumstances);
the right to work and seek employment; voting in local elections; and entitlements to some
R
social benefits.
¢ Example: In the United States, legal permanent residents, or green card holders, are quasi-
citizens who can live and work permanently anywhere in the country; they can become
naturalized citizens once they areeligible.
G
3. Impact of Human Rights: In Europe, the growth of quasi-citizenship is linked partly to

restrictive naturalization policies and the growing importance of international human rights
standards to which many European countries are signatories.
N
7.10.6 Supranational Citizenship

e Meaning: Supranational rights have developed over the past half century in Europe and
characterize EU citizenship. British Commonwealth Citizenship is an example of a
KI
supranational membership or citizenship system that predates modern regional and political
associations such as the EU.
e Common Citizenship: EU citizenship embodies the idea of a common citizenship across all
EU Member States and could eventually serve as the basis for a European identity. EU
citizenship transforms the notion and practices associated with state sovereignty, a key
principle underlying citizenship.
| | ~ Page 341
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¢ Weakening State Sovereignty: Freedom of movement, the most widely known right of EU
citizenship, restrains the ability of states to exclude foreigners, thereby weakening national
sovereignty. .
¢ Limitation: Although some have hailed EU citizenship as a new, post-national form of
membership, it
remains subordinate to national citizenship. It
is linked to the citizenship of a
Member State, and Member States still control who can receive their citizenship.
P
7.10.7 Stateless Person
Meaning: Worldwide, the number of stateless persons is
rising. The United Nations defines a stateless
person as someone who is not considered a national by any state. The rigid practice of jus
N
sanguinis policies can result in statelessness. In other cases, a child with a non-national father born in
their mother's country of nationality may be denied that nationality as a result of gender restrictions
the
on transmission of nationality.
EE
* Statelessness also occurs when long-residing ethnic populations have been denied citizenship
or have been stripped of citizenship as a result of their racial or ethnic origins.
7.10.8 Citizenship and Nation-states

© The words citizenship and nationality are often used interchangeably (i.e., dual nationality,
dual citizenship).
¢
U
Nationality is often used to signify membership in a community on the basis of common
@
cultural characteristics while citizenship refers to membership conferred by state.
a
Citizens of a nation-state may include those who see themselves as part of a single nation based
on a common culture or ethnicity, but more often include some groups who are
Q
seen as outside
of national culture and incapable of belonging.
7.10.9 New Forms

1,
of Citizenship and Ca Citizenship
Changing Perspectives from Marshall Theory: The Marshallian theory of citizenship has
R
become highly inadequate in attending to the new categories-immigrants, guest workers,

refugees and other mobile groups-that constitute a pivotal feature of the contemporary world,
These new forms go beyond the Marshallian citizenship trilogy of civil, political and social
rights, and entail the following statements.
©
Mobility citizenship - concerned with the rights and responsibilities of visitors to other
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places and cultures.

Minority citizenship - concerned with the rights of minorities over majority.
Cultural citizenship - involving the right to cultural participation.
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Ecological citizenship - involving rights and responsibilities of the earth citizen.

Diasporic citizenship - concerned with the rights and duties of diasporas.
Cyber citizenship - involving the rights and duties of netizens.
2. Urry - Citizenship of flow: As against the Marshallian citizenship trilogy, organized around
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membership to the nation-state, these alternative conceptions could be considered the

‘citizenship of flow’, which are concerned with the causes and consequences of the flows of
migrants, visitors, cultures and risks across national boundaries.
3. New Participatory Citizenship erodes public
spaces: The new public spaces have led to
participatory citizenship spilling beyond state boundaries.
¢ Global civil society provides its
citizens the required space for collective action in various
forms such as unions, NGOs, ethnic associations, demonstrations and social movements
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aa
rT
—
(women’s movement or
gay liberation movement) and people’s summits (like the World
Tn
Social Forum).
¢ Global civil society and the Internet have contributed to the emergence of unbounded
ET
notions of citizenship. The Internet has greatly influenced political consciousness, and has
‘<r
created a specific identity ‘netizen’ or a new discursive or interactive form of citizenship
TO P
,
‘cyber-citizenship’.
4. Post-Modernist View: :
¢ Challenges of Modern Concept: The modern concept of

citizenship cannot respond to
ISO
the challenges of modern society - changes brought on by globalization and pressures of
the postmodern era involving fragmentation and pluralism.
N
ETE
TET
TTT
* Citizenship outside Fixed Notions: The postmodern conception of citizenship proceeds
RAT
AAP
from the assumption that citizenship cannot constitute a universalistic concept. Thus, the
TIES
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postmodern concept of citizenship, which is not tied to fixed notions of borders, nations,
Sanaa EE
culture and common heritage, will be explored.
LOTT
TSAO
-
:
e Young: He argues that ethics based on the principle ‘one size fits all’ should be rejected
because it implies that instead of always formulating rights and rules in universal terms,
that are blind to difference, some groups sometimes deserve special rights. In this way, the
concept of citizenship will embrace various identity possibilities.
© Self-reliant: Post Modernists argue for the active citizenship where citizens should be self-
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reliant than being overly dependent on the state. And they should be aware of their duties.
mnemanaaereeecemAT
5. Global Citizenship: >.
¢ Meaning: Global citizenship is the umbrella term for social, political, environmental, and
economic actions of globally minded individuals and communities on a worldwide scale.
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It can refer to the belief that individuals are members of multiple, diverse, local and non-
local networks rather than single actors affecting isolated societies.
¢ Part of Sustainable Development Goals: The concept of global citizenship is embedded
in the Sustainable Development Goals through SDG 4 - Ensuring Inclusive and Quality
R
Education for All and Promote Life Long Learning, which includes global! citizenship as
one of its targets.
o Promoting global citizenship in sustainable development will allow individuals to
embrace their social responsibility to act for the benefit of all societies, not just their
own.
G
6. Green or Environment Citizenship:

¢ Mark Smith - Environmental citizenship: It is the responsible pro-environmental
behavior of citizens who act and participate in society as agents of change in the private
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and public sphere, on a local, national and global scale, through individual and collective
actions, in the direction of solving contemporary environmental problems, preventing the
creation of new environmental problems, achieving sustainability, as well as developing a
healthy relationship with nature.
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e Harton - Non territorial: Environmental citizenship is non-territorial unlike traditional

concept of citizenship.
© The concept of green citizenship raises the questions of transnational citizenship and
scholars argue that national well-being is not confined to national boundaries,
Therefore, any discourse of citizenship must include global environment dimensions,
This is especially relevant in discussions like UNFCCC’s emission targets and
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responsibility of the global ‘north to cut down emissions to compensate for their
historically high contribution.
© Ellis - Conservation of Environment: Being an active environmental citizen includes
recognizing the value of livable environments for humans and nature, promoting
conservation of resources, and supporting nature protection and biodiversity,
¢ Bell - Participation in Policy Making: Environmental citizenship entails the right to
P
participate in environmental policy making, choose sustainable personal actions,
obey just
environmental law, and promote sustainable arrangements.
¢ Citizenship to Natural Resources: Since the natural resources are inherently limited,
therefore rights of the yet unborn citizens should be included in the sustainable well-being,
N
Scholars like Turner argued that the natural objects such as lands, trees, rivers and animals
must be accorded citizenship rights.
o Example: Once Uttarakhand High Court confers living entity status to River Ganga
in
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and River Yamuna India. o
Conclusion: mn
Globalization does not imply that ‘the local’ and ‘the national’ are subordinate to ‘the global’. Rather,
it underlines the deepening as well as the broadening
of the political process in the sense that local,
national and global events constantly interact-and result in systematic interdependencies.
7.11 Democracy
os
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Meaning: The word democracy itself is of reek origin. The Greek word demokzratio is-a combination
of the words demos (meaning the people) and kratos (meaning rule). This gives democracy its meaning
as a form of government in which the people rule, whether directly - through personal participation -
Q
or indirectly, through elected representatives.
a form of
government,
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a way of life Democracy Means

and culture a type of state,
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a design of
a pattern of
economic order, social system,
and
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7.11.1 Different Perspectives

1. Bryce: “Democracy really means nothing more or less than the rule of the whole
people,
expressing, their Sovereign will by their votes”.
2. Maclver: “Democracy is not a way of governing, whether by majority or otherwise, but
primarily a way of determining, who shall govern, and broadly to what ends”.
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3. Abraham Lincoln: Democracy as a government for the people, of the people and by the
people.
4. John Hirst: A democracy is a society in which the citizens are sovereign and control the
government.
5. Robert Michels: Democracy calls for organization, which ultimately leads to oligarchy.
is to
sustain the false consciousness among the masses.
P
6. Marxists: Democracy an illusion used
7, Schmitter and Karl: It is a system of governance, in which rulers are held accountable for
their actions in the public realm by citizens, acting indirectly through the cooperation of their
elected representatives.
8. Larry Diamond: Democracy has arrived in a series of waves of democracies such as
N
successive wars, decolonisation, revolution and other socio-religious and economic
circumstances. He gave an overview of what in his opinion is democracy. He describes
democracy as a system of government with four key elements:
:
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¢ A system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections;
* Active participation of the people, citizens, in politics and civic life;
as
* ‘Protection of the human rights of all
citizens; and
¢ Arule of law in which the laws and procedures apply equally to
all citizens.
9. Heywood: A system of government that serves the interests of the people regardless of their
participationin
political life.
all
10. Nassbaum: The basic feature
U
is the capacity of
of democracy voters to participate freely
and fully in the life of their society, and that democracy is a form of government in which all
SS
eligible citizens have an equal say in law-making.
Q
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Political Democracy
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Social Democracy
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7.11.2 Direct Democracy Sat? BNE Se OB

s
1. Meaning: Direct Democracy

isall
a form of self-government in all
collective decisions are
G
which
taken through participation of adult citizens ofthe state in the spirit of equality and open
deliberations.
e Its modern manifestation is the referendum. ‘Gram Sabha’, as envisaged in the 73rd
N
is
Constitutional Amendment, an instance of direct democracy in rural India.
2. Principles governing Direct Democracy: The principle of direct democracy is to
govern
through consensus. In the absence of formal representative institutions, people make decisions
themselves through public discussions. In other words, the following principles apply in direct
KI
democracy;
¢ People are sovereign
* Sovereignty is inalienable and cannot be represented
* People must express their general will and make decisions directly through referendum
* Decisions are to be based on majority rule
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Direct Democracy in Modern Times
The main forms of direct democracy are referendums (the alternative plural form ‘referenda’ is also
widely used) and citizens’ initiatives. v
¢ Referendums: Referendums give the people a direct vote, which may be binding or advisory,
on a specific political, constitutional or legislative issue that is referred to them by governing
ens P
institutions. The peop!e’s role is usually limited to ratifying or repealing decisions that have
already been taken or to accepting or rejecting propositions that the governing institutions have
put forward.
e Citizen’s Initiatives: Citizen's initiatives give the electorate a direct vote, which may be
binding or advisory, on a specific political, constitutional or legislative issue that is initiated
N
by the people. They precede the decisions of governing institutions, and in some jurisdictions
may even enable new laws or constitutional amendments to be adopted without the consent of
the elected legislature.
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Merits of Direct Democracy:
1. Controlto Citizens: It heightens the control that citizens can exercise over their own destinies,
as it is the only pure form of democracy.
2. Politically Aware Citizens: It creates a better informed and more politically sophisticated
citizenry, and thus it has educational benefits.
U
3. Expression of Views: It enables the public to express their own views and interests without
to
having rely on self-serving politicians,
4. Legitimacy from within: It ensures that rule is legitimate in the sense that people are more
Q
likely to accept decisions that they have made themselves.
5. Popular Sovereignty: Direct democracy is an expression of popular sovereignty- the right of
the citizenry to decide on matters of fundamental importance, directly and authoritatively,
without mediation by their representatives.
6. Giving Voice and Control to Ordinary Citizens: Referendums and initiatives may give
R
direct voice to ordinary citizens, enabling the citizenry to protect general interests from
betrayal by political elites.
¢ For Example: In Iceland in 2010, for example, a law on debt repayments that had been
passed by parliament was referred to the people in a referendum and was defeated,
7. Unpacking
the Range of Choices offered by Parties: Referendums and initiatives potentially
G
enable citizens to separate out their preferences, voting on particular measures on their own
merits, decoupled from election manifestos.
8. Forcing Incumbents to Confront Difficult Issues: Minority-triggered referendums or
N
citizens’ initiatives may provide a way of forcing onto the political agenda and issue that the
incumbent government or legislative majority would prefer not to confront
9. Resolving Unexpected Questions, Authorizing Changes in Direction: Holding a
referendum allows a government to seek popular endorsement and thus to legitimate a response
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to such changed circumstances.

¢ Example: In Canada, for example, the Liberal government of Mackenzie King made an
election promise in 1940 not to introduce military conscription, but later came under
increasing military pressure to do so. A referendum was held in 1942 to release the
government from its commitments and to authorize the introduction of conscription
10. Settling Controversy: Referendums and citizens’ initiatives enable the people to express their
clear will on a controversial matter.
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on abortion in Portugal (1998 and 2007) and on
‘ Example: Referendums electoral reform
pete in Ireland (1958 and 1968) were able to settle these issues in an authoritative way
f Direct Democracy:
izen Information and Competence: Direct democracy demands from citizens a relatively
i level of knowledge of issues that are sometimes complex. Concerns are often expressed
P
igh
ie voters may not always have the capacity or necessary information to make well- informed
iecisions about the issue at stake.
er Irrationality: Although direct democracy lets the people speak,
‘hat they are trying to say.
it
is not always clear
N
er Fatigue: Many voters, having neither the time nor the knowledge to make so many
isions for themselves, may disengage from the political process.
hitting or Avoiding Responsibility: Politicians may use referendums to avoid responsibility
EE
fe deciding difficult issues, especially issues on which the governing party or coalition is
.
i \ernally divided.
hort-term versus Long-term Policies: Direct democracy expresses public upinion on one
e at a particular time. Excessive reliance on direct democracy may therefore encourage
cies that are popular in the short term (e.g. tax cuts) to the detriment of long-term goals
. reducing the public debt or investing in public services),
6
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{spvernability and Policy Coherence: Frequent use of direct democracy mechanisms may
Herlond the political system, increasing expectations and placing more demands upon the state
|. (lan it is able to respond to, thus weakening the
legitimacy of the democratic system as a whole.
bbying and Special Interests: Referendums and citizens’ initiatives may sometimes be
Q
ptoposed by rich and powerful interests, acting to promote their own financial or social
terests at the expense of the common good.
inservative Bias: Some scholars’ have argued that referendums and citizens’ initiatives
ligproportionately favour conservative policies over progressive ones. Non-elite citizens are
typically less educated and less cosmopolitan than elites, and may maintain more traditional or
R
even reactionary values: transferring decision-making from (relatively elite) politicians to

sidinary citizens can therefore hinder progressive reforms.
Authoritarian and Populist Abuse: Historically, authoritarian rulers such as Napoleon in
'
9,
France, Franco in Spain, Pinochet in Chile, Marcos in
the Philippines and Park Chung Hee in
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South Korea have used uncompetitive referendums to create a false veneer of democratic
legitimacy. Referendums may also enable populist leaders to bypass legislative, judicial or
¢gonstitutional restraints on their power by appealing to the masses.
Ai. (Cost and Logistics: Holding a poll is expensive. It can place considerable logistical burdens
N
on electoral management bodies, local authorities, security services and other state agencies.
It also demands a lot in terms of civic education and engagement from political parties and
campaign groups.
KI
11. Social Conflict and Minority Rights: Referendums and initiatives, particularly with a simple-
majority adoption requirement, may deepen divisions in society, threaten the rights of
minorities and increase racial, ethnic, linguistic or religious tensions.
¢ Example: In 2012, Latvia held a citizens’ initiative to amend the constitution to recognize
the linguistic rights of the country’s Russian-speaking minority. The campaign further
increased tensions between the Latvian-speaking and Russian-speaking sections of the
people.:
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12. Polarization: Direct democracy mechanisms usually require people to vote yes or no to
specific and often very controversial issue. Once the question has been set and the options have
been decided upon, nuance may be lost, and opportunities for compromise may be limited. As
such, direct democracy can polarize debate.
« Example: Kenya’s constitutional referendum of 2005 is an example of
a polarizing and damaging effect.
a vote that had such
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7.11.3 Liberal Democracy
1. Meaning: Liberal democracy is a common form of representative democracy. According to
the principles of liberal democracy, elections should be free and fair, with the presence of
N
multiple and distinct political parties. The liberal democracies usually have universal suffrage,
granting all adult citizens the right to vote regardless of race, gender, or property ownership.
Liberal democracies are currently the dominant form of political ideology in the modern world.
its
origins to the European 18th
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Emergence of Liberal Democracy: Liberal democracy traces
century, also known as the Age of Enlightenment. The liberal society emerged first and
democratization followed later. The fundamental values which underline democracy are
equality, individualism, social justice and secularism. Landmarks which led to the emergence
of liberal democracy are as follows:
« Renaissance: Paved the way for individual freedom through intellectual intent.
Reformation: Subordination of religion to state and prepared the ground for secularisation.
¢
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¢ Secularisation: Equality of all
religions or no religion.
¢ Commercial Revolution: Led to the breakdown of feudal order and the authority of state
strengthened.
Q
was
¢ Rise of Capitalism: Led to the breakdown of ascriptive status and prepared grounds for
merit and rationalisation.
¢ Industrialisation: Led to growth of political parties.
State: Provides for empowerment of the working class, mass education and facilitates
R
people participation in the political process.
Features of Liberal Democracy:

1. Individualism:
¢ Individual is considered as the basic unit.
G
¢ Individual is assumed to be rational. Therefore, he should be allowed to pursue his goal

with least interference.
People Participation: Participation in political affairs is seen as a virtue which leads to
intellectual, moral and emotional development of people.
N
bw Egalitarianism: Equality
before the law & equality of opportunity, but not of outcome.
Secularism: State has no religion. It should be guided by reason.
A Representative and Responsible Government: The universal adult franchise paves the way
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for an indirect system of governance.

Political Pluralism: Tolerance for dissent and differences.
as
It
Clear distinction between state and civil society: is formally defined as a state well adapted
to do basic functions related to human rights. And where the state ends, democracy paves way
for the scope of civil society.
Limit to State: Constitutionally defined limit on state.
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9. Independent Judiciary: There has to be independent judiciary to increase accountability and
transparency of the state.
10. Regular Elections: Making the public system accountable and active on people's welfare.
Robert Dahl: For the proper functioning of the government, it should ensure the following
institutional guarantees which include:
Freedom of association and expression
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Right to vote
Run
for public office
Free and fair elections
The right of political leaders to compete for support and votes
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|
Alternative sources of information
Policy making institutions dependent on votes
Other expression of preference
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7.11.4 Participatory Democracy
@
Meaning: It
denotes active involvement of individuals and groups in
the political process such
as voting, contesting in elections, debate and discussion, protest for public issues.
e@
Participation in Decision Making: Participatory democracy strives to create opportunities for
all members of a population to make meaningful contributions to decision making, and seeks
U
to broaden the range of people who have access to such opportunities. Example: Gram Sabha.
e Different Forms: Political variants of participatory democracy include consensus democracy,
deliberative democracy, demarchy, and grassroots democracy.
Mix of Consensus and Majority Rule: It adopts elements of both consensus decision making
Q
@
and majority rule.

e Genuine Form of Democracy: Advocates of participatory democracy criticise indirect
democracy saying that people's role in it is just confined to the periodic ritual of voting. They
also believe that unless people actively participate, it cannot be a genuine democracy.
R
e Makes Democracy More Efficient: According to Pateman, participatory democracy

enhances a sense of political efficacy, reduces a sense of estrangement from power centres,
nurtures a concern for collective problems and contributes to the formation of an active and
well-informed citizenry capable of taking a more acute interest in government affairs.
®
if
Consent of People: According to Rousseau, the law and general administration is meant for
G
the people,
it
is reasonable that behind this law and running the administration there shall lie
the consent of the people.
e Social Inclusion: According to Santos, participatory democracy can be interpreted as a design
of social inclusion, which aims at
institutionalizing a new democratic dominion relying on the
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dialectic between civil society and the political system.

® Deliberation of Ideas: According to Joseph M Bessette, decisions in democracy shouldn't be
made merely by aggregating the votes, but should be deliberated upon for the merits and
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demerits of the ideas.
7.11.5 Merits of Democracy

e Rights and Liberties: Government protects the rights and liberties of people, thereby
promoting individual freedom. *
e@
Universal Adult Franchise: Leads to inclusion of marginalised groups through universal
adult franchise. It leads to integration and solidarity among the communities.
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e Check and Balances and Judiciary: Safeguard against misuse of power
’
to the
mechanism of checks and balances.
e@
Transparency and Accountability: Greater transparency and accountability, thereby
reducing corruption and authoritarianism.
¢ Responsible Government: Government
means of debates and discussions.
is responsive to the needs of the people through the
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7.11.6 Demerits of Democracy
1. Instability of the Government: People can be
the government.
ill
informed, manipulated, get carried away by
it
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2. Prone to Populist Tendencies and Majoritarianism: Democracy can be populist and is
prone to Majoritarianism.
* Hans Kelsen: Democracy allows for the rule of majority by way of elections and hence,
leads to tyranny of majority and oppression of the minority.
it
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3. Misplaced Trust: Once the election process is over, the people’s voice in government
virtually done. -
is
4. Migration: It results into the crisis of representation ~ lack of ample citizen representation at
grassroot.
5. Elitist Nature: which further increase inequality in
Democracy has an elitist tendencies
society.
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* Roberto Michels: Current form of democracy a puppet is in
the hands of the oligarchs. He
said that big nations can neverhave direct democracy and
the concentration of power in
the hands of a few who exploit the situation.
a
representative system leads to
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¢ C.V.Macpherson: He criticised western democracies that they primarily serve the elites
only.
6. Election as a Ritual Only: According to T.B.Bottomore, Democracy is much more than
ritualistic regular elections. Western governments are imperfect realisation of democracies as
those forms permanently exclude many in any form of participation in government activities,
R
e Ashutosh Varshney: India practice Democracy during elections, & clientelism between
elections.
7. Contemporary Challenges:
¢ From Russia to Brazil, Turkey to Thailand, and Hungary to China, governments have
G
turned into regimes.

¢ Levitsky and Ziblatt: When democratic institutions /processes are subverted legally, it’s
Democratic Backsliding. What is
legal, they emphasise, is not necessarily democratic.
E.g. preventive detention, caste politics & ethnic conflict, Human Rights violations etc.
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7.11.7 India and Democracy

© Responsible Democracy: Since independence India has been functioning as a responsible
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democracy. The same has been appreciated by international community. It has successfully
adapted to the challenging situations.
© Free and Fair Elections: There have been free and fair periodic elections for all political
offices from the panchayats to the President.
© Smooth Power Transfer: There has been smooth transfer of political power from one political
party or set of political parties to others, both at national and state levels on many occasions.
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Functioning Parliament and Judiciary: The legislative, executive and judicial organs have
been functioning properly.
Check and Balances: The Parliament. and the State Legislatures control the. executives
effectively through the means like question hours, etc. In the end, independent judiciary is
there which also strive for accountability and transparency in governance.
Empowerment of Lower Section: Some significant enactments like the Right to Information
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(RTI) Act 2005, Right to Education 2009 and other welfare means have empowered people. the
Independent Media: The mass media, including print and electronic, have full autonomy and
play a role in formulating and influencing public opinion.
key
Cultural relativism - the “Indianness of India's democracy”: As India becomes ever more
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democratic, democracy will become ever more Indian in its sensibilities and texture. Our
democratic values are rooted in Ancient Vedas & Village system.
Democratic Panopticon: Indian democracy has become subject to international gaze at a
it
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global assembly where is apparently required to make commitments adhering to “western”
standards of democracy.
Challenges for Indian Democracy:

1. Illiteracy: The level of education of citizens is a key to both the successful functioning of
democracy and socio-economic development of the country. Over one-fourth of the country’s
is
still illiterate while among women nearly one out of three is not literate.
population
U
Poverty: Of course, India inherited poverty from the long exploitative British colonial rule,
but it continues to be one of the gravest problems today. Poverty in the contemporary phase
is linked with systemic deprivation of rights.
Q
Gender Discrimination: Gender equality is one of the basic principles of democracy.
Discrimination against girls and women exists in every walk of life, it is clearly reflected in
the low sex ratio, child sex ratio and high maternal mortality rate in India. Women Reservation
Bill (providing 33 per cent of reservation of Women in Parliament) has yet to be passed despite
a very low ratio of womien in
both the Housés of the Parliament.
R
Casteism: Casteism has playéd a negative role evéh in the démocratic political processés. In
fact, casteism has become notorious as a strategy of éxploitation of caste consciousness for
narrow political gains (Politicization of Caste). The éasté system acts agairist the roots of
democracy.
G
¢ Casteism has also been contributing towards continuatidn of socio-economic inequalities.

The Scheduled Castes (SCs), the Scheduled Tribes (STs) and the backward classes have
suffered down the ages from socio-economic deprivations.
Communalism: Communalism and religious fundamentalism have acquired a very dangerous
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form and alarming proportion in India. They disrupt the pattern of co-existence in our multi-
religious society.
¢ Communalism is an affront to India’s nationalist identity and a tragic setback to its
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evolving secular culture. It is subversive of our democratic political stability and.destroyer

of our glorious heritage of hunianism and composite culture.
Religious Fundamentalism: Fundamentalism acts as ari ideology which advocates-a.return to

orthodoxy and a strict compliance to the fundamental tenets of religion. ‘Religious
fundamentalists vehemently oppose progressive reforms in order to establish their-éxclusive
control on their respective communities.
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7. Regionalism: Indian democracy has also been struggling with regionalism which is primarily
an outcome of regional disparities and imbalances in development. Existence and continuation
of regional inequalities both among States and within a State create a feeling of neglect,
deprivation and discrimination.
Criminalization of Politics: Criminalization of politics is the very negation of democratic
values and has no place in a democratic set up. Out of the $39 winners analysed in Lok Sabha
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2019, 233 MPs have declared criminal cases against themselves.
7.11.8 Mass Media and Democracy

1. Fourth Pillar of Democracy: Media is considered as the fourth pillar of democracy. The
N
media/press for a very long time, has been a means of bringing out the nationalist tendencies
in many developing countries of the world.
2. Voice of People: According to Tharamel, just as everyone needs food, clothing and shelter for
survival, so is communication an indispensable factor for the social welfare of the people. He
EE
goes on to state that the mass media attempt reaching out to a large audience through
advertising, marketing, propaganda and political communication.
Access of Information — Strengthening Democracy: Access
for the growth of democracy in the following ways:
information toa pre-requisiteis
* mass media enable citizens of a particular country make guided choices rather than opting
for ignorance; and
U .
¢ constant release of information is a check on elected representatives to uphold their oaths

of office, thus carrying out the wishes
of their electorates.
Improve Decision Making: Matters of public interests are freely discussed among peers,
Q
intellectuals and even among ordinary folks in order to affect most of the actions taken in their
communities. In this way, mass media, can be described as an integral part of a democratic
process.
Digital Media Widening Political Space: Williams and Delli Carpini argue that among,
what is considered “political” has widened with digital media beyond what was set out by
R
traditional media.
.
Media Increasing reach of Political Parties: Most political parties now have thousands of
WhatsApp groups and social media accounts to reach a wider group of citizens. Chadwick &
Stromer-Galley argue that digital culture is changing how parties reach out to the people telling
them about their ideology, social work and election campaign.
G
¢ Karlsen & Enjolras, found that as individual candidates took part in Twitter campaigning
individually for themselves and their parties, they were likely to exercise more influence
than those who did
not take up such online campaigning on the microblogging site.
N
¢ Valewiani & Vaccari suggest through a survey study in Germany, Italy, and the United
Kingdom that social media serve as a virtual platform to bridge the gap between the
political parties and the public.
Online Media Influences Political Decisions: Online activism increasingly influences
KI
it
politics in recent times, more so because provides an alternative to
entrenched political power
and its nexus with the traditional media. Example: Nirbahya guidelines after infamous Delhi
rape case.
Bringing Political Change: Media also results in change of political power. India Against
Corruption movement in
April 2011 was seen as
a ‘social media revolution’ when Anna Hazate
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long- pending Jan Lokpal Bill. It led to the defeat of
Congress in the next elections.
e
.
Doron and Jeffrey point-out that the use of
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mobile phones was a crucial factor in the victory
of Mayawati in Uttar Pradesh: state legislative
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assembly elections in 2007
TT,
rere
Criticism: cosa
:
° Encourage Misinformation: Critics of mass media
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opine that the media has a tendency to encourage
gossips, scandal and even violence through fake
news, doctored images and videos. It has led to an
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age of ‘infodemic’.
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e Unnecessary Sensationalization: T he original role
EERIE
of media in sensationalizing every piece of
information has been taken over by unnecessary
sensitization of information.
eremnrenr
is
RETREAT
e Change in Focus: The mass media today carried
away by over celebration of celebrities and reality
U
shows rather than paying attention to urgent national
interest and events. These have made the media no
longer interested in news worthiness any more.
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© Politicisation of Media: There is increase inj 4
proliferation of channels owned by different political parties which highlight their
achievements and promote their personalities.
® Proganda Machine: Because of biased media, voters are swayed by
the political propaganda
filled with meaningless slogans bringing about voter apathy and total loss of faith in democratic
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process.
71.12Civil Society
aa
e Definition: According to the World Bank: “Civil society refers to a wide array of
organizations: community groups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), labour unions,
G
indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faith-based organizations, professional

associations, and foundations.”
e Third Sector: When mobilized, civil society - sometimes called the “third sector” (after
- to
N
government and commerce) has the power influence the actions of elected policy-makers
and businesses.
7.12.1 Different Views related to Civil Society
1. Cicero: Cicero, the ancient Greek philosopher, largely equated civil society with the state.
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2. Elena Triffonova: Civil society became a key element of

the post-cold-war zeitgeist. Zeitgeist
RINNE
- Invisible a.gent or force dominating the characteristics of a given epoch in world history.
3. Adam Ferguson: He was credited with the modern day understanding of civil society term
‘civil society’. According
to
him, civil society is a consequence of social differentiation and as
the state wavs separated from larger society, so gradually civil society emerged as a new basis
for maintaining social order.
rere
1
PAPER - Sociology Optional
¢ He viewed civil society represented all non-political associations and was
present between
state and people.
Hegel: He viewed civil society as a social space that exists between family (particular altruism)
and state (universal altruism). In between
on universal egoism.
the
two, lies the sphere of civil society which based is
Thomas Paine: Civil society as a domain parallel to but separate from the state where
citizens
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associate according to their own interests and wishes.
David Held (tried to give shape to the concept of ‘civil society’ through a sociological
definition): Civil society retains a distinctive character to
the extent that it
is made up of areas
of social life—the domestic world, the economic sphere; cultural activities and political
interaction—which are organised by private or voluntary arrangements between individuals
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and groups outside the direct control of the state.
African Development Bank: Civil society is the voluntary expression of the interests and
aspirations ofcitizens organised and united by common interests, goals, values or traditions
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and mobilised into collective action. :
7.12.2 Features of Civil Society

e Civil Society is the realm oforganised social life that is
open, voluntary, self-generating,
partially self-supporting, autonomous from the state and‘bound by some rules.
It is concerned with public ends rather than private ends:
U
It is related to the state in some way but does not seek to control the state or be controlled
by
it.
Civil society encompasses pluralism and diversity’ and
encompasses a vast array of
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organisations- formal and informal,
7.12.3 Who comes under civil society?

A civil society ecosystem usually includes within its ambit as follows:
NGOs, non-profit organizations, and community based organizations that have an organized
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structure or activity and are typically registered entities and groups.

Online groups like social media communities with activities that can be organized, but
may
not necessarily have physical, legal, or financial structures.
Social movements of collective action, which can be online or physical.
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Religious/faith based communities, and organizations.

Labor unions and labor organizations representing workers.
Social entrepreneurs employing innovative approaches for positive social and environmental
outcomes.
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Grassroots associations and activities at the local level.

Cooperatives owned and democratically controlled by the members.
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7.12.4 Functions of Civil Society

1. Protection from the State Power: Provides defence against excesses and arbitrary state
power.
¢ Example: Chipko movements led by Sunder Lal Bahuguna protected the tribal livelihoods
from the state authority.
* Antonio Gramsci: He viewed civil society as a special nucleus of independent political
activity, a crucial sphere of struggle against tyranny.
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Strengthens Democracy: Enable legal services and protect the citizens against the repressive
attitudes of state institutions. De Tocqueville studied the reasons for the existence of
democracy in America and its absence in
France in terms of civil society presence. As per him,
civil society complements democracy.
¢ Example: Association for Protection of Democratic Rights helps provide legal aid to those
who have no access
to
courts of law.
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Helps in Good Governance: Civil society acts as a pressure group when dealing with
government.
to in
.
¢ Example: Indian Against Corruption of Anna Hazare leads the legislation of Lokpal
India.
Buffer Zone: Civil society acts as a communication channel to the people. Through which
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several modern laws (against traditional customs) are actively implemented and effective.
¢ Example: Role of Brahma Samaj in abolition ofsati.
Inputs in Policy Formulation: Civil society plays an important role in policy making.
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¢ Example: India Against Corruption played an important role in policy formulation of
Lokpal.
Empowerment of
the Citizens and Resources: These organizations involve communities in
development works by engaging them in planning and designing the same.
¢ Robert Putnam: He viewed civil society brings social capital to the people as civil society
a
providessocial space characterised by public debates and voluntary citizen associations.
U
Mobilisation of Community Resources: They have used community resources to undertake
initiatives like building community infrastructure, houses, toilets, and in providing basic
services like water, electricity etc.
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Active Partners in Development: NGOs like ‘Asha’, ‘Pratham’ are actively involved in
providing education to the children in rural areas and slums in the country. NGO like ‘Rural
Health Care Foundation’ is providing health care services to the people in rural and remote
areas.
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7.12.5 Chalienges faced by Civil Society,

1. ....
Lacks adequate Financial Resources: Most of the CSOs don’t have adequate funds to carry
out their work, as the people they serve lack the capacity to pay. Hence, they depend on
receiving funds from the government/non-government bodies/international institutions.
2. Lack of Human Capital: There exists a huge shortage of professional and trained personnel
G
in the voluntary sector. Most of the personnel are unqualified and unskilled.
¢ The professionally qualified and trained individuals have a preference and inclination to
work in high profile cities and offices than a backward and underdeveloped region.
is
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Accountability Issues: One of the issues plaguing CSOs the accountability issue in their
own operation and working. Accountability and transparency, especially, in financial matters
are found lacking. There have been increasing incidences of misuse of funds by these
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organizations.
e Example: In January 2017, the Supreme Court of India called for an audit of nearly 30
lakh NGOs. This move was taken in the background of the NGOs failing to give an account
of expenditure made out of the moneys they had received.
Government-Civil Society Interface: The interface between the CSOs and government seem
to be clouded with an overbearing attitude of governmental officials, bureaucratization, and
inertia that has led to a gap in the interface between the two.
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7.12.6 Civil Society and Democracy
Larry Diamond in his article, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’ (1996), says, “Civil society plays a
signiificant role in building and consolidating democracy.” According to him civil society performs
following important functions:
Limit State Pewer: By checking its political abuses and violations of the law and subjecting
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them to public scrutiny. .
Empower Citizens: By increasing the political efficacy and skill of the democratic citizen and
promoting an appreciation of the obligations as well as rights of democratic citizenship.
Promoting Democratic Values: Civil Societies inculcate and promote an arena for the
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development of democratic attributes amongst the citizens - tolerance, moderation, a
willingness to compromise and respect for opposing viewpoints etc.
Provide avenues for Organisations to represent their Interest: It enhances the quality of
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democracy as it generates the opportunities for participation for political parties and other
organisations, and influence at all levels of governance, not the least the local government.
Generate Leadership: Civil Society function as a recruiting, informational and leadership
generating agency. A well-rooted civil society also helps in identifying and train new political
leaders.
Shock Absorbing Institution: A well founded civil society could act as‘a shock observing
institution, where wide range of interests that may cross-cut and mitigate the principal
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polarities of political conflict.
Generate Public and Political Support: Civil Society generate public and political support
for successful economic and political reforms—which require the support of coalitions in
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society and the legislature.
Election Monitoring: The civil society have been critical in detecting fraud, enhancing voter
confidence, affirming the legitimacy of the result.
Strengthening Citizen Attitudes toward the State: Civil society enhances “the
accountability, responsiveness, inclusiveness, effectiveness, and hence legitimacy of the
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political system.
Civil Society Promoting Democracy
In an article, ‘Civil Society and Democracy in Global Governance’, Dr. Jan Aart Scholte
Makes a comprehensive analysis of the concepts. She identifies six areas where civil society
G
could advance democracy:

1. Public Education: An informed citizenry could sustain effective democracy. Civic
associations can contribute a lot by raising public awareness and understanding of worldwide
-
existing laws and regulatory institutions.
N
e Example: the international campaign to stigmatise, prohibit & eliminate nuclear

[CAN
weapons by making the public aware about the miseries of nuclear weapons,
2. Voice to Stakeholders: CSOs can give voice to neglected social circles like the poor,
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women and persons with disability who tend to get a limited hearing through other channels
including their elected representatives in executive and legislative bodies.
e Example: Global Fund For Women campaigns on issues such as reproductive rights,
political empowerment, and sexual assault.
3. Policy Inputs: CSOs are engaged in policy dialogues with government in areas of poverty
alleviation and empowerment ofthe disadvantaged sections. These organizations help the
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| 357
government in not only framing the policies in these areas but also help policy execution
and policy monitoring and review.
e Example: ‘Save the Children India’ is a NGO that works towards the restoration of the
rights of children.
Transparency of Governance: Vigilant civic mobilization can cause public transparency
in governance. Constant pressure from civil society can help in bringing regulatory
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frameworks and operation into the open, where they could be accessed for public scrutiny.
e Example: Transparency International India (TID aims to
reduce corruption, bribery and
abuse of power, and, promote good governance and rule of law.
Public Accountability: Civic groups can keep an eye on the implementation and effects of
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policies regarding people and press for corrective. measures when the consequences are
adverse.
e Example: Independent civic agencies have impartial policy evaluation mechanisms for
the World Bank and the IMF.
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Legitimacy: The sum total of the preceding actions by the civil society could lead to a
legitimate democratic rule.
7.12.7 Democratic Dangers of Civil So:

1. Subverting Democratic Purposes: Several civil society organisations subverting democracy;
some civic organisations can work to promote their private petty interests and privileges. The
U
destructive groups like Muslim Brotherhood engaged in promoting racism, ultra- nationalism
and religious fundamentalism work contrary to the democratic rights of others.
¢ Habermas: Several civil society were manipulated by mass media and are influenced by
Q
vested interests. In this manner, the civil society affects the very stability of the democracy.
Challenging Democracy: Sometimes, civil society may be anomic and are anti-democratic.
e Example: LTTE in Sri Lanka used illegitimate methods to cripple down the elected
democracy in Sri Lanka.
Inefficiency of Government Agencies: Regulatory bodies may lack relevant staff expertise,
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adequate founds suitable procedures or the necessary receptive attitudes to take advantage of
the benefits on offer from civil society. Instead of promoting democracy this could lead to
friction in the society and cause turmoil.
Dependency
on State Funding: The state funding and benefits could corrupt the volunteers
of the civic organisations. Instead of focusing on their aims and objectives they could run in
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short term gains.

Inadequate Representation: If the civil society has to realize its promises fully, then all
stratus of civil society should be duly allowed to access authorities and more over equality of
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opportunity in terms of participation otherwise civil privileges connected with class, gender,
nationality, race, religion, urban versus rural location and so on.
Global Democracy
vs Preserving Local Culture: Civil society concern for global democracy
could be insensitive towards the local cultural practices and they may not respond to
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all of the
contexts of local populations. There is a danger that civil society in the Global South could
come under the strong influence of western styled, western- funded NGOs led by the
westernized. Civil society bodies may perhaps quite unintentionally marginalize grassroots
circles that could give better voice to the diverse challenges.

—
7. Lack of Internal Democracy: A lack of internal democracy within civil society circles is
not
only objectionable in
itself, but also contradicts its very. goal of bringing democracy to society
at large. They themselves can fall short of democratic beliaviour
in
their own functioning.
8. Extension of Bourgeoisie: Marx sees civil society as an extension of
is controlled by the ‘haves’ to further their own agendas-and create:a false
bourgeoisie and that
consciousness to
it
avoid the workers from revolting. De
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Conclusion
it
.
Civil society can be a means to good ends, but is not the end itself. There are circumstances where
civic involvement may detract from democracy or sabotage the
very fabric of democracy. should be It
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the first demand of the society that civic associations should not merely assert but also demonstrate
their democratic legitimacy.
7.12.8 Contemporary Trends
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Global Civil Society:
Glob-1 Civil Society (GCS) has emerged
as
an aspect of
globalisation
oy
in
the. globalised world.
.
.
1. Mary Kaldor: He defines global civil society as about
“civilising” or democratising
globalisation, about the process through which groups;,.movements and individuals somewhat
can demand
a
global rule of law, global justice and global empowerment.
2. Anheier and Glasius: They have defined global civil society as the sphere of
U ideas, values,
networks and individuals located primarily outside the institutional complexes of family,
market, and the state, and beyond the confines of national societies, politics and economies.
3. Transnational Participation: The participants of global civil society
are located in some
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transnational arena and not bound or limited by nation-states or local societies.
* The global civil society can be defined as the sum of laws, policies and institutions that
constitute, and mediate trans-border relations between states, cultures, citizens,
intergovernmental and nongovernmental organisations and the market.
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Features of Global Civil Society:

1. Promoting Democracy at Global Level: Global Civil Society has started
to work to promote
a truly democratic and participatory public sphere
at
the global level.
2. Outside Formal Geographies: According to Jenlink, Global civil society has become
a global
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public sphere comprising active citizenship, growing self-organization outside formal political
geographies.
3. Expansion
of
Capitalist Social Relations: Global civil society is also considered as a realm
of socio-political activity created domestically and internationally by the expansion of
N
capitalist social relations, where modern social movements pursue their stated goals. The main
agencies associated with the rise of a global civil society are the International NGOs - INGOs
and transnational advocacy groups etc.
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4. Transnational Issues: According to Scholte, Global Civil

Society is primarily concerned with
the issues that are transnational in nature.
¢ Example: In addressing the issue of climate change, various civic associations and
International NGOs have campaigned on ecological problems, like the loss of biological
diversity and the depletion of ozone layer that have a supra-territorial impact.

| | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias,com | Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 Page 35)
j
~
5. Role in International Politics: Global Civil Society has played an important role
-international politics. In the late 1990s, it gained public visibility primarily as a popular
in
resistance movement challenging the institutions and policies of economic globalization.
6. Voice of Global People: According to Vujadinovic, Global Civil Society emerged as a major
social force in the late 20" century to resist an assault on public life and democracy by the
institutions of economic globalisation. They have raised many questions concerning the
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contemporary global economy, in
relation to transborder production, trade, investment, money
and finance,
Global Governance: According to Patrick Hayden, The transnational networks of the civil
society organisations, especially, the International NGOs such as Amnesty International,
N
Greenpeace, Oxfam International, have spread across national borders and has served and
serving as a source of governance through dissemination of information, formation of open
forums for dialogue and debate, and advocacy of greater democracy, transparency and
accountability in governmental and multilateral institutions.
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¢ Global Civil Society has come into a central role when citizens have attempted to acquire
a greater voice in post-sovereign governance.
-
Global Civil Society and Nation-states:
Some scholars views that there is a trend towards the end of the nation-state or erosion/weakening of
the nation-state; others are held that there is a trend of forced retreat of the welfare state, adaptation of
U
nation-state to the neoliberal globalisation, and finally some are views that neither weakening nor end
of nation-state and the state is both victim and facilitator of globalisation.
1. Hardt and Negri: The global citizen is represented more clearly and directly not by
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governmental bodies but by a variety of organisations that are at least relatively independent
of nation-states.
2. Alejandro Colas: The expansion of the role of global civil society and global governance
should not be seen as the end of state sovereignty.
e The institutions of global governance - many social movements that operate within global
R
civil ‘society, can and do engage with the institutions of global governance, and indeed
influence the operation and policies of the states in provoking social welfare and ensuing
the rights of the individual.
Held: The concept of
“cosmopolitan democracy” refers to a model of political organisation in
which citizens, wherever they are located in the world, have a voice, input and political
G
representation in international affairs, in parallel with and independently of their own

governments.
World Social Forum: World is hurdling with rising global concerns. To deal with global
N
problems, global organisations are emerging. Now, we are heading towards global civil society
due to the revolutionary changes in
information and technology.
Some scholars suggest that there is a global civil society made up of International NGOs,
¢
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Transnational movements and digitally mediated social networks.

© Scholars in contemporary debates argued that the Information Communication Technology
(ICT) revolution has created an enormous space for the civil society to communicate and
this space is free of any monopoly and governmental controls.
PAPER
Conclusion: , m,
The global civil society is more of
global issues and plays a positive and balancing role between
aware
globalisation and the nation states. It can also contribute significantly to the public education about
global governance, thereby empowering citizens to involve themselves meaningfully in the regulatory
processes and can stimulate public debate about current and possible future courses of global
governance.
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7.13 Ideology
A.D De Tracy defined ideology as the science of ideas in 1796.
Definition: An ideology is a coherent body of ideas that provides basis of organised collective action.
This collective action maybe intended to pressurise, modify or overthrow the existing social order.
N
e Ideology is broadly understood to refer to the sum total of a person's values, beliefs,
assumptions, and expectations.
Ideology is the lens through which a person views the world.
EE
¢ Ideology exists within society, within groups, and between people. It shapes our thoughts,
actions, and interactions, along with what happens in
society at large.
U
Q
R
G
N
KI
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1 - SociologyOptional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com
| Telegram Channel: sunyanotesS0
f
Page 361
Characteristics of
Ideology
It contains a more or
less thorough explanatory theory regarding
human experience and the external environment.
It lays out a comprehensive and abstract blueprint for social and

political organization.
It conceives of the implementation of this program as a struggle.
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It aims to recruit dedicated believers rather than simply persuade
them, requiring what is
frequently referred to as commitment.
N
It addresses a broad audience, but intellectuals may be given a
unique position of leadership.
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7.13.1 Ideology and Thinkers
1. Marx (False Consciousness): He considers ideology as a part of the superstructure and
works to preserve the existing relations of production, thereby reflecting the interests of the
it
ruling class and justify the status quo that keeps them in power. Hence according to Marx,
ideology is false consciousness.
2. Althusser (Ideological state apparatus): The institutions and rituals in which an individual
takes part, produce the ideas in mind ofthe man to
which he submits himself to. All institutions
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in a capitalist state (NGOs, schools etc.) promote the values promulgated by the state to
reproduce the existing relations of production.
3. Gramsci (Cultural Hegemony): Gramsci, offering his theory of cultural hegemony, reasoned
Q
that dominant ideology had a stronger hold on consciousness and society than Marx had
imagined.
¢ Gramsci's theory focused on the central role played by the social institution of education
in spreading the dominant ideology and maintaining the power of the ruling class. Gramsci
R
argued that educational institutions teaches the ideas, beliefs, values, and even identities
that reflect the interests of the ruling class, and produce compliant and obedient members
of society that serve the interests of that class.
4. Karl Mannheim (Mental Fiction): He says that ideology is a thought system which is used
to defend a particular social order,
G
« Karl Mannheim made difference between ideology and utopia. Ideology represents the
interest of the dominant class (Liberalism). Utopia represent the interest of the exploited
class (Marxism). But utopias are not bad, they are the source of motivation for the
oppressed.
N
5. Hannah Arendt (Weapon of

terror): In her book "On the Origins of Totalitarianism", she
of
established that ideology is a weapon totalitarian state provided justification to use of terror.
Example: Persecution of Jews by Nazi Germany..
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6. Karl Popper (Totalitarianism): Karl Popper in his “The Open Society and Its Enemies”
argued that ideology is the characteristic of totalitarianism and
society.
it
has nothing to do in an open
¢ He maintained that science and freedom flourish together in an open society which is
it
willing to accept new ideas, whereas is not with the case of a totalitarian regime, which
doesn't allow anyone to change the status-quo.
PAPER 1
“ology Optional
4
7. MSA Rao: Ideology
is
one of the three most crucial aspects of
collective mobilization and orientation for change.
a collective action, other than
7.13.2 Democracy and Ideology

End
came
of
to
Ideology debate: Several liberal and post-modern scholars argued that the ideology as a tool
an end with the emergence of democratic system. This argument comes significant in the
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context of advanced industrial societies, as all societies are converging in the same direction.
1. Daniel Bell - Consensus in western nations: Daniel Bell in his work "End of Ideology" noted
that today ideologies are exhausted. In the Western World, there is today a rough consensus
among intellectuals on political issues such as the acceptance of
a welfare state, the desirability
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of decentralised power, a system of mixed economy and political pluralism.
2. Seymour M.Lipset - Triumph of Western Democracies: In his “Political Man: The Social
Bases
of
Politics (1960)”, Lipset observed that in the Western democracies the differences
between the left and the right are no longer profound; the only issues before politics are
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concerned with marginal increase in wages, marginal rise in prices, and extension of old-age
etc,
‘
pensions,
3. J.K. Galbraith - Similar development in Industrialised Society: In his “The New Industrial
State (1967)”, I.K. Galbraith identified certain characteristics of advanced industrial societies
which correspond to the end of ideology thesis.
¢ All the industrialised societies are destined to similar development such as greater
U
centralisation, bureaucratisation, professionalisation and technocratization. These
characteristics were visible in the Russian as well as American system although they had
adopted divergent ideologies as communism and capitalism respectively. It means that a
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country’s techno-economic structure is shaped by the level of its
industrialization, and not
by its distinctive political ideology.
4, Francis Fukuyama
-
Failure of Socialism: In his "The End of History", Fukuyama argued
that the failure of socialism (i.e. communism in the present context) meant an unabashed
victory of economic and political liberalism. It marked the end point of mankind's ideological
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evolution and the universalisation of western liberal democracy as the final form of human
government,
e Fukuyam maintained that the liberal democracy contains no basic contradictions and that
it is capable of fulfilling the deepest aspirations of mankind.
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Conclusion
The above thinkers put forth the argument that debate of particular ideology ends with the emergence
of democratic system, where the political, social and economical system assimilates all the factors
N
such as freedom, Liberty, workers and people welfare supplementing its developmental arc around
humanism rather than socialism and capitalism.
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7.14 Collective Action/Behaviour

1. Meaning: Collective action occurs when a number of
people work together to achieve some
common objective. More specifically, collective behavior refers to relatively spontaneous and
relatively unstructured behavior by large numbers of individuals acting with or being
influenced by other individuals.
¢ Robert E Park: The U.S. sociologist Robert E. Park, who coined the term collective
behaviour, defined it as “the behavior of individuals under the influence of an impulse that
PAPER
|
is common and collective, an impulse, in othet words, that is the result of social
interaction.”
Herbert Blumer: The U.S: sociologist Herbert Blumer determined a desire for social
changein collective
establish a new order of
behaviour, as expressed in his definition: “a collective enterprise to
life.”
2. Important Features of Collective Action:
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More Spontaneous and Less Structured: As a whole, though, collective behavior is
regarded as more spontaneous and lessstructured than conventional behavior, such as what
happens in a classroom, a workplace, or the other settings for everyday behavior with
which we are very familiar.
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Common Forms: Common forms of collective behavior include crowds, mobs, panics,
riots, disaster behavior, rumors, mass hysteria, moral panics, and fads and crazes. Another
common form of collective behavior is
the social movement.
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7.14.1 Forms of Collective Behaviour
‘Crowds have been acknowledged as the only class of events which all
authors include under the rubric
of collective behaviour. A crowd is a temporary gathering of people who share a common focus of
attention and whose members influence one another.
1. Herbert Blumer: Herbert Blumer has identified four types of crowds, based in part on their
level of emotional intensity. They include:
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a
Casual crowd, or loose collection of people who have little interaction;
Conventional crowd, resulting from deliberate planning of an event and conforming to
norms appropriate to the situation;
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Expressive crowd, which forms around an event that has emotional appeal; and
Acting crowd, which is
a crowd energetically doing something,
Protest Crowd: As identified by Clark McPhail and Ronald T, Wohlstein (1983), a fifth type
isis
of crowd the protest crowd (not identified by Blumer). As its name again implies, a protest
crowd a collection of people who gather to protest a political, social, cultural, or economic
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issue, The gatherings of people who participate in a sit-in, demonstration, march,

all examples of protest crowds.
rally are or
7.14.2 Protest
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1, Meaning: Protest is a social process of expressing resistance to any individual, group, or even
society as a whole. It can happen at the individual or collective level, evident or latent, and can
entail action or inaction as a protest strategy. Protest is defined by opposition. Protest requires
a prior incident against which to
protest.
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Features:
e Process of opposition
e Dissent is central
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Usually a reaction to an event which has already occurred

Example:
Gandhi used ‘Satyagraha’ and ‘Fast’ as his protest movement.
In Delhi Farmers protested in form of Satyagraha.
In cricket of football matches, players protested by binding black strip around their
shoulders against racial abuse in America during Black Lives Matter compaign.
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4, Protest in Today’s time: Protest frequency varies in modern societies and has also changed
its form. Protests and freedom of expression are tolerated in democratic nations. Protests
are
it
also influenced by issues such as a lack of resources and prejudice based on gender,
caste,
class,
or
religion. Social Media has been used actively to register opposition and
protest. Protests for human rights issues have transcended borders.
a tool for as
e Example:
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¢ Recently in Iran, many women have been using social media platforms as tool for protest
during Anti-Hijab movement. a
to
.
*¢
Different hashtags are now being used on social media register protest like #metoo etc.
to garner larger support.
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7.14.3 Agitation /
1. Meaning: Agitation is a social phenomenon characterized by intense action conducted by a

person or group to achieve a goal. Agitation is largely driven by purpose. Dissatisfaction is at
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the heart of agitations, whereas disagreement is at the heart of
protests. Actual or relative
deprivation of agitators/protestors or their associate otganizations can cause agitation and
protest.
wn
Methods: Strikes, mass leave, riots, and picketing are all examples of agitation.
Features:
e It can be structured or unorganized.
U
¢ Itis typically non-institutional.
¢ Agitation can also be a future course, to demand something.
¢ Agitations are frequently unplanned.
Q
¢ Agitations may also seek to gain power.
7.14.4 Can Protest and Agitation conv t?

