Raus Pre Compass 2024 Science Technology
Raus Pre Compass 2024 Science Technology
Raus Pre Compass 2024 Science Technology
BIOTECHNOLOGY 6
1. WHAT IS DNA? 6
2. DNA AS CODE OF LIFE 6
3. WHAT IS CHROMOSOME? 6
4. WHAT IS GENOME? 6
5. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA 7
6. WHAT IS RNA? 8
7. GENOME SEQUENCING: READING THE CODE OF LIFE 10
8. CELL-FREE DNA 11
9. VARIATIONS IN THE GENOME: IDENTITY MARKERS 12
10. INDUCED-PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS: IPSCS 13
11. STEM CELL THERAPY 14
12. SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER (SCNT) OR REPRODUCTIVE CLONING 14
13. TISSUE ENGINEERING/ REGENERATIVE MEDICINE/ ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION 15
14. AUTOLOGOUS, ALLOGENIC AND XENOGENIC TRANSPLANTS 15
15. XENOTRANSPLANTATION 15
16. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA TREATMENT 16
17. R-DNA TECHNOLOGY: MANIPULATING THE CODE OF LIFE 16
18. APPLICATIONS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY 17
19. CONCERNS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY 17
20. GM CROPS 17
21. GM CROPS: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 18
22. CRISPR-BASED GENE EDITING 20
23. BASE EDITING 21
24. PRIME EDITING 21
25. CAR-T CELL THERAPY: THE FUTURE MAINSTAY OF CANCER TREATMENT 24
26. CAR T-CELL THERAPY 24
27. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES 28
28. WHAT IS SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY? 29
29. 1ST ARTIFICIAL CELL: SYNTHIA 29
30. SYNTHETIC BASES: A 8-LETTER DNA: HACHIMOJO 29
31. SYNTHETIC E.COLI 29
32. DISEASES IN NEWS 30
SPACE TECHNOLOGY 35
1. STANDARD MODEL OF PHYSICS 35
2. EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSE 36
3. GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY (GTR) 37
4. IMPORTANT PARTICLES YOU OFTEN HEAR 38
5. DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY 38
6. BLACK HOLES 39
7. LASER INTERFEROMETER GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE OBSERVATORY (LIGO) 41
8. LARGE HADRON COLLIDER (LHC) 42
9. ICECUBE NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY 43
10. MUON TOMOGRAPHY OR MUOGRAPHY 45
11. SUPERNOVA 45
12. NEUTRON STARS 47
13. QUASARS 47
14. FAST RADIO BURST (FRB) 47
15. SUN 48
16. TYPES OF ORBITS 49
17. ROCKET PROPULSION 50
18. LAUNCH VEHICLES OF ISRO 51
19. VIKAS ENGINE 52
20. LOX METHANE ENGINE 52
21. ION ROCKETS 52
22. ISRO’S CRYOGENIC ENGINE (CE-20) 52
23. ROCKET LAUNCH STATIONS IN INDIA 53
24. LAUNCH STATIONS OF ISRO 53
25. ADITYA L1 MISSION 54
26. GAGANYAAN MISSION 55
27. CHANDRAYAAN-3 56
28. PSLV ORBITAL EXPERIMENTAL MODULE (POEM) 57
29. LUNAR POLAR EXPLORATION MISSION (LUPEX) OR CHANDRAYAAN-4 57
30. SHUKRAYAAN MISSION 58
31. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION 60
32. NAVIGATION WITH INDIAN CONSTELLATION (NAVIC): 61
33. X-RAY POLARIMETER SATELLITE (XPOSAT) MISSION: 62
34. NASA-ISRO JOINT SATELLITE – NISAR 63
35. RE-ENTRY OF SATELLITE AND SPACE DEBRIS 63
36. RLV LEX-02 MISSION 64
37. BLUEWALKER 3 SATELLITE 64
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY 67
1. BASICS 67
2. NUCLEAR PROCESSES 68
3. NUCLEAR FUEL: FISSILE AND FERTILE 69
4. TYPES OF REACTORS 70
5. IMPORTANT TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS IN INDIA 71
6. THREE-STAGE NUCLEAR PROGRAMME OF INDIA 72
7. INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER) 75
8. COLD FUSION 75
FRONTIER TECHNOLOGIES 96
1. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM 96
2. QUANTUM PHENOMENON 96
3. APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY 98
4. NANOTECHNOLOGY 99
5. IMPORTANT NANOMATERIALAS 100
6. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGY 103
7. ATTOSECOND PULSES OF LIGHT (NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSICS 2023) 104
8. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT 105
9. RHODAMINE-B 105
10. THALLIUM 105
11. SLAG 105
1. WHAT IS DNA?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) can be looked at in two ways:
• As code of life
• As vehicle of heredity
3. WHAT IS CHROMOSOME?
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information. They are
composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins.
• Normally, each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes). This includes 22
pairs of autosomes plus one pair of sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males
have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
4. WHAT IS GENOME?
A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA or genetic material. It is a collection of all the genes and the
regions between the genes contained in our 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Note: While in nature only 4 lettered-DNA is found, scientists have recently created a synthetic DNA with 8 letters.
The human genome is made of 3 billion base pairs. (So total 6 billion bases)
5. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
• In addition to the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria (mtDNA). Mitochondria are cellular
organelles found in the cytoplasm, aka powerhouse of the cell as they generate most of the cell's energy
currency- ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate).
• mtDNA codes for
a small number
of genes,
essential for the
proper
functioning of
mitochondria. In
humans, mtDNA
is circular and
much smaller
(consists of
about 16,500
base pairs),
compared to
nuclear DNA.
• Inheritance:
Unlike nuclear
DNA which come from both parents, mtDNA is inherited almost exclusively from the mother. This is because
mitochondria are primarily contributed by the egg cell during fertilisation. While sperm cells do contain
mitochondria, these mitochondria are typically not incorporated into the developing embryo.
6. WHAT IS RNA?
• RNA (Ribonucleic acid) in a single-stranded molecule/ nucleic acid found in most living organisms and viruses.
It is made up of nucleotides, which are ribose sugars attached to nitrogenous bases and phosphate groups.
• The nitrogenous bases include adenine (A), guanine (G), uracil (U) and cytosine (C).
○ mRNA: messenger RNA molecules copies the genetic information/ instruction from DNA and carries it to
ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs. In order to transcribe, mRNA uses an enzyme called RNA
polymerase.
○ tRNA: transfer RNA assists in translation of mRNA into proteins by bringing amino acids to the ribosome. t-
RNA brings amino acids that are lying in the cell after reading 3 letters of mRNA at a time (3 letters or codon
translate into one amino acid).
○ rRNA: ribosomal RNA molecules are structural components of ribosomes (cellular structures where protein
synthesis takes place).
• RNA is generally less stable than DNA due to the presence of an extra hydroxyl (OH) group on the ribose sugar
in RNA. This makes RNA more prone to degradation by enzymes called ribonucleases. DNA, with its deoxyribose
sugar lacking the extra OH group, is more stable and less susceptible to enzymatic degradation.
CENTRAL DOGMA
Central dogma of molecular biology explains how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
• Gene expression is the process our cells use to convert instructions in DNA into proteins. This happens in two-
stages called transcription (occurs in the nucleus, in eukaryotic organisms) and translation (occurs in cytoplasm).
○ Transcription: mRNA copies the sequence of a gene from DNA, and then leaves the nucleus and travels to
cytoplasm.
○ Translation: Using the template encoded by mRNA, translation is carried out by ribosomes, i.e., the
information in the mRNA is used to synthesise proteins (building blocks of life).
• Consider DNA to be a cookbook of recipes for making proteins. Transcription is the process of photocopying
the recipe (done by mRNA inside the nucleus).
• Once copied the recipe mRNA goes outside the nucleus to the chef (ribosome). There is also a translator, tRNA
who translates mRNA recipe to rRNA of the ribosome which then makes Amino acids (the building blocks of
proteins).
• A block of 3 letters in the mRNA corresponds to ‘cooking’ of 1 Amino acid. Each 3-letter base in mRNA that is
read by tRNA that corresponds to one amino acid is called ‘codon’.
• Many Amino acids come together to form the primary structure of protein. The primary structure is twisted and
folded to make a 3-D structure of protein.
GENE
• The Human Genome Project (completed in 2003) found that only 1.5% of the total human genome (3 billion
base pairs) codes for proteins. (The coding parts of protein are called genes)
• It also found that humans have about 20,000–25,000 genes. Remaining 98.5% of the genome is non-coding,
meaning it does not provide instructions for making proteins.
• So, mRNA must copy only exons and cut out all the introns. This cutting of introns to join only exons is called
RNA splicing.
• The final mRNA after splicing of introns is called exome (which represents only 1.5% of the genome). It is this
final mRNA after splicing that is important for coding for protein.
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
• One type of muscular dystrophy, a genetic disease, is a result of defect in RNA splicing while copying X-
chromosome.
• Since it is associated with the X-chromosome it is more prevalent in males as they have only one X-chromosome.
NAME SIGNIFICANCE
Human Genome Project Led to the decoding of the entire human genome for the first time, giving the ability
(1990-2003) to read nature’s complete genetic blueprint.
Initiated by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) from April 2019 to
IndiGen (completed October 2019.
2019) Aim: To sequence whole genomes of 1029 individuals from diverse ethnic groups
across India.
Aim: To collect cancer cells and tissues to facilitate cancer research in India. Uses
National Genomic Grid genome sequencing of cancer cells to study genomic factors influencing cancer in
the Indian population.
To study genes of microbes in the human body including gut, skin, oral cavity and
Human Microbiome
vagina to study their role in human health and diseases.
Project
Note: Human body contains 10 times as many microbes as human cells.
8. CELL-FREE DNA
• Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) refers to
fragments of DNA found in bodily fluids
such as blood, urine, saliva, and
cerebrospinal fluid.
• They are released into the bloodstream
by cells that underwent programmed cell
death or an unplanned cell death due to
any injury or disease.
• These degraded (non-functional)
fragments of nucleic acids do not possess
the ability to replicate or carry out cellular
processes.
• However, cfDNA can carry genetic
information from the cells they originated from, making them a valuable source for various applications.
Important applications of cfDNA:
• Non-invasive prenatal testing to screen for chromosomal abnormalities in a developing foetus like Down
syndrome, Edwards syndrome etc.
• Can provide information about genetic mutations and alterations present in tumour cells and early cancer
detection.
• Aid in diagnosis of infectious diseases and in forensics.
• Used as a biomarker for neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease etc.
• Provide an early indication of graft rejection in patients who underwent organ transplants.
• There are some sequences in our genome (15 to 100 bases) that keep repeating over
and over again. Say, like a word ‘green’ keeps on repeating in a book.
• It so happens that the number of times this repetitive sequence occurs on a
chromosome differs. These are called VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats)
• By counting the number of times the repetitive sequence occurs on chromosomes
DNA (both mother’s and father’s
Fingerprinting / versions), we can establish
DNA profiling the identity of an individual.
This is the DNA fingerprint of
that individual.
Applications:
• Forensics
• Establishing parentage
1000 Genome It is an effort to study different variations in DNA including SNPs and also larger
Project organisational variations in the genome.
STEM CELLS
Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into specialised cell types in the body.
Types of Stem cells:
• Totipotent: Most versatile with potential to differentiate into all different cell types of an organism and
extraembryonic cells (including placenta and umbilical cord). Only found in fertilised egg (zygote).
• Pluripotent: Derived from inner cell mass of a blastocyst (an early-stage embryo). Can differentiate into all
three primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), which give rise to all different cell types in
the body (except extraembryonic cells). E.g., Embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells
(reprogrammed from adult cells).
• Multipotent: More specialised than pluripotent stem cells and can differentiate into limited range of cell types
within a specific tissue or organ. E.g., Hematopoietic stem cells (give rise to various blood cell types),
mesenchymal stem cells (can differentiate into bone, cartilage, fat cell etc.)
Unipotent: Most specialised type of stem cells, can only renew themselves and differentiate into one specific cell
type. E.g., Stem cells in skin that can only differentiate into another skin cell.
• Disadvantage: Reproductive cloning is very inefficient as the nucleus from somatic cells resists reprogramming.
15. XENOTRANSPLANTATION
20. GM CROPS
• Transgenic plants are those that have been genetically modified using recombinant DNA technology.
• Genetic modification is done to confer a particular trait to the plant with one of the following properties:
○ Increased yield of a crop
• Bt brinjal is genetically engineered by inserting a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis for its insecticidal property.
Bt brinjal
• Since 2010 there has been an indefinite moratorium on commercial cultivation of Bt
Brinjal in India.
• Glyphosate is a herbicide used in cotton fields which is known to be harmful to soil and
also classified as 'probable human carcinogen' by WHO.
• Besides glyphosate also impacts honeybee gut microbiome thereby affecting
pollination.
Recently, GEAC approved GM mustard for commercial use, the first genetically modified
crop in the country to get approval in two decades.
About GM Mustard
• Transgenic hybrid variety.
• Under normal conditions mustard plants do not cross across varieties as they are self-
pollinating in nature.
• As a result we do not have hybrid varieties of mustard due to which plant-breeders are
not able to induce desired traits in mustard plants.
GM Mustard(DMH- • Genetic modification is done to alter the genes of 2 mustard varieties including Varuna
11) and Heera.
Dhara Mustard • Genetic modification is done with the help of soil bacteria barnase and barstar which
Hybrid help create hybrid varieties of mustard.
Benefits:
• Increase in yield up to 20-30%
• Seeks to attain self-sufficiency in edible oil seeds production
Issues:
• Transgenic hybrid variety becomes tolerant to a herbicide called glufosinate-
ammonium upon genetic modification.
• Herbicides are extensively used in field trials including glyphosate, endosulfan.
• These may harm honey bees (the biggest pollinators of mustard fields).
Soybean Sugarbeet
Herbicide tolerant (glyphosate, glufosinate)
Sugarcane
World's 1st planted in Assam. To make it more tolerant to colder climates as rubber is
GM Rubber
native to warm humid Amazon forests.
India will import GM soymeal for the 1st time to be used as livestock-feed particularly in
GM Soymeal
poultry.
Protato Protein packed GM potato that contains 60% more protein than a wild-type potato.
GM bacteria for Genetically modified bacteria are made that copy the action of Rhizobium to induce the
nitrogen fixation ability of nitrogen fixation in the roots of crops other than legumes.
• If the existing (native) genome is altered, the end product would be genetically modified (GM) and if a foreign
genome is inserted then the end product would be transgenic.
Advantages of CRISPR:
• CRISPR offers much greater precision in modifying DNA and targets specific locations with much greater
accuracy compared to R-DNA technology.
• Further, CRISPR can be used for a wider range of applications than R-DNA. This is because CRISPR is not just
limited to introducing new genes but can also be used to make precise edits within existing genes.
Concerns:
• Potential to make irreversible changes to the human genome and Risk of passing erroneous CRISPR-induced
changes to successive generations.
• Special traits in offspring/designer-babies can be created through CRISPR posing ethical concerns.
• Eliminating dangerous species of pests by gene-editing or recreating extinct species may disrupt the food
web/ecological cycle.
Limitations:
• In CRISPR-based editing, mutations are corrected by cutting the double strand of the DNA. As a result, it can cut
only large portions of the genome and not single letter changes.
• Additionally, it can induce unintended off-the-target mutations or incomplete edits in some places.
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
In addition to editing, CRISPR can be used to detect single target DNA or RNA molecule
(CRISPR-Cas13). This makes it a sensitive diagnostic tool to detect mutations.
SHERLOCK
A biological detective that uses CRISPR-Cas13 to detect RNA sequences associated with
diseases like Zika virus and Dengue virus.
• CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast to improve its efficiency of
fermentation and producing ethanol at a faster rate.
• CRISPR is used to genetically modify methanogens (microbes) to improve their
performance in biogas production.