Strictly speaking, agitation or protests are not social movements. Because, they more often
than not, do not aim at bringing social change. They do not conceive that.
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They are reaction to

a particular situation.
But at
the same time, more often than not, a social movement develops in course of
it begins with protest or agitation which may
time, and
For instance, when students of the engineering
not
have conceived the notion of political change.
college in Gujarat protested against the Mess
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bill, it was relatively spontaneous act. But that protest led to the Nav Nirman Andolan of
1974 in Gujarat.
7.15 Social Movements

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1, Difficult to Conceptualise: Conceptualizing the term ‘social movement’ has been a difficult
task. Protests, collective actions, agitations, resistances and rebellions, collective mobilizations
of all varieties have
generally been described as social movements,
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Definition: The International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences (1972) defines a social

movement as
bring about change
a
variety of collective attempts to bring about change. The attempts may be to
in
certain social institutions and to create an entirely new social order. Or
the attempts may represent
a
socially shared demand for change in some aspects of the social
order. Anthony Giddens defines social movement as sustained collective action aimed
at
bringing or resisting social change outside the sphere of established institutions,
3. Three important elements of Social Movements:
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ae
¢Collective Action
¢ Social Change and
e Common Purpose
4. Thinkers and Social Movements:
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e Turner and Kilhan: Turner and Kilhan define a social movement as
a “collectivity which
acts with some continuity to promote or resist change the group of which it
eee
in society or is
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a part”
¢ Paul Wilkinson: Paul Wilkinson in his book, Social Movements, has presented a working
concept of the term 'Social Movement’. According to him, 'A Social Movement
deliberate collective endeavour to promote change in any direction and by any means, not
a is
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excluding violence, illegality, revolution or withdrawal into ‘utopian' community.
TTT
¢ Herbert Blumer: Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprises to establish a
new order of life. They have their inception in the condition of unrest, and derive their
motive power on one hand from dissatisfaction with the current form of life, and on the
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other hand, from wishes and hopes for a new scheme system of living. or
¢ Doug McAdam: Social movements are those organized efforts, on the part of excluded
groups, to promote or resist changes in the structure of society that involve recourse to
noninstitutional forms of political participation.
¢ Sidney Tarrow: Social Movements are collective challenges, based on common purposes
and social solidarities in sustained interaction with elites, opponents and authorities.
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7.13.1 Characteristics of Social Moveme
@
Objective: A social movement
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is deliberate, intentional, and
planned in accordance with the
goals and targets it aims to
achieve. The efforts are made as
per the strategy adopted by the
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concerned sacial
mene)
‘
organisation.
® Collective Action: A_ social
movement is a collective
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endeavour and not the resultant

of an individual's efforts. It
involves collective action as
different from individual action.
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e Directed towards Change: A

social movement is directed
towards change relating to a
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specific aspect at hand with the

given 'movement' organisation.
The change aimed at could be
partial or complete in some
statutes, norms, traditions, and values.
e Leadership: Leaders are important for movements because they help clarify the issues and
thus shape the movement. It
is the leaders who provide guidance to a movement. They prevent
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- SociGlogy Optional
it from becoming a desperate, unruly collection of people. A movement
can degene: zintoa
mob if it does not have a leader or a g- sup of leaders guiding
it.
Ideology: Most of the social movements have some ideological base. is the ideology whichIt
has been made as
a base for attracting people
the specified targets and goals.
to
join a movement and work in accordance with
Organised: A social movement must evince a minimal degree of organisation; this may
range
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from a loose, informal or partial level of organization to a highly institutionalised
and
bureaucratized movement and the corporate group. Without having
becomes difficult for the social movement
to
any
go ahead with its activities,
organisational base it
People Participation: Social movements have the active participation of the followers or
members. They have voluntarily joined the movement
in to
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order protect their interests. For
achieving the purpose of their joining, it
is a must that they actively participate
Charles Tilly says that social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people’s
in
its activities.
participation in public politics.
EE
7.15.2 Causes of Social Movements
According to Vidya Bhushan Sachdeva, social movements do not just happen.
which gives rise to a social movement. It
is social unrest
The social unrest may be caused by the following factors:

1, Cultural Drifts: The society
undergoes constant changes. The values and behavior are
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changing all
the time in
civilized societies. In the course of cultural drift, most people develop
new ideas. To get these ideas operative in the soviety they organize a movement,
* Example: Development of a democratic society, the emancipation of women, the spread
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of mass education, the removal of untouchability, the equality of opportunity for both the
sexes, and the growth of secu!urism.
Social Disorganization: A changing society is disorganized to some extent because
changes
in different regions of the society do not occur
¢
at
the same time, resulting into cultural lag.
Urbansiation because of industrialization has led to many social problems. Social disorder
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creates uncertainty since ancient traditions no longer guide behavior and people become
rootless and socially isolated. It becomes clear that the community leaders
are unconcerned
about people’s needs. Individuals experience feelings of insecurity,
confusion, and
frustration and dissatisfaction, which fuel social movements.
Social Injustice: When a group ofpeople feel that injustice was done to them,
G
they become
frustrated and alienated. Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social
Lack
of
social justice makes people dissatisfied and paves the
movements.
way for social movements, like
LGBTQ movement. Modern society is more afflicted with social movements than the earlier
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societies.
7.15.3 Classification of Social Movements

1. Horton and Hunt: They classified social
movement into six types which are-
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Migratoxy: Discontented people may wish to move and many of them may move
to
*
the
same place
at
the same time to
create a migratory social movement. For example, migration
of the Irissh to the United States
after the potato famine.
¢ Expressive: People change their reaction to reality instead of changing the reality. For
example, “gallows humour” among oppressed people.
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e Reformative: Attempts to improve the society without changing its basic structure. For
example, environmental movements, LGBTQ+ movements.
e Revolutionary: A sudden, sweeping and usually violent change in the social movement.
For example, the French Revolution,
¢ Reactionary: A reactionary movement advocates the restoration of a previous state of
social affairs. The antiabortion movement is a contemporary example of a reactionary
v.
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movement, as it arose after the U.S. Supreme Court legalized most abortions in Roe
Wade (1973).
e Regressive: People who support regressive social movements believe that a. particular
change has caused problems, and they publicize their concerns, their aim often to create
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new restrictive rules or laws to reduce the threat that they perceive. For example, the anti-
rock and roll movement in
the USA was seen as a cause for juvenile delinquency.
e Utopian: Attempts to create a perfect society in miniature. For example, the Israeli kibbutz.
2. Herbert Blummer: Herbert Bulmmer classifies movements into three major categories,
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namely general social movements, specific social movements and expressive social
movements,
® General Social Movements: It
gives general direction towards which they move slow, ina
yet a persisting fashion, unorganised, neither established leadership nor recognised
movement
Specific Social Movements: It
has clear-cut and well-defined objectives, which seeks to
¢
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reach the goal. It also develops a recognised and accepted leadership and definite goals,
characterised by collective consciousness, for example, various reform and revolutionary
movements.
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e Expressive Social Movements: They do not seek to
alter the institutions or social order its
or its objective character. Various religious and fashion movements come under this
category.
3. Turner and Lewis: Ralph.H. Turner and Lewis M. Killian have also classified movements
into three types—value oriented, power oriented and participation oriented,
R
¢ Value Oriented: They gain support primarily from the conviction for social change.
e Power Oriented: They are directed towards contestation of power and status and their
accumulation.
e Participation Oriented: It seeks membership and gratification mainly through self-
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expression.
4. David Aberle: David Aberle described four types of social movements. His classification
it
distinguish among social movements by considering — what is the movement wants to change
and how much change they want.
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e Alternative Movements: Alternative movements are typically focused on self-

improvement and limited, specific changes to individual beliefs and behavior. Examples:
Alcoholics Anonymous, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), and Planned
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Parenthood.
* Redlemptive Movements: Redemptive movements (sometimes called religions
movements) are “meaning seeking,” are focused on a specific segment of the population,
and their goal is to provoke inner change or spiritual growth in individuals. Some sects fit
in this category.
e Reformative Movements: Reformative social movements seek to. change, something
specific about the social structure. They may seek a more limited change, but are targeted
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at the entire population. Environmental movements, the women’s suffrage movement, or
the more contemporary “Buy Nothing Day”, which protests the rampant consumerism of
Black Friday, are examples of reformative movements.
Revolutionary Movements: Revolutionary movements seek to completely change every
aspect of society—their goal to change is ail
of society in a dramatic way. Examples: Civil
Rights Movement or the political movements, such as a push for communism.
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How much change?
Limited Radical
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a Redemptive
g social
a movements
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changed?
is
Wha Everyone U
Based on Aberle (1966)
7.15.4 Stag es of Social Movements

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1. Sociologists have studied the lifecycle of social movements—how they
emerge, grow, and in
some cases, die out. Blumer and Tilly outlined a four-stage process through which social
movements develop.
In
Preliminary Stage: the preliminary stage, people become aware of an issue, and leaders
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emerge.
Coalescence Stage: This is followed by the coalescence stage when people join together
and organize in order to publicize the issue and raise awareness.
Institutionalization Stage: In the institutionalization stage, the movement no longer
requires grassroots volunteerism: it is an established organization, typically with a paid
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staff.
Decline Stage: When people fall away and adopt a new movement, the movement
successfully brings about the change it sought, or when people no longer take the issue
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seriously, the movement falls into the decline stage.

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7.15.5 Different Theories of Social Movements
The structural conditions and motivational forces which give rise to
a movement are explained mainly
through three major theories. These are known as:
theory of relative deprivation; theory of strain; and
theory of revitalisation.
Stages of social movements
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emerge
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Theory of Relative Deprivation:
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The theory of 'Relative Deprivation’ was coined by Samuel A. Stouffer, which was later developed by
Robert K. Merton.
U
Comparison of Real Situation: The theory suggests that people mainly experience feeling of
deprivation when they compare their own silualions unfavourably with those of other
individuals or groups.
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Choice of Reference Group: Comparisons can be made both with individuals with whom
people interact and also with outsiders. What matters is which reference group the person or
group chooses as
the focus of comparison. Robert K. Merton developed the concept of relative
deprivation in relation to reference group theory (applied in analysing social mobility).
R
Marxist View: Contrary to the viewpoints of Stouffer and Merton. Marx and Aberle developed
the concept while laying emphasis on 'conflict' element. Aberle has defined relative deprivation
as "a negative discrepancy between legitimate expectations and actuality". He has analysed
relative deprivation in terms
"the
of
material status, behaviour and worth and has termed the concept
as bed-rock for a study of social movements".
G
Relative Deprivation in terms of Capabilities: T.R. Gurr in his book, Why Men rebel, has
attempted to clarify certain points in the concept of relative deprivation. According to him,
relative deprivation is not only to be considered in terms of expectations but also in terms of
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perceived capabilities. Economic conditions, political power, and social status are three general
sets of values involved in the gap between expectations and perceived capabilities.
Perception is Equally important: Relative deprivation theorists conceded that a position of
relative deprivation alone will not generate a movement. The structural conditions of relative
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deprivation provide only the necessary conditions. Sufficient conditions are provided by
a
preception of situation and by the estimate of capabilities by certain leaders that they can do
something to remedy the situation.
Example: Naxalite Movement at its
initial phase. The movement for abolition of reservation
of seats for backward classes in educational institutions, which took place in Gujarat, was again
a result Of relative deprivation. The upper castes felt that their children were being deprived of
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1 - Sociolagy Optional
seats in good schools because of the reservation policy. At the same time those pressing for
more reservation are doing so because they too feel deprived.
Supported by MSA Rao: M.S.A. Rao in his edited book, "Social Movements in India” has
stated that, "the relative deprivation theory offers a more satisfactory explanation of the genesis
of social movements for it is plvoted around conflict and cognitive change, motivating people
and mobilizing them around certain interests and issues.
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Structural Strain Theory:
1. Structural Strain: The structural strain theory was proposed by Smelser (1965). When the
prevailing value system and the normative structure does not meet the aspirations of the people,
N
the society faces strain. What happens atthis time is that a new value system is sought so as to
replace the old. This leads to conflicts and tension. He gave a structure-functionalist, multi
causal theory which focuses on stages of social movement.
Structural Functionalist Framework: Smelser's point of view brings forth the structural-
EE
functional framework with regard to the emergence of social movements.
Six Factors for development of Social Movement: The theory advocates that any nascent
social movement needs six
factors to grow:
¢ Structural Conduciveness - Deprivation: People in a society experience some type of
problem (deprivation);
* Structural Strain - Recognition of Problem: Recognition by people of that society that
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this problem exists;
© Generalised Belief- Ideology: An ideology purporting to be a solution for the problem
develops and spreads its
influence;
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¢ Precipitating Factors: An event or events transpire that convert this nascent movement
into a bona fide social movement;
¢ Openness of
Society for Change: The society (and its government) is open to change for
the movement to
be effective (if not, then the movement might die out); and
¢ Resource Mobilisation: Mobilization of resources takes place as the movement develops
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“
further.
Example: The structural strain theory can be used to understand the birth and growth of the
US. civil rights movement. Birth of Women Movements.
Difference with Relative Deprivation Theory: Strain theory considers conflict as underlying
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factor to the system's malfunctions and the theory of relative deprivation lays stress upon the .
conflict element as productive of change.

Criticism:
© Itassumes that social movements are started for irrational reasons.
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@ Itsaw movements as unusual or marginal.

e Strictly structural functionalist in orientation, setting social movements in the context of
their adaptive function during periods of rapid social change.
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Revitalisation Theory:
1. Proposing Positive Alternative: A.F.C. Wallace, in his
paper "Revitalisation Movements"
has stated that the emergence of social movements is because of the intentional, planned,
organised and conscious moves on the part of the members of the society to build a more
promising and satisfying culture for themselves.
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* The urge for revitalisation can generate a movement, which promotes. patriotism, and
national pride could be caused by youth movements, which encourage young people to
help and organise the oppressed, or the ‘ieracy movements are other examples. They do.
not merely protest against what they define as wrong but also try to provide an alternative.
2. Third Factor for Social Movements (apart from relative deprivation and structural strain):
Relative deprivation and structural strain are related to each other and they together form the
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basis of a social movement. Though social movements express dissatisfaction and dissent
against the system, they may also offer a positive alternative. Indeed they may be started for
revitalising the existing system which is undergoing structural strain. Revitalisation is therefore
the third factor associated in the emergence of a social movement.
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Resource Mobilisation Theory:
Given by Charles Tilly, the resource mobilization theory invokes the importance of the availability
suitable resources in the birth of a social movement. This theory visualises social movements as
of
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operating within a “social movement industry”, within which they compete for scarce resources.
1. Importance of Resources for Social Movement: This theory thus
says that when some
individuals in a society have certain grievances, they may be able to mobilize necessary
resources to do something to alleviate those grievances. The term "resources" in this context
refer to things like money, labor, social status, knowledge, support of the media and political
elites, etc.
It
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2. Answers the Important Question related to Success of Social Movements: offers a
convincing explanation as to why in some situations some grievances may give birth to a
successful social movement, whereas
give birth to anything similar.
in
other situations the same types of grievances
may not
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¢ This theory does provide a good explanation of why some social movements have been
able to grow at an exponential rate, even in the presence of seemingly insurmountable
obstacles. The civil rights movement the U.S.in is
a classic example of this type.
3. Utilised by New Social Movements: Starr (2000) discusses in detail how
many “new” social
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movements (that are categorized by many under the umbrella term “anti-globalization
movement”) try to mobilize resources, primarily human resources, by appealing to grassroots
organizers.
¢ True
to
their name, such “new” social movements frequently utilize the Internet (email,
bulletin boards, chat rooms, listservs, etc.) to carry out their mobilizing activities. Starr
G
(2000) draws particular attention to the relative successes and international appeal of the
environmental and the anti-WTO movements to the use of modern telecommunications
technologies to bring people together (or mobilize them) across international boundaries
and geographic barriers (like seas and oceans).
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4. Criticism:
¢ One of the major criticisms of this theory is that it has an extremely strong "materialist"
orientation in that it gives primacy to the presence of appropriate resources (especially
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money) in explaining the

birth of social movements. There are social movements that have
been born even when resources (especially financial ones) were scarce,
* Critics argue that a social movement
is
not limited by existing resources. It can create
resources such as new symbols and identities. For e.g., Arab Spring.
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7.15.6 Role of Leadership for Social Movement
1. Making Perception and Awareness: No social movement begins all of a sudden because
thousands of
people feel that they have a common problem. While studying social movements
we will inevitably find that in the initial phase or even later on, one person or a small group
has motivated the others to start a movement.
¢ The Rajbanshi Kshatriya movement was under the leadership of Panchanan Thakur who
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was the first to assert that the Rajbanshis were Kshatriyas. He mobilised the people around
this demand.
e The Naxalite movement had the initial leadership of Charu Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal and
Jungal Santhal in West Bengal, N. Patnaik and Chandra Pullu Reddy and Nagi Reddy and
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Seetharamiah in Andhra Pradesh.
e In Kerala the SNDP movement had Sri Narayana Guru as its
chief leader. The movement
was, characterised by collective leadership with a division of labour among different the
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types of elites.
Giving Direction to the Movement: Leaders are important for movements because they help
clarify the issues and thus shape the movement. It is the leaders who provide guidance to a
movement. They prevent it from becoming a desperate, unruly collection of people.
Articulating the Views of Participants: The most important aspect of leadership is that it
tries to articulate the views of the participants. It is impossible for all people to give their views
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simultaneously. This would result in chaos. The leader tries to present these views in an
organised manner. ,
Two-way Process: One one hand, the leader tries to lead according to his understanding of the
situation and the issues involved. On the other hand, the leader incorporates the views and
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ideas of the participants and articulates them in the process.
7.15.7 Role of Ideology for Social Mover

Making Understanding of
the Situation: Ideology very simply denotes a set of related beliefs
held by a group of people. It helps in understanding a situation.
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Legitimises the Actions: Ideology legitimises actions pursued by the people. People
understand and justify the implications of their actions because of ideology.
Choice of Means and Goals: Ideology helps the leaders and participants to choose the mode
of action for the social movement. Example: Anna Hazare and his pupils chose the ideology
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of Stayagraha in their movement of India Against Corruption, their goal was to make India
corruption free.
Distinguish One Movement from Other even having same Goal: Both the Naxalite
movement and the Bhoodan movement had the same goal of helping to overcome the problems
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ofthe rural poor. The Bhoodan movement adopted a peaceful, non-violent approach. sought It
to distribute land to the poor by appealing to the rich landowners to donate their surplus land
to the rural poor. The Naxalite movement on the other hand adopted more forceful means.
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Helps in Sustenance of the Movement: Ideology helps to sustain a movement. MSA Rao
says that ideology is one of the three most crucial aspects of a social movement, the other two
being collective mobilisation theory and orientation for change. It distinguishes a social
movement from mere instances. People can be mobilised when they feel that they are being
deprived. However in order to carry on the movement they need some justification for their
actions. The Kshatriya movement began when the Rajbanshis felt that they were being treated
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as inferiors. But in order to sustain the movement they needed the belief that they were in fact
originally from an upper caste.
7.15.8 Are all Collective/Social Mobilisations to be regarded as Social Movements?

Partha N. Mukherji deals with a number of fundamental issues like this.
1. Social Conflict + Social Mobilisation + Social Change: To qualify as a social movement of
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one kind or another, structurally, the three essentials are — social conflict, social/collective
mobilisation and social change in their interrelation. Singly, none of these constitute social
movement.
e Collective mobilisation against AIDS, or for Pulse Polio, or engaging in disaster
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management or community development are laudable social activities, but they are not
social movements. They may be better designated as campaigns for public good.
ideology + Organisation + Leadership: The presence of an ideology, the need for an
organisational base and leadership are necessary conditions that accompany the core
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conditionalities for social movements.
Three types of Social Movements according to Mukherji:
¢ Quasi Social: Social mobilisations seeking changes within the system are quasi-social
movements; Quasi- social movements include those that bargain for better resources and
facilities, and redressal of grievances.
Alternative: Those. that seek to alter the system (by eliminating an existing structure or
—
¢
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adding a new one) are alterative social movements. An agrarian movement leading to the
elimination of bonded labour is
an instance of an alternative social movement.
¢ Transformative: Those that reject existing structure(s) and replace them with alternative
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one(s) could be transformative or revolutionary movements e.g., the replacement of state
ownership of property by private ownership.
Mukherji rounds off his theoretical orientation by a domainal categorisation of the social
system at the macro-societal level. He conceives of a social system comprising of five
analytically distinct domains of asymmetrical social relationships, namely, discrimination,
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exploitation, oppression, gender discrimination and eco-environmental asymmetry.
7.15.9 New Social Movements‘

1. Pu
Background: The socialist working - class movement occupied the social movement space
until the arrival of ‘new social movements’ in the late 1960s and the early 1970s. Alan
G
Touraine coined the term NSM, they are new because they have new issues, new organisation,
new social constituencies and new methods. Heberle (1968) was one of the earliest to
forcefully argue that social movement studies needed to be expanded beyond the working-
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class movements to include others.

2. Rajendra Singh summarizes some of
the characteristics of the NSMs:
¢ New Issues: They raise the issue of the ‘self-defence’ of the community against the state
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and the consciousness of civil society, which are new phenomena of contemporary
postmodern world.
¢ Diffexent from Marxism: NSMs do
not subscribe to the Marxist paradigm of explaining
conflicts and contradictions in terms of ‘class’ and class conflict.
¢ Evolved from Grass Roots: NSMs generally evolve through grass-roots politics. Grass-
roots actions often initiate micro- movements of small groups, targeting localized issues
with @ limited institutional base.
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fl
ee
ne
e Focus on Social Domain: They focus much more on social of
civil society rather
domain
than the economy
or state. According to Habermas in
his “New Social movements”, the
new social movements are the new politics which is about the quality of life, individual
self-realisation and human rights, whereas the old politics focus of economic, political, and
military security.
¢ Strengthening Principles of Democracy: The goal of NSMs is
to reorganise state, society
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and economy and to create a public space in which democratic discourse on autonomy and
freedom of the individual and collectivities, their identities and orientations could be
analyzed.
* Global Nature: NSMs are
essentially plural in structure and generally global and trans-
in
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human character, which include protest against nuclear war, advocacy for environment,
RTT
peace, civil liberty, identity, freedom and personal dignity (Singh 2001).
7.15.10 New Movements vs Old Movements
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1. Old Politics vs New Politics: According to Habermas, new social movements are the “new
politics” which is about quality of life, individual self-realization, and human rights; whereas
the “old politics” focused on economic, political, and military security.
¢ Example: The concept of new politics can be exemplified in gay liberation, the focus of
which transcends the political issue of gay rights to address the need for a social and
cultural acceptance of homosexuality.
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Resource Production vs Culture Production: According to Melucci, new movements arise
not from relations of production and distribution of resources, but within the sphere of
reproduction and the life world. Consequently, the concern has shifted from the production of
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economic resources as a means of
survival or for reproduction to cultural production of social
relations, symbols, and identities.
Materialism vs New Ideas: The contemporary social movements reject the materialistic
orientation of consumerism in capitalist societies by questioning the modern idea that links the
pursuit of happiness and success closely to growth, progress, and increased productivity and
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by instead promoting alternative values and understandings in

relation to the social world.
Hegemony vs Culture and Meaning: Touraine’s notion of historicity is analogous to
Gramsci’s hegemony, both being concerned with culture and definitions of social reality, and
the way social conflict has the potential to transform dominant definitions of social realities
that are reproduced through cultural forms. These social forces are social movements, and their
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struggles are about culture and meaning.

Political vs Cultural: NSM theorists distinguish social movements from political movements.
Political movements are concerned with the state and state power, whilst new social
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movements are concerned with the cultural codes, specifically, the production of symbolic
goods of information and images, of
culture itself. New social movements are located in the
civil society and are involved in bringing about cultural change.
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Working Class Base vs Diverse Social Base: The structural location of new social
movements is
reflected in their social base which is no longer the working class but the ‘new
class’ or the new middle class inclusive of the old rural classes (Melucci). Frank Parkin
argues that actors in NSM are more likely to come from the middle class than lower classes.
The new middle class is drawn from the service professions and the public sector and their
activism is explained by their relatively high levels of education and their access to
information.
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7. Old Issues vs New Issues: Eyerman and Jamison (1991)
argue that new social movements
'
present a
fundamental challenge to the established routine of ‘doing politics’ ... redefining
situations, opening up new conceptual spaces and framing new issues
8. Uprooting Social Order vs Transforming Social Order: Claus Offe
political terms.in
says that the new social
movements represent a new paradigm of politics, which has the potential of transforming the
a
political order. These new social movements occur at distinct stage in societal development,
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involve new actors equipped with different orientations and identitics and aim at achieving
quite different ends than the old movements.
9. Pluralistic in Nature: The new social movements are
predominantly plural and their
expressions range from anti- racism, anti-nuclearism, disarmament, feminism,
environmentalism, regionalism and ethnicity, civil libertarianism to issues of personal
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autonomy, freedom and peace.
10. New organisational forms and means of mobilisation: NSMs consists of
an informal,
loosely organised social network of supporters rather than members in an organised manner.
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Paul Byrne described NSMs as relatively disorganised or polycephalous or multi-headed.
NSMs believe in non-violent and symbolic direct action. They aim to
capture moral high
ground and also use mass media extensively.
7.15.11 Consequences of Social Move

Social Change and Social Movements have been used interc! angeably. It is unavoidable that social
:
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movements will result in social transformations. Different social movements have different
consequences, some result in drastic changes and some of them fizzle away despite producing minor
modifications. In every case, social movements have certain consequences.
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1. Changing Nature of Social Relations: Social movements alter the character
of social
relations in a certain area. In the course of the Indian national movement, wherever Gandhi
travelled, inter-caste and inter-religious relations became more or less amicable.
2. Change in Rules and Values: Social movements result in rule and value changes.
According
to Dehendorf's book 'Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society,’ movements always result
in a
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in a change the rules and values of specific group.

¢ Example: The social movement of Blacks in the United States definitely relaxed inter-
racial relations. Women's movements resulted in the acceptance of women in many job
roles,
3. Change in
Status and Power: Social movements affect the allocation of status and authority,
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as well as power and privilege in

the society. According to Dehendorf, the distribution of power
and privilege is inevitable to shift as a result of social movement.
¢ Example: The Indian National Movement brought a change
in
societal status because of
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the prominent role played by Middle Class and Working Class.

4. Producing Alternative Goals for Society: Alternative aims
are produced by social
movements. Bottomore claimed that in England, the Fabian movement affected societal aims
and supported a cause for both workers and common masses.
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Criticism
NSM
are in
criticised because many of their features were also present the old social movements as
well. Many of the social movements have institutionalised themselves as well, for
example, in the case
of PETA, Greenpeace and Gay Liberation Front.

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re
7.16 Social Revolution
1. Meaning: Social revolutions are those large scale social movements which polarise the whole
society into two opposite camps and the majority of the people somehow or other want a
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drastic, radical change in the society. Revolutions are always violent:and no amount. of
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precaution and no amount of leadership can prevent the occurrence of violence.
e Gandhi withdrew the NCM movement because of violence in 1921 at Chaura Chauri.
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According to Stone: Revolution can be defined as change, effected by the use of violence, in
government, and/or regime, and/or society. By society is meant the consciousness and the
mechanics of communal solidarity, which may. be tribal, peasant, kinship, national, and so on;
by regime is meant the constitutional structure-democracy, oligarchy, monarchy; and by
is
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government meant specific political and administrative institutions.
Hegel: Revolution is equated with irresistible change represented by a manifestation of the
world spirit in an unceasing quest for its own fulfilment.
Marx: He argues that revolution is a struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
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Arendt: He interprets the revolutionary experience as a kind of restoration, whereby insurgents
attempt to restore liberties and privileges, which were lost as the result of government’s
temporary lapse into despotism.
James M Jasper: Revolution is a social movement that seeks, as a minimum, to overthrow
the government orstate.
Neil Smelser: He took a systems view of revolutions and according to him when the
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equilibrium in society is disturbed, revolutions take place.
7.16.1 Characteristics of Revolution — Accoréditig. to Deitige

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Degree of Mass Participation
Duration of Revolution :
Intensity of Revolution — number of

persons killed both during and after the revolution
Intentions of the Participants
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7.16.2 Features of Social Revolutions .,

1. .aa sa we ates
Change in Economic Structures: Revolution Intent to alter the entire economic system,
including technology and the allocation of economic resources among individuals. Example:
The socialist revolution in Russia.
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¢ Davies argues that the fundamental impetus toward a revolutionary situation is generated
by rapid economic growth associated with a rising of the standard of living and a long-term
phase of growth followed by a short-term phase of economic stagnation. Revolution creates
expectations by economic improvement, followed by economic recession and
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new
governmental reaction, which widen the gap between expectations and reality.
¢ Olson and Lewis argue that revolutionaries are the product of rapid economic growth.
Change in Power Structure: Social Revolutions cause alterations to the power structure,
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Those powerful castes and groups prior to the revolution are no longer powerful after the
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revolution. Tilly says that a revolution is aciually an outcome of a power struggle between
competing interest groups.
Change in
Nature of
Society: In social revolutions, the organization of society undergoes a
complete transformation. This implies that the fundamental principles of social organization
take on new forms. Theda Skocpol revived the Marxist narrative to explain her idea of
PAPER
revolution beyond the field of political power
social conflicts in the definition of revolution.
to
include areas like agrarian and other forms of
--
~
Example: After establishing their authority in India, the British altered the nature of
@-
suciety as diwhole,
4: Change in Cultural Edifice of Society: Social revolution alters the entirety of society's
cultural structure. Earlier standards, values, and morality continue
to
exist, but their influence
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has diminished. There are new sets available.
¢ Gottschalk (1944) revolution can increase the gap between expectations (social and
political for the new rich, economic for the new poor) and therealities of everyday life.
a
5. Change in Dominant Ideology: Because of social revolution, the dominant ideology shifts.
* Example: Before the revolution, the grandeur of the monarch and god
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was the dominating
ideology in France, but after the revolution, Republicanism became the dominant
philosophy.
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7.16.3 Difference between Social Movement and Social Revolution
Charles Tilly has said that a revolution is also different from terms like revolt, uprising, rebellion or
mutiny-in the sense that the latter may not have a lasting impact on the society.
Social Movement *
Social Revolution
Either the implementation or prevention of a Vouch for Radical Change
|
|
charige in the structure or values ofsociety
Use’ Peaceful means, and if in future used’
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Violent means
violent means then it would be change into
social revolution 3h.
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Broader Term ‘|
Categorised under Social Movement
The emphasis is on system reform
Long-drawn, steady, and well-organized
The emphasis is
on system change
it is
disorderly in nature, but it can also be
organized; it has the potential to flame out
quickly
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Change in system
4 Change of system
7.16.4 Social Movements chan ‘fw SodiakReVoldtions —"

Notall social movements evolve into social revolutions. There are specific conditions under which
these movements can become social revolutions.
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¢ Class Division: According to sociologist SM Lipset,

it
is a revolutionary condition when the
classes divide themselves according
to
their class divisions in terms of their preferences.
¢ Revolutionary Leaders: When social movements have such revolutionary-minded leaders,
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their capacity may transform the movement into a social revolution. In Russia, Lenin was a
leader who was a revolutionary, and hence changed the movement in Russia into a Social
Revolution.
of
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¢ Demand Situation: The position of a society in which there is dispute about the nature of
policy and distribution of assets can frequently lead to a social revolution since unstable
situations can take any form and frequently result in wholesale changes.
1. Degree of Mass Participation Goals
2. Duration of Revolution Radical change in systems
Revolution 3. Intensity of Revolution Rapid adaptedness to new
4. Intentions of the Participants contexts Socioeconomic shocks
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7.16.5 Classification of Revolutions
1. Goodwin distinguishes between conservative and radical revolutionary movements depending
on how much of
a change they want to
introduce. An example of a conservative revolutionary
movement would be the American Revolution, or the Mexican revolutionary movement:
Radical Revolutionary movements include the French revolution, Bolsheviks revolution of the
Arab Spring.
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Revolutions can be further classified on the basis of ideology behind them.
¢ For Marx, revolution was an end to
the class struggle.’
¢ For Aberle, revolution is one of the four types of social movements.
Same movements may be viewed differently depending on a given context,, usually the
or
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government the culture. For example, Jack Goldstone notes that human rights movement
can be seen as a regular social movement in
the west but it
is a revolutionary movement under
oppressive regimes like China Iran. or
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7.17 Millenarian Movement
1. Definition: A weakening or disruption of the old social order, social unrest and loss of power
result in religious movements that may be called millenarian. The Millenarian movement
believes in the coming of a new world in part through supernatural action.
2. Features: / /
¢ These
are
religious born of frustration, despair or bewilderment which seek to cut through
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a hopeless situation with a promise of the millennium- a promise of good government,
great happiness and prosperity.
¢ Millenarists call for complete change.
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¢ Their main theme is moral regeneration and the creation of a new kind of person.
¢ Such aspirations are often articulated or symbolised in a hero or prophet.
Examples: As per David Aberle - A sense of blockage, of the insufficiency of ordinary action
is the source of more supernaturally based millenarian movements. Ghost Dance Religion of
Tetons of Sioux, Cargo cult of South Pacific islanders are examples of such movements. In
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India, Birsa Munda led

tribal movement is
also an example.
Marxian perspective: Engles says that such movements are an indication of awakening of
proletarian self-consciousness and they are an attempt of the proletariat to change the unjust
order.
G
N
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PAPER
1 - Sociotogy Optional
UNIT 8: RELIGION AND SOCIETY
8.1- ociological Theories of Religion

8.1.1- About Religion
Definition: Religion is.a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense
of ultimate meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-encompassing and
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supernatural.
Thinkers view on Religion

° Rousseau: Rousseau says that religion motivates people to obey the law for the fear of some
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divine being. For a developed society, civil religion motivates people to maintain the habit of
‘obedience because they grow to understand and love law. the
Emile Durkheim: He defines Religion as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices related to
sacred things, that is to say that things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite
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them into a single moral community, for all those who adhere to them’.
Karl Marx: Marx said, “Religion is opium_of the masses.” The bourgeoisie use religion to
promote false class consciousness
j
workers see poverty as a divine a

Peter Mandaville and Paul Ja
t
_
‘beliefs, symbols and practices

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Maclver and Page: They say tha
man and man but also between man
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Functions of Religion
Social change: Social change c:
ideology, etc. For example, Webe
Similarly, Tocqueville established t
growth of democratic spirit in America.
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Social Solidarity: Accogdi

Especially in a time of c
religion united Indians thrdtg a
.
Social Control: Every religion promotes social control via concepts of sins, virtues, heaven,
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good and bad. They guide the behaviour of religious followers. For Example, Fatwas issued
against Muslim woman in
India forinstalling Ganapati idol at her home.
Ritual role: Religious conventions and practices also direct marriages, funerals, childbirth,
mutual relations of family members ete.
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It
Intellectual functions: provides answers to many questions which are not answered by other
bodies of knowledge. For example, the process of life and death, especially the uncertainty
beyond death, are explained in almost all religions.
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_
Education: Itis an ensemble of beliefs and practices which often act as answered by other
bodies of knowledge. For example, the belief that ‘one should not see solar eclipse’ is
confirmed by science as the sun is close to earth and radiates high energy waves.
Socialisation: Durkheim (and Malinowski) says that religion provides for internalisation (or
socialisation) of beliefs and education of norms and values. For example, Brahmacharya
ashrama in Hindu religion is
all about acquiring knowledge.
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¢ Solace and comforting function: Religious or spiritual beliefs may also help by lending larger
meaning to discomforting social situations. For example, the belief that a loved one is enjoying
the spiritual riches of heaven or preparing for the next turn of the wheelthrough reincarnation -
of
.
can be comforting.
Dysfunctions of Religion
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1. Manifest and Latent Functions: Robert Merton highlights the dysfunctions of religion. He ._
said that:
¢ Manifest Dysfunctions: Promotion of Extremist ideologies and methods causing. .
instability in society causing disorganization and disunity in a multi- religious society.
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For example, North Delhi Riots in due to Hindu Muslim conflict.
¢ Latent Dysfunctions: Promoting “selective brotherhood” i.e a person likes or is biased
to someone ofhis common religion as compared to followers of other religion.
2. Exploitation: Marx highlights how divine action theory is used to justify exploitation of
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masses in capitalism. (Refer Karl Marx in Thinkers)
3. Impede Social Change: Sociologists state religion hinders social progress and promotes
that
dogmas. For example, organising mare is preferred to avoid droughts rather than
afforestation and carbon neutral
4. Fatalism: Doctrines of ‘karma’
li
lestination etc. can make individuals
feel weak and powerless in front power and give up on his/her control
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on life. :
5. Evil Practices: People practice supe b of religion. For example, Prevalence
of Witch Hunting in areas of Jharkha:
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6. Inequality: Religion sustains ine alities (e.g. Sabarimala temple) and __
caste inequalities (e.g. BR Ambe m) are good examples.
7. Conflict: Religion also becomes a‘ at, and terrorism. For example, Rule
of Taliban over Afghanistan where ion over the democratic government.
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8.1.2-Theories of Religion
1. Functionalist perspective:
e About Functionalistck ; malists, religion is an imperative
institution to the society as it contributes in maintaining social order, solidarity, value
consensus, harmony and stability in the society.
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« Various Functionalist Thinkers

© Emile Durkheim: He talked about religion in his famous work, “Elementary forms of
Religious Life”. He talked about:
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* Sacred and Profane: He argues that all societies can be divided into Sacred and
Profane. Sacred things must be symbols and must represent something. A tree,
pebble, anything can be sacred. The relationship between sacred symbols and what
they represent helps to understand the role of religion in society. For example, the
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‘Lulsi tree in Hinduism is considered sacred in Indian Society, = :
* Definition of Religion: He defined religion as a "A unified system of beliefs and

practices relative to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden -
beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church,
all those who adhere to them."
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="
Totemism: Durkheim rejects Animism and Naturism as earliest form of religion in
favour of Totemism. He studies the religion of various clans of Australian primitive
tribes which involves worship of totems (symbol of clan and most sacred) called
totemism. It is the simplest and most basic form of religion according to him.
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Religion
Totemism
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= Strengthens Collective Conscience: In the process of God worship, human beings
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end up worshipping the society. In worshipping society, human beings recognize
the importance of social groups and their dependence on it. Religion, thus,
strengthens the unity of grougss jntains social solidarity.
- For example, Instityg temples, mosques provide avenues of
collective worsh fess the moral bonds (Vasudev
Kutumbhakum)
~ For example, MN
U religion where religious festivals and
rituals unite caste, o and village of the Coorg society. During
4)
the harvest festival, village sends all the adult males to

e
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participate in the c
" Criticism: His theory g an armchair observation by B.
Malinowski. His theory cause of solidarity in multicultural
modern societies like
example, ISIS and only focu ional aspects of the religion. (For details,
R
please refer thinkers’ 4: Emile Durkheim).

chapter (Paper UNIT
1-
oO Malinowski: | §
"Work: Magi
Comparison wit im, he sees religion as reinforcing
Li
= kheim:
social norms and values and promoting social solidarity. However, he does not see
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religious rituals as worship of society.

" Origin of Religion: Religion is a product of fear and anxiety. It assists the
individual members in coping with stress and anxiety.
Norms and Values emerge out of Religion: He stated that human life is regulated
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="
by social norms and values. Primary norms and values emerge out of religion.
Practices of religious ceremony cause reassertion and express common societal
norngs and values. For example, while entering gurudwara, one must cover his/her
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head;
"Role of religion in Disruptive events: Events like Death are most disruptive and
Malinowski sees the comfort and support provided by

religion to the bereaved. For
example, Funeral ceremony, Hindu rules like ‘not cooking food by family
members’ enable the social groups to unite and support the bereaved. This
expresses social solidarity which reintegrates society.
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Role of religion in Uncontrollable events: Unpredictable events also cause
anxiety and stress. Rituals lessens this anxiety by instilling confidence and control.
Rituals are also carried out in social groups thus, enabling support and solidarity.
For example, no ritual is done when the Trobrianders go fishing in calm sea waters;
however, when they go fishing in uncertain weather, it is preceded by rituals to
ensure a good catch and protect the fishermen.
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Criticism of Malinowski theory: He exaggerates the importance of religious
rituals in helping people to cope with situations of stress and uncertainty. However,
there may be some other functions related to religion. Like:
~ Stanley Tambiah points out those elaborate rituals are also associated with the
cultivation of taro and yams on the Trobriand Islands.
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— Sociologists criticize that rituals are simply related to the maintenance of
prestige in that society and have little to do with cementing solidarity or dealing
with uncertainty and danger.
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o Talcott Parsons:
Origin: Religion is a product of the cultural ‘system. According to him, religion
offers ethical guidelines n of goals and also stabilizes individual
personality, reducing ai
Religion and Value ‘claims that religion provides general
guidelines for conduc in a variety of norms. By establishing
U ion helps to provide the consensus
general principles an
necessary for order and For example, The Ten Commandments
followed in Christianity many of the norms of the social system
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can be integrated by re]
Religion and Social G
as a mechanism of social control
S$
and also promotes uni ny in society contributing to social

persistence and continui
which
is irrevocable, Hence, $ not an option in historical times, thereby
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controlling women’s bondage in a marriage and continuing the institution.

Religion as
particular pro
fall in two categories.
~ Unforeseen Events: For example, premature death is an unforeseen
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circumstance. Parsons sees religion as a mechanism for adjustment to such

events and as a means of
restoring the normal pattern of life.
~ Religion addresses Uncertainty: This is used to describe projects where
of skill and effort has been put in, but where the success of the project could be
lot
a
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threatened by unforeseen or uncontrollable variables. For example, Rainfall

uncertainty affects agriculture output. So, religion produced gods like Zeus,
Indra, etc. and rituals to please them. This acts as a “tonic t6 boost confidence”.
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Religion and Meaning: He said that as a part of the cultural system, religious
beliefs give meaning to life. In Parson’s words, religion answers, “man’s questions
about himself and the world he lives in”. So, one of the major functions of religion
is to “make sense” of all experiences, no matter how meaningless they appear.
Thus, helping humans to adjust to situations promoting order and stability in
society. For example, man suffering as it is imposed by God to
test man’s faith.
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“ Criticism: Parsons ignores instances where religion becomes a disruptive force,
for example, communal riots, Shia-Sunni conflict, Holocaust of Jews etc. There are
also cases where religious values are not aligned with contemporary ones and value
consensus is disturbed. For example, christianity and abortion laws in the USA.
© Radcliffe Brown:
* Work: The Sociological Theory of Totemism.
" Religion promotes unity and harmony: According to Radcliffe Browns, religious
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ceremonies promote unity and harmony. They function to enhance social solidarity
and the survival of
the society. For example, communal dancing like Bihu in Assam
celebrates fertility of women and nature (spring season brings rain).
" Religion as a Primary Source: He believes that society survives because of
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religion. Religious beliefs contained in mythologies are the primary source of social
values and belief systems. They form value consensus around which society is
integrated. For example, ‘Charity’ as a principle of kindness is taught to children
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by giving an example of the character of Karna from Mahabharata.
" Criticism: He ignores the conflict aspect of the religion. He also ignores the
individual needs and indivi
Davis: Accordin
atial to bring changes in
the religion.
© Kingsley i
* Concerned with trans

* A body of subjective
Centered around imagi
*
U d and it has the following functions:
— Justify Social Goals: like ramrajya justify social actions aimed
at achieving certain soci
— Social Control: Reli
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It promotes social co;
— Status Ascription
justification for uneq
religious sanctity
I Self Confidence: Religion. gives man
self“confidence, self-assur: ance, the
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possibility
happiness.
Overall Critical heory of Re igion
é
¢ evaluation of Functionalist
© Positive
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* Evolution: Functionalists showcase the origin of religion and how it has evolved
from ancient to modern societies. For example, Durkheim shows the origin of
religion in society.
“Universal: Functionalists like Malinowski and Durkheim highlight the presence of
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religion in all societies.

" Structural Stability: Functional theory highlights how religion gives structural
stability to society through normative prescription of institutions. For example,
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marriage is a mandatory sacred institution in Hinduism.

Social Change: Parson’s theory of social change highlights how religion undergoes
change and caters to changing functional needs. of society. For example, science
has become the
new religion in modern times.
¢ Negative
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" Functional Determinism:
Functionalism’s preoccupation with harmony,
integration and solidarity neglects the dysfunctional instances where religion can
be seen as a divisive and disruptive force.
* Not Universal: R.K Merton focuses on how religion promotes unity in simple
ethnic societies (e.g. Medieval Europe) but not in multi-ethnic diverse societies
where it becomes the cause of conflict. For example, in India, Hindu and Muslim
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conflict.
" Rationality: Weber says that functionalist theory of religion should be explained
in terms of rationality not in terms of functionality. For example, Nationalism is a
new
religion that worships the Constitution.
Exploitation: Marx criticized functionalists by suggesting that religion is the
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=
opium of the masses to exploit and control by the bourgeoisie. For example,
corporate policy of Diwali Bonus once a year to lure the workers into working hard
the whole year.
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=
Ignores Emotions: Evans Pritchard says that Durkheim’s theory doesn’t give
emphasis to individual and emotional needs of people, as done by evolutionary
theorists. Thus, these studi relevant to simple societies.
¢ Conclusion: Dealing with the ion functionalist theory has shown that
religion performs many sociz gnitive function, by which it helps one
to adjust to the exigencies o ‘o transforms the society into a moral
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community. Thus, despite its ist helps in looking social reality by
at
f
tracing the functions or utility ices in maintaining the unity and strength
ofa social group
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2. Evolutionary perspective:
« About Evolutionary Theor
purpose. It rests on two assumpf

Positivism: Positivism means a
:
© it to
principles of natural science. Scholars
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with a positivist sumption, very often, tried to contrast religion with science.
Positivists tend t
perception, is wi
o is
Intellectualism: Evolutionism based the intellectualist assumptions that religion
on
is a matter of knowledge. The intellectualists tried to prove that the primitives were
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rational, though their efforts to explain the natural phenomena were somewhat crude
and false. For example, primitive people naively thought jaundice can be cured by
donating Wheat or drinking turmeric water.
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e Various Evolutionary theorists:

o EB. Tylor: His famous work on religion where he propounded the Soul theory in
“*Primitive Culture, 1871.”
= Origin: E B Tylor emphasized on the idea of soul. It creates a difference between
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living and dead. During dreams at

night, the soul leaves the body temporarily and
after death the soul leaves permanently.
~ Soull\Spiritual beings (exist independently of physical body) (Idea of God
= Form of Religion: Taylor named the
religion ‘Animism’ with following features:
~ Itisa form of religion in which man finds the presence of spirit in every object
that surrounds him.
- Stepan coer
|
ee
|
~
rans pratt
me
7
. BERGE ee =:
PAPER 1 Sociology Optional Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com

——
_ : —e
7
|
~ Itsatisfies man’s intellectual needs to make sense of death, vision and dreams.
Evolution: Religion changes its form as society evolves through different stages of
development. Evolution takes place like:
— Animism (simple hunting gathering societies) (_PolytheismU monotheistic
religion (modern complex societies)
Relationship of Religion with Science: According to Taylor; magic, science and
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religion answers questions of the human mind. Science and religion do not
mutually co ~ exist because:
- Science represents a higher form of human consciousness than religion.
- Religion creates the idea of God which is a product of the human mind. Later
this idea was colonized by the priestly class through myths and texts. Science
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questions this enslavement to God, thereby liberating from bondage
class.
priestly to
Tribal Society Feudal Society Modern society
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—
(Magic) (Religion) (Science)

- For example, Rain dance gives rain] Rain is caused by Rain Godl) Rain caused
by evaporation, condenggian
o August Comte:
Work: The Positive Philosophy.
Origin: Religion ori id sciousness. It
tries to give answers to
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questions about ‘The the human mind. The answers are
provided by religion, th isfyi - an curiosity.
Evolution: The societi
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Theological stage |\_m
Features of Theologi
~ Fetishism: Spirit is¥
Polytheism: Priests ptmed for the first time.
z
~
- Monotheism: Single God; rm of rationality emerged for the first time.
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Features of Metaphysical Stage: This stage deals with abstract forces and
Supernatura
Features of Sg A&
|om, “aa?
- A contract — based society develops.
- Religion centered on God will fade away. Death of religion results in the birth
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of science.
~ Agnosticism (belief that nothing can be known about God) will be the new
religion of the scientific age.
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~ Complete de-sacralization takes place. Driven by positivistic spirit; ritualism,

superstitious and religious doctrines potentially disappear from modern
society.
o James Frazer
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Work: In his work ‘Golden Bough’, he studied magical and religious practises of
different cultures in the world.
Origin: Primitive man was in a state of continuous struggle with nature. The
chanting and rituals were developed by him to control nature which he thought of
as magical. Religion is a manifestation of collective faith in magic which may be
good or bad. Magic is
of two types-
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| Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 Page'386
~ Homeopathic Magic/Imitative Magic- It
is driven by ‘Law of similarity’. This
is imitative in nature, meaning like produces like.
For example, in some tribal
clans of Chotanagpur, India, it is believed that thunder and its rumbling cause
rain. So, when tribals want rain, they sacrifice a small animal on a hilltop to get
rain. They throw down rocks from the mountainside. Since these generate a
loud rumbling sound like thunder, tribals think rain will follow.
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~ Contagious Magic- It is driven by “Law of Contact’. It is based on the notion
that things that came into contact would remain in contact always. The belief
among tribal people that any belonging of an individual, be it an article or
clothing, somehow represents a part of the person. Usually this is-used for
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negative purposes. For example, Jumi women of Maoris clean shaved so that
no one can pluck their hair and use
it in black magic.
=
Emergence of Science: Magic, like religion, helped primitive humans deal with
the supernatural forces. When magic and rituals failed, primitive humans
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considered the possibility of a higher force in nature, which they eventually
worshipped. Thus, primitive humans thus moved from nature and magic to
religion.
Frazer even believed ina si on that is Science. Frazer felt the human
intellect would comp hen one understood these "forces"
scientifically.
o Herbert Spencer
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=~
Work: The Ghost The in his work “Principles of Sociology,
1876-96.” i
=
Origin: Religion arose di s a result, humans started worshipping
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the ghosts of their anc universal among primitive people.
" Duality: Dual Identi -self moves during night while the
shadow-self in the day) d in dreams] Idea of supernatural
being/ ghosts(] Idea o as ancestors. For example, Shraadh
ceremonies in Hinduism.
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= Evolution: Like Tyler, S evolution meant that polytheism would be

1
| f=)
:
followed by
= Relationshi aReigom
~ While religion is a product of human fear, science is a product of human
exploration.
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— In modern society, religion holds less significance. This is because science

helps to reduce human fear by controlling nature, natural calamities etc.
Past: Religion Present: Science
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Fearful Man Confident Man

o Max Muller: Mueller’s theory of naturism says that a religion worships nature and its
forces, For example, worship of panchabhoota in Hinduism.
«Supernatural: Muller believes that the forces of nature have supernatural power.
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Man used to see forces of nature with various emotions like awe, fear and respect
because he could not understand or explain the world of nature.
Anthropomorphism: With the passage of time, the symbolic representations came
to gain an independent identity of their own. The symbols become personified as
deities. For example, Agni dev represents the symbol of fire.
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" Environmental Determinism: Naturism emanates from man’s inability to control
.
dysfunctions of catastrophic natural forces. For example, man cannot control
_
floods, and hence worships rive’, out of fear and awe.
" Linguistic Base: Mueller argues that religious symbols and their names have
connotations in daily language and etymology. For example, agni is a god, as well
as etymology for fire.
Overall Critical evaluation of Evolutionary theory
P
¢ .
© Positive
" Historical: Evolutionary theories explain dynamics of religion through history. For
example, in medieval Europe, theology was dominant. It was replaced by science
in modern Europe.
N
* Modular: Evolutionary theory tries to inculcate diverse views in a modular
framework. For example, Tylers’ theory accommodates spirits, totems and science
in one modular framework.
EE
" Positivism: Evolutionary theory of religion is complementary to positivism. It
draws from established social facts, norms and objective observations.
" Foundation of Sociolo i :
Evolutionary theory provides for the
intellectual and acad tudy religion in civil society. Later
theories such as fu ly from the works of evolutionary
theorists.
* Social Dynamics:
U
environmental determi
possibilism of modern sc
o Negative
Q
* Less/No focus on im
comparative studies. T anding the significance of religion in
modern society. For ex: y society, religion acts as an anxiety
reliever.
" Functionalist Perspectiv
R
fetishism, dey
be a product ing real and significant like
society.
“Armchair Theories: Tylor and Spencer did not study the primitive people in their
G
natural environment. Thus, the evolutionary theorists were arm chair scholars.
Superstitions and Magic: Frazer argued that primitive people were actually more
inclined towards magic and superstition than on religion.
Wrong perception about complex societies: Andrew Lang emphasized that many
N
of the simplest societies have monotheistic religions which Tylor claimed was
limited to complex societies only.
Internal differences: Malinowski does not agree with Tylor’s view of primitive
KI
man
as a reflecting being. He maintains that:
~ The primitives are more preoccupied with fishing, gardening and tribal get-
togethers and do not spend time “brooding over dreams and visions.”
~ Both religion and magic originate and function under conditions of emotional
stress. Magic is used by the primitive as we use scientific knowledge today for
overcoming practical difficulties in their day-to-day life.
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pn
—
Conclusion: Evolutionary theory has given rise to intellectual theories (Soul Theory
AI
©
by Comte, Dreams Theory of Spencer, Animism of Tylor) based on primitive logic and
psychological/emotional theories (Malinowski, Naturism of Frazer, Max Muller) based
on mental states like fear. Overall, they successfully dealt with the origin and
development ofreligion in society as it evolves.
PA
3.. Conflict Perspective:
P
e Introduction: This theory focuses on the dysfunctional aspects of religion for different
errr
NN
classes and genders. It
highlights that religion can be a cause of conflict in society. Various
conflict theorists are:
o Marxist Perspective: Marxists are of the opinion that religion serves the purpose of
N
tress
legitimising not only the higher position of capitalists but also the suffering of members
-
ATT
of the working class.
" Opium of masses: Marx argues that religion is a pain killer which suppresses the
symptoms of pauperisation, disease, silences the proletariats and creates an illusion that
EE
TASS
all is well. For example, religion tells poor people that they are suffering because of
their past life sins.
«
Exploitative instrument: Relj the exploitation of workers by making
them believe in the false r ial order. Religion is a tool used by the
bourgeoisie to amass a igion appears as an external force
controlling man’s destin
U
“ ~
Alienation Personified: of alienation.

on When the people feel
self-alienated they rely mor ion, For example, Women in patriarchy
rely more on religion due to
Q
*
Mystification: Through
impersonal forces of natut’¢
humans, for example throu
example, MNCs clearing fo:
« Hinders Social Movement:
R
a particular stra dull gfiatige. Fo)

caste system and hinders movement for change.
for
G
Universality in class conflict: Religion is a Pathological condition present in every

class conflict. Therefore, the disappearance of religion is essential for the rise of true
class consciousness and polarized class conflict.
*
Agnosticism: Marxists believe that religion is rooted in societies that alienated and
N
exploited their members. When such societies are superseded, religion would no longer
be necessary.
"Role of religion: Religion cushions the effects of oppression by:
KI
~ Promise of salvation from bondage and misery in the afterlife.

~ Itmakes poverty more tolerable by offering a reward for suffering and promising
compensation for injustice in the afterlife.
~ The hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth. For example,
Jehovah’s Witnesses wait for supernatural intervention to create heaven on earth.
~ Justification of the social order and a person’s position within it.
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o Neo Marxist perspective: It emphasises that religion has a dual character. Contrary to
Marx, they assert that religion can advance social progress apart from being
conservative. For example, Religion acts as force behind caste system, but it also
provided impetus to Indian national movement with ideas of non-violence, self-
P
renunciation etc
* Fredrick Engels: Fredrick Engels recognized the active role that may be played by
religion in effecting revolutionary social change. For example, Christianity
Originated as a way of coping with exploitation among oppressed groups, later some
_
of early Christian sects opposed Roman rule through communist and socialist
N
political movements.
* Antonio Gramsci: Gramsci talks about hegemonistic domination. Religion
contributes to the Cultural dimension of hegemony. It
portrays prevailing ideology
EE
as common sense, thereby enabling the ruling elite to control the population. For
example, the separate electorat in British India
- Counter Hegemony: anic intellectuals’ or charismatic leaders
will rise to give bi iousness. For Example, Role of Martin
Luther King in UI , Liberation theology in Latin America
" Otto Maduro:
U
—
Independence of ‘©
emphasized on
the idea that religion
onomy from the economic system of the
bourgeoisie.
Q
~ Revolutions: M mbers of the clergy can develop
members of the population have no
=
Bryan Turner: He argued anging roles of religion in modern society,
R
where religion is also promoting consumerism in youth. For example, dhanteras in

pene)
Diwali is spe cai t
Gh
° Feminist
Origin of Religion: Religion a product of patriarchy. An instrument of
domination and oppression.
G
="
Thinkers’ view:
~ Giddens: Christian religion is a predominantly male affair. God the father, a
male figure, thereby engaging in ‘one-sex symbolism’. For example, Abraham,
is
N
Jesus and Prophet are men

~ Sylvia Walby: Sylvia Walby says religion prescribes heterosexuality and
controls women’s sexuality. It forms a cultural sub-structure that supports the
patriarchal social structure.
KI
— Mary Daly: Religious language, images perpetuate the sexist world. For
example, Veena das highlights ‘Devi dichotomy’ where women revered as are
goddesses but also oppressed through rapes, violence etc.
~ Nawal El Saadawi: In his work “The hidden face of eve”, religion is only one
aspect of a wider patriarchal system, which needs to be overthrown by struggle.
For example, Hijab clad women protesting in Iran
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— Simone De Beauvoir: In her Book “The second Sex”, she argues that women
do much of the work for religious organizations, introduce children to
religious
beliefs, yet are exploited by religion. So, there must be a religion for women.
~- Carol Christ: She emphasizes on Thea-logy, replacing theology. Thea means
Goddess.
~ Jean Holm: She did a comparative analysis of 8 major world religions and the
P
role of women in them. It was found to be secondary and subordinate in most
aspects. For example, in Christianity, Eve was the one who committed the
:
original sin. In Islam, there are restrictions on entry on women in mosques.
e Overall Critical Evaluation of Conflict Theory —
N
° Positive
= Alternative View: While classical functionalist theories viewed religion as a
response to various ‘needs of man’ (intellectual, emotional etc), Marxist theory
‘provides the perspective on dysfunctions of religion.
EE
* Feminism: Feminist theory on religion bas enriched the understanding of religious
practises on the community of women. For example, Shulamith Firestone
highlights how religion in, patriarchy.
="
Social Change: Con: s and values also provide impetus to
social change. For
Catholicism, promotes
U
="
Promote Negotiations: gotiations in religious institutions, thus
leading to social inclus For example, dalit priests have been
allowed to perform ritu:
Q
conflict.
o Negative
= Continuing existence
of religion, why religion exist and when oppression has come to
an end. Example — Even in , when accesses to worship places were
R
restricted, reli on did not completely die out.

« Non-oppress oppression of proletariats,
people also j mple- Many Black American
Christian groups have traditionally placed great emphasis on joys of afterlife as a
release from oppression of earth.
G
= Protests: Religion can enable mass protests. This is unlike the Marxian approach
of religion being opium for masses which dulls their senses and promotes false class
consciousness. Example- Christian leadership council, headed by Martin Luther
N
King, directed mass protests during early years of Black civil rights campaign.
= Benefits to oppressed: Religion can favour the oppressed. Religion can help them
identify other reasons behind their oppression. Example- In Brazilian cities,
KI
Pentecostalism blames the reason for poverty on policies of the government.

= Women-friendly religion: Woodhead said that there are forms of ‘religious
feminism’ when women use religion to gain freedom and respect. Example-
the hijab/veil is seen as protector from male gaze.
© Conclusion: Conflict theory, despite its shortcomings, successfully highlights the
ideological role of religion in fostering class-system. It also led to contemporary
debates of neo-marxist and feminism, thereby enriching conflict literature.
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4. Symbolic theory: Symbolic theory views religion from phenomenological perspective
whereby each individual’s experience of religion is unique.
rather religion is an everyday experience.
It
is not an institutional appearance
¢ Various Symbolic Thinkers:
P
o Peter Berger
= Function of Religion: Everyone is born with an empty mind into which values,
norms, etiquettes, culture are injected. This enables us to relate with the world
around us. Hence, religion gives direction to life, reflects on others,
and transmits
N
values to future generations.
" Religion as product of Nomos: Religion is product of culture and it reproduces
culture. Nomos’ or norms (part of culture), are inherited by individuals by
socialization. These Nomos vary from culture to culture and society to society. For
EE
example, it is in culture that we cover our head before going to someone we
respect.
This is manifested in turbans of Sikhism, Ghunghat pratha of Hinduism, and Hijab
in Islam.
="
Universality of Meani Nomos creates universality of meaning
forreligious symbols. ns. For example, the Peepal tree, tulsi
are sacred.
U
=
Plausibility Structure: when individuals adopt certain kinds
of behaviour in accor os. Hence, religion legitimates social
institutions. For example, plausible for Hindus as they conform
is
Q
to the norms, and it is eligions.
© David Luckmann
="
Form of Religion: He religion’. He claims that not visiting
the church or not perfo:
example, Since Namaz had 5
mean that a person
is
irreligious. For
times in a day, working Muslims started
R
practising it at home.
= Individual e e for each person. It has not
disappeared 0 which it is practiced and
to
i {
present in one’s life is only known him or her.

o Clifford Geertz: Geertzz says that Religion is present due to the presence of
G
bafflement, sufferings and evils. A powerful force like God is sought deal with these to
problems. Religion is thus present in hearts and souls and experienced in everydaylife.
« Rituals: Those who have experienced worst sufferings believe in God. Thus, in
N
order to encounter God, we go for sufferings like fasting, walking barefoot etc. This
helps man to be connected with God and impress him. For example, Roza islam, in
Parushyan inJainism, ’16 somvar’ fast for shivji to give good husband
Robert Bellah: Civic religion, in
its modern avatar, was put forward by Robert Bellah
KI
©
in his “New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis in Modernity, 1976”. According
to Nisbet, civic religion is defined as the religious or quasi —religious regard for certain
civic values and traditions found recurrently in the history of the political states. It is
expressed through public rituals, symbols (such as the national flag), and ceremonies
On sacred days and at sacred places (such as monuments, battlefields, or national
cemeteries).
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sit
* Overall Critical Evaluation of Symbolic Theory of Religion
o Positive
« Symbolic Sociology: Religious symbols indicate the value of the symbolic
interactionist approach. Example-A crescent moon and a star are just two shapes in
the sky, but together they constitute the international symbol Islam. of
nee P
« Micro level Relevance: While functional and conflict theories look at the macro
cpp
aspects of religion and society, symbolic interactionism looks at the micro aspects.
For example, circumambulation of vat vriksha by Hindus symbolises sacredness its
« Legitimize Common Sense: Religious symbols like cows and peéepal tree in
Hinduism sanctify common-sensical actions like bowing down to humped bulls.
N
EET
o Negative |
= Role of Structures: Symbolic theory focuses at micro level analysis of individual

behavior. However, individuals are influenced by macro-level structures. For
EE
example, Choice of dress for a wedding is mediated by Hindu culture of Lehenga,
Sherwani, Islamic culture of Sharara.
= No universal standard s and common-sensical beliefs given by
individuals have no They can’t be measured objectively
e of meaning. For example, Hinduism
U
Q
Conclusion: This perspective focuses on the ways in which individuals interpret their
o
religious experiences. It emphasizes that beliefs and practices are not sacred unless
people regard them as such. Once they are regarded as sacred, they take on special
significance and give meaning to people’s lives.
R
5. Rational Choice theory: This theory argues that the success of religion is dependent on
religious pluralism. Mo ¢
sini stexfii
i
exchange characterized
e Various thinkers:
o R. Stephen Warner: People were naturally religious i.e. People have rational reasons
G
for their beliefs in religion.

= Questioned History: It questioned the traditional assumption that
society was one in which a single religion dominated society as a whole and people
a
truly religious
N
automatically became members of the dominant church at birth. Any departure

from this is seen as evidence of religious decline. However, a new perspective was
required because this model did not fit
the experience of the USA.
“Religious decline: Rational choice theory, generally, rejects the view that religion
KI
TN
is declining. For example, today scientific cults have replaced religious outfits in
the West, Yoga is
the new religion in Scandinavia etc.
As per this theory, the greater the religious pluralism (supply
"Religious Pluralism:
of religious organization to choose from), the more successful religion was likely
to be. It depends on the supply of multiple religious institutions for people to choose
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Ks
from. For example, In Chile, the dominance of Catholic church has been threatened
by socialist movements and Protestants trying to recruit new supporters.
© Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge — Exchange theory: Stark and
Bainbridge believe that religion helps to meet universal needs. Humans seek what they
perceive to be rewards and try to avoid what they perceive to be costs. This provides a
straightforward basis for human decision. For example, in feudal society, investment
P
of religion was maximum
(multiple taxes for ceremonies) but return is minimal. In
modern society, investment is low but return is high. When medicine fails, people go
for spiritual yoga in the West.
= Desire: Desire provides the basis for religion. For example, good health and
popularity makes people religious towards yoga and prayers.
N
*
Religious Continuity: Religion answers universal questions and its compensators
meet universal human needs. Hence
Religion is
it
can neither disappear nor seriously decline.
omnipresent, with temporal metamorphosis. For example, American
EE
society is characterized by religious pluralism such as Yoga, ISKCON, Evangelical
Church, Catholicism.
=
Compensators: A comp ief that a reward will be obtained in the
distant future which c n the absence of immediate rewards,
people are liable instead. Religion provides these
compensators to humg deeds lead to a place in Heaven.
U imes people want rewards that are so
big and so far from every life that nly way to think about getting them is if
if they deny religious affiliation, they
Q
oncept of Moksha, Ouija Board Game
played by modern peop
¢ Critical evaluation of Ration
© Positive
=
Religious Pluralism: Rati eory challenged the long-held belief that
R
pluralism undermines religion. It shows the competition amongst religious
: Vidualistic stand on religion

unlike functionalism, Marxism and feminism. Religion is seen as meeting the needs
of individuals rather than social groups.
G
" Postmodern perspective: Religion is changing its form rather than declining. As
per the theory, religious beliefs and practices have begun to shift from ‘obligation
to consumption’. There is also ‘re-enchantment’ whereby there is growth of
unconventional religious beliefs and spirituality. For example, David Lyon said in
N
his book ‘Jesus in Disneyland’ that religion is entering movies like Bruce Almighty,
Brabhamastra, Oh My God, etc,
" Secularization thesis: They believe that there is a constant cycle of religious
KI
decline, revival, and renewal, as opposed to secularisation theory's view of a one-

way process of continual decline. For example, Digital attendance
members of Tablighi Jamaat turned into plasma donors.
in
Artis in Covid,
o Negative
" Economization of Religion: Steve Bruce does not believe that in choosing religion,
people can behave like consumers. This is because there is no clear way to compare
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the costs and benefits of rival beliefs. For example, problems in comparing different
branches of Christianity- Catholicism, Protestantism etc because each branch has
:
its own pros and cons.

= Secularization: Steve Bruce argues that Secularization is indeed taking place. Not
all humans are seeking what religion has to offer. For example, towns in USA with
greater religious pluralism have lower rates of Church membership, and not the
P
highest rates as the theory predicts.
* Lack of Religious pluralism: Contradicting evidence is found that the
homogenous catholics are more religious than diverse Protestants.
«Lack of individualism: Religion is not simply a matter of individual choice, rather
it is also bound up with our social identities and culture. For example, In Baghdad,
N
*
Kabul etc, religious affiliation is a matter of communal identity. Those who switch
may find themselves ostracized
« Existential Security Theory: This is given by Norris& Inglehart. As per it, RCT
EE
cannot explain differences in religiosity across different regions. Societies with
existential security (rich society) have low demand for religion. For example,
Western Europe is moving larization, while inequality in the USA is
;
enabling increasing rel

o Conclusion: Rational C able to show that religion can also
gn
involve active agency ani be motivated by needs and desires.

U
Thus, Rational choice theo ing out religion from the dark zones of
irrationality, delusion or fal
Q
8.2 Types of Religious Practices
8.2.1 - Animism
Edward Burnett Tylor, an anthropologist,\
is the human belief in presence of spirit in
Tylor for spirit is “anima”.
R
Tylor’s View on Animism

1. Anima: Anima means sp i
in
trees, animals, humans etc. There are two types

;
ng live
of
spirits -
|
* Benevolent (Good) Spirits: Spirits associated with good phenomena, good people. For
G
example, Spirits that bring rain, childbirth, fruits on trees etc. Similarly, Evans Pritchard in
his study of the Nuer of South Sudan found out that their theological idea is centered on
‘Sky Spirit’? or ‘High God’.
N
¢ Malevolent (Bad) Spirits: Spirits considered angry or bad and are associated with
catastrophes. For example, Spirits of floods, death in war, crop failures etc
2. Dreams and Man’s Double: The idea of spirits originated from man’S dreams. Man saw
himself in his dream, and considered it as his double, which is more dyfiamic, more elastic,
KI
stronger and more superior. For example, in dreams man could see himself fly.
3. Life, Death and Dreams: Tylor mentions about three types of behaviour ofthe anima:
¢ Presence of Anima: When an object is animated and lively, people assume the anima is
present and active within the object. For example, running rivers, playful animals, etc.
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ee
¢ Temporary Absence of Anima: sleep, and have dreama, they think that their
When people
anima has left the body and becomes man’s double. This anima leaves the body as the
people sicep and returns, and then the person wakes up.
* Permanent Absence of Anima: When the anima leaves the body of a human ot an animal
permanently, the person dies.
4. Source of Spirits: Tylor further said that death of ancestors releases the anima into nature and
P
it enters into another object. It takes the form ofanimals or
trees, or running rivers.
and
5. Ancestor Worship: It is a process to keep the spirits of dead ancestors
happy. It involves
elaborate systemic rituals including offerings to the spirits of ancestors. For example, Pind-
daan (ritualistic ancestor worship) in India
during Pitru-paksha.
6. Rituals: Elaborate procedures followed to win over the favour
of
N
spirits and prevent them from
harming the society. Rituals a part of ancestor worship. For example, worshipping kula-devata
before marriage, or at childbirth in India. Rituals seek to -
¢ Receive benevolence of good spirit. For example, Worshipping frogs rain. for
EE
* Ward off malevolence of bad spirit. For example, chanting hanuman chalisa, Similarly,
Ghost Dance ceremony by Teton Si
7. Animism and evolution: Animism
ibc of America to appease negative spirits. the
er religious forms like -
¢ Polytheism: Polytheism is le spirits/gods within a religion, For
example, 330 million gods a: d in Hinduism. For Tylor anima first is
stage of evolution of religiog 'y found in humans but also exists it
U
polytheism came into existence.
t
everywhere in trees, animals,
¢ Monotheism: Monotheism is
God or one spirit as the driving force
behind every phenomenon. Fo: a monotheist religion. For Tylor as
Q
human thought evolved
8. Magic, Religion and Science: Ty
so all e part of a single soul
in and science to social development.
He says primitive societies have 88 irits and magic. For example, Tribal
i
society (magic- gold cures jaundicé}s ty (religion—God cures jaundice)>
Modern society (science- Medicines cure jaundice).
R
.Sa.
9. Primitive Religions: Most primitiye tribal religions are animist. For example, Abujmarh
tribals in Chhattisgarh
the area as it would “angé théteSp.
wc pose.the plan of iron ore mining in
Society Belief Example

is
G
Primitive Magic Death end of magic

Intermediate Religion. Death meanssoul changes body
Modern Science Death is failure of biological functions
N
Critical Evaluation
1. Significance
|
Sacred and Profane: Primitive Animism bears resemblance to totemism.

KI
*
© Sacred (good spirits) are revered on special occasions like marriage.
© Profane (ordinary spirits) are worshipped on a daily basis. For example, Worshipping
the Sun or the river every time it is seen.
¢ Sustainable Development: The faith and sense shared
of sustenance with the spirits within
environmental resources instils a sense of responsibility to conserve. For example, Ganga
and Yamuna rivers are given the status of ‘Legal Person’ with rights and duties.
‘Saher
1
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—
¢ Human Rights: Spirits motivate people to respect each other and refrain from violating
the rights of others. Also, they fear that bad spirits would haunt them afterwards. This
promotes solidarity and peace.
¢ Modern religions: Present day religions like anthropomorphic in Hinduism, or Tantra in
2. Criticism
Buddhism,
or the exorcist Christianity have roots in animism.
‘
P
¢ Universality: Tylor who emphasises that animism is.the primary stage. of religion and it:
dies with the advent of science while Functionalists like Durkheim say religion is universal,
350
present in
all societies in different forms like animism, totemism, or anthropomorphism.
For example, even in contemporary society religion still persists.
e Armchair Philosophy: Tyler formulated his theory of animism in primitive culture with
N
less emphasis on fieldwork and more borrowings from work of others.
¢ Reasons of
spirit worship: Durkheim says spirit worship is more solidly based in the
human conditions. For example, spirit worship seeks a sense of security from the totem
EE
and social solidarity, rather than the “hallucinations” as per Tylor.
¢ Science and Religion: Science has d the end of religion as proposed by Tyler.
For example, Science has propagatéd ike online bookings of Vaishno devi.
3. Conclusion: Animism has been major religions in the modern world.
It is also present in varied forms ple tribes and aborigines. Animism is
functional to our democratic soci ental conservation and social mobility
U
among the backward and weake! s it advocates all objects, animate or
inanimate treated equally and wit
be
Q
8.2.2 -MONISM
Monism
to
refers belief in one single god
means Onenessof reality. For example,
ss. As per Christian Wolff, Monism
P8k
ligion as it believes in only one God
Allah. Similarly, Advait in Hinduism states ately one single god. Monism is viewed
in opposition to dualism and pluralism. Dualism refers {0 the belief that reality has two kinds, Material
R
"SUR
which is physical and i
4iV A
a
Ay
Types of Monism %
n as),
e Oriental Monism: it
states that God is one, omnipresent and believes in one body of ritual,
one set of ideology and moral doctrine. For example, the Sufi’s main theme was Wahadut-ul-
G
Wajud (Unity of God). God and his

creations are one.
¢ Occidentai Monism: is It
the product of dark ages in Europe. Here Religion controls the ruling
class and anyone who stands against religion ideology is harshly punished. Example, People
N
were hanged on crusades and Galileo was harshly punished.

~
Whatare the Features of Monism?
KI
e Unifying Principle: Attempts to explain all phenomena by one unifying principle. For
example, Thales (Philosopher), claimed that the basic material of which the world is formed
water,
is
¢ One faith:
Norms are similar and more consensual as people believe in the existence of one
faith, one church. For example, People who follow Christianity undergo a process of
baplization.
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1 ~
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e a feature of simple society which strengthens religion and is opposite to
Simple society: It is
pluralism. For example, Traditionally, Hinduism has 3 main gods (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva).
Gradually, the number of gods reached 330 million in modern society.
© Monistic and Monotheism: Monotheism is the belief in one God. Monism is the belief that
everything comes from one source. For example, Christianity has belief in Christ.
P
How Monism Strengthened religion and stood opposite to Pluralism?
* Religious Monopoly: During the medieval period it was believed each religion has monopoly
over truth and helped to reinforce social norms. For example, the clergy profited from the
Church's ideas about purgatory, where souls go to pay for their sins. Indulgence Letters
guaranteed a shortened purgatory for a fee.
N
¢ State Patronage: States like the Roman Empire and the United Kingdom patronized —
Christianity.
e Religion Conversion: State sponsored missionaries for religious conversion of minorities.
EE
Example, Missionary activities in tribal regions of colonial India.
¢ One ideology: Monistic societies glorified one sovereign ruler, one ideology, one culture.
Example, The Roman empire emerg: ian state, and the Middle east gave rise to
Islamic state. .
Critical Evaluation
1. Positive
U
¢ Strengthen Religion: Monism’ on and increases social solidarity. For
example, Festivals like Holi and @ reinforce social bonds.
Q
©
Revivalism: Monistic societie ivalism and emphasized on religious
education. It led to religious la s of state. For example, the Taliban
implemented Sharia law in Af
2. Negative
* Mind-body Debate: Monism proposes"éficness of mind and body. However, Rene
R
Descartes (French philosopher) sees body and mind as dual aspects as both perform
different functions. xample, the mind is about mental processes, thought and
consciousness. The body is about the physical aspects of the brain-neurons and how the
brain is structured.
¢ Anti-conversion movements: Religious conversion by the ruling class. For example, the
G
Europeans in
India, gave rise to resentment because of coercion. The Munda rebellion was
one such movement against glorified monism.
3. Conclusion: Monism is a medieval belief system of faith in one God.
It
has been carried into
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modern times with relevant adaptations like Bhaktism, sects and cults. Parallelly, it gave rise
to fundamentalist forces and revivalist tendencies as well. Still, it remains a significant
dimension
tothe study of religious diversity and belief systems in contemporary societies.
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8.2.3- Pluralism
Religious Pluralism is a condition in which two or more groups with diverse religious backgrounds
characterised by a variety of religious beliefs, practices, etc co-exist in society. For example,
Calvinists, Methodists, Protestants, Catholics in Christianity.
According to Steve Bruce- “Religious pluralism results from a variety of sources and it has
undermined the communal basis of religious orthodoxy”. He states that Modernization and
PAPER 1
industrialization cause social fragmentation, leading to diverse cultural views. Bruce views pluralism
as a sign of growing secularization.
Features of Pluralism
1. Multiple Faiths: It believes in two or more religions being equally valid and acceptable. For
example, Buddhism and Jainism grew in Vedic Hindu society.
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2. Not Syncretism: Pluralism is different from syncretism (synthesis and blehd of ideas, values,
customs andreligious practices from different religions into one single output). For example,
in Baha’ Fait, a prophet will arise whom they consider a successor
to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Krishna and Abraham.
3. Diversity: Pluralism is a response to the existence of diversity of religious beliefs, practices
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and traditions. For Example, Akbar respected both Hinduism and Islam and conceptualized
new
religion called Din-e-Illahi.
4,. Implicit in Monism: Robina Robinson in her book “Sociology of religion of India” states that
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Gandhi’s concept of Ram-rajya was driven by implicit monism and explicit pluralism. For
example, Gandhi wanted Hindus and Muslim should stay together. On the other hand, he
believed Hindu cultural ideologies ai
Religious Pluralism in Contempora

5. Global Village: Every corner 0 a click. This has led to the spread of’
religion, ethics and ideas. Today, t!
U cultural and Monotheistic religions has
led to religious pluralism. Ex, Radhe ement.
6. Diversity: India is a multi-cultural aving flourishing history of pluralism
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in form of Hinduism, Islam, Sikhi ism.
7.. Symbiosis: Pluralism integrates v es to develop symbiotic relationships
in society. For Example, India
and celebrate each other’s festivals.
a is people of all religions live peacefully
8. Freedom of Religion: The existence 6 Sus pluralism depends on the existence of

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freedom of religion, fertility of ideas and mutual tolerance. For Example, In Hinduism multiple
philosophies and ideol Dvaita and atheism are
Aga,
surviving
in parallel. a
9. Influenced by Prevailing Conditions: Amartya Sen in his article “Secularism in India” states
that India’s Pluralism has always been a doctrine of state because of illiteracy, rural living and
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commitment totradition, Constitutionally India is a pluralistic state but internally there are
conflicts in all major religions. Modern education, employment and urbanization can transform
pluralism in India.
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e For example, use of religion for casting vote, conflict b/w Hindus and Muslim.
¢ For example, recently, Hindu religious organizations acted as moral gatekeepers restrict to
entry of Muslims and Dalits in Garba festival of Gujarat.
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Critical evaluation
1.. Positive
© Religious economist theory: Stark and Bainbridge propounded religious economist
theory. He states that in American society religion is becoming stronger. There exists
competition and tolerance in various religions in society. For example, the US has a free
religious market while Europe has monopolistic authority and strict regulation. In Sweden,
PAPER
subsidies in established churches have affected the emergence of other religious
organizations.
¢ Multicultural society: Blackledge and Hunt in their book “From uni-culturalism to
Multiculturalism” state that pluralism leads to a multicultural society. For example, In
Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, Catholicism and Taoism.
* Integration: Pluralist society has more integrative elements along rational lines. For
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example, farm protests in India gathered support from multi-religious diaspora.
¢ Connected: Peter Berger, in his book social reality of religion, links pluralism to
modernization and secularization. For example, modernization brings values of
individualism, freedom, separation ofstate and religion etc. This leads to multiple religious
beliefs giving rise to religious pluralism.
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2. Negative ,
¢ Weaken Religion: Berger and Luckmann state that Pluralism weakens the influence of a
particular religion as it creates multiple explanations to realities. It also weakens beliefs in
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religion as various religions have various ideologies. For example, Buddhism accepts the
presence of God, while Jainism accepts tirthankaras.
¢ Dysfunctional: Recent conflicts g religious lines in pluralistic places like
ang
Sweden, Syria etc illustrate d:

©
Women: Pluralism has not
the USA and India. For exa:
thereby propagating seclusion
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3. Conclusion: Pluralism is the basi
promotes freedom of religion andgi
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making people more syncretic.
conflicts in society like riots,
Still, it offers a significant persp
te ,communalism and caste atrocities.
udy of culturally diverse societies.
Basis Monism Dualism tiralism Pantheism
Definition Monism All of reality is) Pluralism is aj|God is the ultimate
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believes in reducible to two,» source of being, and

single ntities. ¢.g., goo that all of reality is a
attribute of Wand evil; light and manifestation of this
idea. darkness; form and live and preserve God.
matter; body and their culture.
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soul.
Relevance Monism Dualism helps in| Rise in pluralism It leads to mystical
for strengthens comparison of two is an indication of
|
intuition of personal
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Religion religion. different secularization. union with God.

substances like Hence, it leads to
sacred and profane. Bhakti tradition and
Sufism where
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emotional connection
is emphasized rather
than orthodox rituals.
Contemp Monism is not Dualism is Pluralism has a Pantheism is
orary significant in significant in the significant role in significant to reduce
world the contemporary the contemporary discrimination on

contemporary world |
for world. For
| caste, race, ethnic lines
world. It was a differentiating example, in India since all peopte are
feature of religion with people of various part of same source.
simple and science. religions live
medieval |
together.
societies.
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Example Islam follows Dvaita philosophy Hinduism has In Hinduism, the only
only one God of Vedanta school. multiple reality and supreme
Allah. philosophies and unity are Brahman.
ideologies like
Vaishnavism,
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Shaivism, Advait,
Dvaita and
atheism.
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8.2.4-Sects
e Roy Wallis defines sects as devia instream religion that see themselves as
uniquely legitimate and do not a r religions to claim any authority for
their belief: :
@ Modern Sects too, along with cult orld Religion”. These are the religious
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movements that have come up ff
in s brought by modernity.
“.
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‘Deviant: Sects refuse mainstream For example, the Protestants have a
different set of interpretations of
2. Disagreement: Sects have disa
t ream religion over interpretation of
religion. For example, the 4th Budd ergence of Hinayana and Mahayana.
3. Inter-Member Links: Members of sam are strong ideological, cultural, emotional
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link between members.

ut{Oflalization ofsocial roles starts
4. Organised: Sects are a
. in these groups.
and
ing
ae .)
§. Distinction: Sects maintain distinction, differences and distance from other sects of the same
religion. For example, in Buddhism, the Hinayana sect follows the Pali Tripitakas, while the
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Mahayana sect
follows Sanskrit Sutras in addition to Tripitakas.
6. Conservatism: Sects have a protectionist attitude towards their signs, symbols and scriptures.
For example, Kapalika sect (Shaivism) has symbols like skull-topped trident and an
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__
empty human skull as a begging bowl
7. Hostility: Sects are hostile towards other sects, diluting factors. For example, they disallow
intersect marriages.
8. Conversion: Conversion is a tool to expand the sect’s membership base. For example,
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Upagupta ‘converted Asoka into the Theravada Buddhist sect.

9. Stricter Norms: Strict control on new members. They enforce discipline and punctuality
among new members. Sects demand austere commitments to customs, culture and practices
froni new fembers. For example- Adventist sect is founded on the principle of separation from
“the world in the expectation of the second coming of Christ.
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rrr
10. Temple/church: Emphasis on the formation of distinct temples or churches. This is achieved
by:
e Religious leaders: Maintain a continuum of stable leadership. For example, the Dalai
¢
Lama
is a continuous post in Tibetan Buddhism.
Scriptures: Distinct set of scriptures and books from mainstream religion. For example,
the Protestant Bible has 66 books against 73 books in the Catholic Bible.
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11. Crisis and Social Change: Social processes involving crisis and rapid social change aid in
sect formation. For example, modernity in Europe resonates with Protestantism. For example,
the rise of Methodism as‘a response to rapid social change by the New working class.
12. Marginalisation: Social marginalisation prompts people to look for more accommodative
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religion, leading to formation of sects. For example, the marginalisation of Vaishyas and
Shudras in Varna system led to the ushering of Jainism and Buddhism.
13. Future of Sects: Based on the membership, sects may:
¢ Proliferate: If the membership expands and practises are consolidated, sects transform into
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a Denomination, or
a Separate Religion. For example, emergence of Ramakrishna Mission
in Hinduism from Vedanta sect of Swami Vivekanand.
¢ Disappear: If membership of se
the Charvaka sect of ancient Ing
a may disappear into oblivion. For example,
&to decrease in followers.
Thinkers View on Sects

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1. Max Weber: Weber talks about “T ivileged”. It means marginalisation of
a social group or individual in mai and the ineffectiveness of mainstream
religions to provide a solution, pra fm or join a new sect. For example,
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Untouchables embraced Buddhis
2. Ernst Troeltsch:
e Troeltsch’s characteristics of
o Size: Smaller and more integ
o Membership: Sects draw memb ly from the deprived and the marginalised
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sections, or those op osed to state and religion For Dera Sacha Sauda aims
for casteless so: eofested
o Reject: Deny thé ju
of
etc. For example, Protestants refused to follow the norms of the Catholic Church.
o Withdraw from life: Members of sect have less participation in life outside sect and
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fellow members. They still wish to see changes in wider society. For example,
Adventist sect (Christian Sect) excludes those who follow conventional religion
o Social Solidarity: Sect offers a sense of community and increases social solidarity.
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Example: Black Muslim sect of 1916 connects the lower-class blacks who are
marginalised by the state and society.
o Commitment: Members are deeply committed to the sect's beliefs. Any instance of
to
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non-commitment by a member leads his exclusion from the sect.

o Baptism: Sects generally do not have a prevalence of baptizing newly born children.
They allow youths to join voluntarily once they acquire adulthood. Young aspiring
members have to consciously decide on sacrificing “worldly pleasures” and devote
themselves to
the religious life of the sect.
© OWercontrol: Sects have a stronger and effective control over an individual member’s
life. For example, Lingayats must wear a Shiva locket.
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© Monopoly of Religious Truth: Sects believe that their interpretation of the religious
texts is the only religious truth. For example, Roman Catholic Church’s claim on the
interpretation of the Bible
o Organisational Structure: Sects do not have an organised hierarchy of paid officials,
unlike church. Usually, a single charismatic leader persuades followers into adherence
to the sect's norms. For example, Swami Vivekananda was the charisma behind the
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formation of the Ramakrishna Mission.
Troeltsch classified religious organisations into three types:
o Church: A large, hierarchically organised religious institution with an inclusive,
universal membership, typically with close links to the state.
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o Seets: Organisations that broke away from a church (through a schism) because they
were dissatisfied with its teachings or practises.
o Mystical Movements: The expression of a
radical religious individualism that, strives
to interiorize and live out the personal example of Jesus. These movements are:
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= Are not interested in creating a community.
= Strive towards universal tolerance, spirituality beyond creeds and dogmas.
3. Roy Wallis: He portrays sects as a new religious movements. He mentions
some important features of sects
Legitimacy and Deviance
beliefs. For example, the pro
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be legitimate.It is different frd
Totalitarian institutions: Sec ‘
example, sects prescribe food, clot age codes and leisure activities to be adhered
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to by the members.
4. Stark and Bainbridge: As per th
9 Internal Schism: Sects are ai g religion resulting from an internal
schism. For example, Jainism be Vedic Hinduism.
rs
Relative Deprivation: Sects are ofrelative deprivation between religious
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groups, similar to Weber’s Theory of Theodicy of the dis-privileged. For example,

Vaishyas joined Jainigittdhe atiogt
Critical Analysis
Sia ae
1. Functions (Significance)
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e Social Change: Sects are an important tool for social change, cultivate new ideas, dispose
of evil practises and superstitions. For example, Protestantism supported the industrial
revolution in Europe against a superstitious Catholicism. :
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Women: Sects like Protestantism have led to improved social conditions of women such
as financial independence, political participation. Margaret Thatcher and Kamala Harris
are astounding examples in this regard.
Pluralism: Sects contribute to formation of multicultural societies and multi-religious
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societies. For example, formation of multiple sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Lingayats within Hinduism makes it pluralistic.
Secularisation: Sects drive secularisation of religious norms. For example, Protestantism
led to rationalisation of human belief and increased scientific inquiry into natural process,
instead of theological beliefs
Page 403
* Revivalism: Sects can lead to religious revivalism in mainstream society. For example,
Arya Samaj led to revival of Vedic values in the philosophy propounded by Swami
Dayanand Saraswati. :
2. Dysfunctions
» Fundamentalism: Sects have contributed to the growth of fundamentalism. For example,
‘the rise of the Wahhabi Sect in the 19th century in Saudi Arabia.
> Extremism: Sects may lead to rise in extremism in the society, leading to sectarian
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violence and wars. For example, 30 years of wars between Catholic Holy Roman Empire
and Protestant European states in the 17th century.
> De-secularisation: Religious sentiments have increased in wake of problems of modernity,
causing
rise
of new sects, and nullifying the progress of modernity. For example, the rise
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of Neo-Paganism in Scandinavia, or The New Age Religion in the form of sects in the
1990s in the USA, with emphasis on self-spirituality etc.
> Promote Castism: Some sects have adopted caste hierarchy. For example, Swaminarayan
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sect of Gujarat exist with internal caste hierarchy
3. Conclusion: Sects have been tools of social change, promoting social mobility, formation of
social pluralistic order and upliftmengg awntrodden however they have also led to
formation of revivalist and fundamgi n society, threatening social solidarity
and institutions. Thus, membe ence, should be chosen wisely and
responsibly, while the society shi
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8.2.5-Cults
Definition: Steve Bruce defines Cult as a “lo
and interests but lacking any sharply defi
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was propagated by Shree Rajneesh aka
Characteristics of Cults
1.. Charismatic Leadership: Cults are us around a charismatic leader. For example,
Lingayats started as Basava Cult under
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ship of Basavanna.
v Tolerant: Cults exhibit €@fificaitt #
eligtous belief systems.

3. Consumerism: Membe
i ces offered in the cult. They
show little involvement post proper acquaintance with cult beliefs. For example, new cults in
Scandinavia providing Yoga services.
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4. Esoteric and Individual beliefs: Members are looking for spiritual solutions
to everyday
common problems. For example, rituals to obtain a male baby.
5. Membership: Cults, like sects, draw members from the marginalised sections of
society.
Open: Anyone from the society can join a cult.
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Voluntary: Membership is based on choice, not birth as in case of religion.

of
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Multiplicity: Usually, a person can be a member more than one cult.

Flexible: Members are not bound by
cult rules in private and personal life.
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Thinkers view
1. HP Becker: The
concept of Cult is original to Howard ‘Paul Becker, an American sociologist.
According to him, features of Cults are:
¢ Source: Cults are based on the ideas of charismatic leaders. For example, the Sadguru cult
on soci al media.
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Membership: Membership to
cults is voluntary and utilitarian.
Tolerant: Cults are usually tolerant towards mainstream religion.
Utilitarian: Cults serve the immediate need of the members. For example, Yoga cults
provide yoga services to their members.
Death of the Leader: Cults may die out with the death of their charismatic leader. For
example, the cult of Osho faded away with his death.
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Evolve: Cults may evolve into a sect, or into a denomination or a separate religion
altogether. For example, The Basava Cult of the 12th century is a full-fledged Lingayat
sect now.
Stark and Bainbridge: Cults are new religious movements, not necessarily an offshoot of an
existing religion. They are based on:
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Novelty: Cults are results of new ideas. For example, Eastern religions like Hinduism,
Krishna consciousness being imported in the USA are novel, identified as cults.
Uniqueness: Sects are offshoot of
an existing religion, but cults are not.
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Conflict vs Novelty: They criticise Wallis’s typification of religious movements on the
degree of conflict with the mainstream religion.
They identified three types ofcul
o Audience Cults: These arg of cults with very little face-to-face
interaction. They focus o: df cult beliefs. These are based on mass
media, social media or and membership to audience cults is
random, dispersed, discon:
U cult of astrology, cult of UFO believers
on social media.
= Example: Scientology beg: nce cult, because initially it was people

the
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reading L Ron Hubbard’s book of Dianetics.
ject
on s
o Client Cults: These cults ption of cult services by members on
i
a regular basis. Client cult and connected. For example, cults

offering yoga services, cult .
turned into
" Example: Scientology a.client cult when it sought to treat people
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through Hubbard’s theory (dianetics).and “dianetic auditing”. This is a form of

psychological therapy
widespread, con ed, organised, managed membership and they do not permit
membership of other faiths for their members. For example, Heaven’s Day Cult in the
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USA based on doomsday theories and interests in computer tech and science fiction.
= Example: Scientology turned from being a client cult into what is today, a cult it
movement: the Church of Scientology.
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Reason for proliferation of Cults and Sects:

1. Marginalisation: Max Weber mentions theodicy ofdis-privilege as the reason behind
proliferation of sects. (Refer: Sects). Similarly, Bryan Wilson says that the marginalisation of
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social groups is
fertile ground for formation of cults. For example, recruitment by Dera Sacha
Sauda cult from lower strata of Indian society
. Relative Deprivation: Wallis says that the deprived seek salvation in different cults. For
example, Krishna Consciousness cult in India.
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Social Change: Rapid social change breaks traditional belief systems, leading to novel ideas.
Believers in the new ideas consolidate together to form a cult. For example, the Cult of
psychological healers is increasing with modernisation.
Secularisation: It causes the weakening of traditional answers to human curiosity, intriguing
members to look for new alternatives. For example, the rise of scientific cults after
modernisation and globalisation. Bruce mentions that secular outlook demands less rigid
commitments, leading to popularisation of cults.
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Sense of Detachment: Increased heterogeneity in society, alienation and feeling of
powerlessness
Modernity: Modernity: causes dilution ofreligion and spirituality, hence a loss of Spiritual
supply in society. Modernity accelerates:
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¢ Rapid social change: Which in turn causes emotional and psychological distress.
© Rigid religious values are in contrast with modern values.
© Increased demand for flexible spiritual services in the form of Cults.
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¢ Loss of old religious values: It may trigger revivalist cult e.g Arya Samaj cult in the
aftermath of westernisation in 19th century
Critical Analysis
1. Functions
¢ Social Change: Cults cultiv: ange. For example, the Young Bengal
movement by Henry Vivian De
U h century.
¢ Promote social solidarity: Cull | solidarity. For example, the Brahma
Kumari cult promotes solidarity, ed on karma and meditation.
of
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©
Diversity: Cults allow a diver, e, an individual can be a member
a body building cult, a spiritu at the same time.
2. Dysfunctions/Pathological
e Violence: Few cults lead to vio al activities. For example, the Neo nazi
cults in the USA have been involved in
fringe incidents of violence.
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Discrimination: Cu
i
e
sad‘
to..discrimination. For example, the Ayyappa cult of

Sabarimala temple uating, age.
e Exploitation: Some ren. For example, atrocities
on women in the Dera Sacha Sauda cult.
* Revivalism: Cults have been related to radical revivalism in modern society. For example,
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the Peoples Temple of the Disciples of Christ cult members ended up murdering a US
Congressman who went to investigate the cult.
¢ Fundamentalism: Cults may fuel fundamentalism. For example, the SIMI cult in India
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became a terrorist organisation focused on Islamisation of India.

Conclusion: Overall cults have provided for a diverse range of solidarity activities in the .
modern world. They have not only promoted emotional, psychological and spiritual well-being
of societies, ensuring
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the efficiency of social institutions and individual role-playing. However,

cults have also been home
to
antisocial and dysfunctional activities like conspiracy theories
and communal hatred. This should be regulated at a social ievel.
PAPER 1
8.2.6- Churches
Note: This topic is not separatelymentioned_in UPSC syllabus, it is iven here for so that
Candidates can better understand and relate topics like Sects, Cults)
A church is an organised religious entity having mass followership, universal recognition, established
traditions, value prescriptions, and an organised hierarchy of paid officials to encode, propagate and
enforce its belief system in the general public. Ernst Troeltsch refers to a Church as large religious
a
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organisation.
Thinkers view
¢ Roy Wallis: As per him, distinctions between churches, sects, cults and denominations are as
given below
in table
-
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Respectable Deviant
Uniquely Legitimate Church Sects
Pluralistically Legitimate Denomination Cults
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cannot? exist
e Steve Bruce: Churches, as a uniquely legitimate respectable organisation ina
modern society driven by rational, scientific and secular state. He says the church has been
replaced by numerous denomination
« Meredith B. McGuire: She belj religious organisation can be viewed
differently in different societies e within the society. She views the
Roman Catholic Church be a to h the society at large.
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Characteristics of Church
e¢ Universal: A Church tries to embrac
of the society. For example, Hind
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e Members: A Church draws m
membership by birth as well as
Christianity need to undergo Baptis
e State: Troeltsch says that the church
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the shilanyas samaroh o:

* Ideology: Church has a
participation of members in
social life. For example, Hinduism preaches the theory of Karma
to persuade followers into social actions.
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e Conservative: A Church is usually conservative of its monopoly over religious truth. For
example, Islam maintains its monotheist stand, rejecting the view of other religions.
e Formality: Churches have a formally organised hierarchy of paid officials. Example- Church
has Father, Bishops, Archbishops, Pope.
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8.2.7- Denominations
(Note: This Topic Is Not Separately Mentioned In Upse Syllabus, It Is Given Here For So That
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Candidates can better understand and relate topics like Sects, Cults)
e Stark and Bainbridge define a denomination as an organisation that shares several but not all
of the supposed features of a cliurch. They see it
as a diluted version of a religion.
e Roy Wailis defines denominations as
religious institutions which are respectable, and also
pluralistically legitimate (believe other variants of religious truth may exist).
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Thinkers
e. Steve Bruce: Bruce saysthat denominations do not claim any monopoly. to the religious truth,
Thus, denominations stand distinct from sects. He adds that modern times have seen gradual
evolution of churches and sects into. denominations due to the untenability of the church in
modern secular pluralist socio-legal setup. For example, Methodist membership rose in status
in the 19th CE. The strict discipline of the sect and its rejection of society were dropped, and
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it came to be recognized as a denomination. ¢
« Alan Aldridge: Aldridge highlights that a religious organisation may be seen as a sect ora
denomination based on the degree of respect and acceptance it commands in
different societies.
For example, the Latter-Day Saints are considered a respectable denomination in the USA, but
as a deviant sect in the UK.
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¢ HR Niebuhr: Niebuhr views denominationalism as the unfortunate fragmentation of the
Christian churches into various religious bodies organised along class, caste, ethnic, regional,
and national cleavages. He sees denominations
as
a sign of the moral failure of the values of
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love, unity, and brotherhood - the universal values of the Christian churches, to overcome the
divisions of secular society.
Characteristics of Denomination:
HR Niebuhr has identified the following ions:
e Limited Appeal: Denominatio: rsal appeal in society. For example, . -
in
Anand Marga India has a very
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e Inclusive: Denominations draw sections and strata of the society. For.
example, in Commissioner Hindu ents, Madras case, Arya Samaj is a
denomination because all
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individ common faith, common organization,
and distinctive name.
e Independent: Religious denomina fof state, unlike religious churches like
the Catholic Church
states.
orthe Islamic
:
ve found political sponsors in various.
Tolerant: Denominations are plur alist ally legitimate, and hencetolerate and cooperate with
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other religious groups a

;
anandamayi mission uses the

power of
‘Hugging’ to
p
day principle of work and worship.
s. It operates on the modern-
:
e Conservative: Denominations are usually conservative with milder restrictions. or

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prescriptions for their members. For example, though Ramakrishna Mission prescribes
apolitical behaviour, its members participated in National Movement without being excluded
from the organisation.
Members: Members from all sections of society are freely admitted into the denominations.
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Officials: Denominations, like Churches, have an organised hierarchy of paid officials.
Critical Analysis
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1. Positive
¢ Tolerant: Denominations are more lenient and tolerant compared to sects.
¢ Pluralism: Denominations have enabled a pluralistic society, especially in the USA, where
more than half of the population claims affiliation to,denominations.rather than a Church.
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e Nation Building: Denominations like Ramakrishna Mission actively engage in nation
building activities by inspiring the youth and involving them in social activities. For
"
example, Arya College of Engineering is run by Ramakrishna Mission.