LAB-GROWN MEAT
• Cell-based meat produced by culturing cells in a lab does not have a suitable texture and
flavour. CRISPR systems are used to genetically modify cells to produce proteins
responsible for texture and flavour.
INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATION
CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast used in wine making, baking and
brewing to improve its efficiency of fermentation.
• CRISPR is being used to edit a gene called ‘doublesex’ in female mosquitoes which are
the main transmitters of malaria.
• When the female mosquitoes inherit two copies of the disrupted gene, they develop like
males and are unable to bite or lay eggs.
• This genetic tweak of double-sex gene follows gene drive inheritance. With this, in 8
generations female mosquitoes were completely eliminated.
TREATMENT OF CANCER
• To treat cancer, the rapidly dividing cells must be removed surgically or killed, or their division slowed down.
This is done in two ways: (i) Chemotherapy and (ii) Radiation therapy.
CHEMOTHERAPY
• Drugs that interfere with cell division are administered, slowing down the growth of tumours.
• But these drugs disrupt the cell division of normal cells too, causing complications. E.g.,
○ Extreme fatigue due to reduction in production rate of red blood cells (RBCs).
○ Increases bruising and bleeding, as well as a susceptibility to infection as it reduces production of platelets
and white blood cells (WBCs).
RADIATION
• Also works by disrupting cell division, but it is more targeted. It directs high-energy radiation only at the part of
the body where a tumour is located.
• However, the radiation process is not perfect, and the nearby tissues are often harmed.
○ T-cells are special cells (a type of WBCs) whose primary function is cytotoxic (attack and kill pathogens and
foreign cells).
○ It is the job of B-cells (another type of WBCs) to identify the pathogen and signal other immune cells to do
their job. Now, as cancer cells are not foreign cells, B-cells cannot recognise them as foreign bodies and
hence, cannot present it to the immune system (T-cells) as enemy cells.
• Alternatively, if we can genetically alter T-cells to recognise the cancer cells, it will kill the cells. This is what CAR
T-cell therapy does.
Mechanism:
• In the therapy, T-cells are harvested from the patient’s blood.
○ Researchers genetically modify these cells, using the CRISPR system, so that they express specific proteins
on their surface known as chimeric antigen receptors (CAR).
○ These cells are then multiplied in the laboratory and inserted back into the patient.
○ This genetic modification allows CAR T-cells to effectively bind to the cancer cells (identify them) and destroy
them.
• As CAR T-cells directly activate the patient’s immune system against cancer, it makes the treatment more
clinically effective than Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy.
• Presently, CAR T-cell therapy has been approved for leukaemia and lymphoma.
Limitations:
CAR T-cell therapy could induce an immune response like increased cytokine release which can lead to fever, low
blood pressure, neurological symptoms and organ damage.
• Further, CAR T-cell therapy is best suited for certain blood cancers and may not be effective for all types of
cancer.
• The therapy is designed to target cancer cells that carry CD19 protein. This protein acts like a flag on cancer
cells, which allows CAR-T cells to recognise and attach themselves to the cancer cells and start the process of
elimination.
• The therapy is for people with B-cell lymphomas who did not respond to standard treatments like
chemotherapy, leading to relapse or recurrence of the cancer.
1. Image-guided Form of radiation therapy that uses imaging techniques to precisely locate and
Radiation Therapy treat cancerous tissue.
Allows for higher doses of radiation to be delivered to tumour while minimising
exposure to surrounding healthy tissues.
2. Proton Therapy Type of radiation therapy that uses high-energy proton beams to destroy
cancerous cells.
Particularly useful to treat tumours located in sensitive areas (brain, eyes and
spinal cord) where traditional radiation therapy can cause severe side effects.
3. Precision Medicine Uses genomic information (genetic profile of their tumour) to personalise
treatment for cancer patients.
Type of
Description Diseases covered
vaccines
ANTIBODY
• Proteins produced by the immune system that neutralise any foreign substance (bacteria, virus) entering the
human body.
• Antibody attaches itself to an antigen (a foreign substance, usually a disease-causing molecule) and helps the
immune system eliminate it from the body.
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY
• Laboratory-made proteins to serve as substitute antibodies and mimic their behaviour to protect against
diseases and foreign substances.
• They are specifically engineered and generated to target certain diseases and are meant to attach themselves
to the specific disease-causing antigen.
• E.g., Monoclonal antibodies during COVID-19 pandemic were engineered to bind to the spike protein of SARS-
CoV-2 virus. The binding prevents the protein from exercising its regular functions, including its ability to infect
other cells.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
• With the advancement in our understanding of genes and gene expression we could make synthetic genomes
to express very specific traits with specific applications.
• Some potential areas could be:
○ Producing synthetic algae for high-efficiency photosynthesis that can be used in CCUS technology.
○ Synthetic microbes as agents of bioremediation: E.g., Plastic-eating bacteria are suitable only for certain
kinds of plastics. If we can mimic the process with a synthetic genome, we can have novel organisms that can
be used for bioremediation.
○ Antibiotics are now being made by engineering a completely artificial gene sequence to code for a protein
(polypeptides). These are known to kill E.coli, Staphylococcus aureus etc.
○ Can replace Genetically Modified biologics like Insulin.
○ Anti-malarial polypeptide is made using an artificial sequence.
• Rare and progressive genetic disorder in which a complex sugar called glycogen builds up
in the lysosomes.
• The autosomal recessive disorder is caused by a deficiency or malfunction of a specific
digestive enzyme called acid alpha-glucosidase (GAA) responsible for breaking down
Pompe
glycogen into glucose.
Disease
• This leads to accumulation of glycogen which causes progressive muscle weakness and can
affect various organs, including heart, respiratory system, and liver.
• Treatment: Currently, no cure exists, and Enzyme replacement therapy to replace the
deficient GAA enzyme is the mainstay of treatment.
• Rare genetic disorder characterised by progressive muscle degeneration and weakness due
to the alterations of a protein called dystrophin (dystrophin helps in wear and tear and
regeneration of muscles).
Duchenne’s
• As a result, the body cannot produce dystrophin, which weakens the muscles, and patients
Muscular
become wheelchair-bound in early teens and die prematurely.
Dystrophy
• Cause: Most cases of DMD are inherited as an X-linked recessive trait (passed on through
the mother, who is a carrier). The disease primarily affects boys, but in rare cases, it can
affect girls.
• Slow progressing Neglected Tropical Disease and zoonotic infection caused by a protozoan
parasite of genus Leishmania.
Kala Azar or
• Transmitted by the sand fly found in moist mud and sand close to livestock.
Visceral
• The parasite primarily infects the reticuloendothelial system and may be found in
leishmaniasis
abundance in bone marrow, spleen and liver.
• It is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world after Malaria.
• Highly contagious disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus that primarily affects cattle.
• Transmission: Biting insects such as flies and mosquitoes and possibly ticks. Also spread
Lumpy Skin by direct contact to skin lesions, saliva, nasal discharge, milk, or semen of infected animals.
Disease Not a zoonotic virus i.e., cannot spread to humans via milk consumption.
• Symptoms: Formation of nodules/lumps on skin, head, neck, back, and genitalia, high
fever, sharp drop in milk yield, loss of appetite, thinness or weakness in animals.
• Highly contagious viral vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals such as cattle, buffaloes,
sheep, goats and pigs etc.
Foot and • Symptoms: Abscesses and ulcers to the mouth and foot that prevent the animal from
Mouth Disease eating and walking, reduced milk yield, infertility, reduced working capacity.
• Human infection is rare, and is not transmitted to humans via meat consumption.
• The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying aims to eradicate FMD by 2030 through
vaccination of livestock.
• Inherited/genetic blood disorder that affects haemoglobin, the protein in RBCs that carries
oxygen to all parts of the body.
• Healthy RBCs are soft and round. In SCD, the haemoglobin is abnormal, which causes the
Sickle Cell RBCs to become hard and sticky and look like a “sickle.”
Anaemia (SCD) • These rigid, sticky cells die early and often get stuck in blood vessels, clogging the flow of
blood. As a result, different parts of the body do not get the oxygen they need.
• This can cause pain and other serious health problems such as infection, acute chest
syndrome and stroke.
• Rare inherited/genetic bleeding disorder that impairs the body’s ability to make blood clots.
• People with haemophilia have lower levels of clotting factors, which can lead to excessive
bleeding, even after a minor injury.
Haemophilia • It is an X-chromosome linked recessive disorder which means that it is more common in
males than in females (Females are carriers of haemophilia genes).
• Lifelong condition with no permanent cure. Treatment typically involves replacing deficient
clotting factors through infusions.
Thalassemia
• Progressive neurological disorder that causes the brain to shrink (atrophy) and brain cells
Alzheimer to die, which primarily affects memory (dementia) and cognitive function.
• Caused by abnormal build-up of proteins in and around brain cells, which either form
plaques (Amyloid protein) or tangles (Tau protein) around brain cells.
• RNA virus that damages the immune system. HIV primarily targets CD4 cells (type WBCs),
essential for the proper functioning of the immune system.
Human
• If left untreated, HIV can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
immuno-
• Transmission: Contact with certain bodily fluids (infected blood, semen, or vaginal fluids)
deficiency
of a person with HIV. Can transmit from an HIV-positive mother to child during childbirth,
virus (HIV)
breastfeeding, or pregnancy.
• Not transmitted by insect vectors (HIV can only survive in human blood).
• Vaccine-preventable zoonotic disease caused by a RNA virus which infects the central
nervous system of mammals, including humans.
• Transmission: Bite of an infected animal (dogs, cats, bats, monkeys, foxes), contact with
Rabies saliva or other bodily fluids of infected animal.
• Symptoms: Fever and headache, hallucinations, paralysis and hydrophobia.
• Treatment:
• Once symptoms appear, no cure for rabies (100% fatal).
• Not a specific disease but name given to a potential novel infectious agent currently
Disease X
unknown but could pose a serious microbial threat to humans in the future.
• Can be acquired from vertical gene transfer i.e., during the process of bacterial division, the
drug resistance gene is transmitted from parent to offspring.
• Can be acquired by a microbe from other microbes through swapping genes via horizontal
gene transfer i.e., genetic sequences associated with antimicrobial resistance may pass on
from one microbe to another in the community.
• Incomplete doses of medication and self-medication.
• Inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication can expose microbes in the
environment.
• Using antibiotics in farm animals and herbicide use to control weeds may enrich
Antimicrobial resistance gene (ARGs) and Mobile genetic element (MGEs) by altering soil
microbiomes.
• Microplastics and untreated solid and liquid waste, biofilms can act as a reservoir of AMR
microbes.
Note: In India, Antibiotics are included in Schedule H and H1 of the Drugs Rules, 1945. These
drugs have specific caution labelling requirements and are sold by retail only under the
prescription of a Registered Medical Practitioner.
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
1. Quarks:
• Quarks are elementary particles
that are considered fundamental
constituents of matter.
• They combine to form composite
particles known as hadrons (such
as protons and neutrons), which are the building blocks of atomic nuclei.
• There are 6 principal quarks, and they interact through the exchange of other elementary particles called
gluons.
• A quark exhibits confinement, which means that the quarks are not observed independently but always in
combination with other quarks. This makes determining their properties (mass, spin, and parity) impossible to
measure directly.
2. Leptons:
• Leptons, alongside quarks, are fundamental building blocks of matter.
• There are 6 known leptons - Electron, Muon, Tau, three types of Neutrinos.
Note: Fermions (Quarks + Leptons) are the particles which have half-integer spin.
3. Bosons:
• Boson is a collective name given to particles that carry fundamental forces.
• Each fundamental force has its own corresponding force carrier (boson).
○ Strong force is carried by gluon
○ Electromagnetic force is carried by photon
○ W and Z bosons are responsible for the Weak force.
2. EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSE
BIG BANG THEORY
• Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe's origin and evolution.
• Origin from a Singularity: Approximately 13.8 billion years ago, all the matter and energy in the universe were
created from an incredibly hot, dense state called a Singularity in an enormous explosion- “Big Bang”.
• Inflation (Rapid expansion): After the explosion, the universe underwent a period of rapid expansion called
inflation.
• Cooling and Particle formation: As the universe expanded and cooled, fundamental forces and particles
formed. The first fraction of a second witnessed the creation of elementary particles like quarks and gluons.
• Big Bang nucleosynthesis (light element formation): After a few minutes, protons and neutrons formed,
allowing for the creation of the light elements - Hydrogen, Helium - through a process called Big Bang
nucleosynthesis.
• Formation of stars and galaxies: Over billions of years, gravity caused the light elements to clump together,
forming stars and galaxies. Over time, heavier elements were forged within stars and dispersed through stellar
explosions, enriching the universe for future solar system formation.
• CMB is a form of electromagnetic radiation that permeates the entire universe and is almost uniform in all
directions.
• It is considered to be the oldest light in the universe and is often referred to as the faint afterglow heat radiation
from a very hot, early universe.
• The expansion of the universe stretched CMB's wavelength, shifting it from high-energy photons to the
microwave range (long wavelength) as we observe today. This expansion is indeed evidence for the Big Bang.
2. Redshift of Galaxies:
• Redshift is a phenomenon observed in the light emitted by distant objects, such as galaxies or quasars.
• When an object moves away from an observer, the light it emits gets stretched or "shifted" toward longer
wavelengths or towards the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is interpreted as a consequence of
the universe's ongoing expansion.
○ Massive objects cause a curvature in space-time structure, which causes other objects to move along a
curved path.
○ Speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames. (Speed of light remains the same for all observers,
regardless of their position or motion within a gravitational field)
• GTR predicted the existence of gravitational waves, black holes, time dilation, gravitational lensing (light is
deflected by objects with very strong gravity), and expansion of the Universe.
• Ripples in space-time caused by accelerating massive objects (similar to ripples in a water pond). The curvature
of spacetime is directly proportional to the mass of the object causing the curvature, i.e., the greater the mass,
the greater the curvature of spacetime it causes.
• The waves travel at the speed of light and squeeze and stretch anything in their path.
• Gravitational radiation is exceedingly difficult to detect because gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental
forces. The waves were finally detected in 2015 by LIGO - Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.
2. Black holes:
• Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Black holes have been
observationally confirmed. (Details later in the segment )
3. Time dilation:
• Time dilation refers to the idea that time is relative and runs/passes at different rates for different observers,
depending on their relative motion or their positions in a gravitational field.
• Closer an object's velocity is to the speed of light, the more pronounced the time dilation effect becomes.
• GTR predicts that time runs slower in stronger gravitational fields. This has been experimentally verified using
high-precision atomic clocks, observations of Quasars etc.
• In the 1960s, Peter Higgs suggested that just after the Big Bang, in the early stages, the fundamental particles
did not have any mass. As the Universe cooled, an invisible force field got formed which has been termed as
Higgs Field.
• The associated particles with the Higgs field are the Higgs Bosons. It has been theorised that any particle that
interacted with these Higgs Bosons got mass, and those particles that were left out of the Higgs field remained
massless.
• As these Higgs bosons grant mass to particles like electrons, quarks, etc. (the primary condition for existence of
matter), they were termed as the ‘God particle’.
• The Higgs boson was discovered by the Large Hadron Collider in 2012.
2. Neutrinos:
• Neutrinos belong to a group of fundamental particles called leptons in the Standard Model.
• They have no electric charge and very little mass (nearly massless).
• They very rarely interact with matter and that is why they are called “ghost particles”. This means they can travel
through vast distances, including entire planets, almost undetected.
Dark Matter:
• Dark matter is completely invisible. It does not interact with matter, emits no light or energy and thus cannot
be detected directly by conventional sensors and detectors.
• Scientists are confident it exists, because of the gravitational effects it has on galaxies and galaxy clusters.
Dark Energy:
• Existence of dark energy was theorised 25 years ago, when a team of researchers found that the expansion of
the Universe was speeding up or accelerating, instead of slowing down due to gravity (inwards pulling force).
This is hypothesised to be happening due to a mysterious form of energy called dark energy.
Characteristics of Dark Energy:
• Dark energy has been hypothesised as a repulsive force or anti-gravity, i.e. while gravity tends to make objects
attract, dark energy would pull them apart by increasing the space between them. Thus, dark energy has an
expansionary effect.
• As our universe is expanding, it indicates that dark energy has a greater abundance than dark matter.
• Dark energy is a property of space, so it does not get diluted as space expands.
○ Normally, as the universe expands the density of mass and radiation in it decreases.
○ However, the density of dark energy remains constant throughout. This means the dark energy in the
universe is ever increasing, in order to keep the energy-density constant. Thus, dark energy should be energy
inherent in the fabric of space itself.
6. BLACK HOLES
• Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves,
has enough energy to escape.
• Formation: A black hole forms when a massive star (at least three times the mass of our Sun), exhausts its fuel,
explodes in a supernova, and collapses under gravity into an incredibly dense core called a singularity.
• Types:
○ Stellar Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a single massive star.
○ Intermediate Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a star having mass between 100 and 1,00,000 times
that of our sun.
○ Supermassive Black Hole: Masses ranging from millions to billions of times that of the sun, found at the
centres of most galaxies.
• Black holes are not directly observable with telescopes that detect X-rays, light, or other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. However, their presence can be inferred through their effects on surrounding matter
and the gravitational waves they produce.
○ E.g., If a black hole passes through a cloud of interstellar matter or if a star passes close to a black hole, it will
draw matter inward in a process known as accretion. As the attracted matter accelerates and heats up, it
emits electromagnetic radiation into space. This reflects the presence of black holes.
○ Merger of two blackholes produces powerful gravitational waves. The detection of these waves (through
LIGO) can confirm the existence/ location of the black holes.
Spaghettification:
• Spaghettification refers to the effect of extreme gravitational pressure on any particle or body of matter, in
particular, when exposed to the extreme forces of the black hole.
• When a particle draws too close to the event horizon, it is stretched into long thin shapes. E.g., If an astronaut
falls into the event horizon, as the gravity is inversely proportional to distance, the pull on the falling astronaut’s
legs will be substantially greater than the pull on his or her upper torso. Subsequently, stretching him like
spaghetti (pasta).
Black Hole Mass Gap
• Gap between the mass of the heaviest Neutron star (maximum mass around 2.2 solar masses) and the lightest
Black hole (around 5 solar masses) is called Black Hole Mass Gap.
• At the boundary between neutron stars and black holes there is always the possibility that some new, as yet
unknown, astrophysical object might exist.
• Recently, an object has been detected in the star cluster NGC 1851, whose mass (2.09-2.7 times solar Sun) falls
within the black hole mass gap.
Significance:
• Provides a direct measurement of gravitational waves to study their properties.
• Allows scientists to observe and study mergers of black holes and neutron stars.
• Provide valuable insights into the early universe and advances our understanding of fundamental physics.
• These high-energy collisions recreate conditions similar to the Big Bang, and generate new particles. Using
detectors scientists study their properties and interactions, which can provide insights into fundamental
particles, dark matter and possibly new physics beyond the Standard Model.
• The ATLAS and CMS detectors of LHC discovered the Higgs boson in 2012.
Hadrons: Subatomic particles composed of two or three fundamental particles known as quarks, which are
held together by strong Nuclear force. E.g., Protons, Neutrons.
Amaterasu particle:
• The Amaterasu particle, named after the sun goddess in Japanese mythology, is an extremely high-energy cosmic
ray detected in 2021 and later identified in 2023, using the Telescope Array Project observatory in the United States.
• It has an energy exceeding 240 exa-electron volts (EeV). This is millions of times more powerful than the particles
produced by the Large Hadron Collider.
• It is second only to the “Oh-My-God” particle, another high-energy cosmic ray detected in 1991 with 320 EeV energy.
• Neutrinos rarely interact with matter. However, when a neutrino interacts with an atom in the ice, it creates a
secondary particle that travels faster than light in the ice. This faster-than-light travel creates a faint blue light
called Cherenkov radiation.
• The DOMs detect the Cherenkov radiation and send a signal to the surface. By studying the pattern of
Cherenkov radiation, scientists can learn about the energy and direction of the neutrino that caused it.
• Proposed underground laboratory at Bodi West Hills near Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
Opposition:
• TN is opposing the move as the proposed site will fall within the confines of
Indian Neutrino
Periyar tiger corridor and Mathikettan Shola National Park in the Western Ghats.
Observatory
• As the observatory will be at a depth of 1 km mountain rock will be subject to
vertical stress and may create rock bust and roof collapse.
• Harmful effects of radiation. (This is misplaced as neutrinos are harmless)
Cubic Kilometre Neutrino • European detector under-construction off the coast of France, Italy, and Greece,
Telescope at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.
• China is planning to build the world’s largest neutrino observatory under the
ocean.
Muon Tomography:
• A technique used to image the interior of dense objects or structures using cosmic ray muons.
• When muons pass through matter, their trajectory is affected by the density and composition of the material.
• By measuring the paths of muons as they pass through an object from different angles, it is possible to create
a 3D image of the object's internal structure.
• Advantage: Non-invasive imaging technique (does not require any drilling or excavation).
Uses:
• Image interior of archaeological sites (pyramids in Egypt), volcanoes to monitor for potential eruptions.
• Inspect integrity of spent fuel rods and other components of nuclear reactors.
• Used in customs security to detect contraband and other illicit materials in shipping.
11. SUPERNOVA
• Incredibly powerful stellar explosions that occur when a massive supergiant star reaches the end of its life.
• These explosions release an astonishing amount of energy, up to 10^44 joules.
TYPES:
Type I:
• Occur in binary star systems where one of the stars is a white dwarf (a dense, Earth-sized remnant of a star that
has exhausted its nuclear fuel and collapsed under its own gravity).
• The white dwarf accretes matter from its companion star until it reaches a critical mass, known as the
Chandrasekhar limit (1.4 times the mass of the Sun).
• The pressure and temperature at the core of the white dwarf become so high that carbon and oxygen nuclei in
the core begin to fuse rapidly into heavier elements, primarily iron.
• The fusion process proceeds at an ever-increasing rate, leading to a thermal runaway/uncontrolled nuclear
reaction that releases an immense amount of energy, causing the white dwarf to explode.
Type II:
• Star is a delicate balance between two forces: the outward energy and pressure created by nuclear fusion and
the inward gravitational force, as a result of the star’s large mass.
• Core-collapse supernovae occur when massive stars (at least 8 times the mass of our Sun) reach the end of
their lives. As the core runs out of nuclear fuel, gravity starts to gain the upper hand, and the star collapses
under the force of gravity.
• The core collapse triggers a massive shockwave that eventually blows off the outer layers of the star. It leads to
the formation of a neutron star (or a black hole, if the star is extremely massive).
Significance:
• Supernovae are responsible for creating and dispersing heavy elements like iron, gold, and uranium into space,
essential for the formation of stars, planets and life.
• Supernovae have a consistent peak brightness and are used as "standard candles" in cosmology to measure
cosmic distances.
13. QUASARS
• Quasars are not actually stars but active galactic nuclei (AGN) located at extreme distances from Earth.
• They are the bright cores of distant galaxies powered by supermassive black holes. The intense gravitational
forces exerted by these black holes cause the surrounding material to heat up and emit enormous amounts of
energy, including visible light and radio waves.
• They are the most luminous objects (equivalent to the combined light of hundreds of billions of stars) in the
known universe, outshining entire galaxies. As a general rule, the most luminous quasars indicate the fastest-
growing supermassive black holes.
• The nearest quasar is Markarian 231, which lies about 600 million light-years from Earth.
15. SUN
• Composition: Hydrogen (about 74%), Helium (24%) and other elements in trace amounts.
• Energy Source: Nuclear Fusion (Hydrogen atoms combine to form Helium in its core).
• Size and Mass: Approximately 109
times Earth’s diameter and about
333,000 times Earth's mass.
• Distance: Average distance from
Earth to the Sun, known as one
astronomical unit (AU), is about 93
million miles (150 million
kilometres).
Layers of the Sun:
• Core: Innermost region where
nuclear fusion occurs.
• Radiative Zone: Above the core,
energy is transported outward by
photons through this layer.
• Convective Zone: This layer is
closer to the surface and transports energy through the movement of hot gas (plasma) cells.
• Photosphere: Visible surface of the Sun, where most of its energy is radiated into space as visible light.
• Chromosphere: Thin layer between photosphere and corona. (named for its reddish colour, most easily
observed during a total solar eclipse)
• Corona: Outermost and extremely hot layer of Sun's atmosphere, visible as a halo during solar eclipses.
Key terms:
• Heliosphere: Vast, bubble-like
region of space dominated by
the Sun's solar wind and
magnetic field emanating from
the Sun. It extends far beyond
the orbit of Pluto and protects
the solar system from harmful
cosmic rays.
• Solar Magnetic Field: Sun has
a complex magnetic field
generated by the motion of
charged particles in its interior.
This field plays a crucial role in
the behaviour of the Sun,
including the formation of
sunspots, solar flares, and
CMEs.
• Sunspots: Temporary spots on the Sun's photosphere that appear darker than the surrounding areas. They are
cooler parts of the Sun's surface caused by massive changes in its magnetic field.
• Solar Wind: Created by the outward expansion of plasma (a collection of charged particles) from the Sun's
corona. This plasma is continually heated to the point that the Sun's gravity can not hold it down. It then travels
along the Sun's magnetic field lines that extend radially outward.
• Solar Flares: Massive explosion on the Sun's surface that releases intense bursts of radiation across almost the
entire electromagnetic spectrum (from radio waves to X-rays). Solar flares can disrupt radio communications,
satellite operations, and power grids on Earth.
• Coronal Mass Ejections: Large expulsions of plasma and magnetic fields from the sun's corona into space.
When they interact with Earth's magnetic field, they can cause geomagnetic storms, which can impact power
grids, GPS systems, communication networks and orbiting satellites and trigger Aurora displays.
• Picoflare jets: Relatively small jets of charged particles expelled intermittently from the sun’s corona at
supersonic speeds for 20 to 100 seconds. These charged jets are a source of the solar wind. These jets carry
approximately one-trillionth the energy of the largest flares the sun is capable of producing. (“Pico” denotes 10-
12 or one trillionth of a unit). It has significant effects on the large-scale solar system as well as on Earth’s
• Efficiency of a rocket is expressed in terms of specific impulse (the amount of thrust derived from one kilogram
of propellant (rocket fuel) in one second of engine operation). Specific impulse depends on two things: quality
of fuel used and performance of the engine. Higher the specific impulse, the higher is the push to the rocket.
• Fuel: Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants stored at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C
for hydrogen and -183°C for oxygen).
Advantages:
• Cryogenic propellants have a high energy density, high fuel efficiency and high specific impulse (more thrust
per kilogram of propellant). This allows rockets to carry less fuel, reduces their overall weight and can carry
heavier payloads or travel further.
• Cryogenic engines are throttleable (ability to vary/adjust their thrust levels during flight). This capability is
essential for precise control during ascent, orbit insertion, manoeuvring, and controlled reentry of a rocket.
Challenges:
• They require complex and expensive infrastructure to store and handle extremely cold propellants.
• Initial development process of cryogenic engines and maintenance is expensive.
ADVANTAGE OF KULASEKARAPATTINAM
• Kulasekarapattinam gives the benefit of launching straight in southward direction, i.e., dogleg manoeuvre is not
required, thereby saving the rocket's fuel and improving payload capability.
○ Lagrange points are positions in a moving two-body system where the combined gravitational forces
of two large bodies (such as the Sun and Earth or Earth and the Moon) acting on a third body of smaller
mass cancel each other out.
○ While absolute neutralisation is not achievable due to the influence of other celestial bodies (such as
Moon, Mars, and Venus etc.), they provide a stable position where a spacecraft may be "parked" to make
observations.
○ There are five Lagrange points located along the line connecting the two larger celestial bodies.
○ L1 point: Located roughly 1.5 million kilometres from Earth. It provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun
(the satellite can view the Sun without eclipses).
○ L2 point: Provides an unobstructed view of the Universe and is stable enough for long-duration
observations. Location for space-based observatories (James Webb Space Telescope).
○ L3 point: Lies behind the Sun, opposite to Earth. Offers the potential to observe the far side of the Sun.
Possible location for a future space-based observatory.
○ L4 and L5 point: Stable locations but are relatively farther from Earth than L1.
COMPONENTS OF GAGANYAAN
Crew Module
• A crew module and service module. The crew members have been shortlisted by the IAF and ISR.
• Crew will perform micro-gravity and other scientific experiments.
Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE)
• Gaganyaan would return back to Earth. While re-entering Earth’s atmosphere, the spacecraft needs to withstand
very high temperatures created due to atmospheric friction.
• A prior critical experiment was carried out in 2014 along with LVM3, when the CARE capsule successfully
demonstrated that it could survive atmospheric re-entry.
Crew Escape System - PAT
• The Crew Escape System is an emergency accident avoidance measure.
• In July 2018, ISRO completed the first successful flight ‘pad abort test’ or Crew Escape System.
Environmental Control & Life Support System ECLSS
• ECLSS will:
○ Maintain steady cabin pressure and air composition
○ Remove carbon dioxide and other harmful gases
○ Control temperature and humidity
○ Manage parameters like fire detection and suppression
Vyom Mitra
• ISRO’s female humanoid robot that will test-flight Gangayaan.
• Vyom Mitra was built by ISRO’s Inertial Systems Unit, Thiruvananthapuram.
Space-borne Assistant and Knowledge Hub for Crew Interaction (SAKHI) App
• A digital platform integrated to the space suits of astronauts to:
○ Assist astronauts regarding technical documents and training manuals digitally.
○ Monitor vitals (blood pressure, heart rate and oxygen saturation), hydration level, sleep patterns throughout
the mission.
○ Maintain mission log and keep crew connected with the onboard computer and ground-based stations on
Earth.
27. CHANDRAYAAN-3
• Lunar exploration mission by ISRO, a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2.
• Successfully demonstrated ISRO’s end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the South pole of the
Moon (near side of the moon).
• Comprised an indigenous propulsion system, lander module (Vikram) and a rover (Pragyan).
• Major objectives:
○ Demonstrate a safe and soft landing on the surface of the Moon
○ Conduct rover operations on the Moon
○ Conduct on-site experiments on the Lunar surface.
• On August 23rd, 2023, Vikram Lander made its historic
touchdown on Moon and subsequently Pragyan rover
was deployed.
• Duration: Rover operated for one lunar day (roughly
equals 14 Earth days).
• The lander and the rover have scientific payloads to
collect samples of the moon, do in-situ experiments.
The Vikram lander would transmit data back to Earth
for comprehensive analysis by scientists.
• The Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram
Sarabhai Space Centre played a vital role in
continuous real-time monitoring of the launch
activities from SHAR.
• The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has
approved the name “Statio Shiv Shakti” for the
landing site of Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander.
• With the success of the mission, India joined the
United States, Russia, and China to successfully land
on the Moon.
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IN
CHANDRAYAAN-3
Propulsion module:
• Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) to gather data on the polarisation of light reflected
by Earth to assist with exoplanet searches.
Lander payloads:
• Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to measure thermal conductivity and temperature
on the surface.
• Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) to detect Moonquakes.
• Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and Atmosphere (RAMBHA) to measure the
density of near-surface plasma, encompassing ions, and electrons, and monitor its temporal variations.
• Langmuir Probe to estimate the density and variation of plasma, or superheated gas, in the Moon's
environment.
• Laser Retroreflector Array (from NASA) to measure distances using laser ranging to understand the dynamics
of the Moon system.
Rover payloads:
• Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) to look for elements in the lunar soil and rocks
• Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) to examine the chemical and elemental composition of the
lunar surface.
Why was the South Pole chosen?
• Water ice has been detected at both poles of the Moon, but the South Pole has more area in permanent shadow
and colder temperatures, having higher possibility of presence of water.
• Due to extremely cold temperatures, anything trapped in the South Pole would remain frozen without
undergoing much change. The rocks and soil, here, could provide clues to the early solar system.