¢ Spiritual well-being: Denominations like Ananda Marg have influenced their followers
to engage in meditation and spiritual well-being for a better life.
2.. Negative
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¢ Close to Church: Some denominations bear close resemblance to church, and do not
address the shortcomings of religious orthodoxy. For example, denominations like Ananda
Marg operate within the limits of religion.
“e Undermine Church: As denominations neither fully conform’'to the Church, nor they deny
it, they undermine the authority of the church by diluting its values. For example, the RK
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Mission dilutes mainstream Hinduism.
-@° Moral Prescriptions: Denominations have moral prescriptions for members.
3. Conclusion: Denominations are an important part of modern society, especially in the West.
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They have provided a diversified dimension to plurality, and a significant challenge to the
orthodoxy and strictness of the church. iven the nature of proliferation and widespread
acceptance of denominations
social
an as they are functional and persistent in the
contemporary structure and U
{church |
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Uilibbriurne
Additional Inform ation: Comparison

Criteria Sects Church Denomination
_
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Membership Smallest Medium “! Largest Medium

&
Size
:
Membership Workin gited? Working class, Ethnic

Base class, Ethnic Classes minorities
Minorities
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Commitment. Highest Low Low Higher commitment

Levels Commitment, Commitment Commitment than church, more
very exclusive (pic and mis),]|, Inclusive exclusive membership
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membership Very Inclusive membership

membership
Monopoly of Yes No Yes No
Truth
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Organizational Hierarchical, Loose knit Formal, Formal, Bureaucratic,

Form networks, client- Bureaucratic, Hierarchical,
|
Organised
around customer Hierarchical, Professional paid
charismatic relations Professional Clergy
leader paid Clergy
PAPER 1
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Relation to Sometimes in General Close, allied Separate
state Conflict apolitical
Relation to Reject Accepts Accepts Accepts mainstream
mainstream mainstream mainstream mainstream values
society value values values
Examples Branch Transcendental |The church Methodism
Davidians Meditation, of England
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Scientology
8.3 Religion on Modern Society

8.3.1- Religion And Science
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¢ Religion: Durkheim defines religion as a social phenomenon that refers to
a cultural system of
shared beliefs and rituals institutionalised under a Church.
It
gives people a sense
meaning and purpose by creating a sacred, all-encompassing, and natural view of reality.
ultimate of
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¢ Science: Science is the search for knowledge and a
way to solve problems that is value-free
and based on facts. It uses objective methods and statistical analysis of empirically collected
data.
Thinkers
Peter Berger: Bergersays that sd ole in the secularization of the cosmos.
1..
He further adds that:

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¢ Science uprooted supernatural be en,
* Science described the formatio:
* It visualized the cosmos with
a major theme religion. in
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gic, not faith.
2. Emile Durkheim: Durkheim . He further emphasized that science
says
and religion are social facts. Fo nce and religion have independent
existence, have generalizing tendenciése cive power over individuals. Durkheim’s
religion provides society with its collective conscience. Both science and religion make use of
collective representation
R
'
their orjgin in, society,
vsBe
g
Lt
3. Auguste Comte: Accord
chica to
Gb
stage positivist stage,

He mentions that religi MeS#traditi¢na® so air’ science dominates modern
society. For example, Primitive societies were marked by Animism, while Modern society has
rationalism
G
4. Steve Bruce: Science and religion can go hand

in
hand and they are not necessarily antithetical
to each other. They have similar or same end goals. For example,
by medicine, then he/she prays to gods.
if
a person is not being healed
Albert Einstein: Einstein states that “Science without religion is lame and religion without
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science is blind”. So, in Modern society both are complementary. For example, in moder
society ‘Television and the internet are widely used to promote religion. For example, without
moral values science will have catastrophic implications like ‘guided missiles’ in the hands of
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‘misguided minds’.
6. Karl Marx: He states “Man makes religion,
religion does not make man”. He illustrates that
religion is the basis of science and rationality. Religion as an institution has its
roots in society,
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Comparison between Religion and Science
1. Commonalities between Religion and Science
@
Comprehensive: Both Religion and science helps people in understanding the world. Both
ET
have cognitive characteristics. For example, the scientific atomic theory as well as
Vaisheshika school of Kanada, both state that matter can be reduced to ultimate particles
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called atoms.
e Curiosity: Both attempts to satisfy curiosity by presenting answers to various questions
put forward by people. For example, Science asks ‘Why does the rainbow have 7 colours?’,
while Religion asks ‘What happens after death?’ »
e Esprit des Corps (Community Participation): Religion emphasises community more
N
than science, yet both place a strong premium on the
scientific community's cooperation
and teamwork. For example, religious ceremonies like ‘Arti’, durga pooja, Ghost dance
ceremony of Titoux etc are social gatherings. Scientific discovery of the model atoms of is
EE
due to collective efforts of John Dalton, JJ Thompson and Emest Rutherford.
e Collaboration: Rise in capitalism, industrialization made science and religion to grow
together. For example, Protesta: established ‘work is worship’ which in
turn encouraged development us helping in development science. of
@ Wars: Science and religion; d against humanity in the past and
present by causing wars. Fo n of atomic bomb led to disaster in
U mankind.
Japan. Islamic fundamentalis Oh
e Origin: At any point of time in histor
’
ence and religion have coexisted together
but with varying levels of domi
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o Primitive society: It had
fire ete.
o Medieval Europe: It wit
religion was too dominant. H dissance led to the arrival of the Scientific
revolution.
R
o Modern societ
religious reviva anandamayi Mission focus on
providing moderf Hi is
ofleSpportunities etc. It provides
solace to lonely persons in the scientific world.
‘Hugging therapy’ to provide
¢ Development: Both science and religion lead to overall human development. For example,
G
In India, Swami Vivekananda talked about internal and external knowledge in terms of
religion. He advocated science for human development, while emphasized on religion for
spiritual and ethical development.
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e Complementarity: Malinowski states that religion if there are no

is the only choice
scientific answers regarding a phenomenon. While based Science is
on reason and religion
is based on faith. Thus, the role of religion and science is complementary in social life and
not antithetical. For example, for the success of Mars Orbiter Mission, ISRO scientists
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offered artificial satellite models at a temple and prayed to gods.

® Mother of
science: RK. Meiton states that religion is the mother of science as facts are
answered by Religion. On the other hand, Religion is questioned and researched science. by
For example, the circadian rhythm the body
of is answered by Jainism rule- Eating before
sunset. While, science questioned the tantric practises of curing homosexuality.
Oe
2. Difference b/w Science and religion
1 |
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~
¢ Basis: Religion is based on faith and rituals, while science is based on observations and
experiments. For example, Cure of Jaundice by Gold versus through medicines
* Objective v/s Subjective: Religion is philosophical, which makes impossible
precision and measurement like science. For example, the scientific method has the
it
practise to
following stages of observation (3 Hypothesis (! verification [ scientific law while religion
brings ideas like geocentric view of solar system.
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¢ Domain of senses: Science is a potential knowledge based on sensory evidence and
religious beliefs is related to the world beyond senses, For example, when one sees a
childhood pic, they instantly recall childhood memories. Similarly, religion answers
questions like one goes to heaven or hell after life depending upon deeds in this world.
* Applicability: Since technology may be used to
influence nature, scientific knowledge has
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greater practical applications. Since religion is founded on faith, it cannot produce such
instant and tangible consequences. For example, science produces artificial rains through
cloud seeding. Religion takes the course of prayer to rain god.
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SURE
* Universality- In contrast to the universal applicability of scientific information and
methodologies, religious beliefs vary from society to society. Distinct geographical areas
‘SSIES
have different religions. For example un rises in the east’ is universally valid.
While Islam propagates beef e ees Cow as a sacred entity.
¢ Desacralisation: It states t are no longer controlling the world.
Bryan Wilson states that “M esponse to religious motivation”. Post-
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modern world is empirical and't as restricted the space of the sacred.
¢ Questionability: Pitrim Soroki ligion is based on faith that can't be
questioned, but science is based,on iy
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didn’t question the significange Of
questioned Dalton’s thesis tha
es
¢ Freedom: Science is liberatin: hereas religion binds individuals and
promotes status and tradition. For caste people are considered untouchables
on the basis of the notion ofpurity and pollution while science debunks this theory by
¢xagi
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stating thatall humans,are equals and nothing polluted by the touch of lower caste
WN
gets
people. | Sh . f
¢ Rationalism: Sciences baSed‘on’rationdlity’wh on is based on beliefin the

sacred. For example, Galileo’s heliocentric theory was met by severe repression and
punishment because religion promoted belief in Geocentrism.
G
* Approach- Science is an open minded approach which is open for changes whereas
religion is a closed minded approach which barely changes
its
ideology. For example,
Scientific community accepted the idea of genetic engineering after the discovery of DNA.
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Religious faith led to problem for US surgeon’s as Jehova’s witness followers refuse blood
transfusion
* Time period: Religion focuses on the past but science looks to the future possibilities for
human welfare. For example, we learn from Krishna’s sayings in Bhagavad Gita, while
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science looks for development of Quantum computers.

¢ End of Religion: While some predict the end of religion in modern societies, that is not
the case with science. For éxample, in Marxist thought, the phase of Communism will not
ee
require the existence ofreligion as means of production will be communally owned while
with growth of rationalism, scientific temper gaining more and more momentum.
ERENT
1 Sociology
PAPER - Optional
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3. Conchusion: Hence, both religion and science are mutually conflicting but are not mutually
opposing. Both are facets of life as one touches the soul while the other indicates material.
Though both religion and science have inherent shortcomings in the forms of communal
ES
polarisation, use of weapons etc, religion continues to give peace to scientifically advanced
and worried society.
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8.3.2- Secularization And Secularism
Secularism: Secularism is a process where conceptions of
supernaturalism lose their sovereignty over
human affairs. Example, People have scientific and empirical explanations to understand diseases
instead of approaching the supernatural.
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Secularisation: Peter Berger defines secularisation as the process by which sectors of society and
ETT
culture are removed ftom the domination ofreligious institutions and symbols. It is the process of
IETS
NNN
implementing secularism.
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Features of Secularisation:
Alan Shiner identifies 6 features of secularisation
al
Elimination of Religion: For Shiner, nis the complete elimination of religion
sé6i
¢
from public space. For example, ce after the French Revolution.
e Secularisation of Institution ular institutions as the first step in
secularisation. For example, secu hed in India after the enactmentof the
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Constitution.
¢ Contemporary Conformity: Secu
of the globe. For example, seculari
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equal work based on global trend:
e Transposition from Divine to secularisation, changes their focus
from explaining the divine to engaj Vities.For example, secular education
being provided by missionary schoo
¢ Religion is Side-lined: Secularisation si eligion even in the plausibility structure. For
R
ieee
example, the UK, despite havin: a,State religion, conforms to global trends of secularisation
such as UNHRC resolutions on foto eligion.
¢ Social Disengagement: characteri gagement of people from
religious events, and increasing socialisation in secular events. For example, the increasing
G
trend of birthdays, office parties rather than religious festivals.
Thinkers View
1.Habermas: Habermas propose that secularism is being replaced by post secularism. Post-
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secularism sees increasing use ofreligion in secular institutions like politics, state and
education. For example, religious polarisation in India during elections.
2. Bryan Wilson: As per Wilson, secularisation implies dilution of social significance of
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religious thinking, practices and institutions. It has three features:
renee
¢ Instrumental Values: It
refers to core values that are prevalent in a secular society such
as com petition, innovation, individuality ete.
¢ Ratiomal Procedures: It implies the emergence of scientific methods and objective
analysis of worldview which “disenchants” society from the religious myths, mysteries,
miracles and magic.
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SST
¢ Technological Methods: These are technological advancements, independent of religion,
that promote secular economy, DoL and other institutions.
3. Robert Bellah: Robert Bellah talks about Civil Religion. It is the sacralisation of civil roles
and secular activities. It is rooted in ‘Americanism’, as studied by Bellah. Features of Civil
Religion are:
¢ Defining Traits: Americanism, as a civil religion, has defining traits like free market
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economy, maximum resource utilisation etc.
¢ No Divinity: Civil religion performs the role of traditional religions without any divine or
imaginary head. For example, state welfarism.
e Nationalisation of God: Civil Religion, such as Americanism, emphasizes a commitment
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to God, but that God is an American national first, rather than a Catholic, Jew or Muslim.
e Inclusivity: Civil religion is pluralist, and is open to all religions and sects without any
differentiation.
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¢ Saeralisation of the Secular: Secular symbols like national flag, constitutional value
become sacred in civil religion. For example, America First, Har Ghar Tiranga campaign
etc e
Difference between Secularism and Plu
Secularism
It is a process of social change thra ea that all religions are equally valid,
the influence of religion declines
U ist mutually in a social setup.
affairs.
Secularism emerged in an_ inter.
context.
Q
:
Secularism promotes uniform app eeds institutional diversity e.g. The

norms and laws e.g. Special Marriag: iage Act, Muslim Laws etc
Secularism separates religion from ation of the peaceful co-existence of
USA, UK, France
R
Critical Evaluation
1. Positive
e Integration: Seculai ntegtated acrdss dive¥se religions. For example, the
sdtiety
Indian constitution provides religious freedom to all within the state.
G
e Structural Differentiation: Secular world sees specialized institutions for political (e.g.
leaders), economic (e.g. market mechanism) and social functions (e.g. marriage
It
registrations at court). is a departure from monolithic structure under religion.
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¢ Social Change: Religious institutions are adapting to changes and they recognized that
older values like the supernatural no longer sound plausible in the modern rational world.
For example, secularisation of markets and trade led to globalisation in Dubai.
e Pluralism: Bryan Wilson says that religious values are no longer the values the wholeof
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community. Rising number of

sects indicates the decline of dominant religious values. For
example, rise of Lingayats, Ananda Margaetc
Negotiated Change: Secular institutions like constitutional courts promote amicable
settlement of disputes arising out of conflict between two different plausibility structures,
For example, settlement of Babri Masjid dispute by the Supreme Court of India.
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* Palliative solution: Ideology of secularism
a
palliative solution against Fundamentalism
is
and communalism which are problematic and disintegrative to society.

2. Negative
© Conflict: Secularisation may lead to conflicts between religious groups. For example, beef
eating as a secular food choice leads to conflict between Hindu and Muslim communities
in India.
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¢ Majoritarian Bias: State led secularisation
may favour the majoritarian groups in the state,
while putting the minorities at loss. For example, institutionalisation of Islamophobia in
American police and security forces -
* Invisible religion: Thomas Luckmann argues that religion is still alive though it has
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receded from public spheres which he calls
it
Invisible religion. For example, vacant roads
in India when people stay indoors during solar eclipse.
©
Religion still persists: Kaufmann study indicates that while church attendance has
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decreased the number of believers has not, which indicates religion still persists in society.
For example, the proliferation of new world religions in the West. a
e Religious Revivalism: Ashish Nan that the gap in supply of religion due to
secularisation is filled by the For example, triumphant Hinduism
in
.
originated India in response tuals.

¢ Fundamentalism and Co tion invites negative social currents
from fundamentalist and co
U orces resist the death of religion. For
example, the Taliban in Afgha:
3. Conclusion: All modern states prac eople of all castes and creeds now have
much better opportunities because tion based on caste, creed, or culture.
Q
Additional Information:
Invisible Religion
of
.
The debate on secularization revived the question on absence/presence religion in modern times.
Thomas Luckmann in his
‘The Invisible Religion, 1967’, atgues that religion is still very much alive
R
though receded from the public sphere and he calls

it
“invisible religion’.
Features of Invisible Religion od |ff.

A&
1. Origin: Industrial revolution brought radical changes
in
social structures and ways of living..
G
People were forced to change residences, workplaces, habits, and worldviews. With these
changes, it was difficult to maintain traditional religious life and practices associated with
ecclesiastical religion. For example, Statistics on church attendance in England show decline
it
over centuries. While 40% of people attended church in the 1850s, declined to 10% by 1970.
N
2. Relevance of Religion: Despite losing faith on orthodox elements of religion, its function of
social integration, social solidarity was significant enough make to it
relevant. For example, A
study by Kaufman indicates that while church attendance has decreased, the number of
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believers has not.

3. Reinterpretation: The growing trend of individualism leads to personal interpretation of
religious doctrines. For example, Modern individuals now believe that ‘Children are a form of
God’. Hence, it doesn’t matter whether they go to church, temple daily, even if they donate
something to poor children.
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Forms
1.
ofCivic
Invisible Religion
Religion:
¢ It involves the religious or quasi-religious regard for certain civic values and traditions
found
in the history of the political states. For example, Robert Bellah argues that symbols
of nationalism like Flag, National Anthem are accorded the
same respect and faith as God.
e It also involves the use of religious aspects in civic and political life. For example, the
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invocation of God in political speeches and public monuments even though modern polity
entails separation of religion from the state.
lives.
2. Revivalism: Religious activities have come to acquire pomp and show just like our civic
People find solace in'them after a stressful day. Hence, just like Veblen’s ‘conspicuous
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consumption’, we ate going through ‘conspicuous religiosity’. For example, Ganesh Visarjan,
Mata ki Chowki, e-religion on Sanskar channel.
3. New:Sects: The deprived sections of society feel alienated and start new sects for their own
They reject the dominant values of society. It
starts in their private sphere and gradually
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acquires public membership. For example, Dera Sacha Sauda sect in North India works for
bringing casteless society.
4. .Cults: These ate small, voluntary, exclusive religious groups based on charismatic leadership.
For example, Stark and Brainbridge througti thé.concept of
‘cultural importation’ highlights
that established religion in one part of the world can Bé cult somewhere else, like Krishna
consciousness when adopted by westernpeople.
U
© Theological States: While the state is bound by civic religion in public, people are
governed on the basis of religious scriptures. This is a form of practice of invisible
religion. For example, Iran, Pakistan are based on Sharia law. Yet another example is
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Uniform Civil Code which’ is a distant reality in India because people like to. be governed
by religious -setiptures*in private matters of marriage, divorce, adoption, succession,
maintenance’ etc. SS
5. Communialism: In the context of invisible religion, communalism entails strong allegiance to
one’s religious group rather thaif’th€"society as a whole. It is disfavouring for religious
R
minorities, For example, Stereo Muslims as terrorists even though people may not
6.
readily reveal their viewpoint in publics
Fundamentalism: It refers to strict adligrence
AA
to a
1 OP
set
es
of principles or beliefs of scriptures to
today’s world. It is opposed to

rationalism and humanism. is opposed It to
dissent against these
scriptures. For example, Cow-vigilantes targeting beef-éaters without using the recoursé of the
G
judicial system.
Conclusion:
of
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Despite the widespread support for the theory of secularization a number doubts have been raised
and the opponents of the concept argue that religion remains a significant force though in new and
unfamiliar forms. Hence, religion is not just a cognitive system of dogmas alone, is also a meaningful it
experience.
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8.3.3-Religious Revivalism
Religious reviva lism denotes the upsurge in values
members of society towards adherence
excitement amérig
to existitig or pre-existing religious norms, practi¢és to protect these’cultural aspects front
and
getting lost in the course of social change. For example, Westernisation of the Indiah Middle Class in
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the 19th century led to revivalist movements like the Arya Samaj Movement and
Movement.
te Deoband
Factors Behind Religious Revivalism

Secularisation: It has created a demand for spiritual services amidst the loss ol spiritual
services due to secularisation. For example, Rise of neo-paganism in Scandinavia. ..
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Modernity: Rationale and science disconnects people from their social and spiritual lives,
causing psychological distress. Religion is revived to address this problem of distress. For
example, the rise of yoga cults in the west.
Politics: Vote bank politics spur revivalism in wider sections of the society. For ample,
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Lingayats united as a revivalist group to secure minority status in Karnataka. s
Personal Experience: A revivalist leader can induce similar sentiments based on their
experience within a group or wider society. For example, Radhakanta Deb led the fontation
of Dharma Sabha.
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External Influence: Mass mobilisations aim to protect religious principles from external
influences. For example, Soviet intervention in Afghanistan led to the rise of Mujahideen,
Internal Crises: Conflicts highlight re solution to social problems. For example:
a
2013 Civil unrest in Syria and Ir: ublic joining ISIS.

Marginalisation: The alienated, revivalist organisations to put their
views, establish identity and justify¢ r example, revivalism among muslins
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on religious lines against majorit
Instruments of Revivalism
Q
Social movements: These are a
Iranian, Revolution of 1979 led t
Cults: Cults are also put to use tos
revival of Bengali Bhakti tradition
Sects: Sects induce revivalism in section . For example, the Lingayats in Karnataka
R
often carry out revivalist movements to promote social solidarity.

Religious institutions:
example, mutts, temples
: m can be drive ‘by ‘power struggle and politics. For example,
Conservative Republicans promote Christian values,
G
Thinkers
1. Alan Aldridge: Alan Aldridge argues that secularisation and modernity results in distress in -
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the social theatre, making individuals seek spirituality with revivalist forces to address
emotional tensions. He talks about three stages to modernity wrt role of religion:
* Developed Stage: Religion is a solution to emotional and psychological distress of
society. For example, Spiritual yoga meditation is being promoted in Scandinavia.
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* Developing Stage: Here, religion resolves socio-economic and environmental distress in

the developing stage. For example, In India, religion is used to preach peace and
gnvironmental protection amidst the crisis of development.
¢ Under-d eveloped Stage: In this stage, politico-economic and social distress is addressed
by religion. For example, 3rd world countries in Africa are undergoing revivalism of Islam
and Chrisstianity amidst political crisis.
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2. Anthony Giddens: Giddens, in his book “Modernity and Self Identity” talks about the High
Moderrily, meaning radicalisation of aspects of modernity, characterised by —
¢ Inqeased Reflexivity: It is the constant monitoring of social life for possibility of
improvement. Reflexivity is an inherent feature of modern society. For example, frequent
|
assessments and evaluations in modern education institutions. Religion soothes the

doubtful mind by providing a sense of self and purpose.
P
©
Separation of space and time: Giddens mentions that decreasing face-to-face
communication, for example video calling through the internet, has led to emotional
deprivation and isolation.
o. According to Giddens, in modern society, the sense of existence of an individual and
N
.
his/her sense of purpose are separated.
® Dis-embedding: Dis-embedding means the dissociation of social relations from local
considerations.
o Religion answers questions related to moral sense ofself and purpose, addressing the
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emotional and psychological dysfunctions of modernity. For example, Desacralisation
of personal relations like marriages has led to increase in divorce rate.
o Religion helps in maintainin, d sanctity of such relations. For example,
is tal
Bo
Marriage an un-dissolva) id in Hinduism

Bainbridge: Bainbridge propos ply theory ofreligious revivalism. He
in
religio
says that the decline the
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within sections of society and indt an increase in the demand for religion
és
consequential to the decreasing supf r example, Osho movement the USA in

in 1970s, ISKCON movement U!
in
Q
Campanella: Marginalisation an
changes triggers religious revivali
Blacks in the USA.
©
Religion is a binding force in b :
i
religious mobilisation in the last few elettror
R
Ashish Nandy: He identifies desacralisation of Hinduism as the main reason behind revivalist
lla
tendencies in Indian soéigt vent, oF Bu
desacralizing the social Stet or leatlie¥
Shaivism
G
Jose Casanova: In contemporary Societies of the world, religious beliefs and practices are not
dying out but have increasingly re-entered the public sphere. For example, In Israel, Lubavitch
campaigned against the watering down of traditional Jewish beliefs.
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Critical Analysis
1, Positive/Significance
© Pluralism: New Age Religions promote plural multi religious societies. For example, Neo-
KI
paganism in Scandinavia co-exists with Christianity.

e Strengthens Identity: Revivalism strengthens social identity of certain groups in social
structure. It prevents them from being marginalised and deprived. For example, regular
revivalist mobilisation by Jain Councils across India.
e Social Change: Revivalism has promoted social change. The establishment of the DAV
group of schools, by Arya Samaj members, offering modern education to Indian students
was a result of revivalism.

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® Social Solidarity: Revivalism promotes social solidarity. For example, as every member
of Arya Samaj adheres to common values, they have
2. Dysfunctions a
strong solidarity.
.
e Orthodoxy: Revivalism had sown seeds for fundamentalist tendencies. For example,
Taliban in Afghanistan is a revivalist fundamentalist organisation.
Political Polarisation: Revivalism led political polarisation has been evident in the recent
P
¢
elections in India, whereby populist religious sentiments have been used for. vote bank
appeasement.
e Social Marginalisation: Revivalism induces marginalisation of certain sections of society.
This hampers democratic system. For example, according to South Asians for Human
N
Rights (SAHR), revivalist Hindu nationalism in India has driven wedges in its democratic
structure,
®
International Institutions: Religion has been a key issue, or point of conflict in decisions
EE
of the UN and UNHCR. For example, India’s opposition to the UN resolution denouncing
hatred against certain religions.
3. Current Trends
Politics: Increasing use of relig political parties. For example, religious
i
@
polarisation during elections media.

® Invisible religion: Luckmang invisible as individuals carry it out in
U
their private space and not in
e Civil rights: Robert Bellah in nsciousness and the crisis in Modernity
argued that civic religion is em form of religion. For example, Sokka
is
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Gokkai of Japan a potential
®
Institutional acceptance o: jon of new religious places like
®
Gurudwaras and
Distress: Alienation, anomie
ISKCON
te and cult.
people to find peace in religion and
spirituality. Weber calls it theodi vileged. For example, the rise of Yoga
i
R
culture and revivalist tendencies

in Hinduism.
4, Conclusiom: Though dy, ouggrevivalism
E
‘
have been quite glaring too, for
example, like Taliban aritk dia) bygt at the same time religious
revivalism hasled to a su Hi au Aiversity, especially
among the
young and the educated. Thus, religion has managed to survive at present time as still fulfils it
G
demand at Individual and societal level.
8,3,4-Fundamentalism
i. Definition: Fundamentalism is an extreme form of ideology
N
that stresses on the infallibility of

a scripture Or ideal-set in all matters of faith and doctrine. Haralambos defines fundamentalism
as the nature of religion, particularly where it is undergoing an enthusiastic revival strongly in
held beliefs.
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e For example, unverified vedic treatments propagated during the onset of pandemic, or the
concept. of Hindu-rashtra as a panacea for
social problems.
2, Comparison with Religious Revivalism: Fundamentalism and religious revivalism both arise
because of the need to protect indigenous religion and culture from western values and
modermity. But fundamentalists seek political power, unlike religious revivalists.
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rt
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Characteristics of Fundamentalism
« Universal: Fundamentalist elements are present in all religions. For example, Christian
fundamentalism, Islamic fundamentalism, !° .du fundamentalism.
¢ Wide approach: Fundamentalists claim a society-wide audience. For example, Call by
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jihadists to all the “believers” to eliminate the Kafirs.
e Authoritarianism: Fundamentalism claims authority over and by a religious text. For
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example, Hindu Rashtra based on Bhagavad Gita, an Islamic state based on Sharia etc.
®
Anti-Modernity: Promote modernisation as a source of problems. For example, Taliban
closed schools and modern education institutions post its takeover of Afghanistan.
° Anti- religious change: Oppose pluralism, secularism, liberalism. For example, ISIS
beheading non-Islamic believers in regions it controls; forced conversions;
N
ghar-wapsi
movement etc.
¢ Literal Interpretation: Sacred texts are interpreted literally rather than
They
are considered
placing
infallible. For example, Brahmins from mouth of Brahma, virgin birth of
it in context.
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Jesus,
Tools of Fundamentalism
¢ Social movements: These promo or example, Islamic Revolution in Iran
¢
in 1979 led to the establishment
Sects and Cults: New World
¢ ime.
the Arab countries in the 19th cen

U
e Religious Organisations: Some
k to
i
promote fundamentalism in the name
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¢ Political Organisations: Organis
banks in the name of religion by
e Charismatic Leadership: A lead
Ayatollah Khomeini in [ran.
R
Drivers of fundamentalism
e Marginalisation: If c ed, it may push them to
fundamentalist methods Skin to RK Merton’s ‘Deviant
culture’, For example, Marginalisation of Muslims post 9/11, aka Islamophobia, led to increase
in Islamic fundamentalism in the USA.
G
e Secularisation: It drives a fundamentalist wave to protect religious tenets from erosion. For
example, Fundamentalist forces in the Arabian countries in response to the rise of American
values through oil business.
Lack of basic facilities: Poverty, deprivation and lack of proper education also fuels
N
e
fundamentalism. For example, Youth in Kashmir are exposed to foreign fundamentalist
organisations, due to lack of functional schools.
¢ Crises: Political Crisis leads to increase in fundamentalism as a solution to social
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problems. For example, Rise of ISIS against backdrop of Syrian Civil War, Rise of Taliban in
Afghanistan, genocide against Rohingyas etc.
e Misuse of Technology: Widespread propagation of fundamentalist ideas through technology
further widening the social support base. For example, Youths in Kerala have joined ISIS via
Twitter-base d indoctrination and recruitment.
|
ee
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e Furthering Agenda: Vested Interests such as Vote bank politics, political favours by the
rightist/conservative organisations have led to increasing fundamentalism in India. For
example, Mob lynching of beef/meattraders in India
e Orthodox: Sections of society are driven by conservatism, leading to. breeding of
fundamentalists. For example, opposition to namaz of Muslims in Gurgaon by conservative
social groups in the name of Hindutva.
P
e Migration: Internal and external migration can promote fundamentalism. For example,
Migrant population feels threat to themselves by being the minority in dominant culture
Thinkers
1. Steve Bruce:
N
ETN
e He says fundamentalism is a response to Problems of Modernisation. He identifies the
following as the problems of modernisation:
o Societalization: It means fragmentation of social life. For example, Man has a
RIAN EE
professional life in the office, a personal life at home, a public life in shopping and
friends. This leads to fragmentation dissociations
and
in
the social psyche.
o Differentiation: Bruce emph ious life is separated from other aspects of
"social life such as econami For example, Secularisation of trade,
.
constitutional polity etc. should be no discrimination in public

employment on the basis
U
o Rationalisation: He meri ocial life promotes rationality, and
ing based on financial aspects.
:
share certain rights equally. This is

1
Q
unacceptable to religion- ips. Por example, Political rights to
women, which in many so till modernity arrived.
o Undermine Religion: M the authority of religion, mostly in
the Constitution, borrowed from Surces to change the existing social structure
R
based on Varna and caste. It is still opposed by sections of society.

ie changing world as a threat
itions. So,
«Fundamentalism advocates authentic textor tradition. For example, Imposition of
Sharia based on Quran in Afghanistan by Taliban
G
Fundamentalism seeks political power to impose the revitalised traditions. For

="
example, Taliban politically controlling Afghanistan.

¢ Healso identifies certain features of fundamentalism as listed below:
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o Multiple religious texts: Religions with multiple sacred texts are less prone to
fundamentalism. For example, Presence of multiple gods prevents polarisation of a
particular movement within Hinduism
o Common Enemy: Belief of common enemy fuels the fundamentalist forces. For
KI
example, Hindu fundamentalists in India view Muslims as a common enemy

© Decentralisation of Church: It serves as a ground for fundamentalism. Centralisation
of religion decreases fundamentalist tendencies. For example, Catholic Church
cemtralised under the Pope has lesser fundamentalist elements
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o Reeruits: Need potential recruits that share the agenda, common enemy and threat
perceptions. For example, Like Marx says, “Religion is the opium of the masses”, the
more the deprived and the marginalised, the stronger is the fundamentalism
©Politics: It influences fundamentalism and vice versa. For example, Because Prophet
Muhammad himself was
political power and control
a
political leader, Islamic fundamentalists are inspired to seek
2. Gabriel Almond, Appleby and Sivan: They emphasise that origin of fundamentalism can be
P
understood at three levels:
o Structural Issues: Structural issues like unemployment, state sponsored persecution of
ethnic groups (For example, Rohingyas, Uyghurs), legal degree of secularisation of social
life (For example, Uniform Civil Code in personal laws) forces groups to seek solution in
N
fundamentalist methods.
o Contingency and Chance: Historical background determines the translation of a social
movement into fundamentalism. For example, India has a secular background compared to
EE
Pakistan. Hence fundamentalism is less in India.
o Leadership: Fundamentalist movements need efficient leadership to mobilise large
numbers in support of their belj ample, Ayatollah Khomeini led Islamic
revolution in Iran, Sikh fund: Bhindarwale.
3. TN Madan: Madan talks about
to him, features of fundamentali
f ok Sociology of Religion. According
o Unrealistic dreams: Fundamé

U hich are difficult to achieve in the real
practical world. For example, Gk
du Rashtra etc
o Challenge Social Order: Fundam es an alternative order. For example,
Taliban replaced democracy b
Q
o Organised Revivalism: Fun
social institutions. For examp! nsad in 2022,
© Ostracization: Fundamentalis
suppress dissent. For example, Cu media trend ostracises secular as “Woke”,
“Pakistani Agent” or like “Sulli Deals” ete
R
app
o Deteriorates Demo the democratic, secular and

liberal fabric of socie stan
o Hidden Motive: Fundamentalism aims to display its symbolic power. For example, the
rise of Zionism in Israel reflects power over Jews future.
G
o Intolerance of dissent: Fundamentalists do not openly accept dissent to their religious

values. For example, Fatwas were issued against Salman Rushdie.
4, Mark Jurgensmeyer: Jurgensmeyer says that religious violence today is present in almost all
religions, almost every corner of the globe Example: Persecution of Tamils by the Sinhalese
N
in Sri Lanka.
5. Samuel Huntington: Huntington’s theory of “Clash of Civilisations” talks about
fundamentalism arising out of contact of two different cultures i.e. Us vs Them - People define
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their identity in ethnic and religious terms, in a “us versus them” relation, leading to clashes.
6.
For example: Clash between Hindus and Muslims
in
the Indian subcontinent
Karen Armstrong: Armstrong says that cultural differences drive violent religious
fundamentalism. (Modernisation and globalisation lead to contact of conflicting cultures like
Islam and Christianity, leading to conflicts). For example, ISIS sponsored remote lone wolf
attacks against non-Islamic people.
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7, James Hunter; Fundamentalists see technology as neutral rather than challenging thir faith.
It is considered a gift of God. For example, Development of modern arsenal:by fundankntalist
terrorist groups.
8. Anthony Giddens: Religious fundamentalism can be understood in 2 ways:
@ Revival of Fundamentals: It is a conservative attempt in response to moral crisis in
society as well as degeneration of lifestyle. For example, Christian fundamentalism is
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response to secular humanism (favour reason as opposed to God’s command).
e Contra-acculturative response: Acculturation modifies the culture of a group through
contact with other cultures. Fundamentalism is a response to this. For example, Islamic
fundamentalism in Iran arose due to imposition of western culture- land reform, voting
N
rights to women, secular education etc.
Critical Analysis
1. Functions
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* Voice for the Marginalised: Fundamentalist organisations have voiced the concerns of
the marginalised sections. For examp! Deoband school keeps highlighting the state of
Muslims in India. ‘
e Dedication: Dedication to a cg eature in fundamentalist organisations.

This boosts the morale and di
eDecreased spiritual anxiety
U
uncertainty and provides them
understand and cope with life's di
2. Dysfunctions
Q
e Terrorism: Religious
This
is evident in the riseFunda
ofth
Bank Jew-Palestinians conflicts
i
e Marginalisation: Marginalised sections
R
of soc’
to make a statement. A Aimyis.one.guch organisation.
: ops
anmar.
4 sation in domestic politics
L
“prolon
against the Tamils, t ang bythe
a
of fundamentalist Sinhalese
Buddhists
G
¢ Human Rights Violations: Fundamentalist elements in Pakistan have led to human rights
violation of Hindus in the country, especially in the form of forced conversions, forced
marriages, physical and sexual exploitation.
e Anomie: Fundamentalism leads to anomie or state of normlessness in the world. For
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example- After 9/11 and 26/11, there are no established norins on maintaining order,
treatment with Muslims etc
3. Way Forward
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e Social Justice: Accessibility, affordability, equity and equality wrt economic resources,
political rights, social capital and mobility should be built into the social structure. For
example, free public education for all in Ireland. It curbs fundamentalism at its origin.
° Institeational Resilience: Strong social institutions like schooling, bureaucracy and
judiciary are needed to maintain peace and tranquility, countering deviant social currents
in society. For example, anti-riot task forces in the Police.
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few
e Social Control: Rewards and punishment systems should be made effective and efficient
*
to ensure maximum conformity with law of the land, and avoid violent deviance.
‘®
Innovation: Innovative deviance such as sacralisation of the secular (e.g. Sacred: secular
"symbols like Tiranga) can be used to counter the religious fundamentalism in secular
societies like India.
4. Conclusion: Though fundamentalism has also been key
to
social discipline and to voicing the
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concerns of the marginalised. Fundamentalism arises from certain issues in the structure of
society, or disproportionate allocation of functions inside the society, leading to
marginalisation and deprivation of groups of people but at the same time has been a threat to
pluralism and inclusion within a society. It attacks the very democratic fabric of our country
it
to
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and must be controlled. Thus, its spread needs be curtailed on war footing basis.
8.3.5-Communalism
Definition: Communalism is an ideology which tries to create a watershed between two groups or
EE
communes within a larger society based on ethnicity, religion, beliefs, values, etc. The highlighting of
differences between two or more religious, ethnic and social communities produces clashes. in the
sociely. Communalism is a strong allegiance group based on religion, language, race,
ethnicity etc. In India, the basis of allegi
’
Causes of Communalism
U
e Fundamentalism: Religious furi basis for communalism, known as
religious communalism, in many ca! Case of institutionalised persecution of
Rohingyas in Myanmar.
Q
« Ethnicity: Ethnicity, the sense of icular region or tribe makes a strong
foundation to communal tendenci ent violence in Assam against non-
Assamese groups.
e Caste atrocity: Caste has been a |
| mobilisation in India. It was more

pronounced after the recent verdict of thé ie Court of India in the Scheduled Caste and
R
e Political: Strict adhere

communalism. This can
of Mr. Joe Biden as the President of the USA.
enice.J fie ideologies cause. political
18 US, Capitol Riots after the election
:
¢ Economic: When different groups of people have allegiance to opposite theories, it may lead
G
to clashes and violence for control of resources. For example, Hindus see ‘cows’ as.a sacred
resource, while Muslims see it as a normal animal their trade. of ,
e Gender: Gender leads to institutionalised violence and repression of one gender by another.
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Organisations like ISIS and Taliban commit violence in gravest form against women to make
them subservient to
the men’s commune.
e Socio-Cultural differences: The different ways of living and beliefs among different religious
communities leads to communalist tendencies. It also leads to tendencies of Conversion of
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people. For example, Hijab row triggered communalism India. in

Thinker \
1. Clifford Geertz: Geertz, an American anthropologist, émphasises on multi dimensionality of

communalism. He writes, “When we speak of communalism in India, we refer to religious
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contrasts, when we speak of
Congo with tribal ones”
it
in Malaya we are mainly concerned with racial ones, and in the
2... Bernard Cohn: The colonial structure of administration generated sociological categories
aN
(such as, the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes etc.). These categories became the source of
rae
conflict in India.
3. Bipan Chandra: Communalism is “the belief that because a group of people following a
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particular religion, have a common social, political and economic interests”. He further adds
that religious distinction is the fundamental distinction that overrides all
other distinctions.
4. Murray Bookchin: He says communalism is “a theory or system of government in which
_-independent communities participate in a federation.”
Simply put, western concept of communalism proposes to abolish market and money and
N
*
LRT
places land and enterprise in the custody of a community
© However, in the context of the Indian sub-continent, the term communalism is associated
with tensions between various religious communities.
EE
Effects of Communalism
1. Ram Ahuja: He argues that comm is a demonstration of this ideology. This
violence threatens secular fabric, harmony, unity, integrity and internal
security and poses a problem of § of such violence
2. TN Madan: He highlighted the 6 hrough following typologies:

U
Small religious groups are assimilated
—
e Assimilationist (or) Commun

into big religious groups. For d tribes, Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists start
identifying themselves as Hind ibe covered by the same personal laws
Q
like Hindu Marriage Act, 195
© Welfarist Communalism: sd-on the welfare for the particular
community. Services like edué nancial assistance in higher studies,
matrimonial assistance, skill d tial accommodation are provided. For
example, All India Muslim Persona! Board. works for Muslims specifically.
R
Retreatist Communalism: It represents

Rane in small religious communities that
se
e
i
ities bk oarhle
people belonging to the
Bahai religious comr A
Patiyepolitical activity.
veople
¢ Retaliatory Communalism: In
this case, belonging to one religious community
to of other communities. For example,
G
attempt harm, hurt and injure the members religious

Godhra Riots.
* Separatist Communalism: Here one religious community decides to maintain its cultural
specificity and demands
a
separate territorial state within the country For example, the
N
demand for Gorkhaland by Gorkhas.

e Secessionist Communalism: In this case, the religious community demands for a separate
political identity and insists on having a separate state. For example, the demand for
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Khalistan, an independent nation for sikhs.
Further Analysis of Communalism

Impacts Meaning Example
Material Communalism brings changes in] Conversion of Ram janma bhoomi
Effect material structures of society, its art and into Babti Maszid in 16th century.
culture.
IITTUNnANN |
:
|
*
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ssn
Relative It is feeling of insecurity or exclusion Hostilities between the prosperous
Deprivation among minorities, as threat from
majoritarian community.
Jews, and poor Muslims in
Palestine.
Stereotype It-is the labelling and association of a Islamophobia led to tagging of

particular value or social action with a Muslims as terrorists.
community, based on past experiences.
Distorted It
P
indicates communally biased James Mill designated ancient period
History understanding and representation of of Indian history as the Hindu period
historical facts. and the medieval period (1200 AD ~
Legal Communalism
1757AD) as the Muslim period.
may come in Communal forces work against
N
Ramificatio confrontation with existing institutional implementation of Article 44 in
n norms and established practices. India.
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Measures to curb Communalism
Awareness: Initiating the process of de-communalising and informing
that all communal assumptions are falgé
the
people atall levels
Alertness: Communalisation of
Civil Society: The communalis t tical elite has to be checked.
to riots that are more communal? al ideas and ideologies pressurize the
to
government act in a manner, w!
U the principles of secularism.
Value Oriented Education: The r6
in preventing communal feelings,
productive potential of children
Q
a
Banning Communal Press: Thi

communal feelings. Communal p
communal writers.
Contact Hypothesis: This is put forwar
increased contacts between communities
re
R
Immediate action: Gov in

nal Gutfits as its immediate targets
and cripple their capaci
Comparative Analysis between Communalism and Fundamentalism

G
Parameters Communalism Fundamentalism

Scope e Unifies a community under |e Unifies a dispersed group along an
orthodox ideology. ideology.
Restricted to a community |e
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e Talks about the society as a whole.

within society.
Distinction e Suppresses distinctions e Allows distinctions to an extent
Basis e It is based on the strong|e It is based on infallibility of
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allegiance of a group
race, ethnicity.
to
religion, scriptures.
Mobilisation * Causes political mobilisation « May cause political mobilisation.

and violence.
Marginalization « Causes marginalisation and |e Caused by marginalisation and
deprivation. deprivation.
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Aim and Means |e Establish supremacy through |e Establish normative order by wars,
violence, hatred, and speeches, peaceful methods.
antagonism.
Agenda e No reformative agenda Itrejects all forms of corrupt lifestyle
and aims to purge the community of.
evils.
« Eg-Bhindarwale wanted to reform
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fallen Sikhs’ (who cut their hair and
beard).
Sustenance e It is based on the mass psyche. e It is based on charismatic leadership.
Hence, it may not sustain a Hence, the movement runs longet.
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movement. .
Origin e It emerges due to conflict of ¢ It is a contra-acculturative response.

interests.
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8.3.6-New Religious Movements
Roy Wallis identifies New Religious Movg¢ us organisations based on revivalism or
novel ideas developing in response t
Movements:
e World Rejecting: These are devia
U
religious views, laws and courts of jt
@
World Accommodating: These exist stream religious views with a separate
belief based or service-based orga: Cults like Osho cult, Bhakti cult
Q
® World Affirming: These religious exclusive groups. They rather have
open groups focusing on spi
Transcendental Meditation, a kind
R
sei.
e Education: The growtl gtaduakslengthening of time spent in
education created an ex’
culture developed bec pa oi
ek”
idhood and adulthood. Youth
of young people who had
considerable freedom little
but in the way of family or work responsibilities.
Result of modern values: Secularisation, Modernisation, Loss of faith and address modern
G
crisis of conscience, loss of purpose of life, lost value of self

Deviance from mainstream religions: Focus more on spirituality, not God. Well-being is
more important than blind faith.
N
S Non-interference: There is no interference in personal and professional lives of members.

Popular among young members favouring alternative lifestyles.
Middle Ground: Wallis says not all religious movements conform exactly to the outlines of
new religious movements. They combine elements of each other, and reach a middle ground.
KI
For example, alternative modern lifestyle with conventional employment and marriage.
e Technology Growth: There was a belief that developing technology would herald the end of
poverty and economic scarcity.
ociology Optional
—
»Accémmadation
.to.the world
“>
_~
P
Jesus People
Meher Baba
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Rejection: °° Attirmation
ofthe world
of the world
|
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Criticism
1. Positive
* Contemporary: New world re d address the issues of contemporary
modernity like spiritual crisis
@
Pluralism: New world religi
diverse religious opinions. Fo'
U
@
Fewtth Poeused: New religio
cing, For example, modern Y
"
®
Rationality: Though the new Sititiial services, they do not interfere in the
rf
Q
professional aspects of memb
2. Negatives
* Difficult to Apply: James Be lis’s typification is blurred, and does
not offer a neat classification of Sofganisations. Wallis also misses out on the
diversity of ideas within a sect or.a cult, For example, high membership is true for both
R
church and denominagiong x

* Typological: Stark andy
abandoned altogether. They claim that rel gious groups can compared
ctiterion i.e. the degree of conflict that exists between them and the wider
terms of single
be
in
society. The use
of such a definition allows clear comparisons. For example, Catholic church
G
of USA is
nearerto sect than catholic church of republic of Ireland.
we
Conclusion: New world religions are an outlet of the spiritual vacuum created by
rationality
and reflexivity of modernity. They have their shortcomings of
typological nature and blurred
N
classification. Still, they serve as an important reference to study

contemporary changes in
religion.
8.3.7- New Age Movements

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itis a movement that spread through occult and metaphysical religious communities in the 1970s
and
'80s. The “new age” term in the new
age movement has been applied to a range of religious beliefs,
practices and ideas that started to become prominent in 1970’s and 1980’s.
For example, interest in
clairvoyance, Contacting aliens, tarot cards, Ouija, etc.
‘ERE
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Se
et
ea
—
Reason for growth of New Age Movements
Paul Heelas suggests four reasons why the New Age Movement has grown in popularity in the Late
Modern era:
e Helps inhave
finding an Identity: Modernity gives people a “multiplicity of roles”. For example,
people work roles, family roles, members of various organizations, etc. Thus, they end
CT
up having fragmented identities. The new age offers ways of finding an identity.
P
e Climate of discontent: Consumer culture encourages people to try to become the perfect
person by, for example, wearing the right clothes, using the best makeup, having the healthiest
SIE
diet, etc. This creates a climate of discontent as people fail to achieve the perfection portrayed
MN
by advertisers. In such cases, the New age encourages people to try new ways of gaining
N
REF
perfection.
EVR
e Rapid social change: Periods of rapid social change, in which traditional norms and values
are disrupted, might lead people to seek certainty and security in religious or spiritual beliefs.
Decline of traditional religion: Decline in conventional religion, leaves people without strong
EE
¢
spiritual alternatives to the New Age.
Critical Analysis
1. Positive
¢ Marginalised: NAMs provid ents of the marginalised sections. For
example, the 100th-monkey idea led to a series of mass gatherings beginning with the
U
Harmonic Convergence in 1987. They believed in the transformation of world culture just
like a few monkeys can learn to wash food
(hi
e Spirituality: NAMs serve the jm spiritual services and healing to their
Q
members. For example, U.S. First Lady ancy Reagan consulted an astrologer,
British Princess Diana visited spirit mediums, and Norwegian Princess Martha
Louise established a school devoted to communicating with angels
e Pluralism: NAMs develop new
order. For example, Swami Vivekana:
R
2. Negative
parliamentof Religio
e Superstition: NAMS¥ : ¢
beliefs. For example, Superstition of not crossing the road if cat comes crosses beforeyou
G
e Propaganda: NAMs use propaganda theories to propagate their ideas and increase
membership. For example, the myth that people of the Atlantis continent argue forthe use
of crystals as healing tools. Critics considered this as unscientific propaganda to drive
crystal sales.
N
3. Conclusion: NAMs are the predominant spiritual movements of the marginalised sections in
modern society, They are rooted in the crisis of modernity, arising out of the rapid social
change. Despite their drawbacks, the NAMs help us understand the changing nature of social
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faith dynamics and religion.
PREFS
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| NITE
UNIT 9: SYSTEM OF KINSHIP
9.1 Family, Household And Marriage

9.1.1 Kinship
Kinship refers to a relationship that is based on marriage (affinal) or blood ties (consanguineal),
Nowadays, relationships based on adoption and places are also included in kinship. ‘Fictive’ kins are
P
also found insocieties with high mechanical solidarity. Apart from establishing relationships between
people, the kinship system also assigns roles and status which regulates behaviour ofpeople. The role
and status are often related to gender and age.
N
EE
Different Perspectives:
U
Murdock: Kinship is, “A structured:
by interlocking ties.”
Q
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown: The kinsf
expressed through the family, cla
C. Levi Strauss: By intertwining & final links, kinship systems, marriage
norms, and descent groups assure the rmanence. They may be the design of a
system that "pumps" women out of
their consanguineous families and redistributes them in
R
affinal groups, creating ne ine S.

Jack Goody: Goody of Filip “stm
is incomplete without
examining
it
in the cont
of the society under study.
ce okstate and judiciary and religion
G
Travati Karve: She acknowledged that kinship behaviour and patterns are not uniform
across
the region and maydiffer from village to village or from caste to caste.
Marxist and Feminist: The Marxist and feminist perspectives pointed out the inherent
inequalities in the kinship system. There are several examples which reflect this inequality~-
N
bride price, gender specific rituals, gift giving and its

nature, leadership etc.
Changing Times: Researchers say that the current understanding of a family is that of man-
woman and children, however a gay or lesbian couple do not fit
into this box. A family based
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on gay/lesbian relationship raises the question on whether kinship can only be defined by blood
ties or genetics.
Elements of Kinship:
Harry Johnson suggests that kinship has five important basis:
Sex or Conjugal: Indicates sex of blood & conjugal relations in nomenclature like Brother &
sister, Husband & Wife.
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Generation: Nomenclature like Father & Son.
Closeness & Intimacy: As in case of Husband & Wife.
Blood Relations: As in case of Mother and children.
°
Lineage: Traces kinship along generation.
P
N
EE
aS
EE
U
Q
ysically close to each other can be
classified as primary kinship. o
¢ $C Dube suggests that there are ations — husband, wife, father-son, father
€
R
bl
daughter, mother- daughter, mother-son, younger — elder sister, younger-elder brother,
td
:
brother-sister. Eb ged
aS an
2. Secondary Kinship: Ind kinship relations.
e Example: Father’s Si ‘Other’s fatheretc.
3. Tertiary Kinship: Individuals who are
the primary kins to the secondary kin.
G
¢ Example: Wife’s brother’s wife, husband’s sister’s husband etc.