• The South Pole is located in the South Pole-Aitken basin, which is a huge crater. There may be material from
the deep crust and upper mantle of the Moon on or near the surface.
Venus:
• Venus has a solid surface by virtue of being one of the four inner planets besides Mercury, Earth and Mars.
It is nearly the same size as the Earth.
• Its atmosphere is composed of 95% carbon dioxide (high greenhouse effect), making it the hottest planet in
our Solar system.
• Volcanic eruptions on Venus release sulphur dioxide (SO2) which interacts with the atmosphere to produce
hot sulfuric acid clouds that envelop the planet.
• About 80% of the surface of Venus is composed of flat plains of volcanic origin.
• Its rotation period is longer than its orbital period. (Rotation on its own axis - 243 days, Orbital period around
the sun - 224.7 days)
• It has retrograde rotation, i.e., Venus spins on its axis from east to west.
• Due to the slow rotation of Venus, it has no global magnetic field. (Earth’s magnetic field is due to rotation of
iron core)
1. Artemis Mission • Joint mission of NASA, ESA, JAXA and Canadian Space Agency.
• Aim: To land the first woman and person of colour on the Moon, create a
lunar base, and lay the groundwork for a future trip to Mars.
• Artemis 1: An uncrewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft around the
Moon (launched in 2022)
• Artemis 2: Fly astronauts around the Moon and back without landing,
planned in 2025.
• Artemis 3: Land the first humans near the lunar south pole, planned in
2026.
• Artemis 4: Mission to the Gateway lunar space station in 2028.
2. Jupiter Icy Moons • Launched by: European Space Agency in April 2023
Explorer (Juice)
mission • Mission spacecraft to study Jupiter and its three largest icy moons —
Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
• Particular emphasis on Ganymede as a planetary body and potential
habitat.
• The spacecraft will arrive at Jupiter in 2031.
• After a series of visits to Europa and Callisto, Juice will enter the orbit of
Ganymede in 2034.
6. Double Asteroid • Collaboration between NASA and the Johns Hopkins University Applied
Redirection Test Physics Laboratory.
(DART) • Successfully crashed a spacecraft into asteroid Dimorphos in 2022.
• First ever test of a planetary defence technique involving a kinetic impactor
to deflect an asteroid.
What is Polarisation?
• Light travels in the form of transverse
electromagnetic waves. The light emitted by sources
like the sun, bulb, candle etc. has vibrations in
several planes (oscillates in all directions), and it is
called unpolarised light.
• Polarisation is the phenomenon of restricting the
vibration of light waves to one specific
direction/plane. E.g., Polarised sunglasses have a
special filter that allows only light with a specific
polarisation direction to pass through, which helps
to reduce glare and improve visibility by blocking
unwanted polarisations.
• Polarisation measurements of X-rays (angle and degree of polarisation) emanating from sources like magnetars,
neutron stars, black holes etc. can provide information about the bright X-ray emitting sources (their
composition, temperature, and density) and complex processes they undergo.
• Can help in deducing the orientation and strength of magnetic fields in celestial objects.
• Can help to understand the behaviour of high-energy particles in extreme environments.
Project NETRA:
• Initiative by ISRO, an early warning system in space to detect debris and hazards to Indian satellites and thus gaining
capability in space situational awareness (SSA).
• NETRA will use telescopes, radars, data processing units, and other tools to spot and track objects as small as 10
cm, up to a range of 3,400 km.
KEY
ACHIEVEMENTS
OF THE MISSION
• Simulated the
autonomous landing capability of a reusable launch vehicle returning from space. Would be a critical step
towards developing future Orbital Re-entry missions.
• Validated the performance of indigenously developed technologies in control, navigation, landing gear, and
deceleration systems.
• Provided valuable data for the design and development of future reusable launch vehicles.
IMPORTANT TELESCOPES
S. No. Telescopes Description
• Enhances India’s capabilities to explore the mysteries of the deep celestial sky
and astronomy.
• Group of radio telescopes being built in South Africa and Australia in two
phases. First phase is expected to begin operations by 2029.
• Capable of detecting faint radio signals from extreme distances, with eventually
Square over a square kilometre (one million square metres) of collecting area.
Kilometre
3. • Will operate in two different ranges of radio frequency.
Array (SKA)
○ South-African array will scan for mid-frequency signals, between 350 MHz
project
and 15.4 GHz.
○ Australian telescopes will work in the low-frequency range of 50-350 MHz.
• India officially gained full membership in the SKA Project in January, 2024.
Beta-minus
Charge Positive (2+) (negative –), Neutral (no charge)
Beta-plus (positive +)
RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
• For a given radioisotope, the radioactive half-life is the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any sample to
undergo radioactive decay.
• After two half-lives, there will be one fourth the original sample, after three half-lives one eighth the original
sample, and so forth.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. Radioisotope Thermo-electric Generator: A radioactive material is used which when decays produces heat.
This heat is in turn used by a generator to produce electricity. E.g., New Horizon spacecraft which went to Pluto
uses this kind of device.
2. Medical Imaging: Radioactive isotopes are used in medical imaging techniques such as X-rays, CT scans, PET
scans, and MRI scans.
3. Radiation Therapy: Radioactive isotopes are used to treat various types of cancer through radiation therapy.
4. Smoke Detectors: Smoke detectors use a small amount of radioactive material to detect smoke and trigger an
alarm.
5. Industrial Radiography: Radioactive isotopes are used in industrial radiography to test the integrity of metal
structures such as pipelines and oil rigs.
6. Carbon Dating: Radioactive isotopes are used in carbon dating to determine the age of ancient fossils and
artefacts.
7. Nuclear Power: Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants.
8. Food Irradiation: Radioactive isotopes are used to sterilise and preserve food products, preventing spoilage
and disease.
9. Geological Dating: Radioactive isotopes are used to determine the age of rocks and minerals in geology.
10. Sterilisation: Radioactive isotopes are used to sterilise medical equipment, surgical instruments, and other
devices to prevent the spread of infection.
RADIOACTIVE DATING
• Carbon-14 is produced in the atmosphere due to the interaction of cosmic rays with Nitrogen-14.
• We all have a certain amount of C-14 in our bodies (23% of the human body) as do plants and all living beings.
• Each gram of radioactive C-14 in our bodies decay at the rate of 12 per minute. (Means it becomes 1/2, 1/4, 1/8,
1/16 etc. every 12th minute.) The decayed C-14 is further replaced with atmospheric C-14 as we eat.
• When an organism dies, the remaining C-14 gradually turns into Carbon-12.
• C-14 dating measures the ratio of C-14 to C-12 to determine how many years have passed since an organism died.
• Carbon-14 dating can be used to determine/estimate the age of organic remains between 500 years and
approximately 60,000 years.
2. NUCLEAR PROCESSES
• Nuclear Fission: It involves disintegrating a heavy atom’s nucleus, such as uranium or plutonium, into two or
more smaller nuclei. E.g., A high-energy neutron collides with the nucleus of a U-235 atom, causing it to split
into two smaller nuclei, additional neutrons (usually 3) and enormous energy.
• Nuclear Fusion: Process of combining two or more nuclei to form a heavier nucleus and release high-energy
radiation. This process occurs naturally in stars, where the high temperature at the core allows for the nuclei to
overcome the repulsive electromagnetic force and fuse together. E.g., Combination of hydrogen nuclei to form
helium, releasing energy in the form of neutrinos, gamma rays, and positrons.
Millions of times more than chemical Three to four times more than fission (can
Energy Released
reactions vary depending on isotopes)
URANIUM ENRICHMENT
• Since naturally occurring Uranium does not have a high enough concentration of U-235, Uranium enrichment
is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined Uranium.
• In enriched Uranium, the percent composition of U-235 has been increased through the process of isotope
separation.
• Enriched Uranium is a critical component for both civil nuclear power generation and military nuclear
weapons.
○ Typically, Uranium used for power generation is enriched to levels between 3% and 5% U-235.
○ Weapon-grade uranium is considered to have been enriched above 90% U-235.
○ Nuclear transmutation often refers to the conversion of one nuclide into another within the fuel or target
material. This process can involve the absorption of a neutron, the emission of a neutron, or the capture and
subsequent decay of a particle.
○ Uranium U-238 cannot by itself make the reactor achieve criticality, so it has to be converted to fissile
plutonium (Pu-239) in a nuclear reactor.
• Nuclear reactor is said to be critical when the number of neutrons produced in Nuclear fission reactions
equals the number of neutrons lost through absorption, leakage, and other processes. This equilibrium state
allows for a sustained and controlled chain reaction.
• Supercriticality refers to a state where the rate of neutron production exceeds the rate of neutron losses,
causing the overall neutron population to increase rapidly. This can lead to an uncontrolled chain reaction and
a dangerous power surge.
4. TYPES OF REACTORS
• Presently, India operates 22 nuclear reactors across eight sites, with a total capacity of 6,780 MW.
• Among these 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors and 4 are Light Water Reactors.
The heat generated by the chain reaction of nuclear fission produces steam. The steam is used to move a turbine
which generates electricity.
• India has a limited availability of Uranium reserves (about 2% of global Uranium reserves). The programme is
developed with the aim of utilising the vast Thorium reserves of India.
○ India has about 25% of global thorium in the form of monazite sands along its coastline.
○ They are found in coastal and inland placer sands on the beaches of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, and in the inland riverine sands of Jharkhand and West Bengal.
FUSION REACTORS
• Fusion reactors is increasingly seen as the future of energy security due to following factors:
• Two main factors to achieve fusion reaction are fuel and conditions for fusion.
○ A typical fusion reactor uses hydrogen as a fuel that is abundant in the water of the oceans.
○ However, the main problem in fusion is that the hydrogen nuclei repel each other.
• The electric repulsion of two hydrogen nuclei can be overcome by heating the hydrogen to temperatures of
millions of degrees C. This is what happens in a typical hydrogen bomb.
• However, the challenge for building a fusion reactor is that such high temperatures leads to high pressure
posing the problem of explosion.
1. The first is to make the hydrogen work at a very low density, so the pressure will not get high. This is the
approach used in the Tokamak approach.
2. The second method is to let the hydrogen explode, but to keep the explosions small. This is done in the
laser method.
3. The third way to achieve fusion is by keeping the hydrogen cold. This is called cold fusion.
8. COLD FUSION
• Traditional hot fusion requires extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion between positively charged atomic nuclei (protons).
• Cold fusion proposes achieving fusion at much lower temperatures (possibly room temperature and pressure)
by creating an environment where this repulsion is somehow negated.
PROPOSED MECHANISM
• It suggests that introducing a negatively charged particle to a hydrogen nucleus (proton) could neutralise its
positive charge.
• This would allow two hydrogen nuclei to get close enough for the attractive nuclear force to overcome the
remaining repulsion and initiate nuclear fusion.
• Metals like palladium, zirconium, and nickel, known as "hydrogen absorbers" or "soakers," can potentially
facilitate this process.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
I. Based on material:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Silicon (Si) and (Ge)
(ii) Compound semiconductors:
a. Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP etc.
b. Organic: Anthracene, Doped pthalocyanines etc.
c. Organic polymers: Polypyrrole, Polyaniline, Polythiophene etc.
Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on elemental semiconductors Silicon or
Germanium (Ge) and compound inorganic semiconductors.
However, after the 1990s, a few semiconductor devices using organic semiconductors and semi-conducting
polymers have been developed.
II. Based on purity:
(i) Intrinsic semiconductor: They are pure semiconductors with no impurities. They have no or zero
conductivity at very low temperatures. However, as temperature rises, the conductivity of these materials
increases.
(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor: When a small quantity of small impurity is added to pure semiconductor, the
conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold. These semiconductors are called extrinsic or
impurity semiconductors. The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity
atoms are called dopants.
DISADVANTAGE
High costs and technical difficulties in its development.
4. OPTICAL FIBRES
• Thin, flexible, and transparent fibre made of glass (high quality silica) or plastic.
• It is used to transmit information, such as text, images, videos, etc. encoded as digital information or
electromagnetic waves/light pulses almost at the speed of light.
• Optical fibres utilise the phenomenon of total internal reflection for transmission.
Structure:
An optical fibre consists of:
• Core, which is the innermost part where light
travels.
• Cladding, which surrounds the core and helps
contain the light within the core by reflecting it
back into the core.
○ Core and cladding are usually made of
materials with different refractive indices,
allowing for the total internal reflection of light
within the core.
○ Refractive index of the core is higher (denser
medium) than the refractive index of the
cladding (rarer medium).
Advantages:
• Long distances with minimal loss of signal quality (low signal attenuation).
• Optical waves have high bandwidth, thus allowing a high data-transmission rate, up to several terabits per
second in a single fibre.
• Fibre cables are immune to electromagnetic interference and less sensitive to external perturbations such as
lightning and bad weather, unlike copper cables.
Applications:
• Telecommunications: Used to connect telephone lines, cable television systems, and internet service
providers.
• Medical imaging: Used in a variety of medical imaging applications, such as endoscopy, ultrasound, and laser
surgery.
• Sensors: Used in a variety of sensors, such as temperature sensors, pressure sensors, and chemical sensors.
• Lighting: Used in a variety of lighting applications, such as decorative lighting, stage lighting, and outdoor
lighting.
• Military: Used in a variety of military applications, such as communication, surveillance, and targeting.
5. INTERNET
• Internet: Global network of interconnected computers and devices that use standardised communication
protocols to exchange information.
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Companies or organisations that provide access to the Internet. They offer
various types of connections such as dial-up, broadband, and wireless.
• World Wide Web (WWW): An information system on the Internet that allows users to access and navigate
through web pages using hyperlinks.
• Web 1.0 [1990 – 2000]: It is regarded as the first generation of the World Wide Web. Also known as Syntactic
web or read only web. Mostly, Web 1.0 was limited to searching info and reading what’s already there. There
was little user interaction or content contribution. It was disorganised and overwhelming, and soon it came to
be dominated by AOL, CompuServe, early Yahoo and other portals. These online service providers were gateway
to Web 1.0. (HTML 1.0)
• Web 2.0 [from mid-2000s]: This phase was characterised by enhanced user experience and made the internet
interactive. Also known as Social Web or read-write web. It enabled users to participate in content creation on
social networks, blogs, sharing sites and more. Search engines (Google) and social media platforms (Facebook,
Twitter) driven by user-generated content disrupted media, advertising and retail industries. Web 2.0’s business
model relies on user participation to create fresh content and resultant data being sold to third parties for
marketing. Facilitated by HTML 2.0.
• Web 3.0 [yet to arrive]: Next stage of web evolution. It would make the internet more intelligent, or process
information with near-human-like intelligence through the power of AI systems.
6. WEB 3.0
• Web 3.0 is the next version of the internet where services will run on blockchain.
• It is a decentralised internet that runs on a public blockchain, which is also used for cryptocurrency
transactions.
• It will be permissionless and democratic. For instance: Twitter will not be able to censor posts and Facebook
will not be able to maintain a database of billions of users.
• In a Web 3.0 universe, people will control their own data and will be able to move around from social media to
email to shopping using a single personalised account, creating a public record on blockchain of all that
activity.
• All data will be interconnected in a decentralised way, unlike current generation of internet (Web 2.0), where
data is mostly stored in centralised repositories.
○ Key features of Web 3.0 are: Ubiquity, Semantic Web, Artificial Intelligence and 3D Graphics.
○ Examples of Web 3.0: Most recent examples of Web 3.0 are the NFTs or non-fungible tokens.
7. DARK WEB
The total web content on the internet is broadly classified into three broad categories: Surface web, Deep web and
Dark web.
SURFACE WEB
• Usual search engines such as Google, Yahoo & Bing etc. can ‘look for’ and extract content and present it in the
form of a website/webpage. For this, web pages are ‘indexed’ by search engines.
• Only about 10-15% of web content is present on surface web accessible by common searches.
DEEP WEB
• Term used for all those content or web pages that are there on the internet but are not indexed by search
engines and therefore not discernible by conventional search engines.
• Thus, webpages on the deep web do not show up in conventional search engines like Google, Yahoo, and Bing
etc. About 75-80% of the web content/web pages are on the deep web.
• Common examples of web content on the deep web include financial data, bank account details, emails,
personal data etc. that are password protected.
1G
• Mobile phones began with 1G technology in the 1980s.
2G
• First launched in 1991.
• For the 1st time radio signals became digital rather than analog.
• 2G phones are used for data also along with voice.
• Thus, 2G telephone introduced call and text encryption, SMS, picture messages, and MMS.
• Maximum speed under 2G networks with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was 50 kilobits per second.
• With Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) the speed went up to 1mbps
GPRS
• Launched in 2000
• Bridge between 2G and 3G.
• It marks the coming of data transmission besides voice communication.
• General Packet Radio Service enabled mobile devices to send and receive emails and pictures.
• GPRS used EDGE and GSM standards for both voice and data transmission.
• GPRS had operating speeds of up to 115 kbit/s.
• It increased to a maximum of 384 kbit/s by using EDGE.
3G
• The introduction of 3G networks in 1998, ushered in faster data-transmission speeds.
• Maximum speed of 3G is estimated to be around 2 Mbps for non-moving devices and 384 Kbps in moving
vehicles.
• Further a 3G phone cannot communicate through a 4G network, but a 4G phone can communicate through
a 3G or even 2G networks.
• Under both 2G to 3G technologies, data and voice transmission over the different networks using GSM or
CDMA technology.
4G
• 4G uses LTE which allows us to communicate with voice and data simultaneously over the same network.
• Applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV,
video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
• Max speed of a 4G network when the device is moving is 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps for low mobility communication
like when stationary or walking.
1G 2G 3G 4G
Technology Analog cellular Digital cellular (GSM) CDMA, UMTS, EDGE LTE, WiFi
10. 5G TECHNOLOGY
• Fifth generation (5G) of long-term evolution (LTE) mobile broadband networks is the most recent update.
• The next generation cellular technology will provide faster and more reliable communication with ultra-low
latency (Latency is gap time or transmission time for a packet of data).
• The Steering Committee constituted for identifying the 5G deployment roadmap for India recently submitted a
report titled 'Making India 5G Ready'. As per a government panel report with 5G data speed would be 2-20 Gbps.
FEATURES OF 5G
• High data rates (1Gbps for hotspots, 100Mbps download and 50Mbps upload for wide-area coverage)
• Massive connectivity (1 million connections per square kilometre)
• Ultra-low latency (1 millisecond)
• High reliability (99.999% for mission critical ‘ultra-reliable’ communications).
• Mobility at high speeds (up to 500 km/hr i.e., high-speed trains).
APPLICATIONS IN INDIA
• Will enhance infrastructure efficiencies like ‘vehicle platooning’. Platooning can double vehicle density in roads
promoting efficient and safer use of the limited road infrastructure.
• In manufacturing, 5G will enable use of robotics for precision manufacturing.
• 5G can also enable better logistics to track goods from raw materials to product delivery.
• In agriculture, 5G can enable improvement in the entire value-chain, from precision farming, smart irrigation,
improved soil and crop monitoring to livestock management.
• In the energy sector, ‘smart grids’ and ‘smart metering’ can be efficiently supported enabling growth of alternate
energy technologies.
• In healthcare, 5G can enable more effective tele-medicine delivery, tele-control of surgical robotics and wireless
monitoring of vital statistics.
• 5G will be used in key government projects such as smart cities and Digital India.
Basic mobile broadband, Early adoption for enhanced Focus on R&D for ultra-high-
Applications social media, video mobile broadband, potential speed data, mission-critical
streaming for future VR/AR applications (long term)
5G SPECTRUM
5G primarily operates in three bands, namely the low, mid, and high-frequency spectrums, each of which has its
own set of benefits and drawbacks.
• The low band spectrum may not be ideal for specialised requirements of the business; thus, Telcos may utilise
and deploy it for commercial cell phone customers who may not have need for extremely high-speed internet.
MID-BAND SPECTRUM
• It has faster speeds than the low band, however it has restrictions in terms of coverage area and signal
penetration.
• This band might be utilised by companies and specialised production units to create captive networks that can
be tailored to their specific demands.
HIGH-BAND SPECTRUM
• It has the fastest speed of the three bands, but its coverage and signal penetration intensity are severely
restricted.
• Internet speeds in the 5G high-band spectrum have been tested to reach 20 Gbps (gigabits per second),
although the greatest internet data speed in 4G has been reported at 1 Gbps in most circumstances.
1. Medium of Relies on radio waves to transmit Transmits data using visible light or ultraviolet
transmission data wirelessly between devices light. LEDs act as transmitters, and a
photodetector receives the data.
Working Mechanism:
• On-board unit: Every vehicle registering for the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) of toll collection
will be equipped with an on-board unit (OBU) that will be linked to a constellation of satellites via a GPS
receiver. The OBU transmits the vehicle's location and identification information to the toll collection system.
The OBU will also be linked with a wallet from which the toll amount will be automatically deducted.
• Satellite tracking: Satellites track the movement of the vehicle and determine the distance travelled on
tolled roads.
• Toll calculation: The toll collection system calculates the toll based on the actual length of the highway
traversed by the vehicle and the vehicle's class (E.g., car, truck).
• Automatic payment: Toll amount is automatically deducted from the driver's prepaid account or linked
credit card.
• It is typically used for short-range communication links, such as within buildings or across relatively short
distances.
ADVANTAGES
• FSO communication offers a high data rate to meet the tremendous increasing demand of broadband traffic
mostly driven by Internet access and HDTV broadcasting services.
• Compared to fibre optics technology, FSO offers much more flexibility in designing optical network architectures
at very high speeds, at tens and hundreds of Gbit/s rates.
LIMITATIONS
• However, FSO communication is affected by atmospheric effects (fog, rain, turbulence), which limits sensitivity
and achievable data rates with acceptable BER (Bit Error Rate).
2. Denial of Service attacks: An attack meant to shut down a machine or network, making it inaccessible to its
intended users.
3. Crypto jacking: Cryptocurrencies are created through a process called mining. To mine digital coins, miners
need to use high-end processors that consume a lot of electricity. Crypto jacking is what some digital coin
miners do to illegally gain access to many computers. The miners stealthily drop malware in an unsuspecting
user’s computer. This malware runs surreptitiously and turns devices into cryptocurrency-mining botnets.
Unlike most other types of malwares, crypto-jacking scripts do not use the victim’s data. But they drain the
CPU’s resources, which slows down the system, increases electricity usage, and causes irreparable damage to
the hardware.
4. Hacktivism: Misusing a computer system or network for a socially or politically motivated reason. For example,
the hacktivists can block access to Government's website, deface the government's website or unblock the sites
which have been blocked by the Government.
5. Social Engineering: Manipulation and exploitation of human psychology to deceive individuals or gain
unauthorised access to confidential information (passwords, bank information etc.) or clicking on malicious
links. These attacks often exploit traits such as trust, helpfulness, curiosity, or fear. Common techniques used
in social engineering attacks:
• Impersonation: Impersonating friends, relatives in distress to seek money.
• Phishing: Pretending to be legitimate entities, such as banks or organisations, to deceive individuals into
revealing sensitive information like usernames, passwords, or credit card details. Typically done through
fraudulent emails, messages, or websites that appear authentic.
• Baiting: Installing malware on pretext of enticing offers like free software upgrade.
6. Advanced Persistent Threat: Type of cyber-attack in which an unauthorised user gains access to a system or
network and remains there for an extended period without being detected. They generally do not cause
damage to company networks or hardware. Instead, they are focussed on stealing data
MALWARE-AS-A-SERVICE (MAAS)
• Type of cybercrime model where malware is offered for sale or rent by cyber criminals as a service to other
hackers or malicious actors on the internet.
• MaaS operates in a similar way to legitimate Software as a Service (SaaS) models, where software (malware)
is provided on a subscription or pay-per-use basis.
• These services typically are available on the dark web. They are purchased to carry out various malicious
activities, such as stealing sensitive information, disrupting computer systems, or encrypting data and
demanding a ransom to unlock it.
1. False Urgency Creates a sense of urgency or scarcity to pressure consumers into making a
purchase or taking an action.
2. Basket Sneaking Add additional products or services to the shopping cart without user consent.
3. Confirm Shaming Involves guilt as a way to make consumers adhere. It criticises or attacks
consumers for not conforming to a particular belief or viewpoint.
4. Forced Action Forcing consumers into taking an action they may not want to take, such as
signing up for a service in order to access content.
5. Subscription Makes it easy for consumers to sign up for a service but difficult for them to cancel
Trap it, often by hiding cancellation options or requiring multiple steps.
6. Interface Make it difficult for consumers to take certain actions, such as cancelling a
Interference subscription or deleting an account.
7 Bait & Switch Practice of advertising a particular outcome based on the user’s action but
deceptively serving an alternate outcome.
8. Drip Pricing Involves hiding additional costs from consumers until they are already committed
to making a purchase.
9. Disguised Advertisements that are designed to look like other types of content, such as news
Advertisement articles or user-generated content.
10. Nagging Refers to persistent, repetitive and annoyingly constant criticism, complaints,
requests for action.
11. Trick Question Deliberate use of confusing or vague language like confusing wording, double
negatives, or other similar tricks, to misguide or misdirect a user.
12. SaaS Billing Process of generating and collecting payments from consumers on a recurring
basis in a software as a service (SaaS) business model by exploiting positive
acquisition loops in recurring subscriptions to get money from users as
surreptitiously as possible.
13. Rogue Malwares Using ransomware or scareware to mislead or trick users into believing there is a
virus on their computer and aims to convince them to pay for a fake malware
removal tool that actually installed malware on their computer.
GENERATIVE AI
• Type of AI that involves creating new, original content or data (like text, images, music, code etc.) using machine-
learning algorithms.
• Generative AI works by training a model on a large dataset and then using that model to generate new,
previously unseen content. E.g., DALL-E for image generation, ChatGPT for text generation.
• One of the most popular approaches to generative AI is the use of generative models, particularly generative
adversarial networks (GANs).
• GAN is a class of AI algorithms that consist of two neural networks: generator and discriminator, that compete
against each other.
○ The generator learns to create new samples (synthetic data) that resemble the training data.
○ The discriminator tries to distinguish between the generated samples and the real data.
○ This adversarial training process leads to the improvement of both networks over time, resulting in
generation of increasingly realistic synthetic content. E.g., Deepfakes.
APPLICATIONS OF AI
• Education: Transform education by providing personalised learning experiences, intelligent tutoring systems,
and adaptive educational content.
• Healthcare: Improve diagnostics (AI-enabled medical imaging), development of personalised treatments and
discover new antibiotics, robots for surgical procedures.
• Agriculture: Crop yield prediction and forecast prices, AI-based sensors for spraying pesticides/herbicides,
autonomous robots for harvesting crops, monitoring crop health for diagnosing pests/soil defects, nutrient
deficiencies in soil etc.
• Infrastructure: Aid in the development of smart cities, improve safety by enabling intelligent infrastructure
(self-driving cars) and optimising complex transportation hubs.
• Data Analysis and Research: Analyse vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and aid in scientific discoveries
and data-driven decision-making.
• Enhance National Security: Detecting and responding to cyber threats, identifying vulnerabilities, and
conducting cyber attacks.
• Space exploration: E.g., Development of autonomous spacecraft, smart habitats.
• Service delivery: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants can enhance customer experiences by providing
quick and accurate responses to inquiries, automating routine tasks, and personalising interactions.
• Environmental sustainability: Optimising energy consumption, facilitating smart grid management, enabling
better decision-making for resource management.
• The development of neuromorphic hardware aims at mimicking biological synapse that monitors and
remembers the signal generated by the stimuli. (simply, aims to design computer systems that mimic how
human brain processes information)
WORKING
• A neuromorphic computer/chip consists of Artificial Neural Networks composed of millions of artificial neurons
(made from Silicon).
• These neurons pass signals to each other in layers, converting input into output through electric spikes or
signals, based on the architecture of Spiking Neural Networks.
• This allows the machine (computer systems) to mimic the neuro-biological networks in the human brain and
perform tasks efficiently such as visual recognition and data interpretation.
• Virtual Reality (VR): Creates a completely immersive simulated environment and cuts off the user from the
physical environment/reality. VR replaces the user's entire field of view with a computer-generated virtual
world. Devices: Requires dedicated VR headsets and motion controllers.
• Mixed Reality (MR): MR combines elements of both VR and AR. MR places virtual objects in the real world and
enables users to interact with them as if they were physically present. This is typically achieved using specialised
headsets that incorporate sensors and cameras that scan the environment and track the user’s movements,
making digital objects appear to exist in the real world.
KEY FEATURES OF
BLOCKCHAIN
TECHNOLOGY
• Decentralisation & transparency: Blockchain operates on a peer-to-peer network, where each participant has
a copy of the entire blockchain, ensuring transparency. All transactions recorded on a blockchain are visible to
all participants in the network.
• Security: Blockchain technology utilises cryptography to secure transactions and control the transfer of assets.
Each transaction is encrypted and linked to the previous transaction, forming a chain of blocks that cannot be
easily altered.
• Immutability: Once a transaction is recorded on the blockchain, it is extremely difficult to change or delete.
This immutability ensures the integrity of the data stored on the blockchain.
• Smart Contracts: Blockchain platforms often support the execution of smart contracts (self-executing
contracts with predefined rules). Smart contracts automatically enforce the terms and conditions of an
agreement, eliminating the need for intermediaries.
• Power distribution
• Duty payments
• Agriculture and other supply chains
• e-Voting
• Electronic Health Record Management
• Digital Evidence Management System
• Public Service Delivery
• IoT Device Management and Security
• Vehicle lifecycle administration
• Microfinance for Self-Help Groups
1. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM
Quantum Mechanics is a field of physics that describes the behaviour of matter and energy at the smallest scales,
typically at the level of atoms and subatomic particles.
2. QUANTUM PHENOMENON
Quantum Superposition:
• Qubits can simultaneously exist in more than one location or quantum state at one time while remaining as a
single entity. Thus, superposition enables qubits to perform multiple operations simultaneously.
Quantum Entanglement:
• When two particles become entangled, the state of one particle becomes linked with the state of the other,
regardless of the distance between them. This means that changes to the state of one particle
instantaneously affects the state of the other.
• Hence, measuring the state of one entangled particle instantly determines the state of its entangled partner,
even if they are vast distances apart.
• So, entangled qubits in a quantum
computer can be manipulated
collectively, allowing for the parallel
processing of information in a way
that classical bits cannot achieve.
Quantum Coherence:
The Challenge:
• Qubits are very fragile and susceptible to decoherence (slight disturbances in the surroundings may result in a
change of the quantum state of the particle and can result in a change of the information). Thus, maintaining
quantum coherence is difficult.
• This fragility arises out of the interaction between qubit and their environment leading to decoherence.
• Decoherence can be caused by various factors, such as noise, heat, and measurement. It causes qubits to
collapse into one of the two states and lose quantum information.
• Previously, quantum coherence could only be achieved at extremely low temperatures, around -196°C (liquid
nitrogen temperature). This makes building practical quantum computers challenging.
Quantum Supremacy:
• It is the point at which a quantum computer can complete a mathematical calculation that is beyond the reach
of even the most powerful supercomputer.
• In 2019, Sycamore (Google’s quantum computer) claimed ‘supremacy’ because it reportedly took 200 seconds
to perform a calculation that the world’s fastest supercomputer, Summit, would have taken 10,000 years to
accomplish.
NASA's NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory has demonstrated 44 km teleportation of qubits of photons
quantum over a fibre-optic network and single-photon detectors.
teleportation
demonstration
Quantum • Future quantum internet is going to be built using communication links based on quantum
Internet teleportation.
• Quantum internet would be able to transmit large volumes of data across immense
distances at a rate that exceeds the speed of light.
• It is said to be energy efficient because it does not involve transmission through electricity
or light.