Kinship ties are deeper and more extensive in traditional societies and perform more functions
which make them even more important. In modern societies, kinship ties are multi-dimensional
including friends, neighbours etc. and their functions are also outsourced, for e.g., schools, creches
N
etc.
Structural Principle of Kinship System

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1, Robin Fox identified certain sets of conditions as ‘structural principles of kinship’ and
considered them to be met in order for the kinship system to sustain and survive. These
principles are:
e Men impregnate women.
¢ Women hear the children.
® Men control economic activity.
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® Incest taboo.
2. He suggests that all the kinship systems meet these four conditions. However, he
argues that
the ways through which these conditions are met influence the structure and relationship
patterns within the kinship system.
Significance of Kinship system in Modern World

1. Provides Security and Support: Individuals in a kinship system are related to each other and
P
are dependent on one another. They provide a sense of security and support — emotional,
financial etc.
* In modern societies, this function of the kinship system remains intact. However, the
medium through which it is done may have transformed. Example: Interconnectedness
N
between members of family using mobile phones, social media etc.
Common Rituals and Shared Restrictions: In Indian society, members belonging to the
same ‘Kula’ or same lineage share common rituals related to death, birth and marriage. They
EE
also have a common ‘kula — devta’ or family god.
e Example: In the state of Maharashtra, the Kula-devatas are mainly manifestations
of Shiva or Shakti.
Provides Identity to Individua ng to a particular kin group share
commonalities like caste membeg names etc.
e Example: Yadavs, lyers etc
Assigns Roles and Responsibi
U
ems assign particular statuses to the
members and according the statu:
Kxample: Previously, the rol

to s and responsibilities are assigned.
®
produce, care and nurture the family ©
Q
members etc. However, with en in society and trends like single
parenthood, same sex relation s within a kinship system has been
redefined.
safid
Occupational support: Kinsmen play
betWeen the members. People find members of their
R
own community to be more reliablé-and. trustworthy. Thus, associations and forums

‘omnis
i AS
for community building.
e Example: Agarwal
.
of Agar ommunity. Nepotism within

political party leadership
Regulates Matrimonial Alliances: In traditional Indian society, endogamy within caste was
G
strictly followed. However, due to modernisation, notions of equality between male and
female, the marital ties are largely based on individual preferences and are less regulated by
rules of community.
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e Example: Gotra is an exogamous category within a sub-caste. Its main use is to regulate
matriagzes within a sub-caste.
Instrumemt of socialisation: Kinship group is usually the first agent of socialisation of
children ard inculcates the values, beliefs and culture of the society to transmit continuity.
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¢ Example: In traditional Indian society,

respect for elders and obedience is nurtured in
children,
Play key role in Unity and Cooperation: Kinship system helps in maintaining stability, unity
and cooperation within the society. As kinship groups have certain rules and regulations, it
regulates the interaction between individuals and guides their relationships.
PAPER
eWith liberal ideas and impacts of modernisation, it has been observed that the way of
interaction between members has changed. Example: The interaction between parent and
child has become more informal and less strict.
9. Property Relations: The prime property of any rural family is land. So, land
the kin members ofthe family. The sons, grandsons and other kins, who
related to
is all
and marriage, have their economic interests in land.
are
related by blood
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¢ With the advent of modernization and increase in the adherence of societal values of
equality, the property relations are also changing. Example: Women are becoming aware
that they are also entitled to get an equal share from the ancestral property.
Conclusion:
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The concept of
kinship system is important for the well-being of individuals and society. provides It
support and strength to its members and also guides individual behaviours, enabling stability and
it
cooperation within society. However, may also cause conflicts within society like property disputes
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among relatives etc.
9.1.2 Family
1. Definition: Classically, family sex relationship which is sufficiently
precise and enduring for the pro!
e Family is a social unit in
adoption who live together, r
U ren and cooperate economically.
G.P. Murdock (“Social Structu® efines the family as a social group
characterised by common residence
of both sexes at-least two of whoy
ion and reproduction. It
includes adults
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pproved sexual relationship and one
or more children own or adopted
6
ing adults.
‘
Burgess and Locke: Family is a ed by the ties of marriage, blood or

adoption; consisting of a single hou and intercommunicating with each other
in their social roles of husband and w and father, son and daughter, brother and
R
sister creating a common culture.

Anthony Giddens: He ition of family. Family is a
group of persons dire dult;members of which assume
responsibility of caring for children.
G
Different Meanings:
1. Compositional: Broadly, family refers to the
group comprising parents and children.
e Maclver and Page: Family is a group defined by a sex relationship, sufficiently precise
and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.
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e M.F. Ninakoff: Family as an association of husband’ and wife, with or without child or of
aman or woman alone, with children.
Residential: Usually, members of family share common residence, at least for some part of
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their lives.
e Bureau of Census
(USA): Family is a group of two or more persons related by blood,
marriage or adoption and residing together.
Relational: Members have reciprocal rights and duties towards each other.
¢ Kingsley Davis: Family is a group of persons whose relations to one another are based
upon consanguinity and who are, therefore, kin to one another”
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om
4. Socialisation: The family is also an agent of
socialisation.
e Mack and Young: The family is the basic primary group and the natural matrix of
personality.
P
N
EE
U
Q
R
G
N
KI
logy Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaia |

[Composed of husband, wife and their unmarried chit
Predominant in modern industrial societies.
Consists of a man and his. wife and their adult sons, their W
land children and younger children of the paternal couple...
Lewe{“ii authority belongs to the paternal side. The eldest male 61

father is the head ofthe family- most common type.
P
Authority is centred in the wife or mother. Example: Khas
\Garo tribesof Assam and Meghalaya, among Nayars of Mala’
in Kerala.
N
Wife goes to tive with the husband’s family.
Couple after marriage to live with the wife’s
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moves family;
Couple after marriage

residence,
moves to settle in an independent
Descent is traced through the father and inheritance of pro

takes place along the male line of descent. Most common a.
universal,
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Descent istraced afong the female line and inheritance
property also takes place along the female line of descent.
of
Example: The Veddas, the North American Indians, some
Q
people of Malabar and the Khasi tribe are matrilineal.
Consisted of one husband and one wife.
Polygynous: One man has more than one wife at a given ti

R
sand lives with them and their children together. Examples

JEskimos, African Negroes and the Muslims, Naga and other®.
tribes of central India,
Polyandrous: One wife has more than one husband. Exampli

Some Australians, the Sinhalese (Srilankans), the Tibetans,
G
some Eskimos and the Todas of Nilgiri Hills in India.
Husband and wife belong to same group such as

caste or
tribe. Example: In
a
caste-ridden society like India a memib
la particular caste has to
marry within his own caste.
N
Husband and wife of different groups such as gotra calledis

lexogamous family. Example: Practice of clan exogamy
widely followed among the Indian tribes like the Gond, the He
is’
the Khasi etc.
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Family by blood. The consanguine family comprises a itil

of blood relativessurrounded by
a fringe of wives and other
who are incidental to the maintenance ofthe family unit,
Family by marriage. The conjugal family is a nucieus thé:!

Lemelusband, the wife and their offspring, who are surrounded by.
of
fringe of relatives only incidental to
the functioning ofthe. ~:
amity as a unit.
2m |
9.1.2.1 Joint Family
1. Definition: According to [rawati Karvy, “A Joint family is a
group of persons who normally
live in one house, have a common kitchen, property
__-n
jointly, pray together, and they must
have blood-relations with one another anyway.”
2. Characteristics of a Joint Family:
Common Residence: There are many small families in a joint family whose members live
at one place and call it “Big house”. Each small family may have one or two sepa-rate
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rooms for them but the kitchen and the place of worship is common for all.
a
Common Kitchen: All the members of joint family have food from a common kitchen.
Wives
of ‘karta’ and other adult males of the family look after the work in the kitchen.
Common Property: Weaith and properties are common for all the members in a joint
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family, shared by all the male members who are descendants of one ancestor.
Common Worship and Religious Duties: There are many forms of Gods in the Hindu
religion. Every family worships a particular god or goddess and also their manes who
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protect the family members.
Large Size: A joint family consists of many small families, and members of three
generations or more live togethe: r than that of a nuclear family. |
Rights and Obligations: Acc

/
bers of a joint family remain attached

with one-another for duties a
their duties towards elders ai eir authority.
Common Social Functions
U
adia, “Normal social functions are
considered very important in a joy
all the social functions and on
Co-operative System: A join
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in the absence of mutual co
capabilities and fulfil his/her rée
A Definite Hierarchy: Members
There is a definite hierarchy found in the ranks.
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Comparative Permas
it consists of a large
separation or death of fe
3. Functions of Joint Family:
Guidance: Family
a
G
has special place for elderly persons because they have gone through
a lot ofups and downs and therefore they are more experienced compared to young
members ofthe family. They guide the future generation on the basis of their experience.
Emotional support: As a joint family, members are closer to each other and provide
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emotional support during crises such as death, separation, failure etc. Parsons refers to it
as personality stabilisation.
Entertainment: A joint family is cheap and the best place for entertainment it has so as
in
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many members it. There is always an atmosphere of entertainment and remains jollity
in the family.
Social Conirol: Various sanctions, rules and punishment given to family members ensure
they adhere to accepted social norms and maintain harmony with the society.
Contribution in the Upbringing of a Child: Joint family is a right place for upbringing
of child. In a joint family, aged male and female members cooperate in the care of a child
and contribute in their education and social action.
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| |
«©
Proper use of Money: A common fund is
maintained in a joint family. Money is spent on
it according to the requirement of the member whether they are earning or not.
4. Dysfunctions of Joint Family:
e Hindrance in
Personality Development: A joint family has been proved to be an obstacle
in personality development. David Cooper says family is an ideological conditioning
device in an exploitative society. Since joint families are more traditional and orthodox,
P
they breed stronger notions of conformity.
¢ Bad Condition/Sorry Pignut of Women: For the first time, when a newlywed bride enters
her husband’s house, she is
treated like a goddess. In reality her position in the family is
not more than a maid-servant. Veena Das calls it “Devi dichotomy”.
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© Center of Dispute: There is always a quarrel/dispute, over children, property or behaviour
of females in a joint family. It endangers the peace the family. of
e Supporter of Social Problems: Joint family has been a place for many conservative
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traditions and useless religious ceremonies. Joint families have given way to and promoted
many social problems, e.g., child marriage, dowry system.
9.1.2.2 Features of Family

1. Universal: The institution of
found to exist in every society.
fa an inseparable part of society. It
is
d for sex, urge for reproduction and
economic needs contribute to un
U
¢ George Peter Murdock (So
universal as almost all the soci
It
Maclver: is found in all soci
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@
the human level among myriag

e Example: In agricultural soc
family.
Emotional Basis: The familial bond an emotions such as maternal devotion,
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parental care and other sentiments of love, , cooperation, affection and sympathy.
j
o Example: Family m ring distress.
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family
1
Limited Size: Family is hus, it is a small social unit

consisting of limited me s é
o Example: Nuclear Family consisting of only parents and their children.

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Social Regulation: The actions and reactions of members offamily are guided by social rules
and regulations which are imbibed into the members
like
at
early stages of life.
o Example: Socially accepted behaviours and values Honesty, asking permission before
taking something etc. is taught to children through institutions of family and education.
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Formative Influence: Family plays an important role in shaping a child’s behaviour which
in accordance with societal rules and regulations. This is done through medium of education
is
and behavioural training.
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o Example: The gesture of ‘Namaste’ in India

and is taught to children.
is
a sign of respect and affection paid to elders
Nuclear Position in Social Structure: As family is the basic social unit, it is the central patt
of social organisation. Thus, playing a key role in socialisation.
o Example: Family teaches their children whom to interact and whom to avoid in a social
setting,
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1 ~
Sociology Optional
Responsibilities of the Members of the Family: The members have specific roles, duties and
responsibilities to carry out.
o Example: In Indian families, women are expected to nurture & care for the children while
men are expected to earn for their families.
9.1.2.3 Functions of Family
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Satisfaction of Sex Needs: Family satisfies sexual desires through the institution of marriage.
The modern family satisfies sex instinct in a greater degree than the traditional family.
Procreate: The family is an institution par excellence of the reproduction and the rearing of
children. It secures a legitimate and responsible basis for procreation by regulating sexual
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behaviour. It provides care and personal protection to the newly born human beings and
children. 4
Companionship: Family is an important source of affection, love and emotional

support. Caring for family members is
an integral part of the functions of a family. It does not
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end at caring for infants but also members belonging
to
different age groups.
_
Legal Claim on Property: Members o ily

can easily inherit, share, co-own property
and other financial assets because th
family in its laws and protects their

rights.
Bodily Care: In case of old age illness or having disabled, the family
looks after and serves their fami
U so looks after the pregnant mother and
newborn child.
Nurture of Children: In human be eriod is longer in comparison to other
species. The family takes care of re many créches opened to look after
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the new born but the emotional hich is essential for the growth of a
child can be achieved only in the
Function of Recreation: A family embers. Festivals, functions, religious
functions, wedding ceremony, shraddh an-kirtan are recreational activities of a
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family.
Socialisatiom: In
family ‘orm to social values, norms,
beliefs and socially acce uitural values.
Educational Functions: Family is the first school ofa child where his personality is grown.
Familiar teachings/preachings remain in heart for life. Biographies of great persons prove that
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their families played a significant role in creating their personality.
a
Transmission of Human Experiences: A family contributes lot to the society by conserving
and transmitting knowledge and experiences gathered by its ancestors.
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Regulation of Sexual Behaviour: As family guides individual’s actions and behaviours, it

lays out the pattern and attitudes reflecting social norms, thus, influencing sexual behaviour.
Ascription of Status: A person’s status in the society also depends on the status of the family
KI
he was born in. Membership to a family is based on birth, marriage or adoption, directly
influencing social identity, economic status of the members.
Economic Support: Family provides the economic support to individuals required for
accessing basic amenities like healthcare, education etc.
Division of Labour: The simplest form of division of labour can be seen in a family where
work is
distributed among men, women and children. Sex and age both are the basis of division
of labout/worrk inthe family.
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@
Management of Income and Property: Every family has some source of income
to feed its
It
members. gets income from that particular source. Family’s economic status
income. Head of the family decides how the family will spend its income and property.
judged by is its
@
Membership to Other Social Institutions: A child, by being a member of a family,
automatically gets the opportunity to participate in political, religious, economic activities and
communities that the family is part of. Family also functions to ensure continuity and survival
P
of other dependent institutions.
e Social Identity: Children are born into their parents’ social class, race and ethnicity, religion,
and so forth.
N
9.1.2.4 Sociological Perspectives on Family
1. Functionalist Perspective on Family
¢ Common Points:
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o Universal and Inevitable: Functionalists like Murdock, Parsons and others have said
that family is universal and inevitable.
o Smooth Functioning of Society; Eunctionalists view Family as a social unit which
carries out important functi oth functioning of society.
o Shapes Individuals: Fun family creates shapes individuals in
accordance with societal further leads to formation of well-
is
‘
integrated societies.
U
© Functional for Society: S that Family has four basic functions to
perform i.e.,
Sexual: Stable satisfacti can prevent crimes — rapes etc.)
it
=
Q
=
Reproductive: Biolog e next generation (without this there
will be no addition of ne
* Economic: Fulfilling
sustenance of life)
Educational: Teaching basic norms and values (inculcates values and morality
R
mie
according to s etal no
¢ Talcott Parsons Viehoorh ar
saeiet
.
o Changes with : S'societies change, the type of

family which ‘fits’ in that society and the functions that it performs also changes.
G
«
Example: With expansion of economy, joint families which previously lived
together get separated due to reasons like education, job opportunities etc. The joint
families are thus rapidly changing into nuclear families which fits into modern
industrial societies but performs less functions compared to joint families. This is
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in sync with Parson’s cybernetic hierarchy of control where changes in economic

order (organismic) can lead to changes in
social and cultural order and vice versa.
© Common Functions: Parsons talks about two common functions of family that can be
in
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seen all societies. Thus family can be seen to play latent and institutional control
roles in society as per AGIL framework:
=
Primary Socialisation of Children: Family is responsible for instilling social
norms and values into children.
Example: Majorly, the primary socialisation includes socialisation related to
‘gender roles. i.e., different roles and responsibilities assigned according to genders
PAPER
—
Boys expected to be breadwinners while girls expected to-be caregivers, limited to
household responsibilities.
Security and Stabilisation: Family provides the sense of safety, security and
emotional support that individuals receive in a marriage relationship as a couple. It
prevents and protects the adults from tension and stress caused due to daily life
which may lead to
instability.
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© Talcott Parsons Isolated Nuclear Family:
Structurally Isolated: According to Parsons, an isolated nuclear family is a typical
form of family in a modern industrial social setup. He views to be ‘structurally
isolated’ because it does not form a part of the integral systems of kinship
it
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relationships.
Extended Relations as a Choice Only: The relationship between the members of
the nuclear family and their kins is merely a choice than a boundation.
Structural Differentiation: Parsons’ view on isolated nuclear families emerged as
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a result of his evolutionary theory on family which talks about a process called
structural differentiation (Evolution of institutions resulting in fewer specialised
functions).
Emergence of institu differentiation
< ger carry out wide
process, the functions
range of functions
ergence ofinstitutions like schools,
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hospitals which carry Actions, schools - to educate children,
hospitals — to provide hi ‘0 individuals etc.
Family ceases to be an f Production: Talcott Parsons further

Q
argues that there is a between the isolated nuclear family
and economic system . Isolated nuclear family evolves to
meet the needs of the 11
as it requires a geographical mobile

Z
family. It ceases to be f production as production shifts to

industries.
R
e Critical Evaluation:
e Positive Aspects
Significance Halist approach enables us to
view the vital importance of family in society.
G
Interdependence of Social Institutions: Functional perspective on family enables

in establishing a functional relationship between family and other parts of the social
-system.
Family as Inevitable Social Unit:
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— Irreplaceable and Universal: Murdock views family as irreplaceable and

universal social unit whose functions no other institutions can perform with
such efficiency as family does.
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— No Substitute: Murdock suggests that ‘No society has succeeded in finding an

adequate substitute for nuclear family, to which it
might transfer these functions
(functions of family). It is highly doubtful whether any society will ever succeed
in such an attempt’.
¢ Negative Aspects:
Non Universal: Kathleen Gough, studied Nairs of Kerala. The ‘Tharvad’ they live
in is a more residential arrangement than a family arrangement. Another example
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is thekibbutz of Israel- a voluntary society in which people live in accordance
with a specific social contract, based on egalitarian and communal principles in a
social and economic framework and children are brought up collectively. All
Marxists claim that family is not a necessary group and in socialism and future
societies, there will be no family.
Place of Ideological Conditioning: According to David Cooper, family is a place
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of idcological conditioning and in family women are exploited.
Criticism of Parson’s Isolated Nuclear Family:
~ Ignored Contradictions: David Cheal views Parson’s views to he closely
associated with the modernist view of progress. He says that Parsons ignored
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the contradictions that existed within modernity and change in different parts
of the society did not usually balance cach other.
¥ Example: Employment of women in paid jobs did not necessarily lead to
increased sharing of houserold chores by men.
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'— Assumption Based: Lynn Jameison criticised Parson saying that his theory was
not empirically backed by research and was based on assumptions which were
different from reality She also accuses Parsons for ignoring
e.
gender-based role responsible for inferior positions of

women in society
v Laslett foun
U
extended kin bi
already nuclear
¥ Young and Wilmy
Q
East London a:
Criticism of Murdoc
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research,
according to anthropological
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Other Criticisms:
— Stereotypes Based on Gender: Functionalists focus heavily on primary
socialisation based on gender. With modernisation, more women are educated
and becoming part of the workforce leading to
blurred roles and responsibilities.
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~ Idealistic view Without Addressing Conflicts: Functionalists like Parson and

Murdock only view on positive aspects of family and ignore conflict of any type
within families like — domestic violence, child abuse, violence for dowry etc.
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LR
— Sexual Division of Labour: Functionalists ignore the suffering of women in
families due to the division of labour based on gender roles.
— Socialisation as One-way Process: Parsons fails to address that socialisation
is a two process where both children and parents learn and mould themselves
and not just powerful parents imbibing social values into children
— Exaggeration of Effects of Primary Socialisation: Functidnalists ignore other
factors which influence the personalities of children other than families.
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Personalities of individuals are not only dependent on values imbibed
by
parents. :
~ Ignorance of Other Social Institutions: In study of family, functionalists fail

to appreciate the importance of other social institutions like
government,
schools etc. in the process of socialisation.
~ Old-fashioned: Parson's perspective on the expressive and instrumental
roles
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that men and women play is outdated. It might have been
true in the 1950s, but
given the prevalence of paid labour for women now and blending of gender
roles, it seems more likely that both partners will play expressive and
the
instrumental roles.
Conclusion: Functional perspective views family as a social institution which
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promotes
unity, stability, cooperation and contributes in creation of well-integrated
society by
internalising social culture within members. However,
it
fails to acknowledge that family
can also be the cause of conflict within the society. Nonetheless,
the institution of family
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remains an essential social institution that impacts the society as whole.
a
2. Conflict/Marxist Perspective on Family
Common Points:
© Main Theory: Marxists family performs ideological functions
for Capitalism — the f f consumption and teaches passive
acceptance of hierarchy. hrough which the wealthy pass down
their private property to thé
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oducing class inequality.
Focus on what is wrong: Coif gcus on the ‘what is wrong’ side of a
sociological concept. They vie among different sections which are in
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gin from Karl Marx’s study and thus,
focuses more on economic asp
© Family Source of Probl D Laing, Family is the root ‘of all
problems in society. It sow: , unquestioning obedience, resentment
etc,
R
© Neglecting Child’s Potential: David ooper suggests that the chance of a child to
become creative y d
because,
inculcates values egulation itaccordance with society.
© Friedrich Engels View on Family (Engel’s views are a combination of Marxist theory
and evolutionary approach):
G
© Conflicting class: Friedrich Engels book ‘The Origin of the Family, Private Property
and the State’ (1884) contains the earliest Marxist view developed on ‘Family’. He
suggests that the family consists of conflicting classes — Men & Women in the family.
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oO
Dynamic nature of Family: Engels argued that the family changes according to the
changes in modes of production. He says that family is a social arrangement which is
more beneficial to one group than to another
group.
" He was ofthe opinion that in
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early times, as modes of production were owned by

the community as a whole, the social unit of family did not exist. However, with
change in time, as modes of production evolved, sexual relationships and
production of children were regulated, the concept of family and marriage evolved.
© Slavery of Women: Engel suggests that family is a system of domestic slavery of
women by men.
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88
o Evolutionary View - Monogamous Nuclear Family: Engel provides an evolutionary
view on how the family evolved to
its present stage of monogamous nuclear family.
Engels suggested that the concept of
a nuclear family which was monogamous evolved
with development of State and private property, i.e. private ownership of modes of
production. With the advent ofprivate property, definite heirs were needed to pass on
property as inheritance and monogamy was the answer to this problem.
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« Eli Zaretsky’s Views on Family:
¢ Family Creates Illusion: Family in modern capitalist society creates an illusion that
the private life is separate from work.
¢ Family Provides Satisfaction: The private life of family provides opportunities of
N
satisfaction to individuals which are unavailable in the world outside.
¢ Family provides Cushions against the Effects of Capitalism: Family virtually
creates a state of separation between the personal life and other aspects of lives of
individuals. Family cushions the effects of capitalism but it cannot compensate for the
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general alienation caused by the capitalist society.
e More Emphasis on Family Issues; Home-centered, privatised families promote
emphasis on family issue: anal interests, and moderate mainstream
political views at the exp
of substantial political ac
wp allegiance, which lowers the chance
as the end ofthis artificial separation

© Socialism is a Solution:
U
| aspects of life.
4%
between the private life of

¢ Contemporary Marxism on Family
e Part of Ideological apparg ferred to as an ideological apparatus,
Q
it
which implies that social, in a way that excuses inequality and
m as legitimate, inevitable, and
persuades them to acce,
unavoidable. Althusser cal te apparatus which consists of various
and strengthen capitalistic values that
fie
R
oft
havea ferapely that teaches kids to accept
must obey. This hierarchy
: in laléf'life's paid employment.
archy’
e Supports Capitalism: The family builds demand for goods in a number of ways.
G
Families must keep up with the material goods/services acquired by their neighbours
and peers
e.g. family holidays.
e Reinforces Stratification: Because families pass along their wealth to their children,
and because families differ greatly in the amount of wealth they have, the family helps
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reinforce existing inequality.

e Reserve army of labour: Marxist term used to describe the ranks of the unemployed
who through the absence of any meaningful choice — are prepared to work for very
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-—
low wages in temporary jobs. The existence of a reserve army of labour serves the
interests of the bourgeoisie and exploits members of the proletariat. Women form a
major part of this group because of familial discrimination and exploitation,
©
Critical Evaluation of Marxist Perspective:
© Positive Aspects:
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* Balance to Functionalists Perspective: Marxist perspective focuses on the
dysfunctional aspects of family and its
negative impact on members of society. This
was earlier ignored by fundamentalist scholars in their study of family.
* Real Face of Capitalism: Marxist perspective analyzes the patterns of interaction
between family and economy and views family as a tool to promote inequality
within society by maintaining the status quo between the dominant class and the
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working class. ‘
~ Supports Capitalists Profit Approach: Zaretsky views family as a prop to

capitalist society where family acts as the consumption unit which allows
bourgeoisie to continue producing surplus value.
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* Promiscuous Hordes: Kathleen Gouge says that Chimpanzees — the nearest
relatives of human beings, live in ‘promiscuous hordes’ and this may have been the
pattern of early human beings. This view of Gouge supports the arguments of
Engels who believed that the system of family changes with the changes in the
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*
modes
of production.
Calls out Oppression of Women: Marxists were one of the first to point out
exploitation of women thro as they were forced to produce heirs, do
unpaid work and ultim themselves,
®
Negative Aspect of Marg
=
Errors in Engel’s se Engel’s views as ‘figment of his
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imagination’. Researc’ Bument on the basis that monogamous
marriage and the nucleai found in hunting and gathering bands.
Exaggeration: Jennifer ues that Zaretsky exaggerates the
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importance of family
ag
apitalist society and their impacts on
|
individuals. She says he existence of conflicts within the
family. &
y
*
Ignores Negative effect en: Engels and Zaretsky acknowledge
the suffering of women in , however, they focus too much on the
R
i
relationship between family. and capitalism that they ignore family’s effect on
women,
LN Vy
:
* Gender Inequalities:befo! “ Capit him: astumajority of tribes in Africa and

Asia are patriarchal, meaning that women must perform the majority ofthe hard
physical labour and child care, are prohibited from holding political office, and are
G
prohibited from owning property.

* Conclusion: Marxist approach provides a fresh perspective that focuses on the
dysfunctional aspect of family. Marxist perspective allows balancing the functional
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perspective and wider analysis of functions of family. However, it completely ignores the
benefits of family to individuals as well as the positive role of family within the society.
3. Feminist Perspective on Family
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@
Common Points:
o Main Theory: Feminists have been central in criticising gender roles associated with
the traditional nuclear family, especially since the 1950s. They have argued the nuclear
farnily has traditionally performed two key functions which oppressed women:
© socialising girls to accept subservient roles within the family, whilst socialising boys
to believe they were superior —
this happens through children witnessing then recreating

the parental relationship.
om | Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 Page 444

r
—
©. socialising women into accepting the “housewife” role as the only possible/acceptable
role for a woman.
Family is Patriarchal: Delphy and Leonard believe that family is a patriarchal and
hierarchical institution which enables men to dominate women. The man receives
greater
benefits than the woman in
the power relationship.
Male dominance over women: Feminists largely focus on the negative effects of family
P
upon women. They question the inevitable male dominance existing in societies. Feminists
assert that there exist inequalities between male and female within families.
Exploits Women: Laura M Purdy views women as disadvantaged and exploited in
family relationships and believes that these disadvantages are a result of childcare
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responsibilities rather than material inequalities.
Women's emotional support acts as a Safety Valve: Fran Ansley suggests that the
emotional support provided by wife to husband acts as a safety valve to the husband
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working in a capitalistic system.
Helps in Workforce Creation: The contribution of women
also important in the creation of a workforce which
is
by
care, love and affection
suitable for a capitalistic system.
is
Marxist Feminism: (Marxist femaj pon Karl Marx’s Marxism but focuses
on exploitation of women witl¢ a
o Capitalism as the Women Oppressor: As per them, Capitalism rather than patriarchy
is the principal source of women’s oppression, and capitalists as the main beneficiaries.
U
© Ideological Conditioning: David Cooper argues that the family is an ideological
conditioning device in an exploitative society.
o Source of Cheap Labour: According to Marxist Feminists, Family
is
a social unit that
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provides one of the basic commodities of capitalism -- ‘Labour’. Family produces cheap
labour and capitalists do not pay for procreation and upbringing of children,
particularly, wives.
Radical Feminism:
o Universal Women Oppression:
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ccording to Valerie Bryson, Radical feminism

views oppression of womer S most funda iversal form of oppression.
o Male Dominance, Radial i
important entity in maintaining
male domination®” ® eB
Oo
Particular Labour Relations: Delphy and Leonard view family as an economic
a
G
system which involves particular set of “labour relations in which men benefit from,
and exploit, the work of women — and sometimes that of their children and other male
relatives,’
o Patriarchal: Delphy and Leonard believe that family is a patriarchal and hierarchical
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institution through which men dominate and exploit women.

© Liberty/Freedom Issues: Radical Feminists are of the opinion that the key to
exploitation is that family members work not for themselves but for the head of
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household which leads to appropriation of work within family.

Difference Feminism/Postmodern Feminism: (Difference feminists base their theories
on the variations existing between women belonging to different family situations)
© Position Change with Situation: They suggest that women in
different situations are
in different positions. Example: Women
in
black families are in different position than
white women, women in
lesbian household are different than those in heterosexual
households and so on. Intersectional feminism tries to explore the interconnected
PAPER
1 - Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: «com
nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as
they apply to a given
individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of
discrimination or disadvantage.
o Family is a Misleading Idea: McIntosh and Barrett believe that the idea of the
‘family’ is misleading considering the variations existing in families and various
households in which people live.
P
e Liberal Feminism: (They believe that men and women are gradually becoming more
equal over time and that this trend will continue)
o Focus on Benefits: Liberal Feminists are especially keen to emphasise the beneficial
effects which women going into paid work has had on gender equality. Within the
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family, evidence shows men are doing a greater share-of domestic labour (housework,
childcare), decision making is becoming more equal and that male and female children
are socialised in a much more similar manner with similar aspirations.
Critical Evaluation of Feminist Perspective on Family:
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*
o Positive Aspects:
« Emergence of New Perspective: Feminists chose to focus on dysfunctions of
family. However, their ce ument was on the ways family impacted
women, Hence, jeading new perspectives highlighting new
problems.
Economic Valuatio: Labour: Feminists have highlighted
=
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the economic contribu omen’s labour within household. This
was previously ignored tural’ for women due to existing gender
stereotypes.
Q
=
Recognising existing ips in Family: Feminist scholars
power dynamics existing within a
= Challenge to the Idea ily: Similar to scholars like Engels,

Feminists challenged the ide of family based on love, cooperation, peace
il
R
Uma Chakravarti said that Brahminical traditions
©
glorify obe
discrimination
Negative Aspects:
| &
ligfice put a veil on gender
G
"Ignoring Positive Elements: Marxist Feminists majorly focus on negative aspects

of family and exaggerate its negative impacts on women. They ignore any possible
positive elements of family.
= Half Picture: The Liberal feminist approach does not uncover the wider structural
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factors leading to female oppression, and it also does not see that patriarchy is
prevalentin all situations, not just in certain areas, such as the media.
= Over-universalization: Radical feminism has been criticised as it over emphasises
of
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the extent to which women share common experiences exploitation. Following

from this, it down grades class and race relations.
" Ignoring exceptions to ‘Ideal Family’: Arguments by Feminists like Delphy and
Leonard are based on assumptions that all families ave same consisting of a head
is
who
It
usually a man, is the head of the family who reaps maximum benefits from
atrangements within the family. However, they fail to acknowledge that
family
structure varies from society to society.
PAPER
~ Example: With modernisation, the structure of family¢ is changing and
members are
given equal status within the family.
*"
Ignoring Women resistance: Feminists portray female family members passive as
victims of capitalism and patriarchy. Women, in many instances, resist patriarchy.
=
Change in structure of ‘ideal’ nuclear families
- Morgan argues that with
in
the traditional model of nuclear families the criticism depending on such
changes
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Son, models becomes less relevant.
© Conclusion: It
is clear that the feminist theory has greatly advanced our knowledge
of the
family. When addressing issues like domestic violence, the feminist perspective does not
view the family through rosy-colored glasses, It has aided in.dealing with the
apparent
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diversity of modern family configurations successfully.
4. Structural Functionalist Perspective on Family
(Talcott Parsons has contributed to this theory by his Action Theory)
« Common Points:
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:
Family treated as One Whole Structure: The structural functional theory illustrates
/
©
the relationship between the structure of the family and the ability of the family to
serve
the functions of
society. It vie ne whole structure and considers ‘Family’
as the main subject of stud iduals who are members of the family.
o Family system compose ws family as a system which consists
of subsystems arranged ing family to carry out its functions.
U
i
Subsystems include cultura Stems and individuals.
o Family as Social Organizati ike a social organisation, and all such
:
organisations function best chical organisational structure. A child

whe
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can be socialised into soci rganised in expected role structures
and adults receive stability
o Family as a Necessity: A § marriage and families. Marriage and
families fulfil a number o

'
create the framework for having and

raising children.
R
«® Critical Evaluation
o Positive Aspect
= Maintain Eq {
perspectives, we are able to

its
ig
study family and functioning. Family consists of subsystems which function for
adaptation of the system to maintain equilibrium. For example, Isolated nuclear
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family evolves to meet the needs of a new economic system, as it requires a

geographical mobile family. It ceases to be an economic unit of production as
Production shifts to industries. They function in the sequence of adaptation, goal
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attainment, integration, and latency.

*
Proper Functioning: The structure of the family enables us to understand the
functioning of families and the interaction between the members of families which
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are determined by interpersonal boundaries and rules defined for members.

* Division of Labour between Family Members: Division of labour enables joint
dependency among members of family. It stabilises other social institutions like
Marriage and Family.
' O-
Negative Aspects:
* Sexual Division of Labour: Division of labour within a family is usually based on
Stereotypes related to gender-based roles and responsibilities.
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v
*
Functions Performed by Other Social Institutions: The functions of family are
not performed by family exclusively but also by other institutions. Also, the process
of industrialisation and urbanisation erode the extended kinship in the family.
Evolution of family: William Goode argues that growth of the nuclear family is
®
not due to industrialisation, but it is a result of the ideology and the degree of
independence the nuclear family provides.
P
e Conclusion: The structural functional aspect helps to establish a relationship between the
structure and functions of the institution of family.
5. Postmodernist Perspective on Family
« Common Points:
Main Theory: Postmodernists argue that recent social changes such as increasing
N
oO
social fragmentation and diversity heave made family more a matter of personal choice
and as a result families have become more unstable and more diverse.
Nature of Relationships: Some postmodernists argue that the nature of love has also
EE
changed from something that is forever to something that is temporary and alright for
now. In a world without security, postmodernists argue that personal relationships have
become more important for persé t and satisfaction.
s Stacey identified a ne divorce-extended family” — members
are connected by div ige, for example ex in-laws, or former
|
husband’s new partne
Critique of Functionalis!
U fiews of the family are criticised by
postmodernists because th ater focus on white, middle-class, two-
parent families. Alternativ shave as a result either vanished from.
Q
society or have been stigm abnormal,
Chaotic Structures: Pos hat the nuclear family and other
dependable, orderly struct ry era are no longer present. Instead,
in society.
Life Course: Tamara Hareven sd e should examine each family member, not
R
the whole family, to understand hov. families live and how they make their choices.
Howse|bility offamily life choices. It
Hareven created
are+
‘
focuses on the meaz

Complex Relationships: Because of hyper-reality (e. g. social media) and leisure,
postmodern relationships are considerably more complex than they formerly were. This
G
is generally to be applauded because relationships (and sexuality) are much

more
liberated from social limitations than they once were.
N
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PAPER 1- Sociology Optional

P
N
Amhony Gisdens Postmodar Uieleh Heck -teivkdustisetion= The negotiated
Senter ‘tbaarios' of tha.
pain
tove poopie have to make up the rates
tony ot family fe
as thay go.
cases
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‘Roctotagy should
versity anid
teens an exploring
difference
Re
nas
treoctos sochiceratives* OF
Fumeton
grand
eas
Judith.
motsentonby
“
ean Soa Inctviduats ae

ees note were
and Morsant a i tr
by rockaltgation the
telly
Vanes
Wrong
to foaua on Be Constantly. ‘Ha sot structure that's:
en Yorks saacteay fainily
{a betge
aa
Ube eeocee
shares gaa ida Bieeausy
enalyats
Two social changes associated

effects on the family:
U
© Diversity and Fragmen creasingly fragmented, with a broad
diversity of subcultures rathet culture. People create their identity from
a wide range of choices, juitures, sexual preferences and social
Q
movements such as envirogy
© Rapid Social Change: as the internet, email and electronic
communication have trans DE issolving barriers of time and space,
transforming patterns of work
less predictable.
accelerated pace of change making
life
. |
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e Critical Evaluation:
° Positive Aspects.
s
i
Non-Judgméix all: Rostiodertiist iv A.
proaches to: family life do not seek to judge
particular family or relationship set-ups as either right or wrong; they are merely
4
.
seen as a lifestyle choice.

G
New Lens: Postmodernists believe we should look at family as fluid and

a
*
changing
concept therefore, they disagree with using metanarratives such as functionalism
and Marxism.
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*
Contemporary Feeus: Postmodernists note the increase in alternative family
types, such as single-parent, reconstituted, and same-sex families,
Alternatives: Judith Stacey, Carol Smart and Tamara Harevan
all
=
speak about
alternative ways of studying individuals' families.
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oO
Negative Aspects:
*
Metanarratives: It has been argued that postmodernism itself is
a metanarrative
because it makes generalisations about the fluidity and modern character of
society,
despite the fact that postmodernist theorists claim to be against the usage of
metanarratives.
1 SU Sra
|
OATES
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|
* Exaggeration: Still, a large numberofpeople's lives and decisions are influenced
by structural elements including ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic class.
Personal relationships don't offer as many options as postmodernists assert.
« Post-modernist society is yet to arrive: Late modernist sociologists such as
Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck claim that we are not yet in a postmodernist
society, therefore, we still retain a lot of elements of modernist family patterns
and
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experiences.
* Traditions Still Dominates: Robert Chester and Jennifer Somerville contend
that the core characteristics of family life based on the heterosexual nuclear family
have remained relatively constant for the bulk of the population since the 1950s and
that postmodernist arguments concerning family variation are overdone.
N
¢ Conclusion: Many postmodern sociologists favour family diversity and contend that
people are no longer required to adhere to traditional values. For instance, Jagger and
Wright contend that it is no longer possible to "turn back the tide of family diversity" and
EE
“recapture an idealised “nuclear” version of family life where time stands still and
traditional values are re-vitalized."
9.1.3 Household
i. Definition: Household is defined, It
‘living in a residence. mainly consists
ial unit. The individuals may or may
U units have specific and separate living
not be related to each other. The res
space for themselves but the acces through a common hall. While ‘family’
is a social unit, ‘household’ is a resi
Q
o Census of India: According t ‘A ‘household’ is usually a group of
Is from a common kitchen unless the
persons who normally live toge
”
exigencies of work prevent an}
Relation with Family: The house
similaror different from the family. Ever y vis a household but not every household is a
R
family.
o Example: Family m
blood in family but
Labrr: Ina household, the household chores are
.
Macro-Economic Unit - Division of

-
divided among the occupants ofthe residence. Example One person could be the caretaker
G
of another person, Due to division of labour among members of the household, the study of
households has become important due to its nature as a micro economic unit as well.
Scott and Marshall: A group of persons sharing a home or living space, who aggregate and
fact that they regularly take meals together i.e. in what
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share their incomes, as evidenced by the

is described as the ‘common cooking pot’ is known as constituting a household.
Changing Patterns of Household: In India, such transformation has been studied by AM
Shah in Gujarat villages in his “The Household Dimension of the Family in India, 1973”. A
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household may experience regression/progression on basis of birth/adoption/marriage/

death/divorce etc,
PAPER
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Difference between Family and Household
Household Family
Relation Group of people who may or may not be Sex relations or Blood relation
related. Example: College roommates
living together in
one house (all unrelated)
Emotional Commensality is the core in household, Emotional attachment is the
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Attachment where emotional attachment is not central idea in
Family
necessary
As a unit
Membership
More of
a functional unit
Membership can be temporary and can Membership
Ideological Unit
is somewhat
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frequently change permanent
Residence Commensal and co-resident group/ unit Not all the family members live at
same place every time
Structure
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Simple or Complex (A.M. Shah) Nuclear or joint (A.M. Shah)
Quantifiable Household is a countable, tangible entity Family is non enumerable
9.1.4 Residence Patterns
After getting married the couple needs And where the couple ends up varies,
depending on their culture.
Neolocal: This is where the c
©
U ouse, independent from all family
members.
e Patrilocal: It’s where the married
® Matrilocal: It’s where the coupl
the husband’s father’s family.
Q
Where,the wite grew up; usually found with
matrilineal kinship systems,
© Avuncuiocal: It
is also related in
to live with the husband’s mother’s
wever in this case the couple moves
@
Ambilocal Residence: The couple live
R
with the other spouse’s family.

® Duolocal Residence: Ev
and reside with their fai
G
N
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PAPER
1 ~
Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com
rr
9.1.4 Marriage .
,
1. Definition: Marriage has been defined as ‘a

union between man and a woman such hat
children born to the woman are recognized
legitimate offspring of both parents.’
2. G.P. Murdock: Marriage is
living together with
P
regular sexual relationship and economic
cooperation.
3. Edward Westermarck: Marriage is a more or
less durable connection between male and
female, lasting beyond the mete act of
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propagation and the
birth of offspring.
4. Robert H Lowie: Marriage is a relatively
permanent bond between permissible mates.
EE
5. Malinowski: Marriage is a contract for the
production and maintenance of children.
6. Majumdar: Majumdar defined Marti
its purposes. According to him, ‘
socially sanctioned union of ma
a secondary institu-tion devised the union and mating of male and
female, for the purposes of:
U
e Establishing a household,
e Entering into sex relations,
Q
® Procreating, and
© Providing care to offspring
9.1.4.1 Rules of Marriage

Marriages are governed on rules and regulation to marry or not marry. These rules guide
R
individuals in choosing their partners. No so

rules are: 7
ives absolute freedom to select their partners. These
RULES OF MARRIAGE
OT re
G
ee
ENDOGAMOUS MARRIAGE EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGE
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“SREBAL CASTE SUB-CASTE VARNA GOTRA PRAVARA SAPINDA VILLAGE

ENDOGAMY ENDOGAMY ENDOGAMY ENDOGAMY EXOGAMY EXOGAMY EXOGAMY EXOGAMY
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1. Exogamy:
© It requires individuals to marry outside their group ~ caste, tribe, class, race, village, ethnic,
religious community etc.
Example: The Aboriginal Australian tribe — Arunta Tribe studied by Emile Durkheim
=
was exogamous.
o The rules of exogamy among Hindus are very specific and strict.
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=
Examples: Some examples of exogamy are Gotra Exogamy, Pravara Exogamy,
Village Exogamy, Pinda exogamy. :
° It also prohibits any kind of marital or sexual relationship between blood relatives.
2. Endogamy:
° It requires individuals to marry within their group — caste, tribe, class, race, village, ethnic,
religious communities etc.
P
° Endogamous marriages allow to maintain secrets of sactament and skills.
Oo
Example: In India, caste system is endogamous in nature, i.e. Brahmins must
Brahmins. marry
9.1.4.2 Types of Marriages
N
1. Monogamy:
One Partner:
during lifetime
Monogamy
is a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse
or at any given time.
EE
Most Common and Acceptable: It
is the most common and acceptable form of marriage,
Serial Monogamy: In many societies, individuals
or divorce, this is called serial m
after the death of
remarry their spouse
In Straight monogamy,
«
Widow Remarriage Act,

re ed. Example — Prior to enactment of
t allowed to remarry and socially evil
practice of Sati was prac
U
2. Polygamy:
e Multiple Partners: It is a form 6 includes marriage with multiple partners
at the same time.
Q
=
Polygyny: When a
polygyny marriage.
man
is ne wife at same time, is known as it
" Polyandrous: When a wo
: tiple men at same time, the marriage
is known to be polyandrot arriage of Draupadi to Pandavas in
Mahabharata, Nairs in Kerala etc. apadia, “Polyandry is a form of union in
R
which a woman has

more than one husband ata ti which brothers share a wife
in
or wives in com: ‘
“
Group Marriagét: geinclt
is
ltipleshtisbandS and wives, it
is called group
marriage. Every woman the wife of every man belonging
Rivers call it a kind of sexual communism. Example: Some to
a particular group. Dr.
G
tribals in Australia, India,

Tibet and Ceylon.
" Sororal Polygyny: In some instances, when males
marry the wife’s sister, it is termed
as sororal polygyny.
N
*
Fraternal Polyandry: When several brothers share one woman as a wife.
" Non-Fraternal Polyandry: When husbands do not share a close
relationship prior to
Marriage and yet share a wife. Example: Nairs of Kerala.
3. Avunculate Marriages:
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Genetic Relationship: The partners of avunculate marriages are bound with

a genetic
relationship. Within this, a man can marty his niece or a lady can
marry her nephew.
Example: This was a common practice in the royal families of Europe and was meant to
preserve the family blood from being soiled by anyone from outside the family by
into a marriage alliance with them. They rather entering
preferred marrying offtheir daughters to
their second or
third cousins or even uncles.
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« Example: This type of marriage is even practiced in some regions of Western and Southern
India, in Muslims.
4. Levirate and Sororate:
¢ Levirate: Within a Levirate Marriage, a widow is to marry her dead husband’s brother.
For example, levirate alliances among Ahirs of Haryana.
e Sororate: Within a Sororate Marriage, a widower is
to marty his dead wife’s sister. Or,
P
the man on having discovered his wife as infertile is free to marry or have sexual
relationships with his sister-in-law, in order to beget a child.
5, Hypergamy (Anuloma) and Hypogamy (Pratiloma):
¢ Hypergamy: Hypergamy is
the practice of marrying someone with the purpose of moving
up on the social ladder. It could be a rise in terms of caste or even social position.
N
©
Hypogamy: The opposite of hypergamy becomes hypogamy that is marrying a person of
low social status. The decision to be in hypogamy could be voluntary and even forced.
6. Civiland Religious Marriage: Civil marriage is when the marriage is recognized by the state,
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while a religious marriage is when the
recognition is
received from a religious body/rituals ete.
of marriages where people get married because
7. Love Marriage: Love marriages are the
they love each other.
8. Arranged Marriage: Arranged site of love marriages. It is when the
family finds a suitable match
such as race, religion, caste, and
fo bachelorette, keeping in mind factors
they might have.
‘
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9. Symmetrical Marriage: As expl. ilimott, such relations are strong and
based on compassion where there is of labour, and both partners are equally
respected.
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e Sexual Satisfaction: Married pe age in sexual intercourse with their
respective spouses and no one else. normalises sexual behaviour.
Childbearing and Child-rearing: Marriag: serves the purpose of having children and raising
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them in accordance with,gecial Coxe

i
crucial role of marriage is to
:
guarantee the child's su

@ Economic Cooperation Scurity® A4 thaftiagé offet's a person significant and dependable
assistance in their economic pursuits. In a marital relationship, the husband and wife take care
G
of each other's and the children's financial needs.

e Companionship & Emotional Support: Marriage results in sharing and solving emotional,
psychological, economic and other problems, thus giving more balance to individuals lives.
Many studies have revealed that married people are healthier, relaxed and even live longer than
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unmarried people.
@
Educational Function: The institution of marriage teaches the next generation of parents how
to raise responsible children who will carry on their culture. Thus, the most holy biological
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function that creates the family structure is carried out via marriage.
® Division of Labour: Marriage does division of labour on the basis of sex and age, however,
the traditional roles and bases for division of labour have changed dramatically over the last
few decades.
PAPER
Establishment of Affinal Relationships: Marriage helps bring together different
groups/families and strengthen solidarity and ties in the society. For example, the Mughals
used matrimonial alliances with Rajputs to solidify their rule.
9.1.4.4 Dysfunctional Aspects of Marriage:

Feminist Perspective: In the 1980s, Ann Oakley and Christine Delphy led a group of
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feminist sociologists that had disapproving opinions about marriage. They argued that the
institution of marriage was a creation ofthe patriarchal society and that the marriage contract
was really a contract for employment.
Postmodernist Perspective: Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Gernsheim's research (2001)
N
highlights the insecurities and challenges people in postmodernist Western society encounter
when
it comes to dating and relationships.
Marxist Perspective: Karl Marx believed that marriage in bourgeois society is a sham.
/
it
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Although it is meant to be sacred and venerated, is actually just another means by which one
class of people takes advantage of another.
9.1.4.5 Incest Taboo

Definition: According to King boo confines sexual relationship and
sentiments to the married pairs’ relationships as between parent and
children, brother and sister etc.
U
Prohibited: Incest relationship
other through blood ties or who belo
marital relationship between fath
i al relationship between kin related to each
Incest taboo is
prohibition of sexual or
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son, brother — sister etc. However, in
~
instances Egyptian Royal family, other and sister has been broken.
Different Rules: Rules of Incest
prohibited within same village in n
unity to community — Endogamy
n north Indian communities, marrying
is
one of parent’s siblings is not allowed ndia.
t
R
Reasons of Incest Taboo:

e Westermarck Effect: | gether, regardless of biological
kinship, develop a sentimental bond that is by defin n-erotic. Edvard Westermarck
initially put forth this hypothesis in 1891.
G
Avoiding Inbreeding: Inbreeding may have negative effects, therefore one theory for the
is it
incest taboo that
a
is a cultural application of biologically evolved preference for sexual
partners without shared genes.
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Exogamy: The cultural taboo against incest is a byproduct of people's innate inclination for
group exogamy. Intermarriage between groups creates beneficial ties that increase both groups’
chances of thriving.
Social Control: Malionski criticized Edmund Westermarck’s inbreeding avoidance theory
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and argued that sexual attraction exists in nuclear families and, hence, that incestuous
tendencies would cause turmoil in the family.
Durkhiemian Explanation: Totem membership was originally transmitted through the
mother’s Line and given that women bleed each month, they symbolize “familial blood”
so they
cannot be touched sexually by members of their totemic group.
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@ Universal: Levi Strauss argued that the incest taboo is applied universally (or nearly: so)
because all human cultures have rules requiring that a category of members in a society is
sexually off limits, forcing a category of members to marry out.
Channelizing Energy: Talcott Parsons argued that incestuous attractions must be repressed
and that this repression provides the energy for assuming roles in the broader society. A key
point in a son’s development is when his mother must cut off the potential for his sexual
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excitement toward her and transmute this energy toward non-familial targets.
9.2 Lineage And Descent
Introduction: Apart from family, individuals belong to other social institutions based on ritual
obligations, thus forming different kin groups. The formation of such kinship groups is based on
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principles. These principles further are based on concepts of lineage and descent. In order to
understand the concept of inheritance and kinship, it becomes important to know about lineage and
descent, Both Lineage and descent helps us to understand the social structure of society. a
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9,2.1 Lineage (Vanshavali)
Definition: Lineage, in simple terms, ca derstood as all
the descendants inlinear order
of a person through generations. It j cent group, i.e., lineage includes all
the
family members who belong to one.
Generations: Lineage is an act es members on the male line of four
generations and if the social or;
U then it includes three generations of
females.
Generally Principle of Blood: Line inciple of blood and only sometimes sex
in matrilineal societies.
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Radcliffe Brown: He defines Onsanguineous group; generally, the
members do not share a common
@
dian caste that prohibits intermarriage

by virtue of the members’ descent fro mythical ancestor, an important factor in
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determining possible Hindu marriage alliances
1 Patrilineal (Agnatic): Li through male line. The central

link in a patrilineal family is shown between Father and Sons. Example: Nambudiris of Kerala.
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@ In the case of India, the Patrilineal form of lineage is practiced and often 3-7 generations
on paternal side is considered and maintained in genealogical records kept by Hindu
Brahmins — ‘Pandas’ at places like Haridwar.
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Matrilineal: Lineage consisting of all descendants through female line. The central link in
matrilineal family is shown between Mother-Daughter. Example: Nayars (Tarawad) of
Kerala.
Kathleen Gough carried out studies on Brahmin Kinship in villages in Tamil Nadu and
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¢
discussed the unity of lineage with corporate rights on land.
Functions of Lineage:
Exogamous in
nature: Guides matrimonial choices of members of lineages.
Purity & Pollution: Helps in maintaining purity and pollution related to birth and deaths
within a group.
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..
e Security and Safety: Lineage provides security to members as members are interrelated to
each other.
@
Cooperation and Unity: Lineage helps in cooperation and maintenance. of unity among
members
e Stability within Society: As lineage promotes cooperation within members, it helps in
maintaining stability within society, thus, is considered to be a permanent group.
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e Common Ancestry: Lineage enables individuals to ace common ancestor which forms an
essential part of an individual's identity.
e Shared Rituals and Beliefs: Members of a lineage share common rituals, beliefs, totems etc.
e Inheritance: Lineage is
the principle on which inheritance is chosen and private property is
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passed down the
generations.
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¢ Power and Prestige: Lineal is an actual group holding on the land ownership or power
ownership which requires the members to defend the prestige of lineage. Lineage members
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feel pride and prestige in their ancestry. Even while reading history, we focus more on the
lineage line than the actual king’s name like Maurayas, Khilji Dynasty etc.
e Conflict and Cooperation: There are reg! . conflicts between the
lineage group due to issues
related to ownership of land or pi when there is an external attack on the
a
member of lineage the whole ling
Lineage, Clan, Phratory and Moiety