• Quantum internet will be safe/tamper proof due to the interception-free nature of qubits.
4. NANOTECHNOLOGY
• Nanotechnology involves the manipulation and control of matter at the nanoscale, typically in the range of 1 to
100 nanometers. (1 nm = 10-9 metres)
• At the nanoscale, materials exhibit novel properties and behaviours that are different from their bulk
counterparts.
• These properties arise due to increased surface area, quantum effects, and the interactions between atoms on
the surface and those at the interface (where two different materials meet).
• Nanotechnology aims to harness these properties to develop new materials, devices, and applications with
enhanced performance and functionality.
5. IMPORTANT NANOMATERIALAS
1. GRAPHENE
• An allotrope of carbon consisting of a single layer of Carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional hexagonal
lattice.
• Properties:
○ Thinnest compound (one atom thick)
○ Strongest material discovered (between 100-300 times stronger than steel) yet more flexible than rubber.
○ Best conductor of heat at
room temperature and
best conductor of
electricity
○ Almost perfectly
transparent as it absorbs
only 2% of light.
○ Impermeable to gases,
even those as light as
hydrogen and helium.
Applications of Graphene:
• Flexible Electronics: Can be
used in wearable electronics,
flexible displays, electronic
textiles, and bendable
sensors.
• Energy Storage: Enhance performance and capacity of energy storage systems like supercapacitors and high-
performance batteries.
• Bio-sensors: To sense chemical and biological agents, explosives, radiation, and other hazardous substances.
• Aerospace and Defence: Develop lightweight, high-strength armour and ballistic protection. Have potential to
absorb and dissipate electromagnetic waves, making it valuable for developing stealth coatings.
• Medical Applications: Biosensing, bioimaging, targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering, phototherapy and
cancer treatment. Has antibacterial properties.
Applications of CNT:
• Used in energy storage (electrodes for Lithium-Ion batteries, capacitors), drug storage and drug delivery.
Challenges:
3. FULLERENE
• Fullerene is a family of carbon allotropes that consists of cage-like or tubular
structures.
• The most well-known fullerene is buckminsterfullerene (C60), which
resembles a soccer ball with 60 carbon atoms forming pentagons and
hexagons.
• Fullerenes, though not typically abundant, are found naturally in soot,
volcanic eruptions, interstellar dust clouds and lightning strikes.
Applications of Fullerene:
• Electronics and Energy storage: Can be used in organic photovoltaics (solar cells), organic light-emitting
diodes and organic field-effect transistors.
• Medicinal Chemistry: Can act as antioxidants, scavenging free radicals, targeted drug delivery and imaging
applications such as magnetic resonance imaging.
• Catalysts: Can act as catalyst supports in fuel cells and environmental remediation.
• Water Purification: Removal of pollutants and contaminants due to their adsorption and catalytic properties.
4. CARBON NANOFLORETS
• Unique nanostructure composed of carbon atoms arranged in a distinctive flower-like structure.
• They can absorb up to 87% of sunlight (infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light), and convert it into heat with
exceptional efficiency, unlike traditional solar-thermal conversion materials that only absorb visible and
ultraviolet light.
• Their cone-like shape minimises reflection allowing for maximum light absorption. Most of the light that falls
on the material is reflected internally.
• Applications: Solar thermal applications such as water heating and desalination, heating homes, and sterilising
surfaces in hospitals without relying on fossil fuels.
7. NanoPtA
• A platinum-containing synthetic nanozyme that mimics the function of oxidases, natural enzymes that remove
hydrogen from substrates in the presence of oxygen to form water.
• It can degrade pollutants in industrial wastewater by oxidising them in the presence of sunlight, reducing
wastewater toxicity.
• It exhibits robustness and can withstand pH and temperature variations. It also exhibits impressive stability,
lasting for up to 75 days at room temperature.
• It can oxidise neurotransmitters like dopamine and adrenaline, leading to a colour change in the solution, which
can be used to measure their concentration. This holds potential for diagnosing neurodegenerative diseases
like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease.
MISCELLANEOUS
6. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGY
• Cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at extremely low temperatures (below -
150 degrees Celsius).
• The most common gases turned into liquid for cryogenics are Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Helium.
Potential Applications of Cryogenics:
• Cryosurgery: Cryogenic temperatures are used to kill unwanted or malignant tissues, such as cancer cells or
moles.
• Cryopreservation: Preservation of organisms, tissue, and genetic material using cryopreservation. E.g.,
Freezing of eggs and embryos for fertility preservation and research purposes, storage of vaccines, blood
banking, food preservation.
• Cryonics: Cryopreservation of animals and humans with the goal of reviving them in the future.
• Cryoelectronics: Study of superconductivity, variable-range hopping, and other electronic phenomena at low
temperature.
• Cryoengines: Rocket engine using cryogenic fuels, including liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.
• Research: Cryogenic technology is used in Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to determine the chemical
structure of a molecule.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
• Efficient electronics: Observing the movement of electrons, and manipulating it to design more efficient
electronic devices.
• Advanced imaging: New imaging methods with attosecond resolution, spectroscopy etc.
• Medical diagnostics: Attosecond pulses can be used to identify different molecules and study molecular-level
changes in blood to identify diseases.
8. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Piezoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which certain materials generate an electric charge in response to
applied mechanical stress or pressure.
• The phenomenon can be observed in materials like quartz, topaz, tourmaline, ceramics such as lead zirconate
titanate (PZT), and even in certain biological materials like bone and tendons.
• Some materials also display an inverse piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electric current induces
a mechanical strain or deformation.
• Applications: Used in pressure sensors, accelerometers, acoustic devices, high voltage generators, electronic
frequency generators, microbalances, inkjet printers, electronic stethoscopes.
9. RHODAMINE-B
• Rhodamine-B is a water soluble chemical compound or fluorescent xanthene dye which has various
applications.
• It can cause serious environmental and health problems, including skin and eye irritation, stomach issues,
breathing problems, organ damage, and an increased risk of cancer.’
• The chemical is considered substandard and unsafe under the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006.
• Various applications include:
○ Dyeing in textile, paper, paints, leathers etc., lends a vibrant pink hue.
○ Food dye (used in cotton candy to produce its iconic pink colour).
○ Used as a tracer dye, E.g., to determine the rate and direction of water flow in rivers, lakes etc. Used to trace
pollutants in water systems and indicate herbicide usage, or detect leaks in pipelines due to its high visibility
and water solubility.
○ Rhodamine dyes exhibit fluorescence, and thus can be used in fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence
correlation spectroscopy and ELISA (To detect the presence of specific molecules like proteins or antibodies).
○ Laser Dyes employed in scientific and medical lasers.
10. THALLIUM
• Thallium is a highly toxic metal that is an abundant element on the Earth’s crust.
• It does not exist in free elemental form in nature, and exists in the form of ores with other elements, mostly
potassium.
• Thallium compounds are tasteless, odourless, and colourless, which makes it particularly dangerous for human
consumption.
• Thallium poisoning can occur through various routes, including ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact with
thallium compounds.
• Applications:
○ Widely used in making various electronics, such as, photoresistor, rectifier, detectors in infrared devices and
in gamma radiation detection devices.
○ Used in the pharmaceutical industry to make various drugs and medicines. Radioactive isotope Thallium-201
is used for nuclear medicine scan.
11. SLAG
• Slag is a by-product generated during manufacturing of pig iron and steel. Primarily, slag consists of calcium,
magnesium, manganese and aluminium silicates and oxides in various combinations.
• Among all the solid/liquid wastes, slag is generated at such large quantities that management of slag has
become a critical component of steel production.
• Potential Applications:
○ Used mainly as road metal and bases, asphalt paving, track ballast, landfills and aggregate for concrete.
○ Used for soil conditioning as fertiliser and liming agent in agriculture due to presence of CaO content.
○ Used in making mineral wool for insulation purposes.
○ Barrier material remedy for waste sites where heavy metals tend to leach into the surrounding environment.
○ Used to filter and remove contaminants from water and treat acidic water discharges from abandoned
mines.
2. COALIFICATION
• Coal is simply old plants buried inside earth for
millions of years to become a rock (sedimentary).
The elemental composition of the plants, which
includes carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, transforms
into coal over time. This transformation occurs in the
absence of oxygen.
• With time, plant loses its oxygen and water content.
The longer the coal is underground, the more
concentrated the hydrocarbons become, resulting in
a higher quality fuel.
• Accordingly, coal is classified peat, lignite,
bituminous, and anthracite, with anthracite being
the highest quality and most valuable type of coal.
See table below for details.
Sub-
Plant Peat Lignite Bituminous Anthracite
bituminous
Increasing
Carbon
25-35 35-45% 45-85 85-96 Heating
Content
Value
Decreasing
Moisture High Low Moisture
Content
Formed in
Mountains
Most commonly
Used mainly for
found
manufacturing
Used for power Coke
generation
Low smoke content
Burns slowly
COMPOSITION
• Coal or any hydrocarbon is primarily made of carbon, hydrogen oxygen. In addition, since they are just old plant
matter, they should contain some nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous. (remember all life is made of CNOS
majorly)
• In addition, there is some moisture, heavy elements as they are buried deep.
• Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are all combustible. Meaning when they mix with oxygen, they release some
heat. This is the heat we are all interested in to do work in the powerplant.
• Note that even oxygen is combustible, but the proportion is so low we don’t bother.
• Note its carbon and hydrogen that decides the amount of heat we can generate. If you look at chemical
composition, it is C137H97O9NS for bituminous coal and C240H90O4NS for anthracite. (You don’t need to
remember the numbers its only for you to know why anthracite is better)
PROCESS OF BURNING
• In coal-fired plant fuel is coal and source of oxygen is air
• Complete combustion (allow all coal to burn in air)
• Coal + Oxygen -----> Carbon dioxide + other gases (mixture is called flue gas)
• 1 gram of Carbon -----> 3.6 gram of CO2 and 9 gm of N2
• Incomplete combustion (don’t allow all coal to burn by restricting the supply of air)
• Carbon + Oxygen -----> Carbon Monoxide (if you add more air it can ‘combust’)
• 1 gram of Carbon ----> 4.5 g of CO and 5.5 g of N2
Nitrogen
• Normally nitrogen is very stable and burns only at high temperatures. At high temperatures when nitrogen
reacts with oxygen it forms oxides of nitrogen. This is very harmful as it acts as nuclei for fine dust causing PM
pollution.
• Solution: Remove nitrogen, reduce temperature of combustion
Sulphur
• Sulphur is of special interest again because it is a potential air pollutant. In addition, oxides of sulphur act as
condensation nuclei during cloud formation leading to acid rain.
• Solution: desulphurization
Ash, mainly fly ash
• Left-over solid inorganic matter after burning of coal. (highest is bituminous)
• It can be collected at the bottom from where it can be removed.
• However, the problem is when the turbulent stream of gases in the boiler sweeps some of the ash out of the
boiler along with flue gas. This is called fly ash.
• A 2016 report by IIT Kanpur says about 37% of PM 10 and 26% of PM 2.5 is caused by fly ash from coal plants.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
• Fly Ash at exhaust can be dealt with using electrostatic precipitators. Simply charge metal plates to high voltage.
The negatively charged plate will attract the particles and remove them from flue gas.
• Bottom ash
• The ash so collected are usually mixed with water and left to ponds nearby. But the problem with this is
o In wet season the soluble contents of ash seeps into the ground and pollutes ground water.
o In dry season, ash ponds dry up and ash flies off as fly ash.
• Solution:
o Use bottom ash to make bricks.
FLUE-GAS DESULPHURISATION
• Sulphur dioxide is acidic in nature, thus spray the exhaust gas(flue gas) with limestone/soap or anything that is
basic in nature (sodium hydroxide, lime, sodium sulfite, ammonia).
• In 2015, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change issued notification to regulate emissions from
coal-based power plants and set deadline of 2017 for flue-gas desulphurisation.
• However, the deadlines have been missed repeatedly leading to pushing of deadlines to 2024 for coal plants
near Delhi, 2026 for other coal plants.
4. COAL CONVERSIONS
NEED FOR COAL CONVERSION
• Coal is basically a complex molecule that is made of long chains of hydrocarbons arranged in the form of rings.
(see figure).
• As a result, it takes a lot of heat to burn coal and in-
turn lot of heat is released when carbon in coal
oxidizes with air.
• As a result, the temperature in a coal power plant is
extremely high which leads to two problems a)
thermal pollution and b) oxides of nitrogen are
formed. (remember otherwise stable nitrogen,
oxidizes at very high temperatures)
• In addition, burning of coal as in case of any solid fuel
leaves solid residue like ash.
• In order to tackle all these issues coal conversion is
resorted to.
• Coal conversion simply means converting
combustible solids (coal) to combustible liquids or
combustible gases.
• Accordingly, coal conversions include liquefaction
and gasification.
5. GASIFICATION OF COAL
• While the goal of combustion is to produce the maximum amount of heat possible by oxidizing all the
combustible material, the goal of gasification is to convert most of the combustible solids into combustible
gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane.
• See how this works.
SYN GAS
• Alternately burn Coal with Steam -----> CO + H2 (Synthesis Gas/Syngas)
• Aptly this is called steam reforming.
• You can make variety of things using Syngas like Methanol, Hydrogen, Methane (methanation).
• Syngas can be used to make ammonia-based fertilizer.
6. LIQUEFACTION OF COAL
• In liquefaction the trick is to break the long chains of hydrocarbon rings and add hydrogen at high pressure.
• Depending on the type of coal used we get various coal liquids like gas oil, gasoline, kerosene.
• Note that the main difference between coal and petroleum products is the size of hydrocarbon molecule. (coal
is long chain with 140-250 carbon atoms, petrol has 4-10, diesel has 8-14)
• The main advantage is low-quality coal is easy to liquify.
Advantage
• Heating value is doubled (because C-H ratio is increased)
• CO2 emissions are reduced.
• Fly Ash is absent.
• Since Indian coal is low in sulphur, methanol when used in vehicles can reduce SOX and NOX emissions and
hence low PM pollution,
METHANOL
• Another approach to make liquid fuel is compress the syn gas obtained from gasification process. The mixture
of CO and H2 is adjusted in its pressure and temperature to form methanol. (CH3OH)
• CO(g) + 2 H2(g) ----> CH3OH(l)
• Methanol is also called wood alcohol. (More on methanol in Gas-to-liquid alternative under transportation fuels)
• Coal, being carbon-heavy (150-240 carbon atoms), should always accompany CCUS technologies to achieve net-
zero emissions. (see news headlines in the recent times)
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Anything that has a temperature vibrates. In fact at the molecular level
temperature is simply how fast the molecules are shaking (kinetic
energy).
• When temperature is zero the molecules are simply not shaking. This is
absolute zero or 0 Kelvin.
• Further atoms of molecules shake differently. Molecules made of 2
atoms like O2 or N2 shake due to stretching to-and-fro. (see figure)
• On the other hand molecules with 3 or more atoms (like CO2, CH4)
shake due to stretching and bending.
• Further the shaking due to bending matches the frequency of infrared radiation. (which is also vibration really)
• Because frequencies of visible light from the sun don’t match the shaking of atmospheric gases (O2 and N2), or
the GHGs, light passes through our atmosphere without being
absorbed.
• However, since the frequency of infrared radiation from earth
surface matches the bending-vibration of the GHGs, they
interact with GHGs.
• This interaction shakes the GHG molecules thereby warming
these molecules.
• The vigorously shaking GHG molecules then shakes the
surrounding air molecules thereby increasing its temperature.
GHGs capable of trapping the heat include
• CO2: Most significant
• CH4: Methane: More potent as it traps more heat.
• Other GHGs include nitrous oxide(N2O), ozone (O), chlorofluorocarbons, water vapour.
• Thus, low-carbon future essentially includes, as its important component, CCUS technologies which essentially
reverses the process of taking the underground carbon (fossils) and putting it into atmosphere (in the form of
CO2).
• In simple terms CCUS involves capturing the CO2 that is released in burning of fossils, compressing, liquefying,
and storing underground.
• Alternately CCUS includes converting CO2-forming fuels and converting them into chemicals that form less CO2.
Examples include coal-to-products like syngas, producer gas, methanol, di-methyl ether etc.
• CCUS is going to be an important component in hard-to-abate (CO2) sectors like power plants, petroleum
refineries, fertilizers, cement, steel industries, etc
9. CARBON CAPTURE
• The flue gas that comes out of coal-fired power plants is mixture of gases.
• It typically constitutes carbon dioxide (~10%), nitrogen (70-80%), oxygen (1-10%), water vapor, Sulphur dioxide,
NOx including nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide.
• Essentially flue gas is very dilute CO2.
• While we treat SOX and NOX using the processes described above, to arrest, capturing and storing carbon
dioxide is a big challenge.
• Now this is because the principal component of flue gas is nitrogen. The ‘effort’/’cost’(basically energy) used in
capturing and storing flue gas goes higher if we dint purify it.
• Thus, carbon capture is all about purifying flue gas to separate CO2 and Nitrogen.
• Note the nitrogen so separated can be allowed to mix in atmosphere as it is stable and thus safe. It is the oxides
of nitrogen that is a problem which we have already dealt with. (anyway air is majorly composed of Nitrogen)
• Thus, carbon capture is really a misnomer, it should have been called carbon purification/ flue gas purification.
• There are different strategies for carbon purification. These include,
1. Post-combustion
2. Pre-combustion
3. Oxy-fuel combustion
14. GEOSEQUESTRATION
• Pressurize the CO2 and put it beneath the earth surface. There are different strategies depending on where
below the earth surface you pump and store the CO2.
ALGAE
• While most plants are very
inefficient in photosynthesis
(only 0.5% of sunlight is
captured), algae have very
high photosynthetic efficiency
capable of growing very fast
capturing the CO2 from
atmosphere.
• The flue gases from power
plant can be bubbled through
water and algae.
• Algae extracts large amounts
of the carbon dioxide to feed
their growth and very little is
left to emit to the open air.
• The so grown algae can be used as input for producing biodiesel (like vegetable oils).
Advantage
• Biodiesel has no sulphur thus produce no SOX emissions.
• Algae-based biodiesel represents net-zero fuel as the CO2 at the exhaust out of biodiesel-run vehicle is nothing
but CO2 captured by algae from the atmosphere.
SOIL
• Soils are the storehouse of carbon. It holds twice as much carbon as does atmosphere and about 1 trillion tons
more than the world's plants do.
• Carbon cycle broadly involves movement of carbon in various forms from soil to air to plant and vice-versa.
• The amount of carbon flowing in and out of soils in the natural cycle is about 10-20 times the volume put in the
atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels.
• The effect of global warming is that it speeds up rate of chemical reaction leading to carbon emissions from soil
at a faster rate. (above 250 C soil carbon losses are rapid)
• In addition, land-use change has led to degradation of soil.
• Industrial meat requires heavily fed cattle which consume 35% of world’s cereal.
• Growing crops for fuels (biofuel) are yet another source of soil degradation.
Following are the farming practices that help soil restore and retain carbon
ZERO-TILL FARMING
• Basic principle is that ploughing is counterproductive because it reduces the carbon content in soil. So, disturb
the soil as little as possible.
• Under this technique we plant the seeds along with fertilizer in a row.
• As soon as the main crop is harvested, a second crop is planted as a cover for the soil preventing erosion.
• This cover crop acts as manure when they are dead
• This acts as a rich source of organic material that earthworms can use to improve the quality of the lower soil.
• The following year, no fertilizers are used. Instead the seeds are planted through this green manure.
• Besides varying the 2nd crop regularly prevents the accumulation of pests and diseases.
Disadvantage
• The only problem is in the absence of ploughing, weed growth cannot be arrested. (basic purpose of ploughing)
• Thus, either we have to use large amounts of herbicide to control weed growth or grow GM crops.
FOREST
• Wood is approximately 50% carbon.
• When forest is lost for wood and this wood is burnt carbon is put in the atmosphere
• Deforestation accounts for more than 15% carbon emissions.
• Wood is largely used as cooking fuel. The solution therefore is alternative cooking fuel.
• Alternative cooking techniques include solar cookers and biogas collectors. This is the reason India has stepped
up efforts to produce compressed biogas.
COMPRESSED BIOGAS
• Input (feedstock) can be any organic waste including agri-waste, rotten human and animal waste that essentially
gives off methane (Bio-CNG)
• The recent budget has earmarked Rs 10,000 crore under the GOBAR-Dhan scheme (Galvanizing Organic Bio-
Agro Resources- Dhan) for setting up 500 new ‘waste to wealth’ plants.
• Around 200 compressed bio-gas plants and 300 community and cluster-based plants are planned to be set up.
• Bio-CNG, in purified form (98% methane) can be used as both cooking and transportation fuel.
• Only thing is it pressurised to around 250-300 bar.
• SATAT (Sustainable Alternatives Towards Affordable Transportation) also envisages setting up if CBG plants to
produce and supply CBG to oil and gas marketing companies.
CRUDE OIL
• Crude oil is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons.
• The different constituents
of the crude oil mixture is
simply different
hydrocarbons with varying
number of carbon atoms.
• This gives them varying
densities and thus have
different boiling points.
• Note: The basic factor that
determines boiling
temperatures of different
components is the amount of carbon they have.
• Higher the carbon content higher the density higher the boiling temperature.
Typical Products
Boiling Point in
Products Proportion Application Carbon Atoms
degree Celsius
Kerosene (Paraffin Oil) 10% 170 Used as Jet Fuel and C10 to C16
Heating and Lighting oil
BASICS ON HYDROCARBONS
Straight chain and closed rings
• The classification of hydrocarbons in
general depend on how the carbon
atoms have arranged themselves.
• This decides their chemical and physical
properties.
Aliphatic compounds
• Carbon atoms in aliphatic are arranged in
straight chain manner (open). Further
aliphatic are classified based on how the
carbon atoms are bonded with one
another. (single or double bonds). This is
important in all organic matter because single bonds are very hard to break and thus make stable compounds
(saturated). Double bonds on the other hand are easy to break and thus make unstable compounds
(unsaturated).
Carbon 83-87%
Nitrogen 0.1-2%
Oxygen 0.1-1.5%
Sulfur 0.5-6%
Non-Hydrocarbons
• Sulphur, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Metals. Table above gives you rough composition of crude oil components.
Coal 6 Cal/gm
Gasoline 10 Cal/gm
Natural gas 13
Hydrogen 26
U-235 20 million
Energy in volume
• In addition, for automobiles, how much fuel can a box of 1cm x 1cm x 1cm hold become very important. (this is
the factor that determines the size of the tank).
• This is simply an indicator of how much fuel is there in 1 litre at atmospheric pressure. Table gives you an idea.
Petrol 740 g
Diesel 840 g
Hydrogen 71 g
• This means you can only fill 71 grams of hydrogen in 1 litre bottle.
• If you want to fill more, you need to compress it as a compressed gas or even liquify it which will require high
pressure.
Knocking and Octane Number
• Knocking is an important property of any internal combustion engine.
• Petrol or diesel are not a homogenous mixture of fuel. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons (C7-C9 for petrol, C14 to
C 20 for diesel) which have different boiling points.
• As a result, some components of the fuel burn faster than others resulting in a lag in complete combustion of
fuel.
• This lag leads to shock waves in the engine cylinder causing a damage to the piston. This is called knocking.
• Simple solution is we need to homogenize the fuel. This is done by using fuel with higher octane number (simply
more C8 hydrocarbon).
• Usually this is expressed as the percentage of Octane (91-94 etc.)
COMBUSTION IN IC ENGINES
• Combustion includes breaking of bonds between carbon and hydrogen and allowing them combine with oxygen
in air resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat in the combustion chamber of the engine. This heat
pushes the piston which runs the crank shaft and thence to rotating of the wheels.
• Air-fuel ratio
• Hydrocarbons burn when air:fuel ratio is between 7:1 to 30:1
• In IC engines air-fuel ratio is maintained at 15:1
• If air-fuel mixture is more: Lean (In this case fuel is not completely burnt giving rise to more CO but it gives more
mileage)
• If air-fuel mixture is low: Rich (In this case fuel is completely burnt thereby give more power output)
• The oxides of sulphur react with moisture in the engine to form H2SO4 vapours which leads to formation of
sulphates which act as the nuclie for PM formation.
• Thus, we need to reduce the sulphur in the fuel to arrest PM pollution.
• But sulphur provides lubricity to the fuel. So, if we reduce sulphur, we need to add lubricants to the fuel.
BHARAT STAGE 6
BS-VI vehicles
• Vehicular emission (NOx, SO2, CO2 and particulate matter) is a major contributor to the worsening air quality
of Indian cities.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS VI) is an emission standard that will induce technology in the vehicles to reduce pollutant
emissions.
• The vehicles will mandatorily include OBD (On-board diagnostics) which will and monitor the pollution caused
by the vehicle in real time.
• The BS-VI vehicles use selective catalytic reduction technology which substantially reduces particulate matter
emission.(remember in order for this to work we need to use low-sulphur fuel)
BS-6 emission norms
• Petrol vehicles will have to effect a 25% reduction in their NOx, or nitrogen oxide emissions.
• Diesel engines will have to reduce their
• HC+NOx (hydrocarbon + nitrogen oxides) by 43%,
• NOx levels by 68%
• Particulate matter levels by 82%.
Advantages of using BS-6 fuel and vehicles
• NOx emission will come down by approximately 25% for the petrol engine and 68% for the diesel engines.
• BS-6 grade fuel contains 10 parts per million (ppm) of sulphur as against 50 ppm in BS-4 fuels.
• The BS-6 fuel would result in 10-20 per cent reduction in particulate emission when used in BS-4 or lesser grade
engines.
• The Octane number for petrol engines has improved from 88 in BS-2 to 91 as required under BS-6 emission
norms.
• However full benefits will be realized when the automakers start manufacturing BS 6 grade engines in their
vehicles.
• The PM emission will see a substantial decrease of 80% in diesel engines.
Hydrocarbon Proportion
Methane 80-95
Ethane 5-10
• Since natural gas contains some amount of propane and butane, we remove them.
• This is because, being heavier and denser, propane and butane liquifies at low pressure of 5 bar and can be
used as cooking fuel.
• The pressure in your LPG cylinders is around 12 bar to keep it liquid inside the cylinder. This is done to get high
energy per volume.
• On the other hand, its major component methane is lighter and hence needs to be compressed or liquified in
order to be used in vehicles.
• Accordingly, we make Compressed Natural Gas or Liquified Natural Gas. (more on this in a bit)
India’s push for gas-run economy
• India has been taking a number of steps to leapfrog into gas-run economy in the near future.
• Currently the share of natural gas in India’s energy basket is 6.7% compared to 23% worldwide.
• This India wants to increase to 15% by 2030.
25. CNG
• Methane, being lighter, is compressed at high pressure (around 225 bar) in the vehicle tanks to get a workable
energy-density. This limits the size of the tank making it suitable for light-commercial vehicles like cars, auto-
rickshaw etc.
• Thus, CNG vehicles have low range and are suitable only for intra-city travel.
• In 2022, annual sales of CNG vehicles in the passenger segment more than doubled.
• 49% of the light commercial vehicles sold in 2022 were CNG-powered.
• India plans to increase the number of CNG stations to 10000 by 2030 from current 4,500.
• This will increase the boiling point and eventually become liquid.
• Basically, by polymerizing hydrocarbon gas molecules to liquid, we are only making diesel.
Advantage
• Higher energy density
• Ease of transport and storage
• Zero sulphur emissions
• Zero aromatics (no closed-rings remember?!)
• Low NOx as compared to gaseous fuels.
28. LPG
• As we have seen gaseous components of petroleum separation include methane, ethane, propane and butane.
While methane and ethane are used in the form of gas (natural gas), the heavier gaseous hydrocarbons are
liquified to form what is called liquified petroleum gas.
• This is because heavier gases like propane and butane liquify when compressed become liquid at lower
pressures of around 5 bar.
• This is why your LPG cooking cylinders are maintained at low pressure of 12 bar to hold enough fuels.
• LPG is a better alternative than LNG in transportation as it can be liquified at lower pressure and thus suitable
even for 2, 3 and 4 wheeler segments.
• Only constraint has been lack of supply and thus LPG use is restricted as cooking fuel.
29. METHANOL
• Another approach to make liquid fuel is compress the syn gas obtained from gasification process. (remember
syn gas is produced by burning any hydrocarbon, be it fossil or biofuel, with steam)
• The mixture of CO and H2 is adjusted in its pressure and temperature to form methanol. (CH3OH)
• CO(g) + 2 H2(g) ----> CH3OH(l)
• Methanol is also called wood alcohol.
Advantage
• Methanol can directly be used in IC engines or even converted to petrol using a zeolite catalyst.
• Note that methanol can be produced from any hydrocarbon not just coal including natural gas, biomass, and
even captured carbon dioxide. Only thing you need to adjust the amount of hydrogen.
Significance of Methanol
• Methanol cars are becoming common especially in China where coal is in abundance.
• Methanol can also be used in fuel-cells and thus could drive the EV revolution.
• India by adopting Methanol can reduce its import dependence on oil and at the same time have a cheaper fuel
(at least 30% cheaper than any available fuel)
• Niti-Aayog is set to come out with a roadmap for transition to Methanol Economy.
31. HYDROGEN
WHY HYDROGEN?
• A general trend towards development of better fuels is hydrogen-rich fuels.
• This means more of hydrogen in the fuel and less of carbon or more hydrogen to every carbon atom. Eg: Natural
gas 4 hydrogen to every carbon as opposed to very little hydrogen in coal.
• This is because just like carbon, hydrogen is also combustible, i.e. it mixes with oxygen in the air and gives heat.
• In addition, moving from a solid to a liquid and then finally to a gaseous state energy carrier.
NATURE OF HYDROGEN
Hydrogen as an energy carrier
• It is important to understand that all fuels we have seen so far are energy carriers.
• Hydrogen is the best energy carrier as there are no harmful impact (read carbon emissions)
• This is because hydrogen is not freely available on earth, but it is in abundance in the form of in water and
hydrocarbons.
• However, to extract hydrogen from water or hydrocarbons you need to expend energy and the energy spent in
extracting hydrogen is much more than the amount of energy the so-extracted hydrogen gives out. This is why
hydrogen is energy carrier and not an energy source. (in fact all fuels we have seen are energy carriers)
Combustible nature
• Hydrogen is highly combustible i.e. it mixes readily with oxygen to produce heat.
HOW TO MAKE?
• You can't mine hydrogen. There is virtually no hydrogen gas (or liquid) in the environment.
• But there's lots of hydrogen in water and in fossil fuels (hydrocarbons)-but not "free" hydrogen, the molecule
H2.
• That’s what we want for the hydrogen economy.
• Two major sources of hydrogen on earth are water and hydrocarbons
• From hydrocarbons
• Take any hydrocarbon and treat it with steam we get syn gas which is a source of hydrogen.
• Any hydrocarbon+H2O CO+H2
• Hydrocarbon could be either fossil or biofuel or even organic waste.
• However, hydrocarbon source of hydrogen is again a problem because the left over carbon has to go to
atmosphere.
• This makes it dirty. That’s why hydrogen from these sources is colour coded with ‘dirty’ colours like grey, blue,
black etc.
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
• Pass electricity through water, it will split it into its constituent Hydrogen and oxygen.
• Process where electricity is used to make a chemical change that wouldn’t happen otherwise.
• In a normal situation oxygen pulls electrons and hydrogen pushes its electron.
• In case of electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen and for this to happen hydrogen has to gain
electron and oxygen has to lose electron which is the opposite to what happen normally.
• This requires energy which is what electricity gives.
• So, take a battery use the energy to pull the electrons out of oxygen and push it towards hydrogen.
• If the electricity you use to split water comes from renewable source, it gives you green hydrogen, the cleanest
source of hydrogen.