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1. Descent Group: When individual:
are said to be descent groups. A fai
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groups.
2. Lineage: A number of families
(usually known) form a Lineage.
3. Clan: Clan consists of members w
living or non-living being without kite
in in
E
India.
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exogamous nature. Example: Gotras

4. Phratory: Phratry is
A
a,kin group co aposed, of,several clans based on brotherhood
basigally
mostly through commo? kGnsangu

endogamous in
nature. sySteiis iA India, :
5. Moiety: It
is a specific form of phratory in which society is divided into two groups based on
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any principle such that there is a dual organization of the whole. Example: Aimol Kuku Tribe
of Manipur has set of moiety which are furtier dividedinto phratry.
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3 eR eS
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9.2.2 Descent (Vansha)

6. Definition: Descent refers to the principle wherein the children are socially affiliated with the
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group of his/her parents. An individual belongs to different descent groups at
the same time.
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7. Principle indicating Inheritance Rules: Descent
is
a principle decided and determined by
culture which indicates the rules of inheritance of wealth,
prestige, power and obligations.
8. Based on Culture: Descent is
solely based and decided by culture and there is no role of
biology, geography or economic relations
to
,
it.
9, Shared Identity: Members of shared descent
a group have a shared sense of identity like
brother and sister etc. Example: Children are associated with both
parents — mother & father,
Parent’s parent,
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BROTHER, se |,
Tw SISTER!
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9.2.2.1 Types of Descent,

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:
Unilineal Descent: Uni Defoe &
is
1. “ot
c cet or
the father’s or mother’s side Here iD, nly hi
One paten
age traced either through
taken into
account based on
j
the type ofsociety — matriarchy or whether

patriarchy. In a patrilineal (agnostic) society it is
traced throughthe father while ina matrilineal (uterine) society it is traced through the mother.
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° Patrilineal Descent Example: Sons and daughters

belong to their father’s descent group,
sons’ children both sons and daughters will be a
part of grandfather’s descent group, but -
the daughter’s children would belong to her husband’s descent

group.
° Matrilineal Descent Example: The Ashanti of Ghana,
the Trobriand Islanders of Western
N
Pacific, some of the societies of Indonesia, Malaysia, some Native American

tribes like
Navajo, Cherokee and Iroquois, and also some of the tribes
East India and the Nayars of Southern India.
in
India like the Khasis of North
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®
Primogeniture: In the Hindu society, the rule of descent follows the transfer of authority
and immovable property to the oldest son
or the first born commonly known as
primogeniture.
e UltimoGeniture: Sometimes the youngest son is given preference which is called
ultimo geniture. Example: Among the Khasis of
Meghalaya of North East India the
nyaias.com
immovable property like the ancestral house is
inherited by the youngest daughter from hér
mother’s mother (grandmother) and is known as the Kakhaddu.
2. Double Descent: Double descent is a kinship system in which descent
the paternal and maternal side.
is
traced through both
¢ In such a descent system for certain aspects descent is

traced through the mother while for
other aspects descent is
traced through the
father.
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* Usually the distinction is that fixed or immovable property is handed down from father to
son while the movable property moves from mother to daughter which may include small
livestock, agricultural produce and also items of cultural value like jewelry etc.
¢ Example: In
the case of Sumi Nagas of Nagaland, which is
basically a patrilineal society
during marriage Achiku traditional necklace is handed down from mother to daughter
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and moves in the same line.
¢ Example: The Yako of Africa have the system of double descent:
3. Ambilineal Descent: Ambilineal descent is
a form of descent wherein a person can choose the
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kingroup to affiliate with which he wants
mothers.
to
affiliate with, either his father’s kingroup or his
4. Bilateral Descent: Bilateral descent m. wherein a person gives equal emphasis

to both his mother’s and father’s
9.2.2.2 Similarities between Lineage a

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e Both are based on reproductive aspi
child and parents.
e Both the concepts help us to unde:
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Difference
Lineage
Lineage is group of people
Lineage involves actual relationships indicates of only processes of
inheritance
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In case of lineage, one c to do so and often, the

trace the ancestor mythological figures.
‘many trace their descent to
mythological saints like Kashyapa, Valmiki
etc.
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9.2.2.3 Functions of Descent groups

1. Shared Rituals: Members of same descent
groups perform rituals and ceremonies on
occasions like birth of child, death of a person, marriages etc.
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2. Integral part of Individual’s Identity: Descent defines identities of individuals. This enables
them to differentiate between individuals belonging to different descent groups.
3. Inheritance Law:
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¢ Descent plays an important role in establishing rules of inheritance in accordance with

societies, From one generation to another, status and property is inherited by an individual
as a Member ofa descent group.
¢ Usually, immovable property is inherited by the male heir while jewellery etc. is given to
the daughter at the time of her marriage. A part of jewellery etc. is also passed down to
daughter in law by mother in
law.
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HI |
4:Establishment of Authority: The descent “groups ‘have a well” establishéd ‘structure of
authority. Usually, the authority in descent groups lies with the elders of the family, mostly
male.
5. Well defined Rights and Responsibilities: In a descent
group, the economic rights and
responsibilities of individuals are pre-determined according to their status/position in the
group. It also includes determination of property rights.
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6. Unified Groups: The descent groups, sometimes, govern their members as per their customs
and traditions. Often, they solve conflicts and disputes within themselves. They act
external
as
a unified
group against conflicts, fights etc.
9.3 Patriarchy and Sexual Divison of Labour
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9.3.1 Patriarchy
1. Definition: Patriarchy is a form of social organisation in which males acquire the positions of
authorities. [t is most common and is followed in many social institutions like family, marriage
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etc. Simply, it refers to the dominance ofmales and subjugated position for females.
¢ Literal Meaning: Patriarchy originally derived
j
from the Greek word ‘Patriarches’ literally
means ‘Rule by father’. [t ensur
2. Sylvia Walby: Patriarchy is ag)
dominate, oppress and exploit
3. Oxford Dictionary: Patriarchy
eldest male is the head ofthe famils
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9.3.1.1 Chi.ac.cristics of Patriarchy:
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1. Universal: The patriarchal notio hin society irrespective of the nature
uf society. However, the ways thr differs from society to society,
e Example: New Zealand was '
However, women inSaudi Arabia

e Sylvia Walby: Itis essential to understand’p atriarchy in order to understand the concept
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of genderinequalities. She views patri archy as an unchanging feature of society.

e Ann Oakley: She a Sold’ s of patriarchy have disappeared in western
societies. Despite intprove womieH, Befider inequalities still remain an
important social issue.
2. Dominance of Men: Men hold the position of power and authority and use their superior
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position to justify violence against women and other genders.

* Example: Sati pratha --a social evil, was considered to be the act of greatest devotion of a
wife to her husband.
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3. Support of Other Institutions: Social institutions like family, marriage, religion,culture etc.
protects the patriarchy in both personal and public realms of an individual's lives, Often,
leading to preference of male child, violence against women, glass ceilings at workplaces etc,
KI
¢ Example: Post marriage, women are expected to adopt their husband’s name.
4. Exploitation of Women: Deep rooted gender biases restricts
women from accessing health
facilities, economic opportunities, choice of discipline in higher education, accessing private
tuition etc.
®
Example: As per AISHE (2019-20), the girls who manage to enrol in a tertiary degree, 4
smaller proportion go on to pursue professional courses such as engineering (28.5%), while
many more take courses such as pharmacy (58.7%) or opt for “normal graduation” (52 %).
Page 460
—
5. Construction of Social Roles of Male and Female: According to Oakley, gender parallels
the biological division of sex into male and female, but it involves the division and social
valuation of masculinity and femininity. Gender is
a social construct which assigns particular
attributes to particular sex. These notions of masculinity and femininity acts as the basic
principle of society that guides an individual's behaviour.
¢ Example: Masculinity is associated with less emotions, machismo, strength while
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femininity is associated with care, love, fragility, softness, emotional etc.
6. Stereotypes Against Women: Traditional and cultural beliefs against women
exist due to the
patriarchal set up of society where women are expected to behave in certain ways.
e Example: Women are expected to
take care of the family by cooking them food, providing,
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care and support to family members etc.
© Jessie Bernard suggests that in a marital alliance, husband reaps more benefit than wife.
Example: Working women are expected to perform household functions
functions ~ Double Burden.
well workplace as
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7. Ideological Conditioning (Acceptance
among Women): Kate Millet suggests that political
relationships exist between men and women all aspects of life. According to her, wherever
in
power structured relationships exist, pe

so invisible and natural that th
he suggests that the notion patriarchy is of
tualised’ by women. Thus, leading to
acceptance ofinferior status.
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9.3.1.2 Sylvia Walby’s Views on Patriare
Sylvia Walby in her ‘Patriarchy at Work $ to conceptualize patriarchy based on
interconnection between patriarchy and capi
Q
1. Based on Historical Conditiong interaction between capitalism and
patriarchy depends on the historical s the nature of interaction ~ harmony
or conflict.
2. Domestic Labour is
the Core: Acc Domestic Labour’ is core to patriarchy
which benefits men both economically ar
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3. Different Operational W 5
ways through which Patriarchy operates:

® Production Relatio he homeé;a Worhan must work forfree under
the expectations of heediush: AOR pgs
6 Paid Work: In the working world, women suffer from discriminatory pay, unfair
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treatment, and often find themselves in less demanding roles than their male counterparts.
® The Patriarchal State: States can be inherently oppressive to women through policies and
laws. Society is fundamentally biased toward men.
® Male Violence: This is not random or
individual as it might appear. Instead, it operates
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under patterned and systemic criteria. When states do little else other than condemning
male to female violence, they effectively perpetuate it via non-interference.
© Patriarchal Relations in Sexuality: Different rules apply to both genders in social norms
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and expectations regarding sexual behaviour.

®
Patriarchal Cultural Institutions: Many facets of society, namely media, religion, and
education, produce and perpetuate portrayals of women through patriarchal viewpoint.
These viewpoints then contribute to women’s own understanding of femininity.
a
4. Two Fornas: Walby distinguishes Patriarchy into Private and Public
Patriarchy:
® Public Patriarchy: Collective in nature, women are segregated from positions of power,
status and wealth in the realm of
politics, economy.
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“©
Private Patriarchy: Patriarchy carried within the realm of household.
from becoming part of public spheres of life.
It restricts women.
9.3.1.3 Factors Explaining Existence of Patriarchy?
Feminist scholars like Sylvia Walby, Kate Millet in her study of patriarchy explains that patriarchy is
the most important concept in understanding gender inequalities within society.
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Kate Millet identifies eight factors which explains the existence of patriarchy. All the below
mentioned factors regulate the interaction between men and women and captures the unequal power
relationship that exists between them:
1. Biology: Males are superior to females in terms of physical strength. Thus, males and females *
N
are taught to behave and think in ways which reinforces these biological differences.
o Example: Choice of profession guided by this factor — Teaching, Nursing considered more
suitable for women while mining etc. for men.
Ideological Factors: Men are socialised to have a dominant temperament leading to superior
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social status and occupying social roles where they can treat women as inferior subjects.
Sociological Factors: Social institutions like family, educational institutions, marriage
promotes patriarchal notions through nd helps in maintaining patriarchy across
generations.
o Example: Boy child and gi
according to the existing ge
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Relationship between Class &
status within the society which is are
\
éejal class. Women

i
subordinated by men
and are dependent on men in famili
Q
o Example: Decisions regarding§
family. Financial dependenc
members regarding career ch ’
partner etc
Educational Factors: Education
wages, lower access to high status jobs e @ to inferior status of women.
R
o Example: In India, According toa study conducted by the National Statistical Office
between 2017 & 2 jis
(70.3%) in India. The
gap is still wide and the imp ovement slow. is
Myth and Religion: Religion is used as an instrument to legitimise dominance of men over
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women. Rituals & Religious beliefs are such that they put women at a lower position than
women. Millet captures the relation between patriarchy and religion in her quote stating that
“patriarchy has god on its
side’.
N
o Example: Among Hindus, Women are

considered to be ‘impure’ during the menstruation,
which itself is a natural biological process with no human control.
Psychological Factor: Millet suggests that the source of men’s superior power is from
psychological factors. Due to above mentioned factors and their impacts, women have
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accepted. themselves to
be inferior to men and ‘internalised’ the patriarchal ideology.
o Example: Women have internalised patriarchal notions so much that they discriminate
among themselves unknowingly. In Indian society, women who have given birth to male
children are treated better than those who are mothers to female children.
Physical Force: Millet suggests that patriarchy is backed up by physical force. Thus,
legitimising violence against women, commoditisation of women etc.
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‘© Example: Rape, domestic Violence, dowry deaths etc. are majorly caused due to deep
rooted patriarchal ideologies.
Conclusion:
With factors like rise in literacy among women, awareness about their rights, laws &
legislations on
violence against women, changing notions of patriarchy, spread of democratic values like
equality,
OB P
Justice, liberty, breaking of glass ceilings. It has allowed women to come forward and have
equal
access to opportunities and resources and thus, evolved interpersonal relationships between male and
female to be more equal.
9.3.2 Sexual Division of Labour
N
SER
* Meaning: Sexual division oflabour is
OER
a system wherein the tasks and roles of individuals are
defined based on their gender. Women do all the work within the household. This
wants
women to
take up secondary subjugated positions and work under males.
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The gender division forms the basis of social stratification where the differentiation is
/
» based on social expectations, stereotypes not biological facts.

and
¢..
Murphy and Murphy suggest that |
does not wholly derive from masculine
RANTES
activities but is to a considerable
9.3.2.1 Approaches understanding Se

lu
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Sociological perspective on patriarchy ati
broad perspectives:
It
Q
@
Meaning: is typically refe
include cooperative specialisati
® Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox
o Tiger and Fox suggest that htitg
formsthebasis of sexual division 6
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o A Biogrammer ‘genetic’ based

prograthme because of which men are more
is_a
aggressive and
locidoh his
'
n in history have spent their

most time huntinghatid wathéring whiledHe role Women was to procreate and nurture
of
and care for their children.

Tiger and Fox attribute these characteristics — aggression and dominance to be caused
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©
due to genetic factors. Thus, sexual labour of division rooted to hunting
society, thus,
based
on
biological factors - SEX.
1. Taleott Parson’s views on Sexual Division of Labour:
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o Parsons characterised women's roles as ‘expressive’ while men's roles as

‘instrumental’.
* :
According
to Parson, in orderfor socialisation to be effective, children require care and
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emotional support, which is provided by women. Thus, calling women’s role to be

expressive.
®
While men are instrumental and responsible for the security, safety of family, they are
It
under massive stress. is the.role of women
relieve their stress and tension.
to
provide care and support to them and
*
Thus, in order for smooth functioning of families and stability within the society,
Parson says that division of labour is
ON
necessary.
1 |
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2. G.P Murdock’s View:
between
In his book Social Structure (1949), Murdock states biological differences
oO
men and women as the basis of sexual division of labour.

°o Murdock suggests that men are superior to women in terms of strength making men
suitable foractivities requiring physical strength — mining ete.
2. Sexual Division of Labour based on Socio-cultural Approach:
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3. Ann Oakley’s Views:
° She rejects the idea of sexual division oflabour based on biological factors.
oO According to Oakley, with change in societies, there is change inthe division of labour
between men and women.
She
is of the opinion that ‘gender’ is a socially constructed phenomenon while sex is
N
oO
based on biological factors.

° She supports her argument by stating that ifdivision of labour
since
is
the
based on sex,
division of
it
should
labour is
not be changing with change in society. However,
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changing with society, it is not based on sex.
According to her, pre industrial societies had equal opportunities for male and female.
However, in industrial societ gymore economic opportunities while women
remained at homes leading
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ausewife’.
cultural factors rather than biological
h
She concludes that divisiog

ones.
4. Views of Other scholars o
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Approach:
harassed by men twice. On
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‘second shift’ at homesin {
en are not hardwired naturally with

different interests and abilt tural and societal beliefs lead to the
differences between them, Ge
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children develop.
Sherry B. Ortn nen has nothing to do with
y
doRtheir biological make up.
Mana: According to Mann compartmentalisation’ of women persists despite of
involvement of women in politics, development programmes and process and feminist.
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Conclusion:
In the modern world, with urbanisation, modernisation, development of
science and technology, and
the spread of democratic values of equality, liberty, justice and rights, the status of women has
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improved. Women now have more access to economic opportunities, education, equality before law
etc.
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9.4 Contemporary Trends in Kinship Patterns, Family And Marriage

9.4.1 Changes in Structure of Family:
1. Equality and Democracy within Family: Modern education and laws has led to
transformation of relationships between husband and wife. Nowadays, both share a
relationship of cooperation and equality. Previously, the wife was considered inferior and the
authority lied in the hands of males only.
Page 464
—
“© Goran Therborn in
his study ‘Between Sex and Power’ (2004) argued that there has been
decline in patriarchal power within family over the 20% century. This has transformed
brother — sister relationship as well. It, now, is more about fellowship and equality.
2. Share in Decision Making: With women being educated, they demand equality. Thus, having
a voice in
all the important decisions which was previously taken solely by the males.
« Example: Now, parents ask the decision of girl in arrange marriages.
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3. Evolution of Relationships Between Parents and Children:
¢ Open and Two-way: Nowadays, the relationship between parents and children has
become open and one of
honesty. Previously, the relationship was more formal, strict and
one way. This has
of
resulted in involvement child in decision making processes.
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* Diffused Gender Identity: Parents, being educated and knowing about values of equality,
have evolved in terms of assigning roles and responsibilities to children based on
gender.
Example: ‘Selfie with Beti’ was a social media campaign where parents were encouraged
to post selfies with their daughters to promote a feeling of pride
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among them for being
parents to daughters. Birth of a daughter was considered a burden previously.
__
4. Shift of Authority: Previously, the authority of the household rested in the hands of elder
members of the house. With time,
heads of family. Now the more aut
it the elders have largely become symbolic
wad
even if he is young.
unembers who earn higher the family in
i
5. Emergence of Modern trends like live-in relationships, same sex
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relationships, single parenthood
« Use of Technology: New repr
et ucture of Families.
gies like surrogacy, IVF methods has
enabled formation of new type ibutes to growing diversity. Example —
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Due to methods like surrog: od is distinguished from biological
motherhood.
6. New Family Structures:
« Single Parenthood: David Mo éhat the increase in single parenthood could
be a result of changing relationships men & women.
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¢ Step Families / Recons at least one partner has a

(
ch
child from his/her p
¢ Modified Extended ugené
/
ak sugges modified extended families’

¥
is the coalition of nuclear families who

are partially dependent on each other. .
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“
Example: Married couples living separately from parents, relatives & still maintain
. considerable autonomy.
* ‘Dispersed Extended Families: Peter Willmott suggests that the dispersed extended
families are the families which consist of two or more related families who cooperate with
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each other even though they live distance apart.

*
Example: Grandparents live separately from their children and grandchildren.
7, Rise in Divorces: With spread of ideas of individualism, independence of women and
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awareness of their rights, divorces have been on sharp rise,

¢ Edmund Leach says that emotional stress and tensions within the family has increased to
;
“ such an extent that family often fails to tackle it and conjugal bonds weaken.
8. Rise of filo Centric Families: A filo-centric family is one wherein the children
tend to
dominate the scene and their wishes determine the policy of their family.
9.4.1.1 Change in Functions of Family:

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Page 465
Procreation: The family's childcare and socialisation responsibilities have been. delegated to
a variety of outside organisations, including hospitals, birthing centres, daycare centres,
kindergartens, etc.
Decrease in Traditional Care Role of Elders: The modern family does not provide the
traditional protection for the elderly, ill, mentally or physically challenged, etc. It is paying
mote attention to how a child's personality develops overall. Parents are today left at the mercy
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of old age homes.
Economic Functions: Functions the family was performing as an economic unit have been
shifted to market economy. Many external agencies are performing the economic functions,
which the family used to perform in the past.
Religious Functions: The religious functions of the family have also undergone a great
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change. The religious practices have lost their traditional importance. More secular attitude
and outlook is spreading day by day.
Recreational Functions: The recreational functions of the family have been shared by the
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external agencies like movies, hotels, parks clubs, youth organisations and other centers of
recreation. These recreation centers are high! commercialised.
¢ Ronald Fletcher argues that m: of the family have expanded despite the
growth of bureaucratic institut ith the growth of schools, parents have
to put in even more effort to :
ducation.
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9.4.1.2. Causes of Change in Structure a
1. Urbanisation: Due to availability
urban areas, individuals are migrati
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from previously joint families.
Secularisation: Decline of religio ns of family. For example, marriage
was considered as sacrosanct in , divorce and separation
is possible
through legal means.
Economic: Due to development in tec! ind higher living standards, young couples
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are choosing to have a small family size with ‘1 2 children.

Education: More educa' ‘CHanging
Xe the family structures.
Nowadays, women are ependént. Now parents are sending
their girls to study outside the state or country. Educated girls now have the liberty to choose
their partner.
G
¢ Women are actively exercising their tights and standing up against orthodox beliefs,
compulsions in joint families. They are demanding more freedom and equality in
households.
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e Also, educated women realise their rights on their bodies, thus actively participating in
family planning. This has led to decrease in family sizes
industrialization: Industrialization separated the home from the work. This had made the
working members to bear themselves all the burden and headache connected with their job.
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Their families can hardly lend support in this regard.

Modernisation: Influence of western values relating to modem science, rationalism,
individualism, equality, free life, democracy, freedom of women etc. have exerted a
tremendous change on the family system. Live in Relationships, Gay/Lesbian Marriages are
common and becoming acceptable in many societies.
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7. Household Shifts in Family: Neolocal trend is replacing patrilocal patterns. Working couples
move to new places for their jobs and traditional joint families lose significance.
8. Laws: Legislations like Hindu Marriage Act (1955) has prohibited polygamy
and also enabled
Indian women the right to divorce, further changing traditional family structure.
9. State Policies: In an effort to control population rise, State policies like ‘Hum Do Humare Do”
have made couples aware about family planning. Government has also played a crucial role in
P
creating awareness regarding use of contraceptive methods for both male and females.
¢ Example: Condoms are directly distributed to people through ASHA workers in
government health care centres under Family Planning Programme.
10. Role of Media: Media plays
a
crucial role in creating opinions among the population. Films,
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advertisement campaigns by Government etc. have led to spread of liberal and individualistic
ideas.
11. Greater Expectations: The ‘expectations’ placed on marriage are much greater today.
Couples will then renew their search for
the ‘perfect partner’ and maybe re-marry in the future.
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This is a modern pattern of marriage and divorce.
12. Control on Reproduction Rights: Women now have more control over their fertility and are
free to decide whether or not to ha he stigma associated with abortion and
contraception has decreased as a
13. Functional Alternatives to Nowadays, friendships, live-in
es:
relationships, bachelor-househol al units which may be stronger than

U
traditional family and replace th
Conclusion:
Q
to
.
Despite the foregoing changes the fami ciety, the family continues to be one
of the most significant social structures. that conventional family roles have
been altered rather than lost. The modific
going through a shift.

that
place show the family system is
R
9.4.2 Changes in System of Marriage

1.. Change
in
Forms: Due
Marriage Act etc. polyg:
i
gislatigiis rélated to marriage such as Hindu

bang
ges
i
2. Changes in Partners Selection Norms: Previously, matrimonial alliances were formed

among families through contacts and networks of people. Nowadays, the bride and groom are
G
asked consent and their interest is given utmost priority. Previously, the elders and relatives
decided without much consideration of the opinions of Individuals who to be married. are
¢ Example: With development of technology, apps like Shaadi.com have provided a
N
common platform for searching mates. Due to such technologies, young people themselves
have got more involved in the process.
3. Weakening Authority of Elders: Marriages are now based on love and mutual attraction. The
control of the elders of families has weakened.
KI
4. Increase in Marriage Age of marriage: With legislations, the government has increased
marital age for both boys and girls. Presently, 18 years for girls and 21
years for groom.-This
has resulted in development of both groom and bride — mentally, emotionally and physically,
5. Change in Wedding Rituals and Ceremonies: With development of modernisation
and
technology, many rituals and ceremonies which are considered wasteful are discarded or
moulded
as
per the circumstances.
PAPER 1
Example: Many young couples are choosing plantable wedding invitation cards which can
*”
ue be planted once the wedding is over. Some couples are also marrying with limited people
"> ip order to prevent food wastage and other unnecessary expenses which previously was
considered as a sign of social status.
LE
6: Focus on Stability and Growth: Earlier, procreation was considered as the primary aim of
;
\ marriage. With young couples being educated, procreation has become less important. Young
TN P
couples:. seek economic stability, emotional support and companionship in each
"other.
»
Childless marriages are also emerging.
-7, Emergence of New Trends: Live in relationships, same sex relationships, open marriages and
‘: sologamy (self-marriage) have questioned the notion of marriage. Globally, countries like
NIE
OIA N
Spain, France etc. have legalised same sex marriages. Switzerland, in 2021, legalised the same.
TEE
SOE
ITN,
We are.also seeing a trend for these in India. Recently, a girl in Gujarat became the first in
HEN
IETS
SEIT
.
"India to practice sologamy.

@.. Live-in Relationships: The couples living together before marriage and having sexual
EE
.
~
relationships before marriage have become common.
o. Living Single: There has been an increase in individuals who choose to remain single. It
is due to several reasons for wantipg
j
tc n
before marriage.
¢ Empty Shell Marriages: S
. sake has weakened the institut

U
e Serial Monogamy: Serial m
divorces and multiple marriages. on of several nuclear households
» Anthony Gidden’s ‘Seria
p
Q
have witnessed transform:
of serial monogamy.
8. Increase in Cohabitation: Peop! Ohabit (although in most cases this is a
step before marriage). Larry Bu at many people cohabit to test their
_ compatibility before marriage.
R
9. Increase in Divorces: The eg

j
in cases of divorces. With women becoming
¢
|
more financially indep jecline in set of uniform sex
'
roles expectations has

¢. Johnson: ‘At the root of the increase of divorce are religious and legal tolerance towards
G
‘divorce, growth of industrialisation, urbanisation, birth control facilities, increasing social

and physical mobility and diversity of population.’
10. Desacrilization of Marriage: Decline of influence of tradition and religion (secularisation) —
as a result there is
less social stigma attached to cohabiting or remarrying after a divorce.
N
11. Remarriage: With increased cases of divorces & other social changes, remarriages have
become common. Thus, resulting in multiple households & reconstructed families.
_
KI
Conclusion:
RCTS
-
Marriage and Family, both are important universal social institutions found in all societies, Various
scholars with different ideologies have varied opinions regarding the structure and functions of these
social institutions. W ith changes in
the societies, these institutions are also undergoing changes their in
structures’ and functions. Largely, these changes are caused due to modernisation, urbanisation,
globalisation, development in
science and technology, rise in literacy levels etc.
1 | |
RSNA ANCA
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i
943 Change in Kinship System:
wes .
@ Decreased Obligations: Trends like extended families and modern new. fam
decreased obligations & rules among kin-group members,
=
es
fy 5
Low/Negligent Dependence: Economic Fluidity in urban areas have resulted itito the migration of
/
kin members at different places, where they have found support in friends’ which \was ‘earlier
provided by the kinship system. It has resulted in the reduction in need for dependenée
on the
P
kinship network.
ae
® Break in Kinship Network: Due to geographical mobility, extended kinship netwotks largely are
severed and ceased to operate.
e Fluidity in Kinship: To gain political leverage, many leaders group together different kinship
of
N
groups to make their own vote banks. For example, “Jatts” may be composed different
¢ Smaller Families: Families became smaller which have further decreased the dependency on
kinship.
EE
© Increase role of Women: Women now contribute more economically and considered to be equal
as other members. This has further challenged the traditional notion of kinship groups.
e Change in Focal Kin Members: Th ‘karta’ of a family was-the eldest malé member
aL,
but nowadays families are becomin most attention to the well-beirig of children.
¢
Decision making
is being shared
More Secular Society: Indivi
oth. :
e secular nowadays, which further

decreases the role of kinship, wh
'
U ned by following the cornmon rituals:
e Importance to Individual Achiev
achievements rather than kin groups
te importance is being given to individual
.
Q
© Decrease Role in Matrimoni ingroup was the main source for
suggesting or dictating matrimo s decrease with the advent of love
marriages, gay marriages, single p
Conclusion: LS :
R
With the advent of modernisation and many associated changes, the role of kin has
group been
wheyin to
i
changing and mainly it has rem
po ce
1
people tend calf their kin
group members. Be Sn? c
Marriage and Social Control

G
¢ Different Roles: Marriage exerts social control through roles and responsibilities laid
for husband and wife. It provides access to spouse’s labour &
property. Example:
Husband & Wife provide emotional support to each other.
oo
N
¢ Bound of Norms: Married couples are bound by social values, beliefs & customs to.
support each other.
¢ Legal Relation: Procreation of offspring out of wedlock, Incest
Relationships,
is
KI
Polygamy are considered as social taboo.

,
Family and Social Control:

Family is the primary and most important agency of social control. It ensures social control
by performing following functions: :
©
Primary Socialisation: Family shapes the behaviour of an individual and teaches the
child about what is
right or wrong according to societal values and norms,
PAPER 1
Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50 “Page 469 :
© Division of labour between Male & Female: The child grows up witnessing actions of
gender specific actions performed by family members. It gets imbibed within children
and in the later stage, men are
trained to become breadwinners while females to become
care-givers. Though this
against it.
notion
is
still prevalent, we are witnessing a radical change too Thee
ce
@ Inculcates Social Values & Beliefs: High values of honesty, cooperation, mutual
P
coexistence, humility, tolerance, humanity etc. are internalised within the child by
family.
e Provides Emotional, Financial Support: Individual looks for comfort, strength and |
financial support from family members, which is very much necessary for integration of
N
society.
EE
U
Q
R
G
N
KI
PAPER
UNIT 10: SOCIAL CHANGE IN. MODERN SOCIETY
10. Social Changes In Modern Society

1
10.1.1 What is Social Change? :
1. Definition: Wilbert Moore defines social change as a significant alteration in structure

over
time in behaviour patterns and culture, including norms and values. For example, changes in
P
family structure from joint to nuclear in modern times.
2. Forms: Various forms of social change exist like linear, cyclic, etc.
3. Nature of social changes
Universal: Every society experiences change and is dynamic. Social change follows a
N
pattern and is universal and inevitable.
Community: Social change affects the community, not only the individual.
Value neutral: Social change is not understood in terms of good or bad, desirable or
undesirable.
EE
Essential: The law ofnature is change. Social change is inevitable. It might happen
naturally or as a result of deliberate a We
are
change-seekers by nature.
Domino-effect: A change in o' typically has an impact on others, who
then have an impact on yet mg that many people live has changed.
Multi-leveled: Social chang volutionary change; it also occurs on
a micro and macro level.
U
Measurable: Based on scale, shi ton, social change can be quantified and
analysed.
4, Limitations of social change
Q
Social change is complex in n:
Social change is
pluralistic.
Social change brings social isol
Social change brings uncertainties.
R
Social change in certain conditions brings conflict.

Social change may (
10.1.2- Theories of Social

Change
10.1.2.1-Evolutionary Theory
G
1. Introduction: It
is based on Darwin’s notion of biological evolution i.e. survival of the fittest.
Here, society evolves from primitive to advanced. It is also known as the Linear Theory of
social change.
N
2. Various Evolutionary Theories

Law of Three stages: This was given by Auguste Comte. While describing the three
stages, Comte talked about development of human mind
three stages are-
as
the basis of all evolution. The
KI
© Theological stage: Here thinking was guided by religion and God.

o Metaphysical stage: In this society was guided by natural and legal terms as it
becomes rational and philosophical
© Positivist stage: Here new scientific discoveries were made which led to scientific
study of knowledge.
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_|
~-e Social Darwinism:
‘
It
is also known as Herbert Spencer’s classical*evolutioriary theory.
Spencer, like Comte, believes in the idea of survival of the fittest. He argues that Society
‘evolves by compounding i.e. by unifying more groups. According to him, evolution
involves differentiation of simple things into complex or differentiated things: As society
7
'
evolves, these large number of

interconnected parts grow and evolve too. The resultant
stages of evolution in Social Darwinism are:
It
P
o Simple: is related to individuals and is small, nomadic and lacks’stable relationships.
Ex, Eskimos, Guiana Tribe.
o. Compound: Compound society as" union of groups”. These were agricultural societies
and. characterised by industrial structure. For example, New Zealanders, Homeric
Greeks.
N
o Doubly compound: These societies were more integrated, and had definite political
and religious structure. For example, 14th century France had proper bureaucracy and
market under the bourbon dynasty.
It
EE
o Trebly compound: includes civilised nations based on Division of Labour and
cultural complexity such as the modern- day cities like Great Britain, Germany, Italy.
¢ Militant society to industrial socie pencer also describes social change from
Militant society which includes al society which is based on friendship,
altruism, and specialisation.
¢ Savagery to Civilisation: L
culture evolved from simple t
U
stages of development as ment
o Savagery: This is the hunti
It
Q
o Barbarism: is the stage ¢
o Civilization: It indicates
economic production.
¢ Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft:
social groups exist due to existence o
R
o Essential Will: It
j
iated
wi
© Arbitrary Will: |
Gemeinschaft
People with essential will with
People arbitrary will
Homogenous, less populated, isolated Heterogenous, high population, related
G
Traditional relationships Contractual relationships

Religion is very important Religion is less important
¢ Anomie to Modern: Emile Durkheim states that society evolves from Simple to Anomie
N
to Modern. The stages in evolution of Durkheim’s society are -

o Simple: It is united by simple DoL known as Mechanical solidarity. Early societies
tended to small scale, localized in villages or rural areas, marked by simple division
be
of labour. In this type of society, people are very similar to each other and everybody
KI
can do all kinds of work.

o Amomie: Due toa far-reaching social change (Here: Industrialisation, introduction of
the structural principle of division of labour), social differentiations are increasingly
emerging (e.g. poor — rich, urban -- rural, religious — secularised, etc.). The
disappearance of old principles of structure and order weakens social cohesion. As a
result, general social rules are no longer observed; the collective order dissolves and a

—
state of anomie emerges. This is a state of normlessness. Here conscience collective is
redefined, leading to social change. :
© Complex: As the development of the division

of labour erodes the collective
consciousness, it also creates a new form of solidarity. This new form is organic
solidarity, and is characterized by dependence of individuals on each other within the
division of labour, and by a certain form of cooperation. Here specialisation
of DoL
P
occurs leading to organic solidarity,
Modes of Production: Karl Marx represented his evolutionary model based on Dialectical
Materialism. He says social change
is an outcome of class conflict and revolution, Stages
of evolution in Marxian theory are- (Refer Karl Marx in Thinkers)
o Primitive Communism: Has simplest and the lowest form of
N
mode of production.
© Slave Society: Primitive equality gave way to social inequality and
emergence of
slave-owning classes and slave.
© Feudalism: The forces of production saw rapid quantitative change where for the first
EE
time and inanimate sources of energy such as water and wind were tapped
o Capitalism: Based on private capitalist ownership, the capitalist relations
of
production facilitated tremend the productive forces,
Hiesl
o Communism: Finally, dial

itself, ushering in a social system which
d
would be free of any con eS

Animism to Monotheism: at human beings have the same kind of
mind-set throughout the worl
U
hic unity’ of mankind, and that human
kind go through the same evol
o Animism: The belief that non
e following order
-
are spiritual beings, either intrinsically
Q
or because spirits inhabit t
© Polytheism: The belief o

© Monotheism: The belief
Pre-literate to Modern Society
i
as the chief indicator of developm d'presents an evolutionary sequence offive
R
stages:
we
ofprelitera
VA.
me
o Stage
° Stage of literacy ay ice’? Babylon, C
oO
Stage of reflective thought - Vedic period.
o Stage of critical thought — Greece.
G
© Stage of modern science - from 16th century.

Neo-Evolutionary theory: Parsons mentioned that society changes from Archaic to
Intermediary to Modern society. Here social change involves a process of increasing
N
differentiation, specialisation and adaptation.

o Archaic (Primitive): This stage is elementary in terms of social organisation, For
example, hunting, gathering, animism ete.
o Intermediate: In this stage, pressures of social differentiation increase, It is a
KI
pre-
industrial society. For example, social pressures lead to events like tribal
wars, resulting
in feudalism or slavery
o Modern: This stage marks the highest form of specialisation of Dol. and differentiation
in social structures and functions. For example, the modern
society has specialised
labour institutions for food delivery, pharma, IT etc
© Critical Evaluation of Evolutionary theory
sunyanotesS0 Page 473

=~
Positive :
the
~ iversified Concepts: Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Marx predicted
character of modern society by using concepts of orientation, DoL and class
sfrugele.
~ Simple Explanation: Evolutionary theorists provide a simple understanding of
social change in a defined number ofstages.
P
- Multidimensional: Evolutionary theory is multidimensional explaining social
change wrt Religion (Durkheim), Culture (LH Morgan), Economy (Marx) and
Polity.
= Negative
Monotonous: Evolutionary theorists use similar nomenclature like primitive,
N
~
savage, essential will etc all having uniform stages of development. All theorists
borrowed their main idea from biological evolution theory
~ Lack of Objectivity: They cynically labelled simple societies as primitive or
EE
savage, etc., while praising European culture and societies as models of high
civilization, demonstrating their bias.
~ Armchair Theory: Th pyglutionar 'y theory are criticised for their arm
chair theorization as am any survey, or collected any data and
worked on the
fi
Limited: Evoluti
U
Q
contingent and op
e Conclusion: Despite all of cr 'y important role in how social change
is perceived. Growinginterest in histo comparative studies is directly tied to the
R
recent attempted resurgence of an evolutionary worldview.
10.1,2.2 - Diffusion Theoryso! a

Introduction: Diffusion or Cultural diffusion is the process of transfer of cultural traits from one
society (Dominant Culture) to another (Recipient Culture). For example, the renaissance diffused
G
from Italy to the globe. Centres of cultural diffusion have always been the places of cultural
development. Types of diffusion are as follows:
e Direct Diffusion: It happens when persons or groups have actual physical contact. For
N
example, Hunas got inducted as Khsatriyas in India.

¢ Indirect Diffusion: It
includes spread of cultural traits through indirect media like radio,
printed material and transport of goods.
KI
Various Diffusion Theory

1. Cultural Diffusion: Cultural diffusion refers to the process by which various aspects of one
culture are incorporated into other cultures. M.J Herzkowitz accepted cultural diffusion and
stated two kinds of processes of cultural exchange mentioned below:
PAPER
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Page 474
noe
Ho.
Acculturation: It denotes the flow of culture from dominant culture to subordinate culture.
*
For example, westernisation in India under British rule. GS Ghurye has said that Hindu
culture diffused from Brahmins
to
other communities.
¢ Transculturation: It means transfer of symmetrical culture
by contact, easily accepted by
a society. For example, Indians have easily accepted Jeans and Pizzas but resist
attempts
to change the core values of Indians.
P
2. Great and little tradition: Influenced by work of Robert Redfield,
Singer and Marriott used
the concept of Great and little tradition to analyse social change. The interaction b/w the
two
brings change in
rural society. The two traditions are -
¢ Little Tradition - The folks and peasantry follow little
tradition also known as village
N
tradition. For example, tribals, shudras, farmers etc
© Great Tradition - It consists of the lifestyle of the elites. For example, the roles of sita
and Draupadi resemble the great tradition. .
3. Universalization and Parochialization: Mckim Marriott in his work “Little
EE
communities in
an indigenous civilization” gave concepts of Universalization and Parochialization.
¢ Parochialization: It
is a process by
tradition. For example, Sanskriti
elements of great tradition are induced in the
which
© Universalisation: It
is a cul tradition to great tradition. Here the
e
culture of small people ac

example, a British eating Ind
is
U
Factors responsible for Cultural Diffusio
¢ Transportation and communicg way of travelling/communication,
Q
people connect with new peopl of ideas, values, etc. Thus, culture
diffusion takes place. For examp
* Migration: If a sizable number 0
culture with them. :
¢ Colonization: When one nation colonized other nations. Dominant nation culture
R
diffused among people of, e

i
i
may get
¢
to western music, weariri

¢ Trade: Through trade al88’cu place. For’example, East India Company
came to India but imbibed the
food habits of Indians like by using the Indian spices.
G
Critical Analysis of Evolutionary Theory

1. Positive
N
¢ New Ideas: Ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity reached India through cultural diffusion
from Europe.
e¢
Women: Diffusion has led to a strengthened advocacy for women's rights globally. For
KI
example, MeToo spread via social media to India.

¢ Revolution: Diffusion of democratic ideas has led to socio-political revolution in
many
states. The Arab Spring is such an example.
¢ Promotes diversification and reduces discrimination: It helps cultures
grow and
diversify by adopting new traits. It helps reduce cultural discrimination.
2. Negative
PAPER
tas
to
. © Fundamentalism: Religious fundamentalism has spread from centres like-lran and Saudi ~
Arabia to the entire world.

'.
© Terrorism: Diffusion has led to spread ofIslamic terrorism from Pakistan into India.
Tracing Origins: Exact origin of a specific cultural trait is difficult to trace and the
diffusion of the trait can fairly be traced.
¢ Loosing Identity: Some cultures lose their identity or values in the process. For example,
P
tribal traditions are being diluted in north-east India.
3. Conclusion: Globalization. and transportation have made cultural dissemination common in
modern technological world. Physical isolation is an important factor for the borrowing of
culture. People living in high altitude are more conservative as compared to people living in
of
rapid means of transport and communication has lessened physical
N
plains. The development
isolation.
10,1.2.3- Cyclical Theories of Social Change
EE
1. Introduction: Cyclical theorists believe that societies have predetermined life cycles of birth,
maturity, growth and decline, and back birth again. For example, Hindu mythology says
Satyug willstart again once Kaliyug
2. Various Cyclical Theories
* Rise and Decay- German H er believed that every society is born,
matures, decays and eventua social change may take the form of
U
progress or decay, but no soc Ex, the Roman Empire, or the Indus
Valley Civilisation.
¢ Circulation of Elites - Vilfre
Q
theory says that social. change le for political power between elites.
These elites
try to undermine ocial change. For example, the BJP
brought revivalist change againy
rive and authoritative. They have smail and
status quo. They do not intermingle with
R
people and avoi e Conservative Party in the UK.

o Foxes- They are n reforms. They intermingle
y
with the public. ckadedisiveness“in action. For example, the
en
European democracies,
a
G
Two streta in population
stratum
‘The lower The highar stratum
(The norrelite ) ( The alite )
N
;-——
Aqoverning Elite ANon-Goveming Elite
Qndividuals, who directly, (Based on the
KI
rest)
orindirectly play some
considerable partin gout)
Speculators Rentiers
(Foxes) (Lions}
¢
-
Challenge-Response theory British Philosopher Arnold J Toynbee says social change is
the conception of Birth, Maturity and Death of civilizations. The first is marked by a
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Page 476
“response to challenge”, the second isa “time of troubles” and the third is characterised by
gradual degeneration. For Example, The Mayan Civilization, which was so advanced,
decayed.
¢ Pendular Theory - Russian-American Sociologist Pitirim Sorokin in his book “Social and
Cultural Dynamics” states that social change follows a trendless cyclic pattern like a
swinging pendulum in which culture moves in one direction and then back in another. He
P
classifies societies based on their Cultural Mentality:
-
o Ideational Culture It is spiritual and mystical, realising reality as mental abstraction
guided by faith and religion. For example, the ancient Greeks.
-
o Sensate culture It is the realm of science and sensory experiences of material reality.
N
For example, the modern world.
© Adealistic enlture - It has characteristics of both the ideational and sensate cultures.
is the point of transition between the other two.
It
EE
Principle of Limits: Sorokin states that sensate and ideational are extreme stages -.
where the society faces a change in all its institutions. He believes in the principle
of eminent change. It means there is a limit to the number of alterations that can be
developed in a system, limj forms of social change, and new patterns
of social behaviour.
Irregular motion o change takes the form of fluctuation.
So, in the sequenc
U of change is occasionally high and
sometimes slow, and ¢ e
mporarily stagnate.
* Critical Evaluation
° Positive
Q
Simple - Cyclic theor on to social change, like a biological
id age and death.
Relevance
-
Cyclic thed
the Hindu beliefs of yug:
mporary social beliefs. For example,
o Negative
R
Abstract, Spe lative
Subjective Some cyclical concepts are purely subjective. They do not explain as
-
G
to why social change should take a particular form.

Externality - Theories of cyclical change do not consider externalities affecting
social change. For example, external influence such as trade and technology has
ensured the growth of Indian civilization since 200 BC.
N
Difference - Horton and Hunt state that the cyclical theories fail to explain why
-
different societies respond differently to change.
Women Cyclical change fails to explain the nature of social status of women,
KI
o
environment, which have remained more or
less same in
history.
Conclusion: The basic premise of the cyclical theories is that the cultures and
civilization pass through stages of change, starting and ending with the same stage
which creates a cycle. Though, there is big debate and controversies over cyclical
theories which differ from thinker to thinker, they have found relevance in modern
societies,
10.1.2.4 - Conflict Theory of Social change
Introduction: According to the conflict perspective, society is constantly in conflict over resources,
and that conflict drives social change. For example, conflict theorists might explain the civil rights
P
movements ofthe 1960s (USA) by studying how activists challenged the racially unequal distribution
of political power and economic resources.
Concept of Dialectical materialism (Marx) explains everything in terms of contradictions. states It
that the law of reality is the law of change. In this every idea undergoes thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
N
For example, legalization of abortion has led to anti-abortion movements, calling for negotiations
(synthesis).
EE
Three major laws of Dialectics:
The Law of Unity and Conflict of Opposites: According to this Jaw there are internal sides,
forces of an object which are mutually exclusive but presuppose each other. They unite via
interconnection and interdependence. Capitalist-Labour relationship in industrial
e,
Eggi
society.
The Law of Negation of the N integral part of the development of
ntradictions. For example, Capitalism
reality. It is the overcoming of th
U
is the negation offeudal society.
The Law of the Transition o Quality: Quantitative changes occur
continuously in every object but at and Qualitative change occurs which
Q
cannot be measured. For example rows quantitatively during gestation
period and the qualitative change $ ial contact.
Conflict and social change:

° Globalisation: It
has led to free flow of cu ideas where old traditions are giving ways
R
id
to new ideas and new problems.

Inequality: Inequality
democracy. Narayan Muff
KeeiiNe
touindh E
,
Untouchability: Conflict has led to eradication of untouchability in urban areas.

G
Nationalism: challenges the regional identity of people leading to separatist movements.

Joint to Nuclear: Family system is changing from joint to nuclear, especially in the urban
setup.
Social Movements: Movements like feminist movements, dalit movements, environmental
N
movement, farmers movement and protest etc. have grown due to conflict within society.
Poor governance: It has led to conflicts like Naxalism, anti-corruption movements, anti-
market campaigns etc.
KI
Racial Inequalities: In the US, race overlaps with poverty leading to inequality. The resultant
conflict manifested in the Black Lives Matter movement.
Critical Evaluation:
1. Positive
e Functional: Lewis Coser sees conflict as functional, integral and innovative it
asincreases
Hiroshima bombings.
social solidarity. For example, the birth of the United Nations posts
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fo
Legitimacy: Collins sees conflict as a struggle over legitimacy of
inevitable change. For example, F- in Law protests in India ended authe- vithan
up
in repeal of the laws.
Stability: Conflict theory maintains social stability through negotiations
diluting the
possibility of a full-scale conflict. For example, public provision of social
the conflict between industrial classes. security dilutes
2. Negative
P
Universality: Not every society undergoes competition in course of development
White revolution in dairy sector in India is based
on cooperation not conflict.
e.g.
Marxism: Ralf Dahrendorf rejects Marxist theory of change wrt modes
of production and
defines social change in
terms of unequal distribution of authority.
N
Insufficient: Percy Cohen writes that, the assumption that
group conflict is a sufficient
condition for social change is obviously false. It is arguable that
structured conflict, when
it involves a fairly equal balance of
forces, actually obstructs change.
3. Conclusion: Conflict is an essential clement
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of society due to which society undergoes
changes, The Marx concept of capitalism is valid in the
contemporary world where
industrialization, Science, Technology and innovations are controlled
by capitalists. Change is
an essential element of survival and s
to loss of existence.
1. Details about the theory

U
Balanced System: Structural fui
each institution serves a functio he society. Parsons’ concept of Dynamic
or moving equilibrium sees che one equilibrium to another. Parsons
Q
states two types of dynamism
o Change within the soc bserved in nuclearization of families
after LPG reforms in Ladi
, but society didn’t.
oO
Change of the Social System
a his is relevant in the case of the French
Revolution, when the whole society chai ged as a consequence.
R
Tend to move toward: libri change but they also tend to

ies
move towards equi

ends KO s influences. The system
moves from one stag
:
guilibritin afldther, New strictures and institutions

the same functions performed by old units. For perform
example, the task of education was earlier
G
within the family and is now handied by schools

Restorative Change: Parson states that chaiye
to its equilibrium. For Example, the
is restorative which brings the system back
concept of Organic farming is not new but due to
harmful effects of pesticides
itis revived,
N
Positive
© Funetionalism: Many features of society are meaningful when they are related to
its
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function.
oO
Intexconnectedness: Structural Functionalist approach on the inter-relatedness
of
Several parts of society. For example, farm legislations by the Parliament fed
to
blocking of highways, and price rise nationwide,
© Cowaparative study: Structural functional theory helps us in making
comparative
studi es of societies in various stages of development. For Ex,
Comparison of Primitive
and Modern societies.
com
© Widens perspective: The structural- functional theory widens our perspective and
broadens our horizon “concerning the possibilities for variation in the forms of social
life”.
e Negative
© Stability: Functionalists focus on stability, but fail to explain how the changes are
possible in a stable system.
P
© Revolution: Conflict theorists believe that change in society can be brought through
revohition and not by stability.
© Intra-stracture conflict: Social structure itself generates change through internal
conflicts and contradictions. For example, the varna system exploited the sudras
N
causing.structural change in the form of Buddhism.
o Equilibrium: Structural- functionalist are criticised as it rules out
the possibility of
social change. It neglects conflict theory. It assumes that everything that exists in
society has some function.
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© Conclusion: Structural Functionalists regard society as a system which is made up of
interconnected and interrelated parts. The concept of status and role are integral parts in.
understanding social structure. emphasise less on dysfunction and
conflicting issues LGBQT righ mentalism ete.
£0.1.2.6- Theory
of
Calives! Lag
U
Introduction: American Sociologist W studied the impact of technological
change on culture. Cultural lag describe: uilibrium between Material and Non-
Material aspects of culture.
Q
1. Example: When cars were first 1
speed limits, no guidelines for wha

stop signs, and so on. As you can itpa
R
@
Invention: Process by which new kind of technology is produced. Example, Invention of
a
Sg oy , iy
5 é
® Accwnaulation: li isthe ¢ 50:

adulthood
technology. Here old versions ate forgotten. Example, Child marriage to
G
marriage. /
¢ Diffusion: Spread of an idea from one culture to another. For example, Indian wearing
jeans.
Adjustment: Process by which non- material culture responds to material culture. It causes
N
cultural lag.
7
_ Non-Material culture
[
Material culture
Material culture is tangible. It is non-tangible.
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Technology, Matter, Electronic Values, Beliefs, norms, family, religion.

devices,
Material culture changes more
.
Non- material culture tends to change slower than
rapidly. material culture.
Ex- Mobile .phone versions change Caste and Race still persist in society
rapidly
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as
¢ Cause: A cultural lag occurs because people/institutions.adapt slowly to
material changes:
For example, smart learning has increased but the curriculum is
outdated: Hence the
learners are not able to get unemployment.
* Problems: Sometimes material growth conflicts with non-material values. For
example,
contraceptives are not adopted by some cultures due to religious values.
e Nature of cultural lag:
© Speed: Material culture changes faster than non-material culture, For example,
P
Dowry
exists as a non-material culture while old computers are
material culture.
replaced by new ones the in
"© Reciprocity: Material changes affect the non-material culture i.e.
Technological
Determinism. For example, use of ultrasound machines increased
pre-natal sex
N
determination and-female foeticide.
Critical evaluation
© Positive
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= New Ideas - Material changes provide new opportunities. For
example, social
media has created new employ for “influencers”.
= Women - Cultural lag hagéy omen time to develop according to new
material culture. For, gan now work from home due to
developmentin techn
o Negative
Vague - Mclver and Pa
*
U on of cultural lag as it is vague and fails
to explain which aspects’: ind.
" Taboo - Cultural lag fi s in society. For example, artificial
insemination is consid ieties.
Q
" Durability - It is argu ation becoming increasingly fast the
process has been actualh al changes are now slower than non-
material changes.
oO
Conclusion: Cultural lag theory w ped in response to economic determinism.
in
Cultural lag has significance
in
R
the contempor rapid increase

og
rid
technology
is driving social hai
gp gos 4
ae S g
10.1.2.7- Modernization T heory
1. Definition: It symbolises
a process of change with adoption of modern ways of life and values.
G
It changes society from agricultural to industrial.

Modernization is a form of cultural response
which is universal and evolutionary.
2. Various Thinkers View:
¢ Smelser: He says modernization is a complex set of changes that take
N
place in almost
every part ofsociety as it attempts to industrialise. Modernization involves ongoing
chan ge insociety’s economic, politics, education, tradition and religion.
¢ Lipset: Lipset argues that modernisation can result in democratisation, but not
KI
manclatorily. For example, modernity led to Indian democracy, but communist

autocracy in China.
° Anthony Giddens: Giddens emphasises
on the radicalisation of certain aspects of
modernity, which he calls High Modernity, identified by three aspects. They are:
e Reflexivity: It is the constant monitoring of social life for possibility of improvement.
For example, frequent assessments and evaluations in modern
education institutions
01 |
* Separation of space and time: Giddens mentions that decreasing face-to-face
communication for example under the effect of the internet and globalisation is an
evolving aspect of high modernity.
¢ Disembedding: Disembedding means the dissociation of social relations from local
considerations, For example, Udaan, a B2B start-up in Bangalore changes distributor-
retailer relations in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The start-up focuses on making profits,
while the local distributors lose their source of income.
P
3. Features of Modernization
¢ Differentiation: Modernisation envisages a high degree of structural differentiation
and specialisation.
¢ Capitalism: Capitalist mode of production is
the driver of modernization.
N
Individuals and their rights are at the centre of all social, economic and political
Rights:
development in
the modern world.
©
a
Tradition: Tradition begins when particular action or activity is seen to be significant
a
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to the society. Modernity itself has become tradition.
Tradition Modernity
It is based on small scale, homogeneo rised by democratic and industrial
and closely regulated communities
Based on simple and traditional u fic knowledge and technology like
techniques like hand weaving.
U
Society here was based on farms industry and
is city centred.
was village centred.
Traditional religious system was stro igious ideologies such as Patriotism,
Q
ocracy, Secularism arises.
4, Transition: Transition from tra nvolves a mass migration from the
countryside to newly expanding citie: in production for exchange and the rise
of the money economy and the development of
a specialised division of labour.
i
rnisation are:
R
5. Causes of Modernizationg, Vari

* Education: Scientitiap
Lteg
e basis of modernization. It
has influenced all aspeéts Oftrad dressing and language.
© Mass communication: Mass communication via TV, Newspaper, radio, internet spreads
modern ideas instantly on a massive scale,
G
*Nationalism: Nationalism and democracy are linked with modernization. Nationalism

results from national awareness and political consensus. Nationalist ideologies help the
political elite in changing the behaviour of
masses of people.
N
¢ Coercive Government: Strong government may adopt coercive measures to impose

modernity. For example, the George Bush administration pressured the LMICs follow to
modern ways.
Urbanisation and Industrialization: These accelerate the tempo of modernization. It
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introduced the concept of specialised DoL in modern society. It is evident in the new
institutions like trade unions.
6. Criticism of Modernization
®
Positive
© Specialisation: Modernization leads to specialisation of services and DoL. For
example, food delivery services.
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o Rationality: Weber modernity as rationality, Rationality removed gender bias and led
to feminisation of the workforce. ,
oO
Poverty: Modernity has reduced poverty. India reduced poverty by
uplifting 26 million
people after modern economic policy.
o Women: Modernity has empowered women by increasing their
access to market, law
and media.
©
Negative
P
o Change is essential: Modernization demands that society must change all ways at in
once which is not feasible in reality. For example, discrepancy in education
employment opportunities.
and
© Uneven Change: During the period of Modernization structural
changes mostly remain
N
uneven. For example, industries may modernise but the religious
system remains
conservative. :
© Conflicts: Modernization of institutions creates conflicts with the traditional

life. For example, introduction of western values created way of
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conflict in Muslims countries,
* Conclusion: Modernity brought technological advancements and innovations
which
helped in shaping the society, fo odern medicine and vaccines. However,
problems also emerged with r
ergence of nuclear bombs, ecological
degradation, climate change,
our society faces today. | are the dysfunctions of modernity that
U
10.1,2.8- Postmodern Theory
1, Definition: Postmodernism
highlights Unpredictability in society, rejecting the
grand theories of social change pr eim and Parsons. Postmodern world
Q
highlights the rising awareness 6. of the workforce and feminist and
environmentalist movements as thi ‘ocial change. For example, the
family, which once bound the famil joint
uclear family.
2. Thinkers View
¢ Jean Francois Lyotard: He argues that Knowledge has become
R
a commodity. He says
that whoever has cé
atta i
caebail
6
exer Li control. He assumes that
knowledge will r eefuture. He thus rejects grand
narratives of Marxism.
* Michel Foucault: He emphasised on increasing surveillance and
discipline in society
in
G
evident the emergence of modern institutions like prisons, He

also
analysis (Some one who can influence the viewpoints of others through
talks about discourse
debates),
¢ Jean Baudrillard: Baudrillard, a French author, states that modern
society will be
controlled by the signs and images created by the mass media. He
states that Mass media
N
has reversed the Marxist idea of economic determinism.

¢ Fraser and Jameson: They
say that postmodernity has transformed
a series of emptied-out stylizations (what Jameson terms
the
historical past into
pastiche) that can then be
KI
_
commodified and consumed.
* Jacques Derrida: He mentioned that in Post-Modern Era there is need of deconstruction
oflanguage as language has become
very complicated and there is a need of in-depth
analysis of language for wholistic understanding of social phenomenon,
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_«. Alan Bryman: He talk about deploying combination of both quantitative and qualitative
methodology (Triangulation) in order understand the social phenomenon in post modern
to
complex world.
3. Features of Postmodernism
© Globalisation: There is flow of information, ideas, trade and people across the globe.
* Media: Today's Media is based on hyperreality where digital reality appears to be more
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real thanactual reality.
¢ Consumer society: Society is consuming Material and indulges himseif in leisure :
activities more as compared to work.

where culture is
* Dynamic Rapid social change: Society is changing in a rapid way
diverse.
N
:
4, Critical Evaluation of Postmodern Theory —
e Positive
o Contemporary Postmodernism studies contemporary social changes like
-
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globalisation, media, environment etc.
o Globalisation - Postmodernism that nation states are losing importance in an
interdependent globalised w
o Criticises Grand theori te that Grand theories are no longer
applicable in an increasi rxexample, the dalits of India and the
Blacks in the USA canno framework.
U
©
Negative
© Use of Modernity- Though'¢ rnity, postmodernism uses the tools of
modernity i.e. science, rati to propound its
agenda. For example,
Q
use of social media during,
Grand Narrative - Post e a grand narrative in itself and
o
o Méetanarrative - Postmodernist e various social changes but does not

define the origin of where these changes.
R
egts of.knowledge, looking for new

i
Conclusion: Postm
j
¢ g
¢
facts. Postmodern s den Hheory as it believes in multiple
truths. It confers subjé ciologiéal studies and stands relevant
to current social issues.
G
10.2 - Development and Dependency

10.2.1 - Development Theory
10.2.1. 1-What is Development
is lower state to a higher state
N
a social concept involving progressive change from one

_
Development
of wellbeing. It
includes satisfaction of basic needs, essential amenities, physical and mental health,
educational and job opportunities, social integration and minimization of disparities.
KI
10.2.1.2-Various Model of Development

* Market-Oriented theory of development: The free market and uninhibited or absence of
in the countries.
government constraints in economic decisions leading to development
economics of low-
According to market-oriented theorists, the governmental direction of the
income countries results in blockages to economic development. This perpetuates inequality
in the third world nation.
eorrmaanre
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Page 484
Capitalist Model of development: It is characterised by provision of private ownership of
property and means of production, minimum state control on economic enterprises, and
free -
economy regulated by competition. The developmental. model aiso emphasizes sustained

growth and modernisation with massive state investment
at
the take-off stage.
Socialist Model of development: propagates it
the abolition of ownership of private property
of
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and means production, emphasised state ownership of means of production, state-owned
public enterprise, and’a state regulated economy and centralised planning by the state for
economic growth. Socialist model also emphasised on the equal distribution of
the fruits of
growth among allsections of the population
Third world model of development: The Third World is represented by the ex-colonial,
.
N
newly indeperident and non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America who
are
-
industrially backward. These countries are economically and technologically underdeveloped,

and are undergoing the process of nation-building and fast social transformation in the
post-
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colonial era, Against these backdrops, these countries have been
experimenting with diverse
models of development. For example, India has followed the path of “mixed
economy” by
adopting a path of development in
between the capitalist and socialist models
10.2.1.3- Need for Development

Social development: The succ to the well-being of each and every
citizen. Social development meai
U
or example, Skill India Mission.
Political development: The proc als acquire the knowledge, analytical
skills, emotional faculties, and the c. in political systems necessary to interpret
Q
and resist oppression. For example, rs' Education and Electoral Participation
(SVEEP) Portal for voter educatioy
Economic Development: Prograi that seek to improve the economic
well-being and quality of life for a ple, MGNREGA, PM SVANidhi for
street vendors.
R
[t
:
:
Technological development: affects the people and changes the
thinking, and communication, F
way of their learning,
icultural tools,,dams, railways, Al, IOT.
Health sector develop ht according to the Universal
Declaration of Human iSds"good Health allows"pedpleto reach their full potential,
children to be better able to learn, workers to be more productive and
G
parents to care for their

children better. For example, Ayushman Bharat Program.
10.2.1.4- Social Policy as hindrance to Social Development

N
1, Detinition of Social Policy: Marshall states that the

term, “Social policy refers to the policy
of governments with regard to action having a direct impact on the welfare of citizens, by
_
providing them with services or income.”

Social Policy acts as a hindrance to Social Development
KI
How
¢ Social Policy on religion: This represents Government policy on religious issues which
may hamper societal development. For example, Policy of non-interference in réligion in
temples led to non-entry of women in Sabrimala.
¢ Social Policy on Culture: Government policies might avoid bringing
revolutionary
changes in society to avoid social conflict. But
it
acts against their growth. For example,
non-criminalization of marital rape has negative effects for women of India. :
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| Telegram Channel: 'sunyanotesSO Page 485
—
¢ Social Policy on Technology: Acceptance of technology without analyzing its
ramifications can create troubles. For example, JL Nehru’s model of industrialization gave
fillip to dams. This led to displacement of tribals.
* Social Policy on Economy: Government policy of welfarism may bring wasteful
expenditures and increase fiscal deficit. For example, Revdi culture in India for Political
P
Gains.
¢ Social Policy on Environment: Government measures of environmental, wildlife, and
nature conservation might not guarantee social development. For example, SC ordered
eviction of forest dwellers in 2019 under Forest Rights Act, 2006.
Social Policy on Security: Sometimes, policies in the name of national interest, security
N
*
of state, friendly relations with foreign countries can be harmful for liberties of individual
development. For example, Internet shutdown in Kashmir in 2019 reduced e-commerce

and digital education.
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10.2,1,5- Theory of development: Modernisation theory
1. Definition: Modernisation is a concept
developed society and how
it
is bringig
t
ive detail about a common
ion in developing societies.
set
of assumptions in
2. Brief Background: Though exp wny African, Asian, and Latin American
countries remained poor after t Western officials, especially the US,
worried that communism could
U these countries, hurting American
corporate interests and weakeni in 1940’s modernization theory was
rty in developing word.
i
developed to provide non-communis
Q
3. Reasons for underdevelopment: As ion theorists, developing countries are
px
and social systems and wrong values

and practices. Other theorists focut
* Talcott Parsons: He highlig! in Africa, Asia and Latin America
es followed by western countries. They
R
are:
Values of Western Countries
idualism
Ascribed Status and Fatalism Achieved Status and Meritocracy

G
4. Views on Modernisation given by Various other thinkers

* Modernisation brings Transformation: As per Wilbert Moore, “modernisation is a
‘total’ transformation of a traditional or pre-modern society into the types of technology
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and associated social organisation that characterises the advanced, economically

prosperous and relatively stable nations of the Western World”.
* Modernisation brings connection in Urban and Rural Societies: In his major work The
KI
Passing of Traditional Society (1958), Daniel Lerner examined the process of

modernisation in several Middle East countries. He observed that connection between
urban and rural society is maintained and equal development takes place in both societies.
* Modernisation bring new economic order: Daniel Lerner’s view is that Modernisation
is a global process occurring in a similar manner all over the world, and the role of indices
of development like mass media, urbanisation, increase in
literacy, etc. are responsible for
the emergence of
a new economic order.
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—
¢ Modernisation brings Rationality: As per German sociologist Max Weber, he
emphasized that modern society is more rational than traditional society which is marked
by irrationality. For example, Indian society got modernized with modern values of
freedom, equality, secularism enshrined in the constitution.
5. Features of modernisation theory
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¢ Demarcation and specialisation: It is implied from this that social order is constituted
around two important classes - Capitalist, which owns the means of production, and the
Working Class, which sells its labour in this process. For example, rich class owns
factories, enterprises, etc while middle and lower class works as labour in their
N
organizations.
¢ Rules based on Democracy: highlights the development of It political system founded
on the conception of ‘right’. This idea became crystallised inside the concept of state and
a
was mediated by a set of constitutional rules. For example, right to citizenship is
EE
crystallized by state’s law of Citizenship Act, 1955 and constitutional rules under article 5-
¢ Individual choices are focused: Modernisation
process also emphasises the growth of
individualism. Individual rights are at the centre ofall social, economic and political
development. For example, in individual exercise more freedom: wrt
choosing a career, making fri te.
* Growth of bureaucracy: [ h of bureaucratic institutions, which
U
themselves are constructed nality and role differentiation: For
example, Role differentiation of hierarchy of officials, different
directorates under each departm
Q
* Anthony Giddens Model: He of a modern society-
o Industrialism
o Capitalism
o Nation State surveillance
o Military Power
R
6. Major dimensions of modernisation: There ate two main

aspects of modernisation theory:
e Its explanation of why,poor trigs,is underdeveloped.
ei
e Its solution®ternftietil Delonte
proposed
ROSTOW'S MODEL a
Rostow’s Stage of Economic Growth
eS
G
cat
Pate read :
DAuLENGAG
crt
:
Aretha
Teeter
ce et ey Ties) ad
SeeNltateseee
aal say
ieee
PMrcoeta tod
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Development
of
level
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eet
ite
Roce erty
7. Modernization theory- W.W. Rostow

¢ Adopt Modern Institutions: Modernization theory argues that low-income societies can
develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern
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economic institutions, technologies and cultural values that emphasize savings and
productive investment.
Traditionality impede Growth: According to Rostow, the traditional cultural values and
social institutions of low-income countries impede their economic effectiveness. For
example, People in low-income countries lack a strong work ethic. They would prefer
P
immediate consumption today than invest for the future. Moreover, low-income countries
generally have large families, as a result lew money for investment.
Multiple Stages: Rostow viewed economic growth as going through several stages, which
he likened to the journey of an aero plane:
o The traditional stage: It is characterized by low rates of savings, the supposed lack of
N
a work ethic, so-called fatalistic value system and subsistence farming. In this stage
there are cultural barrier to development.
o Preconditions for Take-Off: In this stage finally the old, traditional order and
EE
resistances are overcome. New forces, which trigger economic growth, expand and
dominate society. There is marked improvement in the agricultural production,
infrastructure and industries being d because of investment by western companies.
o Take off to economic growt hen poor countries begin to jettison their
traditional values and inst; ave and invest money for the future.
Profits are invested and n
o Drive to technological
U
advice from high income é
of economic growth would taxi down
the runway, pick up spee irborne. There is major investment in
education, health, other infra
Q
o High-mass consumption: would reach the phase of high mass
consumption. Now peop ruits of their labour by achieving a
high standard of living.
8. Modernization Theory- Gunnar
R
Market Expansion: Gunnar Myrdaf“€xplained that market expansion would cause

inequality to increase, both internationally and within nations, unless counteracted by
Technology Transféebe
d
ai Rey’te knowledge transfer from the West
is the meansfor industrialisation and modernization to happen in developing countries.
G
Lack of institutions: As per him, major causes of development deficit in the third world
are value deficit and institutional inadequacies.
9, Critical Evaluation of Modernisation theory of Development
N
Positive
© Simplicity of Expression: This theory has a clear objective that what is beneficial for
developed nations should also be beneficial for developing nations. In simpler words,
“W hat works for them should also work for them”. So, traditional societies only need
KI
to recognize what is needed to move towards modernity and let their culture evolve.
o Promotes Westernisation: This theory gives emphasis on development of
unclerdeveloped nations because they are the one who are living their lives under
traclitional conditions which is a hindrance for their development.
o Helps in Replacement of Poverty: Gives Emphasis by improving standard ofliving,
providing better resources, better infrastructure, and economic opportunities.
Negatives

© Teleological Approach: This approach is given by Rostow which says that policies
are the result of development and not vice versa. This is unacceptable to
many, as
policies of a state should be chosen and not just merely adopted as
many developing
countries are doing. For example, in the 2™ five-year plan of India, industrial
growth
was emphasized based on the model of Russian economy. However, the choice of
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village-led development was not considered.
© Non-uniform development: Critics have cited that there is no example
that develop in such a linear fashion as suggested by Rostow; some
any countryof
different paths.
skip steps or take
*
0 Top-down model: The model assumes development in the U.S. and Europe can be
N
copied elsewhere. This emphasizes a trickle-down modernization effect from urban
industry and western influence to develop a country as a whole. Later theorists have
emphasized a "bottom-up" development paradigm, in which countries become self.
EE
sufficient through local efforts, and urban industry is not
necessary.
o Uniform priorities: Rostow assumes that all countries have a desire to develop in the
same way, with the end goal of high mass consumption.
priorities of each society and d
It
disregards the diversity of
ures of development. For example, while
Singapore is one of the m perous countries, it also has one of the
highest income disparitie:
© Geographical vacuum:
U Icountries have an equal chance to
develop, without regard t6 ples of site, location population size,
natural resources. For examp s one of the world's busiest trading ports,
but this would not be possible"
Q
between Indonesia and M
tageous geography
as an island nation
o Obstacles to developm ized regions face exploitation of

resources, genocide, politi long periods of time, civil unrest,
extreme poverty, artificial bé For example, many African countries
R
like Ghana, Mali still exploited y

western countries.
¢ Conclusion: In spite of the many iti
id
es of Rostow's model,
it
is still one of the most
widely cited develo ample of the
4 igva
ra
pilmaty intersection of
geography, economie ~~)
G
10.2.2-Dependency Theory
1, Background: Raul Prebisch, Argentine Economist, is credited with propounding §the-.
Dependency Theory developed in
the late 1950s the Director of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin America. He was worried that wealthy industrialised countries’
N
economic progress did not inevitably benefit poorer nations.

2. What is
Dependency Theory: Theotonio Dos Santos, Brazilian Economist, emphasises the
historical dimension of the dependency. He defined
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Dependency as a historical condition

which shapes
the detriment aof certain structure of the world economy such that
it
favours some countries to
others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economics.
3. Features of Dependency Theories
¢ Dominant vs Dependency: First, dependency theorists divide the world into two
groups
of
states,which are sometimes called Dominant
vs
Dependent or the Centre vs Periphery
or metropolitan vs Satellite. The dominant states are the advanced industrial nations in the
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Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) like USA, Europe, etc
while dependent states are Latin America, Asia, and Africa.
* External Factors: Second, external factors are the most important thing for the economies
of the dependent states. These external factors include multinational firms, international
commodity markets, foreign assistance, communications, and any other means by which
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the advanced industrialised countries can represent their economic interests overseas.
¢ Relationship is dynamic: Third, relationships between dominant and dependent states are
dynamic because interactions between the two sets of states tend to reinforce and intensify
the unequal patterns.
is
a very old historical process that has its
N
¢ Capitalism main Cause: Lastly, dependence
roots in the spread of capitalism around the world.
4. Various Types of Dependency Theories
¢ Moderate dependency theory: Dependency theories say that the exploitation started with
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colonialism, which was a political and economic system set up by powerful countries for
their own gain. ‘
o Primary goods from Latin American countries are sent to countries with more advanced
industries. In industrialized ese raw materials are processed and
transformed into finished d goods are again sent to developing
.
countries, like those in Lat
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¢ Radical Dependency Theo ncy theorists says that motive force
behind the dependency relatio lism. Developing countries are seen as
place where the developed coun hed goods and also as a place to invest.
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o When developing countri from developed countries, the loan
repayments deteriorate th ally, developing countries become
“single commodity” export © olled by multinational companies for
their profits instead of the & dical dependency theorists hold that
the ‘underdevelopment’ of thé global south is a historical product.
R
o Here ‘underdevelopment’ as a conditio differs from undeveloped. Undeveloped is a

condition of lack ofdeyel
@
underdevelopment is
the result of exploitation by
another country. Vi
so
10.2.2.1-Raul Prebisch- Theory of Dependency

G
1. Introduction: His study suggested that economic activity in the richer countries often led to
serious economic problems in
the poorer countries.
2. Details: Raul Prebisch's initial explanation for the phenomenon was as follow:
N
¢ Export Primary Products: Poor countries exported primary commodities to the rich
countries who then manufactures products out of those commodities and sell them back to
the poor countries. For example, Brazil produces coffee, Chile produces Copper, Bolivia
extracts Bauxite, Cuba produces sugar, Peru extracts Silver and nitrates of different metals
KI
etc,
¢ No Economic Advantage: Manufacturing a functional product always costs more than the
raw materials used to make it. Thus, poorer nations could never earn enough from exports
to cover imports. part from Latin countries, other developing countries are also suffering
the same fate.
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1 -
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© For example, Argentina produces wheat. European countries, the US, Russia and
India
also produce wheat for the international market. Banana
also in many Asian countries
grown in is
Costa Rica and
¢ Balance of Payment against Developing Countries: Latin American countries
use their
primary commodities to buy manufactured goods. The prices of the manufactured
goods
P
are higher and a greater number of primary commodities are needed to buy
a few
manufactured goods, hence the balance of payment always favors developed countries.
¢ Raul Prebisch suggested following solutions:
© Import Substitution: Poor countries should embark on programs of import
N
substitution so that they need not purchase the manufactured products from the richer
countries. For example, soon after independence India during
become self-sufficient.
its
initial 5 year plans to
.
Regional Integration: Except for a few countries, most of the countries in Latin
EE
©
America are very small in size. Hence, he asked all the countries of Latin America
(even other developing countries in general) to come together while negotiating with
the US. For example, Forum for East Asia and Latin American
Cooperation
(FEALAC).
© Industrialization: Accor sch, the Latin American and other
developing countries ne order to reduce their dependency on
U
manufactured goods. Fo independence India embarked upon
manufacturing of heavy sen the dependence upon developed
countries.
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10.2.2.2 - Overall Evaluation of Depe
1. Positive side of Dependency
¢ Brings Inclusivity: Increasing ppears an inevitable social condition
and progress,is regarded as help! onnected nature of the world today. For
R
example, Peopie of developing countri ate-getting employment because of MNC culture.

¢ Better opportunities can be generated: Dependency theory forecast that the world
system will tend to the
1
relatively few transnational

corporations, makingét! can benefit developing nations
as they can grab this opportunity. For example, India emerged as international hub for
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service sector and pharmaceutical products.

¢ Take ~ off for better Future: At some stage, these incremental quantitative
changes may
produce a qualitative leap and take-off to
indigenous growth and development, gradually
N
diminishing the dependence. For example, India earlier imported food grains in 1950's and
1960’s but now it boosts of being self-sufficient in food production.
¢ Benefits of Colonialism: Goldethorpe (1975) said that countries like India that have been
KI
colonized have better transportation and communication networks than countries that have
never been colonized (Ethiopia).
¢ Capitalism V/s Communism: Theorists also argue that Aid-for-Development
programmes run by western governments have helped many developing countries. They
also say that countries that have adopted capitalist models of
development since World
War
II have grown faster than those that chose communism. For example, Japan aid to
India for high-speed bullet train,
2, Criticism of Dependency Theory:
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¢ Lack of proper explanation: The principal criticism of dependency theories has been that
the school does not provide any substantive empirical evidence to support its arguments.
¢ Lack of dimensions: It has also been said that dependency theories are highly abstract and
tend to use homogenizing categories such as developed and underdeveloped, which do not
fully capture the variations within these categories. 8
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e Lack of Ideology: A singular criticism, which is charged against the dependency theories,
is that they do not reflect the changed socio-economic and political situations of the
contemporary world.
*.
it
Neoliberalists: They argue that is mainly internal factors (corruption, poor governance)
N
that lead to underdevelopment, not exploitation. For example, According to Neoliberals
Africa needs less isolation and more Capitalism. -
¢ Bottom Billion: Paul Collier propounded the theory of about bottom billion. He says that
history of exploitation is not enough to explain why a country is not developing. He says
EE
that things like civil wars, racial tensions, and having poor neighbours are linked to
underdevelopment. Eg, Congo was underdeveloped because of civil wars and unrest.
Conclusion: Today, dependency theorist policies seem to have failed, and underdeveloped
countries are under pressure to ado licies that attract foreign investment for
modernization, which Marxists cri pendency theory is still used to analyse
economic inequality and recess mtemporary world.
U
10.2.2.3- World System Theo!
Introduction: World Systems Theory was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein (1979) and
Q
seen as a is a response to the critici . He applies Marxist concepts
of dialectical materialism and cla

nots and unequal economic exchary
2. About Theory: According
e
to this
Core Nations: Core Nations are
¥
those
divided into three types:
countries which have high skills and a high economy
R
and are much richer than other countries. They control wages and monopolize production
of goods. For example, Britain, France, Germany, and Holland come under this category.
¢ Semi~Periphery Natien§ Semi-Periphery Nations are those countries which do not
account for much higher skills, instead, it was dependent on core nations. They were
sluggish regarding trade growth and resemble core in terms of their urban centres but also
G
have rural poverty. Some of the examples are the countries around the Mediterranean,
including South Africa and Brazil.
¢ Periphery Nations: Those countries which were even lesser in development compared to
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above categories. They provide raw materials to core and semi-periphery countries. India
and some parts of Africa came under this category.
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Page 492
*. Position of Countries can Change: Further Wallerstein states
that countries can rise or
fall in the world system. Many peripheral
countries, including the BRICs, have become
semi-peripheral. Most countries stay peripheral and do not
rise, but the wealthy European
¢
ex-colonial powers are unlikely to slip down
The Modern World System is dynamic: Core countries
the
global order.
are always coming up with new
ways to extract profit from poorer countries and areas, Three new
from poor countries are as follows: ways to make money
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o Rules are unfair: Trade is unequal. Africa's largest economic
could produce and export more food to Europe and America, but
sector is agriculture.
the EU and US spend
It
billions subsidising local farmers, making imported African
items more expensive,
© Power decides economic base: Westetn countries sometimes
N
use their economic
powerto negotiate tax deals in the developing world that are good for them.
© Taking away Land: This is happening
all
over Aftica right now. When a western
government or company buys thousands of hectares of land in Africa to
grow food or
EE
biofuel crops to export back to western markets,
3. Critical Evaluation of World System Theory
© Positives
© Enhances knowledge aboy theory focuses on understanding origin
and expansion of capital example, the technology transfer of
HYV
seeds by USA
in de to agriculture capitalism.
o Globalization: As a hist
U /
sm has always integrated a variety of

labour forms within inte: an
flabour. Countries are part of the world
USA, Middle East. The Information
Q
dia serve clients of Silicon Valley.
o Promotes New develop le of leading industries or products,
These products enter into nopolies achieved bycore states. For
example, the cryogenic te
develop
its first.
o Wallerstein's peri
R
envisions the emf ry: After our current stage, Wallerstein

einriigfit. As per him, it is the only-
alternative world Meh level of productivity and
the distribution pattern of resources. change
©
Negatives
G
o Negkects cultural change: As

per R. Robertson and F. Lechner there is a world system
of global culture which is
entirely autonomous from economic
This theory gives significance to economic
of
processes Capitalism.
development only, neglecting dependence
due to cultural domination, For example, westernization
N
led to fast food culture in

India, thereby reducing local food joints selling parathas
© Multiple sources of underdevelopment: Wallerstein puts too much emphasis of
economics and the dominance of Capitalism. But there are other
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ways people can be

exploited and oppressed like corruption, ethnic conflicts, tyrannical
in Iran, Afghanistan etc. religious regimes
© Over Significance to External Factors: It overemphasised the
external forces and
positioning in the world economy in determining the fate of a country.
internal/ endogenous factors like class struggle in bringing about
change.
neglects It
1 | | 493 oe
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and Periphery are
o:. Vague concepts: Wallerstein’s concepts of Core, Semi-Periphery.
vague and this means his theory
is difficult to test in practise.
which t
e Conclusion: Wallerstein envisions the emergence of a socialist world-government, :
level of productivity and

is the only-alternative world-system that could maintain a high
and economic decision- \
change the distribution, by integrating the levels of political
making.
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10.2.2.4-.A.G. Frank’s Theory of Development of Underdevelopment
theorist’s assumption that
1. Introduction: As per A. G. Frank disagreed with the modernisation
traditional cultura! values, in fact the
developing countries fail to develop because of their
in a state of perpetual
mains reason as per Frank is that the developed West has kept them
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dependency by systematically under developing them.
Pa
EE
Py iam
U
Q
2, Snippets of Theory
orld capitalist system which started to form
* Capitalist System: Frank emphasize dependent on the
in the 16th century made Latin America, Asia, and Africa more and more
R
more powerful Eur J

“metropolis” or "core" nations
wealttiy,
e Organized into In hig” chia
fesk,
nations organized as
(European nations) and the underdeveloped "satellite" or "periphery"
their economic and military
an interlocking chain in this global Capitalist system. Due to
G
nations. Wealth accumulated by core

power, core states keep exploiting peripheral
countries is used for their overall development at
the same time keeping satellite nation in
state of destitute.
nation gets further
Colonialism acted as Catalyst: This dependence of developing
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¢
materials
accentuated in era of colonialism in which colonies where used for export of raw
and destinations of manufactured goods. Western countries prospered at
the expense of
developing countries.
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where there
© Neo Colonialism: Later, exploitation continued through Neo-Colonialism-
—
is no direct political control but exploitation happens in more subtle way.
For example,
MNC controlling economic policies of developing countries.
¢ Frank identified three main types of Neo-Colonialism:
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oO
Terms of trade: Firstly, the terms of trade continue to-benefit-
Western inter: :ts: It is
the processing of those raw materials which
adds value to them, and the
takes place mainly in the West. processing
:
© Domination of MNC’s: Second, Frank highlights the
increasing dominance of
Transnational Corporations in exploiting labour and
resources in poor countries.
Western Aid: Finally, Frank argues that Western aid
is
oO
money another means whereby

rich countries continue to exploit
poorcountries and keep them dependent on them.
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3. Critical Analysis of Theory
¢ Positive
:
© Role of Colonisation:
India, which was once
transportation and communication networks. a British colony, at least has good
Many countries that were never
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colonised, like Ethiopia, are much less
developed.
© Variable sum game: One need not accept dependency
as a necessarily zero-sum game
in which the periphery loses, and the
centre gains. The dependency condition provides
EE
Opportunities for a win-win game, in which both
developed. For example, developed
countries and LDCs gain from each other where Western
countries provides investment
and people of LDC gets employs
Htastructure development, etc.
¢ Negative
© Overemphasised on De remphasised the vertical relationship
d thereby ignores the historical
which sustain the depend ties,
U ample, eyen today western countries
control developing nations
some strings attached.
i etc by providing soft loans with
inka,
© Fluid boundaries: This thé to many nations which are neither in

Q
the periphery, nor in
the c imi periphery countries.
For example,
Israel, Poland, etc. S
fundamental contradictions of
in the field of circulation rather than} a society
Odliction, with the result that his theory "can
no more than halfway towards an go
R
explanation of why development generates

y
©
underdevelopmert”
Corruption oeundersde
lk
is reasbfi,for LW.
within governments that is mainly to blame for the ayargued
felopm corruption that it is
lack of development in
African countries. For example, South Sudan, Somali many
are one of the most corrupt
G
countries as per recent Corruption Perception Index by

Transparency International.
© Dimensions Are Uncovered: They also
say that the theory focuses too much on
economic factors and does not take into consideration the
country’s political, social,
cultural and environmental factors that might be
N
contributing to underdevelopment. For

example, north African country like Libya was underdeveloped because
tule for more than 40 years. of dictatorship
Solution to the problem of Dependency: As
/
©
per Andre Gundur Frank, the only way
is
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developing countries can escape

dependency to escape from the whole capitalist
system. He also suggested different paths to development such follows: as
" Breaking away from dependency:
~~ Isolation: China (1960 to 2000) successfully
emerging as a global economic
superpower having isolated itself from the West for the
past 4 decades.
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e
War IJ, when Britain
- Break away: India broke away from Britain after World
intial phase, but now it is one
was a weak country. India faced trouble during ,
world.
of the countries that is growing the fastest in the
Cuba. However, America
— Socialist revolution: This happened in Cuba. In
sanctioned the country, limiting trade and development.
be of the system and
= Associate or dependent- development: Here, you can a part
substitution model into place. Many
help the economy grow by putting the import
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with it. The biggest mistake
South American countries used this model and did well
within the countries.
was that it didn't do anything about the inequalities
* ‘Conclusion: This theory does not mean that the dependency approach
cannot used as abe
wealth. On the contrary, it has illustrated
conceptual orientation to the global division of
N
are still applicable for
that several thoughts and concepts from the dependency approach
world.
making sense of global inequalities in today’s globalised
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10.2.2.5- Displacement induced by Development
:
1. Definition of Displacement: Displacement refers to the

forced movement people from their of
i is also interchangeable with the term forced
home, or country of origin. Displ ;
ecseenaiit
migration.
-e According to Mid-Year Treg e United Nations High Commissioner
were internally displaced across 33
for Refugees (UNHCR), ned nillion
int
U st'srx months of 2021.
countries due to conflict and vit
2. How development cause displacemeh rural

e, class, rich and poor, job, urban
J
e Social Factor: In society many and

reate conflict of thoughts, action
Q
divide promotes major displag
which leads to displacement. men migrate from villages cities to
leaving behind their wives.
itical parties are main reasons for
e Political Factor: India is a
¢
stable from the time of independence. For

displacement because politically things are not
witnessed two major armed conflicts —
R
example, since independence, north-east India has

Council of Nagaland, and the
the Naga movement primarily led by the National Socialist
and now largely taken over by the
Assam movement led by the All Assam Students Union
extremist United Liberation Front of Assam.
displacement
Environmental Factor: It is the most important factor which promotes
G
«
because the environment is
beyond control and natural disaster is a common phenomenon
displaced by
faced by people all over the world. For example, coastal population gets
rising sea level around islands.
other circumstances to leave
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« Economic Factor; When people are forced by conflict or

their homes, they usually also leave behind their means
of economic activity and
subsistence. For example, Tata Nano’s project in Singur, West Bengal led
to displacement
of farmers from their lands
if
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have in a society but

* Cultural Factor: Identity is a thing which everyone wants to
from where they belong. For
alienation is felt by individuals they move back to place
but once they cannot relate with their
example, South Indian people going to North India
own culture, they move back to their home town.
who are most affected by
* Other Factors: Tribals and people in rural areas are the ones which induce
induced by development. Various development projects
displacement
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displacement are dams, roads, industries, mining etc. The problem is'‘not
only displacement
but also the failure of rehabilitating them. For
example, displacement due to dam across
Narmada River (Narmada Bachao Andolan).
3. Conclusion: Looking in the world
today and also in the past,
induced displacement is inevitable, Construction it
is inevitable that development
projects such as making dams, roads,
irrigation and the power sector are important both in
political and economic sense. Hence
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development has induced displacement has its own advantages and
4. Way forward disadvantages.
¢ Need for Proper policy Implementation: India needs to formulate migration centric
policies, strategies, and institutional mechanisms in order to
ensure inclusive growth and
development and reduce distress induced migration. For example, One Nation
N
One Ration
Card.
¢ Providing Justice: The government at Centre needs to provide amenities and
social
for Internally displaced population, which riddled with the issues of inadequate
securities
is
EE
housing; low-paid, insecure or hazardous work; extreme
vulnerability of women and
children
to trafficking and sex exploitation etc.
10.2.2.6- How Technology Has Acceleratg

Introduction: Technology 5s
nternet has improved culture in
underdeveloped nations. Dem ve improved due to faster, easier
communication. Globalization p
U
areness and diversity, minimising
development and dependency.
. Thinkers View:
Q
¢ Alvin Toffler: The social cha
evidently perceived in at least three
'
Significant parts in modern soi
n, human's consumption of energy
and the acceleration of econo
dge therefore, is the fuel for change,
whereas technology is its engine inges that resulted from knowledge and
technology has created what Toffler caffed'as"iransience! in which everything is
R
temporary
~ in fact he
argues forthe death ofpermanence,
¢ Joseph Schumpete
dismantling of long- a people
Hlactices/indotder
kinds of products, new methods of production, and
to
new means of distribution.

way
destruction" to describe the
for new technologies, new
Ways Technology accelerate Development and reduce

G
Dependency
¢ Boost Nation Economy: Internet and other advances in communication
technology have
helped make the spreading of globalisation even quicker. For
developing countries, access
to technology can have many benefits one such improvement
being the boost of nation’s a
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economy. For example, Digital connectivity has boosted e-commerce of various

companies. This boosts production.
¢ Equal access of Innovation in Society to all: Developing countries
must not only adapt
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to technology but also ensure proper distribution of

technology needs to
as it will bring innovation in field of space technology,
across a country all
artificial intelligence, robotics and
will create better employment opportunities for
people in society. For example,
engineering students making satellites which are launched by ISRO.
¢ Development of Rural Society: Development has reduced dependence
as various
companies that give internet access to rural areas and
encourages programs
technology in creating progress in communities. When technology is used
utilise the to
correctly it can
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}
be extremely helpful in furthering the prosperity of economies.“For example, Technology
has brought energy in rural areas with solar panels in
India. This ensures energy security.
and their
¢ Helps In Women Empowerment: Technology has changed lives of women
picture in society which was not clear earlier has now improved. They are now part of
so
the social system and the contribution of women has increased in each and every sphere of
life. For example, Hand in Hand Partnership (HIHP) is
an organisation that provides
P
businesses.
women with mobile devices so that they can launch their own tech-driven
¢ Creating Employment Opportunities: Countries like India which has huge population to
feed with limited resources, technology can act as a boon solving employment
lot of
problems. For example, Food delivery aggregate like Zomato, Swiggy provided
employment to people by employing them as delivery executives.
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¢ Less dependence upon Developed Nation: With breakthrough in technology, now even
without any
developing nations are able to expand their horizon and achieve unthinkable
rocket engine to
support from western world. For example, ISRO developed cryogenic
EE
launch satellite in space thus reducing dependency on western nation to launch Indian
satellites.
4. Conclusion: As humans venture int increasingly important for engineers to
operate in a more conscientious er, and for end-users to create a balance
between the usage of technologi shioned techniques for getting things
done in a more healthy, producti
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10.3-Agents of Social Change
10.3.1- Social Change
Q
1. Definition: According to Wilbert is the significant alteration of social
structure ie. patterns of socia ions including consequences and
manifestations of such structure: values and cultural products and
symbols".
2. Features: Not all changes are social change:
=al Changes are series
. .
of continuous ongoing
:
R
processes. They are not necessarily revolutiona can be slow and depends on
the nature society. For
e¢
CaseI - Change is s é
5
* Case II - Change leading to substantial change in social structure & functions —

o Industrial Revolution: Adoption of factory system leading to migration of people
G
from rural to urban areas for further leading to overcrowding of cities and emergence
of slums. :
o French Revolution: It led to abolition of class system and emergence of concepts

of
N
equality, liberty and fraternity.

3. Causes: The causes of social changes can be categorized into -
¢
-
Endogenous Internal to society (Ex: Political rule, charismatic leadership, etc.).
-
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¢ Exogenous - Factors which are beyond the control of human beings natural disasters etc.
(Example: External war, migration, earthquake, global warming, etc.)
Difference between Social Change and Social Transformation
Social Change Social Transformation
It is essentially concerned with minor and It connotes deep and far-reaching change that alters
persistent changes in the society the way of life of the people within a limited span
of time.
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|-Social-change is viewed as gradual or Social transformation implies a fundamental
a
incremental changes over period of time. change in society,
a
.
Example: Changes brought about in the Example: Change of society and/or state, usually
patterns of family, marriage, and with a larger scale, through agents such
educational institution. as
revolution,
4. Various Agents of Social Changes
is
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©
Cultural Factors— W.F. Ogburn of the opinion that social change occurs in culture and
cultural evolution is the result of following
© Invention: According to Ogburn, Invention
process of social change
is
in society. For example, Invention of machines
-
the new application of existing elements
during the Industrial Revolution led to
mass production- social relationship became contractual than
N
earlier.
© Diffusion: It refers to the spread of cultural from
aspects one group to another
group. For example, Westernization significantly impacted Indian
British Rule in India by influencing the habits of individuals — Society due to
EE
Western clothing — Jeans,
Shirts etc.
Discovery: The revelation ofpr viously unknown elements/phenomenon is
©
known as
discovery. For example, Disc Htibiotics like penicillin led to reduction
number of deaths due to of
thus death rate declined so chances for
oy
survival of new-born becd

* Political Factors - :
U
© Legislations: Political fa 0- economic order through tools like
legislations, laws and policies aws prohibiting social evils like
Child
matriage, Sati, untouchability etc.:
Q
© Elections: The role of élect{ duals to participate in the democratic
political process is an imp
ange. For example, In India general
election is held in every §
és active participation of citizens in
democratic process wherein th
a yower to change the regime.
© Policies: Also, the nature of govern
plays a major role in creating an environment
R
of change. With speci ideologies and vision of ruling parties, the nature of
eel
that leads to soci policy
mandatory for women’
el
aya 2
For
hoa 6,.laliban government makes
it
¢ Economic Factors -
© Social change: Karl Marx believes that social
G
change is basically the result of

economic factors. The mode of production determines
the political aspect of society. For example, social
the social, cultural, religious and
change
communist society because of conflict between Bourgeoise and
terms in of
establishment of
proletariat class,
N
© Cascading effect: Industrialization which took place in the 17th Century in

a domino effect across the global Europe had
economy. Industrialization not only transformed the
production sector but also led to social changes like
emancipation and involvement of
women into economic spheres, class and caste structure weakened etc.
KI
For example, In
India, around 45% of employees in IT sector are women.
o Emergence of middle class/Emergence of new classes: Evolution of middle class in
Society
due to increased economic status due to availability of wide
employment
OpPortunities which previously was limited. For
example, Rise of Manager, doctors,
Lawyers, Teacher, etc.

© Increased Inequalities: The Green Revolution led to increased’ agricultural yields:
section of
However, the result of the green revolution was limited. Only a particular
could afford inputs like tractor, high yielding seeds etc which further widened
society
revolution. For example,
inequalities in society. Poor farmers were untouched by green
big farmers evict tenants and cultivate farms with tractors.
technology as
Technology - William Ogburn in his concept ofcultural lag has explained
P
changing our
an important agent of social change. Technology changes society by
environment to which we, in turn, adapt. This change is
usually in a material environment
and social
and the adjustment we make to these changes often modifies customs
institutions. For example, the development of the internet has made communication
effortless, easy and broadened the horizon of knowledge to mankind.
N
Urbanization -
define urbanization as the
o Complex socio- economic process: Wallace and Wallace
movement people from rural areas to cities. Urbanization
of is
assumed to be a complex.
EE
&
socio- economic process which involves increase in concentration, intensification
integration of varied human activiti
o Mixing of heterogenous popy 0 the process of industrialization, people
have started moving to urbg ch of job opportunities. A large, dense &
areas gives rise to varied socio -
Ban
heterogeneous mixture 9!
economic changes. For e ion to urban area, there is reduced social
U
support, etc.
Modernization: Modernizati changes associated with application of
science & technology. S. N. both -
Q
Structural aspects of socia xample, LPG reforms in 1991 in India
impacted structure of India Indian Market to private investors
of Indian market globally.
which further led to free floy
s ple, The LPG reforms led to generation
jon
o Socio-economic aspects of
of employment which in turn re “decrease in poverty and increase in living
Individuals.
R
standards of
bhp ssfOf b ermized give importance to

¢
Rational thinking: Be dG
science and technologys’This’e bles then “tethink'the relationship between individuals
and existing social processes & institutions like marriage, family, religion etc.
Modernization indicates changes in
habits, speaking styles, tastes, preferences, values etc.
G
of people. For example, In Navtej Singh Johar vs Union of India (2018), the concept of
be caused due to
Homosexuality was decriminalized which previously was considered to
mental disorder.
N
Environmental Factors: Sudden natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,

such
floods etc, have had a drastic impact on societies. Often the changes caused due to
in coastal
catastrophic events are permanent and irreversible. For example, people living
areas, the destruction caused due to tsunami can be such that they can return to their
KI
never
previous livelihoods. However, is not necessary that the changes are always destructive
it
in nature, The discovery of oil in the middle east area changed the economy of countries
like Kuwait, UAE ete.
Demographic Changes:
o Population dynamics: Change in the nature of the population can itself be
considered
asa. social change. It can be caused due to change in death rates, birth rates, and changes
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in population of members of reproductive
age. A stable population can resist change
but a dynamic population needs to migrate and adapt according
example, China due to
its ‘one - child policy’ has been witnessing slow to
the change. For
growth rate
which has further impacted the China’s labor force,
o Age Group: The rate of population growth will be slower
if
children make up the
majority of the population. Adults are most regulated group, therefore if they
P
out
number anybody else, change will come quickly. Conflict in
society affects older
people more, thus, they resist change.
¢ Charismatic Leadership: Several sociologists like Max Weber have associated
the
presence of charismatic leadership with social change. The effect of leadership can be
N
understood with the extent of the level of persuasion that the leader
exerts over his
followers through means of verbal skills. They are driven
by their convictions and
commitment to their cause. For example, Nelson Mandela was an influential leader who
EE
successfully united the South African community against the repressive
policy of
Apartheid,
¢ Planning: Planning is considered to be of significant importance
policies, resource allocation and
in
influencing decisions,
tool through which social chary
U on to the process of development. is theIt
policies in such a way that incoi or newly independent India.

* Migration: Migration consists ple from one place to another, It can be
caused due to several possible rea
Q
tunities for work, education, healthcare
facilities etc. involves exchange nd ideas. As people move from one
place, they carry their distinct: Migration of Indians from India to
other countries in search of bette
- urban migration, the urban are
d to ‘Brain Drain’. Also, due
to
rural
extremely populated resulting in lack of
R
resources,
Social Movement: Neil JSmelser defines social movement
¢
to generate or resist Social S Sd fal
as an organized group effort
of e
f
been launched depending on

focused purposes. These Mevements aim (6° fing roblem into the limelight. For
example, MeToo Movement on twitter became prominent where women came forward
G
with their stories of sexual assault through social media,

¢ Globalization: Globalization can be defined as the process in which the social
the societies is increasingly affected by international influences based
life within
on everything from
political and trade ties to shared music, clothing styles and mass media. For example, the
N
trend of Hip Hop Dance, Rap music etc. in India is a result of globalization.
* Development: Itrefers to any structural and formal changes
in
a society. Ideas of various
models of development have beca debated, It includes progressive changes
in
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society,
Development does not necessarily include creation of infrastructure but
any positive
change in an individual's behavioural aspect that further affects the status in society,
quo
at
For example, ‘Beti Bachao Beti Padhao’ Scheme of Indian Government aims bringing
behavioural changes towards rights of girls and girl education in a patriarchal society like
India.
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—
© Internal Conflict: Any tension or conflict within society can lead to social change. For
example, recent regime change in Afghanistan has led to changes like mass movement of
Afghani people to neighbouring countries, decline in status of women in Afghanistan etc.
¢ Laws: Laws are tools through which social changes are carried out. The role of law is to
bring uniformity in treatment of individuals in the eyes of law. Indian Constitution which
enshrines democratic values like equality, justice, liberty, fraternity etc. that prohibits
P
discrimination in terms of sex, place of birth etc. For example, Article 17 of Indian
Constitution aims in abolition of untouchability so The Untouchability (Offence) Act, 1955
was enacted.
Values and Beliefs: Weber in
his work Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism proposed
N
e
that some historicalsituations, doctrines or ideas may independently affect the direction of
social change. Conflict over incompatible values and beliefs can be an important source of
change. For example, Weakening of caste system in india because of penetration of
EE
education.
10.3.2-Social Conflict - Cause and Consequences of Social Change

1. Definition: Social conflict is the struggle for agency or power within a society to gain control
of scarce resources. It occurs when two or more people oppose one another
in social interactions, reciprocally exerting social power in an effort to attain scarce or
U
incompatible goals, and prevent 1 ponent from attaining them. For example, the Black
Lives Matter movement (USA) led to reforms
which
in
police and judicial departments.
Social Conflict as a cause of Social Change
Economic factors: Marx was of the opinion that conflict arose due economic factors. He
Q
¢
suggested that class struggle between the haves and the have nots led to the conflict and
the dominance of the superior class was reflected upon all
the social organisations, thus,
leading to status quo between the haves have nots. For example, Conflict between
and
workers and owners/controllers 6f Bf iled’to the social invention of trade union.

R
¢ Cultural factors: Often social conflicts arise due to differences in cultural beliefs and
values. For example, the establishment of Taliban Regime in Afghanistan is a classic
example of the gap between Islamic Extremists and the democratic values.
¢ Religion Factors: It can be understood through existence of conflicting situations in
various parts of the world. For example, Conflict in Middle East Asia die to difference
G
between Shias and Sunnis — Two sects among Muslims. This has affected peace and
stability in the region. Also, the bloody partition of [India and Pakistan was majorly based .
on religious differences ~ Hinduism & Islam.

N
¢ Political Ideologies: Conflict arising due to ideologies followed by sections of society can
influence the policies and actions taking place in the society. For example, the Cold War
between USA and Soviet Russia divided the globe on the basis of ideological difference of
Capitalism and Communism. Due to Cold war, development was largely neglected and
KI
huge amount ofrevenues were spent on war and military technologies.

¢ Gaining Power: Power is a driving force having potential for guiding social changes. For
example: Imperialistic policies of Britain shaped histories of Britain’s colonies. The
reflection of Supremacy of whites over natives ofIndians created a notion of inferiority
Indian lifestyles —
among Indians thus, leading to adaptation on western practices into
Modern English Education, Western Clothing ete
3. Social Conflict as Consequence of Social Change
-
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* Economic Factors: Social change due to economic reasons can result into conflicts
in the
society. For example, Industrialization and subsequent rise of capitalism and
imperialism
had resulted in competition for colonial possessions. Such
a scenario had resulted into
conflicts among colonial powers which ultimately culminated into world
wars,
¢ Cultural Factors: Often, Individuals
belonging
to
particular cultural background perceive
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potential threat to their culture, traditions and values due to actions/events related
to other
community. This results in conflict of interests between communities
leading to social
instability. For example, Anti Romeo Squads initially launched for
later accused of moral policing boys and girls
safety of women was
spending time together in public
consensually.
N
* Religious Factors: Due
to
the resistance to social change caused due
social conflicts can arise. For example, Raja Ram Mohan to
religious reasons,
Roy’s Brahmo Samaj was the
first attempt to reform the Hindu Society. It condemned
caste system, practice of Sati, etc.
EE
In response to Brahmo Samaj, Dharma Sabha
was created by Radhakanta Dev which
consisted of orthodox Brahmins who were against Roy’s reforms.
¢ Political Factors: The policies and ammes of a nation is largely affected by the
political ideology of the majorit
reservation was upliftment
policy of reservation has beed
of uf
for individuals with merit,

U
nd for reservations from: different
communities leading to confli
* Gaining Power: The
competiti the super powers of the world to form
colonies. For example, Britain
Q
jan traditional ways of life leading to
social change ~ Modern Edu Iture, Economy, Transportation etc.
However, the imperialism of B
eginning of India’s freedom struggle
for an Independent India.
is
:
4. Conclusion: Social change a uni taking place around us through agents

R
like technology, education, globalization,

“urbanization, modernization etc. With the
development of Society, nature of agents of social change also
the
evolves, Thus, it can be
concluded that social ¢ ,
d
ciety. However, the pace of
change may vary.
G
10.4-Education And Social Change
10.4.1-What is Education
N
Education is a social institution that imparts cultural

norms, fundamental academic knowledge, and
learning skills to society's children.
It can be formal (school, college etc.) and informal (family, media,
religion etc.). It
helps in changing the basic outlook of a person towards society and thus changes the
KI
established patterns of social relationships, attitude/values

ofa
person and also structure of society.
10.4.2-Thinkers view of Education
* Brings Social Solidarity: As per Emile Durkheim education
and values. It creates social
is
transmission of society’s norms
solidarity - the welding of a mass of individuals into aunited whole.
Individuals learn to cooperate with those who
learning to respect rules and exercise self-control.
are
neither their kin nor their triends. It helps in
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oh
toe
‘e Create a new cultural climate: As per Antonio Gramsci; possibility of social change largely
preceded by
‘depends on the education ofthe. working class. Political revolutions are always
educate
the creation of a new cultural climate, so he was: always insistent on the need to
workers. ‘
a : moe,
education can play a vital role in

¢ Brings structural change: As per, K. Ahmad, formal
‘'ideational' change through transformation of knowledge, attitudes and values of the people, its
P
effectiveness in bringing about. structural changes in society is extremely. limited.
This is
and vested.
because of the linkages between the existing practices and procedures in education
interests of the status - quoists.
:
of education
« Brings social mobility and equality: As per, A.R. Desai questioned the validity
N
education has not
as an instrument ofsocial change. His contention is that after Independence,
and funding
been purposely geared to obtain the desired changes. He has criticised the policies
and financing of education to
attain the goals ofsocial upliftment.
EE
e Brings values and ethics in society: As per, Talcott Parsons
schools serves as a miniature
social integration.
society where a child learns universalistic values which are necessary for
e Transmits values in modern industrial society: As per Parsons, as
society moves from
traditional to modern, education helps.i ctive role allocation as per meritocracy,
i
i
a value consensus and promotes spolitical system, family, religion ete.
10.4.3-Functions of Education
U
1. Social Functions .
e Social development: Education makes children aware of society’s language, customs,

of living, ethics, thinking etc. and sensitise them towards the good and bad of the
Q
method
society and further help in adjusting init. 43of language for the exchange of ideas
¢ Physical development: It provides the knowledge
of learners, and the knowledge of the different subjects so that they can make sense of the
‘
material world and the spiritual world them.

around
x change by providing right knowledge and

R
¢ =Instilling desire for change: Creating

sharpening their thinking. Education does it
by providing right knowledge, information and
skill to the people through its
formal education institutions (schools, universities, etc.) and
Informal institutions (Mass media, family, peers etc.). For example, an educated person
challenging the caste system of India.
G
the attitude of
Accelerating the process of human progress: Education assists altering
¢
in
traditional beliefs,
people in the right direction by which people. can fight superstitions,
don't believe that black magic can cure
prejudices etc. For example, educated people
N
snakebite.
the people to welcome
* Develop Critical thinking: Education creates sound conditions for
and adopt social change by highlighting good things, utilities and desirability of it to the
and adopt change in
people. Education promotes the capacity of the individuals to accept
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ameaningful way which develops criticalthinking and understanding of society ina

critical
way. For example, breaking down the
caste system because it
is divisive in nature.
2. Intellectual Functions :
:
« Mental development: of a healthy mind in a healthy

According to Aristotle, “The creation
body is education’. Physical development is
a universal objective of education.
* Connection between self and social world: Pursuit of man to know himself and the
universe and to relate himself with the social world. So, building up capacities among
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individuals is one of the important functions of education
towards social change. For
example, education helps people to grow and develop perspective about social
change in
society and accordingly development ofattitude takes place.
Integral growth of personality traits: Education provides broader view and
helps in
understanding positive and negative aspects of individuals and brings
change which is
beneficial for overall development. For example, Illiterate
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person will indulge in stealing
but an educated person believes in working hard to achieve
his/her goal.
Moral development and character formation: Both the moral education and
character
building are related to the overall behaviour of man, which is
an important objective of wee
education.
:
N
Both Vivekananda ji and Gandhiji have emphasized character
.
©
building in education.
Various characteristic qualities like honesty, devotion,
charity etc. are developed in
children through education.
EE
3. Cultural Functions
e Cultural development: Every society has its own culture, and through education
people
transfer their cultural heritage from generation to generation. For
example, making of
Traditional
dedicated
Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)
to is
an Indian digital knowledge repository
traditional knowledge. particularly medicinal plants and formulas
Indian medical systems. 2
eee utilised in
.
of
Transfer
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social heritage: Transfers its knowledge, prevailing
trends, public policies
and foundational paradigms of soci from
ion
one generation to its next generation

takes place through education. ™
Q
Develop tolerance to diverse,id @§:)Socio-religious reform movements in India
ae
and
abroad were initiated and guided by. education to ameliorate the
conditions of people in
general. In other words, the progress of society solely depends on education. For
educated person from upper caste em athising with discriminated downtrodden example,
section of
the society
R
4. Economic Functions
Vocational training: Bread, cloth and house are the most fundamental
requirements of
any human being, so fulfilling these needs by education becomes an important
& Wi Finan
objective of education. # a?
* Overall Economic Growth of Nation: An
PA LF ae
increase in the proportion of students who
G
complete their secondary school has a positive effect on India's overall economic
growth,
particularly for country's female population. The economic development of
a society
entirely depends on the system of this education. Alfred Marshall
rightly states that ‘no
to
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change would conduce so much a rapid increase of material wealth as on improvement

in our schools
how well its people are educated, Alfred Marshall a

Development of Society: The economic growth of society is completely
dependent on
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rightly pointed out that, "No change

would lead to faster rise in material wealth as much as improving
5. Pol litical Functions our schools."
.
Citizenship training: To train children in such a way that they can discharge
all their civic
duties and responsibilities well.
It develops clear thinking, clarity of writing and speaking,
art of living community life, spirit of support and tolerance and
development of patriotism
and world citizenship.
$50 “Page 505
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}
in
* Culiivating harmony and peace: By broadening the visions of people, helping
in
shedding parochial attitude, stimulating cosmopolitan thinking which brings harmony
mind and changes the attitude of people and develop positive thinking. For example,
Education helps in promoting feelings of brotherhood among Hindu and Muslims.
in the
Brings change in terms of equality: Education is the key which brought change
mind of people that each and every one is equal no one should be discriminated against on
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the basis of gender, caste, race, etc. For example, Equal pay for equal work irrespective
of
gender, caste, etc.
10.4.4-How Education Brings Social Change
1. Individual level
N
* Girl/Women: Increases in
the amount of
female education in regions tends to
correlate with
number of social benefits,
high levels of development. Educating girls/women leads to a
which results in social change. For
including many related to women's empowerment
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example, Education helps women/girls make informed decisions.
General: Education changes the outlook and helps them take a rational approach towards
social and economic problems. Technical education helps in the process of industrialisation
which results in vast changes in society. FoPexample, an educated man respects
the rights
of women and asks for their opinion
i
f mily decision.
Rights to Marginalised sect idacation has given various incentives to
U it also brings social mobility among
SC/STafter post-independenc
them first in the public sector they got jobs in the private sector and
they themselves have got vario hich brought good results in the field of
ample, 22% quota of reservation in
Q
agriculture and other smail-scals
various government jobs for S fully employed.
2. Social level
Marriage: Girls who receive an education are less likely to marry young and more likely
|
decisions that
to lead healthy, productive lives. They earn higher incomes, participate in the
most affect them, and build better futures for themselves and their families. For example,
R
educated women ate now focussing more on their career development than getting married
early.
Family: This instituti
e
inesALY
SD a
-si
niffesnt chahgesthrough education because when
education thrives, the thinking process of family changes which helps in developing
G
educated family
harmony and peace of mind among family members. For example, in an
both boys and girls are treated equally.
almost all
Migration: Educated people have enabled the placement of Indian diaspora in
brain drain. Education also
parts of the world, This not only leads to lobby politics but also
N
leads to rural-urban migration for seeking better employment opportunities in consonance

with educational credentials. For example, educated Indians sending remittances from West
Asia
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3. Economic level
LPG Reforms: Educated people easily get gainfully employed because the opportunity of because
provided by the LPG reforms. Moreover, People are also moving to faraway places
ofthe opportunity provided by globalization in search for a better standard of living. Hence
education helps in overall growth of the economy. For example, an educated person gets
hired easily thereby improving their standard of living. This in turn contributes to overall
growth of the country
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* Industrialisation: Vocational training programs
at
the high school level were started to
produce the skilled manpower needed for sustenance of industrialisation. For
example,
Government funding for start ups which
a young age.
is
started by youth to bring more entrepreneurs at
¢ Green Revolution: Education has generated skills among

the help of new technology tremendous increase in
high class farmers hence with
P
crop produce, Reduction of import food
grains , benefits to farmers and industrial growth was achieved which. brought
in the Indian economy. For example, the Krishonnati
social change
green revolution Yojana was launched
by the government
4. Political level
to
boost the agriculture sector and educate farmers
at
grassroots level.
N
* Awareness among common people: Education makes common people
aware of their
rights. It fosters the democratic temper in
the minds of the people making them more active
participants in democratic processes like elections ensuring transparency in
governance. For
EE
example, an educated person through RTI can seek information from
any government
organization.
¢ Dalit movement: Ambedkar gave the call “Educate, Organize and
agitate”. Even Dalit
literature, try to compare the past si its to the present and future generation and
ot caste literature but is associated with
change, through a democratic social
movement.
U
o For example, Ambedkar bé] ation would help to know the truth of
Brahmanism in Indian society, hem agitate against caste based inhuman
practices.
Q
For example, Vaikom Saty
o
abolish the ban on low cas
5. Cultural level:
¢ Widow Remarriage: Tradition
live in isolation. But with education:
R
thinking develops which prompts common

ne@f
people to accept the fact that every human being has the right to live a
dignified life. Thus,
now widow remarriag exame du Widows’ Remarriage Act
1856 allows widow
:
¢ LGBT Rights: Education foste traditionally LGBT people have not
G
been given equal treatment and rights by both

governmental actions and society's general
opinion. For example, LGBTQ community got entitled to constitutional
rights by the
Supreme Court because educated people understand the meaning
6. Religious level: With significant of rights.
spread of education, the importance of religion has been
N
decreasing significantly. Now religion has been reduced to a private

sphere. Thus, the life of
an educated person has become more secular than religious. Education has
made people focus
more on this worldly affair like career development, etc than
adhering to religious tenets. For
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example, the dress code of every person has become secular and bears
religious ideologies.
no resemblance their to
7. Environmental Level: Education instills
the consciousness of sustainable living with the
environment. Jt enables the values of
reuse, reduction, and recycling. For example,
Rabindranath Tagore’s model of education in Shantiniketan
was premised on nature-based
living, celebration ofworld environment
day in schools
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} \
the
8.. Technological Level: Educated creates a class of digital entrepreneurs. They revolutionize
model of traditional education by the influence of technology. For example, digital Media has
accelerated knowledge democratisation through distance-learning courses.
10.4.5-Critical evaluation of Education
P
1. Positive comments
is a process which
¢ Brings change in behaviour: As per Francis. J Brown, education
enables individual to effectively participate in the activities of society and makes a
every
positive contribution to the progress of society.
rules in schools,
Agent of transmission of social norm: As per Durkheim by respecting
N
¢
children learn to respect norms of the society and they learn to be part of larger change.
Thus, it transforms both specific and general values.
in miniature and
© Helps in social integration: As per Talcott Parson, schools are society
EE
education plays a key role allocation in an increasingly specialised industrial economy.
While in the family the child is judged on particular standards and in school the child learns
universalistic values.
e More meritocratic: As per func ive, Education is more meritocratic now
than in the 19th century. Edu work focused with more vocational
qualifications and apprentice
U an did a study on social mobility in
e Social Mobility: In 1967, P
America. They found that a ion was the most important factor in
whether or not he moved up in ne better off than his father. A high level
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of education is valuable and ha:
e Equal Opportunity: M.S. Gog
opportunities in three importa
o By creating opportunities
desire and the ability to be pro
R
o By preparing a contentj of education

scientific and pr:
o By establishing
provide equal opp
2. Negative comments
G
© Cultural reproduction: As per Pierre Bourdieu education is benefitting only the top class
of the society and the major role of the education system is possession of dominant culture
educational
as Culture capital i.e those who have wealth and power can get access to better
N
institutions.
¢ Feminist perspective: As per Mc Robbie and Sue Lee, schooling reproduces appropriate
feminine roles in girls. Schools saw their tasks as preparing girls for family life and
responsibilities and boys for future employment, thus reproducing the gender stereotypes
KI
prevailing in society.
¢ Not fulfilling actual role: As per John Dewey, the father of the progressive movement of
academic
education, through the educational system students would fail to acquire basic
skills and knowledge. He said curriculum should be relevant to student lives.
¢ Promotes social inequality: From the point of view of conflict theory, tracking and
make social
standardized tests, as well as the effects of education's "hidden curriculum,"
the unwrittert
inequality worse. As per Bowles and Gintis, the Hidden Curriculum refers to
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rules, valucs and normative patterns of behaviour which students
are expected to conform
to and learn while in school. The hidden curriculum is
geared toward the privileged class
and is based on their cultural capital that
society views as legitimized knowledge.
* Not meritocratic: As per Marxism, the education is not
meritocratic. Class background
influences educational achievements,
especially with private education. There are a lot of
differences in how schools are funded and how
they teach, which leads to learning
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differences that further reinforces social
inequality.
* Ideology: Aithusser thought that children were taught ‘to be subordinate in
the capitalist
system through ideology. Apart from education, religion, the law, and the
media were also
used to spreadthe ideology of the tuling class.
Limited role: Raymond Aron argues that role of education in
N
¢
providing avenues for social
mobility is not very significant
¢ Creating Monopolies: Neo-Marxists argue that corporations are
creating monopolies of
knowledge. For example, Jio universities, coaching centers in India.
EE
° Industry-Academia Gap: Wilson and Wyn
say that the students know there isn't much or
any direct connection between the classes they're taking and their future in
The anti-school values that the
the job market.
ibit are frequently derived from their
awareness of their true interestg
¢ Resistance Theory: Paul W
seen as a class-based form o
ginalized students break the tules, is it
U ns keep them in their class by making
it hard for them to get the skil ‘eed for jobs other than manual labour.
,
* Critical Race Theory: Acknow
differences observed in educati nmenif,
al
ender and race do account for many
still remained a fact that
ip
Q
middle class
African-Americans had signi
say that education helps capitalist
societies by reproducing labou
in their study of schools in New York,
they found that lower grades are
ty, independence which are penalized by
schools. While higher grades are rewarded because
R
they reflect subordination and

discipline
the nature of jobs brings
differences in attitud® .
For™e
amples Manual workers have less
Opportunity to improve their position and less income for investment.
They tend to be
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fatalistic, present-time oriented and look for immediate

gratification. They prefer child
labour over education leading to low levels of
educational attainment.
¢ Cultural Deprivation Theory: As per this, there
is no equality of Opportunity in
education. As a solution, culturally deprived children
N
went through ‘compensatory

education’. For example, Operation Head Start in the
USA devised a programme
school language education which drilled of pre-
young children into the use of standard English.
3. Conclusion: Education enables social
change by affecting value systems and beliefs, enables
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people to accept new ideas, and opens social

mobility. It emphasises self-growth and full
development of mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual
talents. Example: M.K Gandhi also
wanted to bring: silent social revolution in India
words “education should be spear-head the
through the basic system of education.
non — violent social revolution.
his In
10.5-Science And Technology And Social
Change
10.5.1-What is
Science and Technology?
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in the form of
1. Science: It is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge
...
testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science is

involved in everything like
cooking, eating, breathing, driving, playing, etc. Example Physics.
which are the result of scientific
2.. Technology: It refers to methods, systems, and devices
Technology is the application of
knowledge being used for practical purposes. In other words,
science. Example: Washing machine designed on the basis of laws pf Physics.
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has increased
* Science has led to rationalization of the world view while technology
efficiency and created alternatives thereby leading to changes.
interaction
10,5.2-Relationship between Science and technology is two-way
1. Science contributes to technology in various ways. Like:
N
e Direct Sources for New technological ideas: Science helps
people learn new things,
Scientific
which in turn gives them ideas for new ways to use technology. For example,
nuclear chain reaction and the
discovery of uranium fission leading to the concept of a
EE
atomic bomb and nuclear power.
is a source of tools and techniques that make
Design new tools and techniques: Sci
to
®
engineering design more efficient, ce of knowledge that can be used judge

th more breakthrough in science, now
whether or not a design will
we have inverter AC to mini
Instrumentation, laborator} alytical methods: Instruments, lab
¢
U
h often make their way into design or
techniques, and analytical me’
industry through intermediate ample, Photovoltaic cells invented to
convert sunlight into electrical
¢
Q
¢ Development of human skil as a way to develop and adopt new
human skills and abilities tha ology in the long run. For example,
through repeated scientific ‘aman Ramakrishnan (Nobel Prize
%
Laureate, 2019) developed his

level which can be used to develop new aiitibiotics in the future.
R
eati come more and more important
ent,
i |
etc.) and environmental
example, Hydro pow
(blocking of natural flow of river, etc.) issues.
methods for the
Efficient strategies: knowledge base that permits more effective
G
¢
For example, access internet
development, testing, and application of new technologies.
through smart phones (No need of computer).
2. Technology contributes to development of
science as well, Like:
N
the agenda of research

¢ Technology as a source of new scientific challenges: Extending
which in turn helps to justify the
provides a rich supply of new scientific questions, For example,
comunitment of resources to solve these issues in a timely and effective way.
felt speed of
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invention of train but need to increase the

was
technological breakthrough — —
train so design of train changed using aerodynamics principles to reduce air drag- resulting
increation of bullet train.
¢ Instrumentation and measurement techniques: As a source of tools and techniques that
and more difficult
would not be available anywhere else, which are needed to answer new
the issue of
scientific questions more quickly and effectively. For example, to address
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climate change, there is need to switch
to more clean fuel like hydrogen to reduce
of GHG’s. nission «
3. Conclusion: Hence, it could

be said that science and technology
modern life. It accompanies
us from cradle to grave. It became
are essential ingredients of
which transcends local boundaries and an important secular medium
touches lives of everyone.
10.5.3-Thinkers view on Science and Technology
P
wrt societ
1. Positive Views/ S&T
is
functional to the society:
Change from Mechanical to Organic
like increased communication, Solidarity: E. Durkheim recognized that things
transportation, and interaction with others resulted in
social change from a mechanical the
N
solidarity to organic solidarity. For in
society, there are doctors with specialization example, modern
Changing tools and technology leads to
like cardiologist, ENT surgeon, etc,
change: As per the Marxist perspective,
technology plays important role in change and
EE
transformation in society. As them
changing tools and technology
leads to change in society. For example, various per
epochs viz, hunter-gathers,
agrarian soci , industrial society are
historical
otherin term of technological ad distinguished from each
Creating Equality- According:
ceverts chaos into accepted:
nology
is of
an agent equal opportunity,
with penetration of internet,
candidate who isliving in rura
ple,
stor high level examination for instance
any
civil services without going
U
Imagined Community—Benedi
in't "triggering social change.
rgued that growth in technology like
ionalism. The feeling that people who
Q
el like they are members of
(feel a sense of togetherness) a family
ing, he coined the new term called
“Imagined community”. For &
united against the British
tyran
into independence the nation,
of
R
Alvin Toffler: The sogial changes

in
ik
process would be evidently perceived in least three
at
lon
significant parts in
and the acceleration %f fae) rapid Webani
rowthy
}
an's consumption of
energy
is
srefore, is the fuel for
Rr
whereas technology its engine. The change,

pace of changes that resulted from knowledge and
technology has created what Toffler called as 'transience' in
G
~ in fact he
which everything is temporary
argues for the death of permanence.
Joseph Schumpeter: The economist used the
term "creative destruction"
dismantling of long-standing practices in order to make to
describe the
way for new
N
kinds of products, new methods technologies, new

of production, and new means of distribution,
2. Negative Views/ S&T is
dysfunctional to the
Workers feel alienated -In his theory ofsociety
alienation, Karl Marx describes about how
technology is owned and determined by capitalists,
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which in turn defines the destiny of

society. Ee also discusses surplus
value, which may be raised by replacing human
with technology. For work
example, data is a new oil, company selling data
without their consent, breaching their of their consumer
right to privacy. Similarly, during lockdown
from home provision overloaded work
due to overwork demanded by the
help of science and technology. companies with the
PAPER 1
| |
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‘Alienation and’Freedom 1964’, Robert
Automation Jeads to monotony: In his study
of technology at work place. Some
+.
Blauner has highlighted the alienating aspects technology

at workplace. In other words,
technologies like automation lead to monotony hours in
of labor. For example, long working
alienates man from. its labor and fruit
Multinational companies alienates worker from
their personal life, repetitive same work is
interest in specific area.
cause for losing their identity and
P
Various Level
10,5.4- Roles of Science and Technology at
sphere of human life. This section helps
‘Advancement science and technology has impacted every
in
in analyzing positive and negative impacts
of technology on our lives.
N
-
¢ Individual level
Women
e
role in achieving Sustainable goals
Positive impact on women: Technology plays
key
o:.
5 which aims for gender equality.
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Technology provides for an equal platform
« Equal Access & Equal Opportunities:
like gender. For example, Women have access
to individuals irrespective of factors
to premiere institutions
institutions. The proceg
quia io get educated and work in top
class
Rivate and government job application,
‘ed chances of bias.
promotion through o
Wohands of everyForindividual, technology
U example, Toll-free
for women.
is helping in creating Govt. of
at App for women launched by
numbers, mobile applica information
Delhi provides help in by providing important
Q
like locations, sending iim factors
persed information and other
Equal healthcare acc¢
cif
=
and are often
like illiteracy, face ity healthcare services
W. Technology can
help in providing a
unaware of government Se
and child
Ciitormation. For example, mother
common base that contains
of Health & Family ensures delivery full
R
of
tracking system launched by Ministry and children

immunization seryices to regnant women
spectrum of healthcare and
up to 5 years of
ageagl ou
¥y PFA ye,
Gendeys as Weakness: Use of
= Removes Biological Differences between required physical
in
carrying out functions that previously
G
machines and technology

who were considered to be superior in
labor, thus, giving an upper hand to men their
employed in these jobs, thus increasing
strength has allowed women to get
like United States, Canada etc are among
social mobility. For example, Countries
in
N
combat positions their forces.

those who have put women in frontline
“Women empowerment: Digital Media has enabled women
them a platform to share their
to
raise their voices
restricted
which were earlier suppressed. It gives
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voices. For example, Me too movement. disproportionately

Due to technology, women face
o Negative Impact on Women:
Like
Negative consequence as well.
of Women in Internet space: In several instances, women have been
= Exploitation
Women targeted on social media platforms and
are
exploited in the internet space.
For example, In Recent Bully Bai
abused using fake profiles and accounts.
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Controversy, Photos of Muslim women were found which was
- women. :
used to buy and
:
sell
" Sex Identification of Unborn Child:
Technology used in Sonography enables
parents and family to know about the sex of the unborn child, further
female feticides. For example, Abortions take leading to
physical and psychological toll on
women. In Global Gender Report 2021, India ranks at 135
P
" among 146 countries.
Cyberstalking: Women often face cyberstalking through means of social
media,
forums, blogs etc. There have been instances where
morphed photographs of
women have been used in pornography and other crimes. For
example, Mobile
phones, CCTV cameras, GPS technology are often misused
to keep them under
N
surveillance and further restrict and control their
movements.
«
Unemployment: Since 90% teachers are women, e-education will result in
massive
loss of jobs for women. The digitally-curated
courses will lessen the requirement
of teachers to explain concepts. Increasing automation and high-skilled
EE
jobs in
technology disproportionately go to men, leading to female
unemployment or
:
informal employment in
low-wages sectors,
e Farmers
© Positive Impact
"
Hybrid seeds: With t echnology, Seeds have been developed
containing required
U pional geographies. Green revolution
resulted in increasing 6}
Q
é
environments, as well Oticstresses.
t
" Climate resistance to Economic Survey (2017-18)
cautioned that “climate
ng annual agriculture income in the
range of 15 % to 18 %
Creates food shortages, nutrie ficies in humans due to inadequate intake of
R
healthy food makes humans vulnerable to health. issues. So, climate

resistance
agriculture iné@ulted resiil thigh and stable yields with fine
grain quality singépr
Nadu, there is a drought period
ity.
For example, In Tamil
every five years followed by one. year of excess
rainfall.
G
* Use of Tissue Culture: Research in horticultural

crops making available disease-
free planting materials by tissue culture and other modern
technology and
contributing to rapid adoption of thus improved varieties and higher
crop yields.
N
For example, Oil palm, banana, eggplant, pineapple, rubber

tree, tomato, sweet
potato has been produced by tissue culture.
" Adoption of Sustainable Irrigation method: The resource conservation
KI
technologies are reducing water use by 5 to 30 per cent in the rice-wheat

:
system. For example, zero tillage generally saves irrigation water in the
20-35% in the wheat crop compared to conventional tillage, range of
" Weather forecasting: It can help with a farmer's business decisions,
thus, enable
efficient planning for farmers regarding important decisions
on what, when and
how to grow. For example, recently, Yara partnered with IBM to build the
world’s
leading digital farming platform. It will provide smallholder farmers
with
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‘hyperlocal weather forecasting, AI insights, and collaborative data sharing, This
will help “predict the future,” and mitigate the significant risks of planting at the
wrong time.
E-NAM
portal: E-NAM is a pan-India electronic trade portal linking Agricultural
Produce Market Committees (APMCs) across the States. Farmers can sell their
products in a more efficient way.
P
o: Negative Impact--
=.
Soil infertility due to HYV seeds: Long term use of HYV seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides effect the fertility of soil and impacts the yield produced from soil. For
example, In Marathwada regions, Maharashtra over the years has reported in loss
in fertility of soil owing to Bt Cotton grown there.
N
Cheap Exports from Developed Countries: India farmers facing tough
competition from cheaper exports from highly mechanized countries, For example,
Productivity of farm lands in America is more than double of that of in India hence
EE
in international market India’s agricultural export becomes less competitive.
Unscientific & traditional farming: With access to unequal and unregulated
technology, some farmers
that has led to harmfu.
in doing farming which is
not sustainable
ent. For example, Extensive arsenic
contamination and high-concentrations nitrate and fluorides in the groundwater
of
in Punjab — Uttar Pradesh has led to diseases like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular
diseases.
U
e Children
o Positive Impact
Q
Education to all: Sc as addressed the issues of unequal
access to education for amedium that enables every child
to learn through smai
inclusivity and equality. e
e become common
schooling has proved
to
all promoting
to be the most
effective in the current ongoing D 19 pandemic.
R
Learning New skills and techniques: Technology helps in development of

ivi in & relationship building,
Pirit due to the wide exposure
provided by internet. For example, app. cation like White hat Jr. enables children
to learn wide range of skills -coding, languages, Music etc.
G
Smart Classes: Schools are adopting use of smart class technologies which uses
visuals for enabling better conceptual understanding among students. For example,
Various ed-tech like BYJU’s is using 3D visuals to help students understand
N
concepts.
Dare to Dream: Technology has enabled children to dream big and also enabled
them to plan about how to achieve it.
It has broken privileges that were previously
available to children belonging toparticular social class. For example, Contests like
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“Dare to Dream’ by DRDO with the objective to provide a platform for innovators
in order to unearth their disruptive ideas and concepts.
Children as Solution providers: With wide exposure and knowledge available on
mediums of technology — Television, Radio, Internet etc, Children are made aware
of existing social problems to which they help in finding solutions to. Children are
future of entire world, thus, making it
significant for them to be part of solution. For
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example, Greta Thunberg,
a
19-year-old, caught the attention of entire world on the
burning issue of climate change. This was largely possible due technology that
enhanced interconnectedness between individuals around the globe.
o Negative Impact- :
_
* Adverse Impact on Health: Research have’shown that heavy reliance and massive
of
P
screen time has affected the psychological and physical development a child. For
example, Weak eye sights, distorted posture, sedentary lifestyles have been largely
consequences of dependence on technology: .
* Influence on Children: Children are vulnerable and more sensitive, thus, making
them easy targets who can get affected by extreme ideas and beliefs.
Including
N
online gaming, For example, Blue Whale Challenge Game, Boys locker room.
«
Emergence of Mental Disorders: Both excess and minimal regulation of activities
of children by parents can lead to cause of.mehtal disorders like depression. For
EE
example, Repression of curiosity among children by parents on taboo topics like
sexual intercourse, weapons, Menstruation can lead them to —_____
exposure to improper
information, Often in pornography, male dominance over women impacts leading
to development of
view th as inferior subjects.
= Adultization of child A
lockdowns. As a res'
violent content on the:
U
creates new sort of adi example, Shows like Mirzapur, Game
of Thrones
" Suicide: E Durkheim g
Q
egoistic suicide. This is visible when
if
j
young people develop of excessive social media usage like
Instagram. For exam’
t
continuously showcased depression and sadness
¢ SC and ST: The members of munity are at the bottom of the Indian
societal hierarchy. They have li
R
Cess to resources including science and

technology.
Positive Impac
= Socio Econo nology“has,,played an important role in
lopli
impacting the livesSCs and STs
of
largely rely on traditional products and
who
G
processes. For example, Govt. of India has established Science and Innovation
Hubs at different regions exclusively for SC and STs for interventions in farm, non-
farm, other allied livelihood sectors and various livelihoods assets like
energy,
water, health, education, etc which will directly impact the development of SCs &
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STs.
" Digitization of Traditional Knowledge: Efforts have been made to digitize
traditional knowledge and diverse tribal practices to preserve and protect them in
KI
their raw form. For example, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library: Digitizing
tribal traditional knowledge about medicines.
“ Access to Medical health Facilities: Due to geographical constraints and other
Socio-economic factors like illiteracy ete has prevented them to access quality
healthcare facilities. For example, STI Hub in Ladakh is developing IoT based
Point of Care Devices (PoCD), E-diagnostics and Smart Diagnostic Technologies
for transmitting real-time observations to medical experts which will largely benefit
PAPER
the ST population of the region, Swasthya Portal (2020) to facilitate the exchange
of ideas, information and learnings among stakeholders; leading to.evidence-based
and data-driven decision making.
* Tribal Entrepreneurship: TRIFED launched ‘Tech for Tribals’ which aims to
transform 5 crore Tribal Entrepreneurs by capacity building and imparting
entrepreneurship skills to tribal forest produce gatherers enrolled under the Pradhan
P
Mantri Van Dhan Yojana. This will enable tribal entrepreneurs to commercialize
their products and compete in the market. For example, TRIFED help in marketing
of tribal products.
* Inclusivity in development process: Technology has provided equal opportunities
N
to tribals to be inclusive in development process by creating awareness about
government schemes and policies formulated for them. For example, Smart Phones,
Mobile Network Availability, Internet Access has enabled SC and ST population
EE
to participate in development process and voice their demands.
*
Learning and Skilling: Various Govt. schemes focuses on upgradation and
skilling of SC/ST population in order to make them suitable for job market using
technology. For example, Gg
designed to provide m al
initiative named GOAL
youth through digital mode.
is
a programme is
o Negative Impact: \
« Destruction of Forest
U
paced development p by government, it has resulted in
destruction of forest o deforestation and varied forms of
pollutions. For exampl
Q
(mandla district, MP)
«
Poverty: Due to
the po
them from reaping the
Smart Phones, Laptops
excludes them from majority
R
Conflicts within society: Technology acls¢as a means for economic advancements

of members of ge the rigid caste system and
dea of social mobility is not
members of upper caste leading to conflict within the groups. For
accepted by
G
example, several instances where upper caste men have threatened Dalit grooms
against performing tradition of Horse-riding ceremony in weddings.
the
© Marginalized Section:
ethnic minorities etc
It
includes LGBTQ community, Acid attack victims, religious and
N
© Positive Impact-
«Equal Access and Equal Opportunities: Technology provides an equal platform
to individuals irrespective of factors like Gender, Ethnicity, Religion etc. For
KI
example, Online Job applications, Education portals, Online Skill Development

programs etc.
" Community Building: Technology provides a platform wherein individuals with
shared interests can interact, discuss and form social community which helps in
providing support to members emotionally, psychologically financially etc. NGOs
and other agencies have used this unity to advance their interests to benefit
1- Sociology
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‘Page
marginalized communities. For example, Online Social media platform, forums,
blogs, chat groups etc. act as a medium. .
" Information and Awareness: Technology can be used to educate, spread

knowledge and awareness regarding these marginalized communities thus enabling
breaking barriers, myths existing between these groups and larger society. For
example, movies like Gangubai, Chhapak, Padman did well on awareness
P
.
generation :
:
" Inclusivity and Acceptance: Technology Giants like Apple, Google have friendly
rules regarding-employees and have used technology to. show the acceptance. For
example, Introduction of new emojis belonging to different ethnicities and races. It
N
also shows same sex couples etc,
o Negative
* Spread hatred against communities: Science & technology is used as a medium
to spread hatred against marginalized group. For example, Viral videos spread
EE
using Whatsapp and Youtube hasresulted in communal conflicts in society.
illiteracy among them adds

it
"Difficult to Adapt: Senior citizens find difficult to adopt to new technologies and
between them and smart technology.
=
Misrepresentation of junities: Marginalized groups are not
well represented in the ation of new technology. For example,
Creation of technolo} stereotypes associated with certain
U y
groups. Need of the of technology like reporting sexual

harassment of LGBT as
« Labour
Q
© Positive Impact
" Reskilling: Adler bel echnology itself favors high-skilled
Jobs and that new skil ind even the machine operators may
become programmers thro
*
Creativity: Workers can enga fferent types of training experiences within
R
and
VR
environments
AR
to make mistakes without real-world consequences. For
example, W
f
p Tower,’ in which overt a

;
million associgigs ed the training time from 8

to
§
hours 15 minutes.
" Flexibility: Cherns said that when there is a lot of operational uncertainty,
G
organizations become more competitive by using technology to make employees

more flexible so they can adapt on their own to the changing environment. For
example, IT industry in Hyderabad and Bangalore is now working on hybrid model
N
since covid threw open the culture of work from home.

o Negative Impact
" Deskilling: Braverman proposed that the change of production technology and
production process brought about the "separation of conception and execution”. For
KI
example, Knowledge and technology in production are transferred to the engineers

and managers who design the production process, and the labor control and skill
level of workers are greatly weakened.
" Marginalization: Noble emphasized the historical role of managers and
gOvernments in the decision-making process that affects machine design,
w.sunvaias.com |
Telegram Channel: sunyanotesSO Page 517”
marginalizing machine operators in production and minimizing the demand for
highly skilled labor.
“ Control: Edwards believed that streamlined "technical control" was gradually
replaced by "bureaucratic control," later researchers such as Tompson discovered
that the emergence of new technological forms has led to a more sophisticated and
complex technical control strategy. i
P
= Automation leads to monotony: In his study ‘Alienation and Freedom 1964’,
Robert Blauner has highlighted the alienating aspects of technology at work place.
Some technologies like automation lead to monotony at workplace. In other words,
technology alienates man from its labor and fruit of labor. For example, long
working hours in Multinational companies alienates worker from their personal life,
N
repetitive same work is cause for losing their identity and interest in specific area.
2, SOCIETAL LEVEL
¢ Economic Sphere
EE
© Positive Impact
= Mass Production: Industrial evolution led to mechanization of production
process. Thus, impacting th duction leading to mass production. This
impacted society and p; Standard of living of people increased
*
with production
With
of
vay household appliances, etc.
Efficiency: techi
U
has led to increased effi i
with technological ad
I
there is bullet train resulting in speedy

travelling,
Q
;
" Good quality product
become efficient lead
products. For example,
reduced time.
evelopment, division of labor has led to
R
specialization of jobs within organization leading to improved efficiency of

organization ella:
For example, ai advanced semiconductors in

the world. .
" Innovation: With specialization of job and saving of time, man had surplus time
G
which has led to new innovation, improvement

in
the existing process resulting into
increased productivity of individuals and society. For example, Internet, Smart
phones, laptops ete are result of ground breaking innovations by mankind.
N
oO
Negative Impact
= Increased inequality within society: As Marxists suggests, power lies in the hands
of those who owned the means of production. It has been often observed within
society that technological development has resulted to increase in gap between
KI
wealthy and poor. For example, According to Credit Suisse Report (2020), only 1%
of households globally holds 43% of all
personal wealth while the bottom 50%
population holds only 1% of wealth.
Increased Unemployment: With development in technology and mechanization
of process, man is replaced by machines, thus, leading to unemployment. For
PAPER 1
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i
:
example, Artificial intelligence will take over-the job performed.by.neor...:sulting
in mass unemployment.
Disruptions in production and supply process: - Technological change is
inherently disruptive and entails difficult transitions. This leads to difficulty in
adaptation to.change by individuals involved in the process. For example, Illiterate
and old age people will find it difficult to embrace digital payment apps like phone-
pay, ete.
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Sense of Alienation: As Marx suggests that capitalism leads to sense of alienation
among workers, it
is true for people competing for luxuries in modern society, This
is described by Veblen as Conspicuous Consumption. They are more prone to
mental disorders. For example, Common people relentless pursuit for materialistic
N
things in life at the cost of their mental peace and happiness. People want to buy
Apple iphones by taking debt even when they have to work double shifts.
¢ Social Institutions like Family, Marriage etc
EE
© Positive Impact
Change in family size and structure: Due to technological developments like
contraception methods, s ads, couple can decide when to do family
planning. For example cide not only number of children but
also spacing and timi "
Matrimonial Allian
social circle of family.
U
example, Matrimonial si
Better Communicatio ectedness within Families: With
members/spouses at di gies like video call, conference calls
Q
have enabled them to er. People used letter as
“Tieviously,
a medium and waited
family member has a wh H
shared. They all can also conn Stigh video call anytime.
Surveillance and Safety: Previously, safety was a major concern that prevented
R
families to le i
location has @
women. For example, Live GPS

location s aring features in smart phone.
o Negative Impact
G
Distress and Emotional Breakdowns: Fast paced technology has caused of

breakdown of emotional ties among members of
society and family. For example,
in cosmopolitan cities, lifestyle is fast and unhealthy. This leads to imbalance
between work and personal life. This puts emotional pressure on stability of family.
N
Threatening the institution of family: Same Sex Marriages, Single Parenthood,

divorce culture, inter-generational conflicts are more common now a days as due to
technological advancement (people connecting with others across borders and
KI
getting influence by their cultural ideas, technological invention etc). For example,
IVF technology, test tube baby, 3 parent baby now has made the family and
marriage as social institution non- functional and in few societies dysfunctional
too.
Page 519
People are forced: Technology has taken over and has forced people to feel
need to be connected to their work or their outside social life more than needed to
the
stay connected with relationships.
Unintended Consequences: Gerhard Lenski emphasized the importance of
technology within a society and how
communication
it
causes a society to evolve and change. But,
technologies, while functional, can -producé unintended
consequences, such as the diminishment of
family interaction.
P
Interference in Social Role: Goffman realized outsociety is more sophisticated
and that with multiple roles being played, some are bound
to
get mixed up. The
concern of this study is that technology may introduce “outside” stages, like work,
into the family setting which can interfere with social functioning and performance
N
of roles as employees, parents, friends, etc.
* Political institution
© Positive Impact
EE
Increased Accountability and Transparency: Use of technology has resulted into
transparent and accountable system where information is available to the public
without bias. For example p le online RTI to avail: any information wrt
governance,
Real time Access to hnology has made people more aware
and knowledgeable. policies formed for
them is just.a click
U For example, Open government data
5
platform can be acces on thus increase transparency in the

functioning of Governm
jon was previously a one-way process
Q
at few individuals sitting in an air-
ple with different needs. However,
‘Wwo-way where citizens can share their
fal media played critical role in the Arab
a
Spring in places like Tunisia, it was heralded as a technology for liberation

R
Technology
of corruptionay ev 5
mole
{OX to
identification of instances
recently, SC gave
that required political parties to publish details of criminal cases against its
candidates on their websites which will help for removing the criminalization of
order the
G
‘politics,
Transparent & Unbiased Voting: Voting through machines and use of VVPAT
for
machine verification of vote has made the voting process more transparent. For
example, Electronic Voting Machine solve the problem of Ballot Box capturing and
N
casting of false vote. Similarly, VVPAT is an independent verification printer

machine and
is
attached to electronic voting machines.
Transparency in Justice: Techriology has enabled live streaming of court
KI
proceedings to help budding advocates learn about the happenings of court room.
It also increases judicial literacy of common people.
© Negative Impact-
Opinion formation: Political parties often use technology to influence opinions of
individual’s choice in elections. For example, Facebook, Twitter has been used as
a tool for vote polarization and influence results of elections.
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“a. Cause of Conflicts: Social media has been: used perpetrate hatred against
to.
political ideologies/minorities. For example, Violence. West Bengal. during in
Elections 2021.
® Religion
o Positive Impact
: :
= Sharing of religious beliefs and values: Technology

has allowed toshare religious
in
P
-
texts like Bhagavad Geeta, Quran, Bible, Gury Granth. Sahab. online digitized
form, thus anyone can access it
irrespective, of which religion they belong to. Thus,
has made people more aware and tolerant.
The system of Tickets, Prasad
" Digitization of booking of religious procedures:
tokensin big temples like Tirupathi, Sabarimala Temple etc have been streamlined
N
and made easy for devotees. For example, Tirumala Tirupati. Devasthanams issue
free darshan tokens too in the online mode.
* Online Darshans and Online Satsangs: In tough times, like COVID-19, faith has
EE
-
been an important pillar for individuals to rely. on, Ti echnology played crucial role
in it. For example, Online Satsang conducted by sadhguru.
" Visual Representation of Mj Epics: Television serials on Mahabharata
and Ramayana helped. ings from these epics to all masses
irrespective of any fa darshan channel telecasted Ramayana. -..
during lockdown help§ Activity among the people and maintain =
U ‘
peace and tranquility.

o° Negative Impact
Spread of Extremist re ‘echnology has been used as a tool.to.
=
.
It
J
ts leading to violence. is also used

Q
spread extreme interpr
to recruit members cal organization like ISIS. .For ...
example, ISIS is brainy g Indian youth through social média
platform. .
been used to spread hatred against other

"
«
Spread of Hatred: Technold
R
religions leading to social conflicts, For example, Cow vigilantes spreading fake
="
news throug!
Contradictio
technology contradicts with religious
PPIone
1tifSin mob lynching.
values and beliefs. For
gy
presented by science and
“feasony
example, Surrogacy,
Abortion and Same Sex Relationships have often been criticized on grounds of
G
religion.
e Cultural
© Positive Impact
Interaction between different cultures: Technology has enabled interaction and
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exchange between multiple cultures. For example, in order to purchase

Kanchipuram Saree, individual does not have to visit Tamil Nadu but rather
Purchase online.
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« Interconnectedness between Individuals: Technology is a major tool in the

process of globalization. Technology enables interconnectedness, of individuals
Sitting across globe. For example, Social Media Platform.
.
© Negative Impact
" Selective brotherhood: Individuals often connect to the ones with shared cultural
background, thus,. leading to formation of cultural groups. In some instances,
ah!
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‘Clashes can also result due to the question on-supremacy:of one’s culture. For
example, Shia-Sunni twitter war on rise. os
e Environmental impact - :
o Positive Impact-
= Sustainable Development: Technological developments have led to planning and
implementation. of development which is sustainable in nature and does not
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negatively impact environment. For example, Shift frorn Petroleum.based vehicles
to electric vehicle will reduce the carbon foot print. Use of Eco-friendly products
like Jute Bag will also decrease carbon footprint.
.
= Solution Oriented Approach: Technology is helping in finding solutions to
environmental problems like climate change, global warming and their effects. For
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-
example, Reducing use of fossil fuels and adaptation of renewable energy like Solar
energy, Hydro Energy etc.
o Negative Impact
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®
Disturbing. Ecological Balance: Unplanned and inefficient technological
development-result in disturbance of ecological balance of natural resources. For
example, Discharge of indyg into the rivers has affected the quality of
river water and the aqu; :
Conclusion:
U nge, including the transition from a
industrial capitalism, and globalization.
co
t
modern society has experienced quick

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is fundamental for social and economic
progress of a
nation. Science provides w ers to unknown elements and phenomenon
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taking place in the universe. However, it is

necessary to realize that any innovation or
knowledge belongs to w im jortaint 16.fike up responsibility towards
society regarding the c ry sdienti discovery or innovation. For
example, new drug discovered to cure terminal disease must be used for whole humanity.
¢ Science needs to strike a balance: Scientific knowledge should be used to develop
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technologies which strike a balance between human development and environment. Any
discovery/invention/knowledge negatively impacting environment will result to long term
implications on human beings. For example, the industrial revolution led to breakthrough in
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global economy, however, adversely affected environment resulting to the global warming and
climate change which we are
facing
¢ Scientific community has moral responsibility: Any country/individual carrying out
scientific experiments and research must realize their moral responsibility towards the society
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and work towards the collective good of humanity. For example, on a quest to develop a cure
for any deadly virus, scientific community should not intentionally build a bio weapon that
threatens whole humanity.
¢ Nuclear emergy: Atomic energy is can be used for benefits of human kind — Healthcare,
Nuclear Agriculture, Food production and preservation, energy production etc. However, we
should never forget the horrendous experience of Hiroshima and Nagasaki where two nucleat
PAPER 1
_ bombsdestroyed the country of Japan, Thus, with wide application of nuclear technology,
is important to realize that one mustbe socially
responsible and accountable.
it
¢ Humanizing Science: Science should be a means to
realize the end-goals of humanity. As per
Swami Vivekanand, all the sciences exist to bring happiness for humanity. Hence, men should
avoid thinking like computers and retain their emotional essence of being human.
’
¢ Moral Science: This is one of the disciplines introduced in schools to teach ethical use of
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‘scientific interventions. Moreover, even disciplines like philosophy are treated as scientific
disciplines through the use of scientific method of research:
¢ Duty of Care: Social Media companies should realise this duty of care while designing their
algorithms. They have a fiduciary responsibility towards their consumers in
return for their
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data being used freely.
¢ Material vs Non-Material Culture: As per William F. Ogburn, material culture changes at a
faster pace than non-material culture. Hence, one should aim at adapting the society and
its
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values to these technological changes for better acceptarice. For example, re-skilling Indian
‘demographics before the wider acceptance Al
of in
their work environment.
Conclusion:
When most research is being done by u: ey,the scientific establishment has an
ethical obligation of “giving back” thf to cience to society can make S&T one
of the strongest pillars for peace and
U will help strengthen the knowledge
ecosystem and bring efficiencies in harne: benefit of society.
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Notes.
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SUNYA IAS
G
SOCIOLOGY
N
OPTIONAL
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PAPER 1 NOTES
the Point, Structured, Comprehensive & Concise Notes
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the Point, Structured, Comprehensive & Concise Notes

UNIT 4: SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS- eo nnretn cena eneneterennnntnnicemanennsenn OD

4,1 KARL MARX

5.1 CONCEPTS ----~------------senenenee

UNIT 6: WORKS AND ECONG

anf nnn cnn ene 245

acne ccnnrnee ncn nennnnnnn 5G

6.2 - FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANISATION OF WORK, 277

UNIT 7: POLITICS AND SOCIETY 306

7.41 POWER 306

‘ 7.4 PRESSURE GROUPS/ INTEREST GROUPS 319

UNIT 9; SYSTEM OF KINSHIP 430

UNIT 1: SOCIOLOGY ~— THE DISCIPLINE

1.1 Modernity And Social

1.1.2 Emergence of Sociology

e Structure and Change in Europ | Europe was land-based. The classes

* The Scientific Revolution ai ce Period: The scientific revolution

example, Newton’s work on g

2. Political Conditions - French Revolution and ts Impacts:

centralised. He believed in separate authorities and individual liberty.

economic life, then other countrie:

o The peasants in the new i themselves with thousands of other

© Population grew alongside prod

o Condition of Workers: A new population earning their livelihood by working in the

o Early sociologists worried about these qualities of new cities.

heart and hand.

1.1.2.3 Intellectual Antecedents Affecting

@ Focus to Reason: 18th-cent societal systems and human

citizenship, rights and aided subject matter of sociology.

social, religious and philosophical changes

Conclusion: first favorable, but its

e Every part is interconnected. C ct the other.

6. Karl Marx - Revolutionary

1,2 Scope of Sociology

1. Sociology and concerns and

© Sociology has been concerned with the evolution of society.

PAPER 1 - Sociology Optional | | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com Telegram Channel: sunyanotes50

advocate synthetic school of thought.

economic sociology, education, art and aesthetics.

Morris Ginsberg (1889 — 1970)

° L T.HeHobhouse (1864- 1929)

. from different social science’s perspectives.

o Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) ™

Mannheim divides the area of study of sociology into two branches:

factors of living together

found diff n India vs family in Africa

* Sociology is a sum total of social and psychic behaviour of

o According to Marx, to analyse re of society, it was necessary: ito:understand

the forces of production and relations of production.

e Neo Marxist Perspective :

o Neo-Marxism adds Max Weber's broader understanding of social inequality, such as

e C.W.Mills- The Sociological Imagination’: He gave the analysis of approaching the

e tis quality of mind for observing the world sociologically.

o Origin: Emerged in 1960; native to ‘previous view on scope of

o Negative impacts of modernity: With drastic ate

1.2.3 Globalisation and Scope of Sociology:

in the ecgiomic, cultural, social, and political spheres of society.

between capitalists and workers as given by Marx.