WORKING OF A BATTERY
• The trick is to take 2 different metals with different electro-potential so that one wants to gain, and one wants
to lose electron.
• Eg: Zinc and Copper.
• As it is evident from the table, Zinc wants to give electron and Copper wants take it. (that’s why Zinc is anode
and Copper is cathode)
• So, if you somehow give a path for these electrons moving from Zn to Cu, you will have derived electricity.
• When all the electrons have come to Cu, you can no longer derive electricity.
• So, you have to forcefully pull electrons out of Cu (cathode) and put it back at Zn (anode). This is charging.
• Once you have forcefully pulled out all electrons from Cu and have put it back at Zn, you can again rely on the
natural flow of electrons from Zn to Cu to derive electricity. This is discharging.
• One last thing is about the electrolyte. An electrolyte is like a semi-permeable membrane for electrons and ions.
It allows the ions to pass through them but not electrons.
• Putting all the pieces together
• In a battery a chemical reaction takes place where you are separating electrons and ions from the anode
material.
• Once separated you make 2 different paths for these electrons and ions to move. For electrons you connect the
anode to a metallic wire and for ions you dip the anode in electrolyte.
• Electrons will move towards cathode along the wire and ions move towards cathode along the semi-permeable
electrolyte.
• Electrons movement through the wire gives you electricity.
• Lithium, as you can see in the table above, has the highest electrochemical potential.
• It wants to lose electrons readily which makes it very reactive. That’s why you don’t get lithium in free form.
• However, when mixed with metal oxide lithium sits very stably.
• Thus, if we use this ability of lithium to be very unstable by itself to becoming very stable in metal oxide, we can
derive electricity. This is what happens in a Li-ion battery.
• Lithium is mixed in metal oxide (typically cobalt, nickel, or manganese)) is used as cathode.
• Graphite is use as a place to hold Li-ions which becomes an anode.
• In Li-ion battery we separate Lithium from metal oxide by pulling out its constituent electrons and ion forcefully
by applying energy.
• The electrons and ions of Lithium are then given separate paths namely a metallic wire and an electrolyte.
• This is called charging as it required external energy to separate electrons and Li-ions from Lithium metal oxide.
• The li-ions moving through electrolyte and electrons moving through the wire then recombine at anode which
is graphite.
• Once all the electrons and ions are pulled out the battery is completely charged.
• The lithium ions and electrons that is sitting between graphite sheets are unstable and wants to go back to
metal oxide. If we again give separate paths to electrons and ions we can derive electricity.
• Thus Li-ion battery is used to store energy by shuttling lithium ions back and forth between the anode(Li-ion in
graphite) and cathode(Lithium in metal oxide).
• Minimum losses
o A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month, compared to a 20 percent loss
per month for Ni-Cd batteries.
• Low Maintenance
o Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.
DISADVANTAGES
• Faster discharge
o While quick discharge is an advantage in electric vehicle and consumer electronics applications, it is not
suitable to store energy for longer than 4 hours.
o Thus, it is not suitable for grid-level storage which is necessary for renewable energy like solar which suffer
from intermittency problem.
• Ageing
o Li-ion batteries suffer from ageing at room temperature. Therefore, in a consumer electronic, batteries need
to be partially charged for longer life.
• Transportation
o Another disadvantage of li-ion batteries is that there can be certain restrictions placed on their
transportation, especially by air to protect against short circuits.
• Cost
o Lithium-ion batteries are around 40% more costly to manufacture than Nickel cadmium cells owing to high
cost of lithium refining, cobalt and nickel.
35. ALTERNATIVES
SODIUM-SULPHUR
Advantage
• Sodium-Sulphur can be recharged 4500 times compared to 500 times of Lead-acid and Li-ion batteries.
• Further Lithium is way more costly than sodium. 10 times more per kilo.
Limitation
• Problem is Sodium used in these batteries need to be in liquid state and that happens at high temperatures of
350 degree Celsius. So, Sodium-Sulphur cannot be used in laptops and mobile phones.
• Price per charge-discharge cycles is high.
Not an energy storage device in the strict sense. It produces Energy storage device
electricity as long as the fuel is supplied
Lower efficiency as compared to battery: around 50-60% Efficiency is high: around 80-90%
Requires less time to refuel fuel cell based electric vehicles Requires more time for recharging
as you directly pump hydrogen in the tanks.
36. BIOFUELS
NATURE OF BIOFUELS
Biofuel: a net-negative pathway
• Biofuels are way to take out CO2 from the landmass above the surface of the earth and putting it back in
atmosphere.
• This is unlike fossils where you are taking carbon stock from below the surface and putting it in atmosphere
increasing its concentration.
• Besides the amount of CO2 you are putting by burning 1 kg of biomass is much lesser than the amount of CO2
the plants used to make 1 kg of plant biomass. (plants convert only 0.5% of photosynthesis to biomass)
• Thus, biofuels are net-negative in terms of carbon emissions.
BIOMASS COMPOSITION
• C 50%
• O 40%
• H5%
• N 1%(From protein)
• P 0.5% (From protein)
BIOMASS CONSTITUENTS
• Primarily made of sugar polymers with lots O2 and closed ring hydrocarbons. (half the plant biomass is
fundamentally sugar)
• Plant cells are made up of cell walls that gives a protective layer to help plants
stand tall.
• The cell wall is made of microfibrils of cellulose which is basically sugar polymer.
(1/2 of cell wall)
• At later stages there is an additional protective layer in the form of hard cover in
trees which is called lignin.
• Lignin is plastic-like. It is not degradable, has lots of aromatics.
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOFUELS
• For the sake of simplicity think of plant biomass in terms of edible and non-
edible part.
• The edible part of plant like fruits, vegetables, grains etc are usually made simple
sugar, starch.
• The other edible part is seeds that have edible oils.
• The non-edible part of biomass on the other hand is made of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin.
37. ETHANOL
• Most commonly formed alcohol through fermentation is ethanol.
• Fermentation is simply breaking down of sugar molecules in the absence of oxygen at the cellular level or in
other words anerobic cellular respiration to produce ethanol. (For detailed discission on fermentation see the
optional section below)
• Microorganisms capable of
producing ethanol include
yeast, some species of bacteria,
fungi and some species of micro
algae.
Feedstock
Edible part
Non-edible part
• The cellulosic matter from plant biomass are basically complex sugar molecules.
• Thus, they have to be broken down into simple sugar in order to be fermented into alcohols.
• In order to break them down hydrolysis is done in other words treatment with water. These simple sugars can
then be used for fermentation by microbes to produce ethanol.
• However, lignin is made of phenols and not sugars. Thus, they cannot be converted into alcohols.
Advantage
• No SOX emissions
38. METHANOL
• Although methanol can also be made through fermentation, it is rare.
• This is because it is produced in small amounts as by-products during fermentation of certain bacteria and fungi
species.
• Thus, the commonly used pathway to make methanol is producing syngas. (discussed in alternate fuels: Gas-
to-liquid section)
OPTIONAL SECTION
• In yeasts after breaking down of glucose into pyruvate. After this the pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde
which acts as electron acceptor in the absence of oxygen.
• When acetaldehyde accepts electron, it forms ethanol.
• This anerobic respiration is called fermentation.
Ethanol 24-25
Peirol 43-44
Biodiesel 40-41
Diesel 45.5
Advantages
• Fastest photosynthesis
• Do not need arable land
• CO2 sequestration (CO2 source can be coal-based power plants too, see section on Direct capture under CCUS
technologies)
• Lipids (can be used for biodiesel) and protein source (single-cell protein source)
NOTE ON METHANOGENS
• Additionally, there are organisms called Methanogens which capture sunlight to produce methane.
42. SATAT
• In 2018 Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) initiative was introduced to promote
CBG as an alternative to CNG.
• Target is to produce 15 million tonnes of gas aiming to reduce CNG use by 40%. (CNG is imported)
• Particularly useful in states like Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh which are infamous for stubble-burning.
RENEWABLES
• Besides since energy from the sun is accessible only during the day, solar energy, like other renewable sources,
suffer from what is called as intermittency problem.
• As a result, an essential component of renewable energy including solar energy is energy storage.
• This is why India is mooting an Energy Storage Policy towards large-scale integration of renewable energy to
the grid.
Decentralised source
• Solar energy represents decentralized energy source as sunlight represents distributed energy resource.
• This said, India’s share of decentralized renewable energy is meagre 6% of the total renewable energy capacity.
• The low share of decentralized solar energy, about 6.5 GW as against the target of 40GW, is the main reason for
missing the target of 175GW of RE by 2022.
India established a lofty goal to install 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by the year 2022, with 100 GW
coming from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from biopower, and 5 GW coming from small hydropower
Status in India
• Solar concentrators use a bunch of mirrors in such a way to focus all the incoming solar energy at one point
from where it can be collected and carried.
• Solar towers are an example of solar concentrators.
• At the top of the tower is a sodium salt which can hold heat for longer time thereby increasing the amount of
heat that can be captured.
Advantage
• You can heat the salt and keep it for later use when
there is no sunlight.
• Efficiency is as high as 50%.
Disadvantage
• Capital cost is high as mirrors are expensive.
• High land requirement: 1.5 hectare per mega watt.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Photoelectric effect, 1st demonstrated by Einstein, relies on the interaction of photons and electrons and their
behaviour during interaction.
• Flash a beam of light on to some material like metal it will knock-off electrons, collect these electrons at an
electrode. Connect the electrode to a wire and there you have electricity.
WORKING OF PV CELLS
• A photovoltaic panel creates electricity when a
photon hits the silicon surface and pushes an
electron out of the top layer of the silicon and across
an electrical junction inside the panel.
• The movement of this electron creates a useful
voltage. When wires are connected to produce a
circuit, this voltage means that current will flow,
eventually taking the displaced electron back to the
top layer.
• Solar cells work best in strong sunlight but will also
generate some power on an overcast day from the
diffused light that gets through the clouds.
• Nature of electrical energy from PV cells
• DC current
TYPES OF PV CELLS
1. 1st gen: Single crystal PV cells
2. 2nd Gen: Thin-film PV cells
3. 3rd Gen: Perovskites
Cadmium Telluride
• CdTe can be deposited on thin sheets. So you can make flexible PV panels.
• CdTe absorbs sunlight readily to release electrons. So thin sheets can be made.
• Efficiency ~ 15%
• Disadvantage is cadmium is highly toxic.
• Tellurium is not available as it is a rare earth metal. It is found in under-water ridges.
Perovskites
• The main advantage of perovskites is they can used to make PV paints which can be painted on conformal
surfaces like cars.
• Very recently organic-perovskite solar cells have reached efficiency of a record-breaking 24%
• The basic difference between conventional batteries and flow batteries is that while in convectional batteries
we derived chemical energy of the electrodes, in flow batteries the energy is derived out of the flow of
electrolytes.
• A flow battery uses two electrolyte solutions separated by a membrane to store electrical energy.
• A flow battery consists of two tanks - one for the positively charged electrolyte solution (called the catholyte)
and one for the negatively charged electrolyte solution (called the anolyte).
• During charging the catholyte and anolyte flow on opposite sides of the membrane which is like going uphill.
• During discharge, the process is reversed. The catholyte and anolyte flow back into their respective tanks, and
the electrical energy that was stored in the battery is released to power a device or a system.
Advantage
• Flow batteries are unique in their scalability which makes them suitable for grid-level storage.
A cruise missile is guided towards a preset land- A ballistic missile is generally a projectile shot up in the
based target using a navigation system. atmosphere.
Cruise missiles are known for low altitude flight Ballistic missiles are launched outside the atmosphere
and high mobility and hence the name. where its warheads detach and hit the target. (uses
gravity of earth and thus traces a parabolic path and
hence the name)
Cruise missiles have short ranges of 300 to 1000 Ballistic missile have long ranges up to 1000 km
km. (ICBMs)
Brahmos – 290 to 450 km Agni V – 5000 km
Nirbhay – 700 to 1000
Easy to intercept because of high terminal speeds. Difficult to intercept due to high terminal speeds of
5000 m/s
Cheaper and thus suitable for firing conventional Expensive and thus suitable for firing nuclear warheads.
warheads
• Hypersonic Canister-launched
SHAURYA 600-700 KM 1000 Kg
• Both conventional and nuclear warheads
• To replace Prithvi I
PRAHAAR 150 KM 250 Kg • Weapons: High explosives, cluster munition,
strategic nuclear weapon
AGNI-II 2000-3000 Km 1000Kg Two and a half stage, solid fuelled missile with
2-stage
AGNI-IV 3500 Km 1000 Kg
missile powered by solid propellant
8,000–10,000
AGNI-VI km (Under 1000 Kg MIRV warheads
development)
10000 Km
SURYA (Under 3000 Kg MIRV warheads
development)
K5 (Under
5000 Km
development)
K6 (Under
6000 Km
development)
6. CRUISE MISSILES
WEAPON
NAME RANGE PAYLOA CHARACTERISTICS
D
Brahmos II:
290 Km 300 Kg 6 Mach
Hypersonic
8. AIR-TO-AIR MISSILE
NAME CHARACTERISTICS
• 3rd generation anti-tank missile, best in its class for Indian conditions.
• Fire and forget capability.
• Imaging Infrared(IIR) guidance with day and night capability
• Weight - 48 Kg and therefore fired from a BMP-2 vehicle called Namica(Nag
NAG 3-7 Km 8 kg Missile Carrier)
DIFFERENT VARIANTS
1. Mounted on an infantry combat vehicle: NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier)
2. Man Portable shoulder carried
3. HeliNa: (Helicopter-launched Nag) Rudra Helicopter, Dhruv and LCH.
MILAN • It is an anti tank guided missile for the Army. To be acquired from France.
SPICE
• Israeli guided bombs for the Indian Air Force.
2000
o The AAD interceptor missile is primarily designed to intercept enemy missiles in the endo-atmosphere at
altitudes of 20-40 kilometres.
• 2nd layer: Exo
o Prithvi Air Defense Vehicle known as Pradyumna Ballistic Missile Interceptor is designed to destroy missiles
with ranges 300-2000 km at exo-atmosphere (about 80 km altitude).
o For higher altitudes up to 150 km, Agni-V-based ballistic interceptors would be used. (because of 5000 km
range)
• It is an unmanned scramjet (allowing supersonic combustion) demonstration vehicle that can cruise to a speed
of mach 6 (or six times the speed of sound) and rise up to an altitude of 32 km in 20 seconds. It has been
developed by DRDO.
• There are 2 types of Hypersonic Weapon Delivery Systems
1. Hypersonic Cruise Missiles (HCM)
2. Hypersonic Glide Vehicle (HGV)
SIGNIFICANCE
• They are a mix of the speed of a ballistic missile and manoeuvring capabilities of a cruise missile.
• While cruise missiles achieve speeds of 550 miles per hour, the hypersonic missiles aircrafts can reach speeds
more than 3500 miles per hour.
• Capable of penetrating any anti missile defence system currently available that are designed to intercept cruise
and ballistic missiles.
• Specifically designed for increased survivability against modern ballistic missile defence systems.
NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINES
Nuclear submarines can be classified into two categories namely SSN and SSBN:
SSBN FLEET
Arihant
• Under the Advanced Technology Vehicle programme, India has indigenously-built Arihant, SSBN.
• India’s 1st nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine.
• Displacement capacity of 6,000 tonnes.
• Powered by an 83 MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium.
• Formally inducted in November 2019 marking the Nuclear Triad capability of India.
• Capable of launching K-15 Missile with a range of 750 km and K-4 ICBM with a range of 3,500 km.
Arighat
• 2nd Arihant-class submarine built under Advanced Technology Vessel Program.
• Powered by a pressurised water reactor.
• Maximum speed of 12–15 knots (22–28 km/h) when on surface and 24 knots (44 km/h) when submerged.
• 4 launch tubes can carry up to 12 K-15 Sagarika missiles or 4 four of the under-development K-4 missiles.
POSEIDON
• Anti Submarine Warfare aircraft, which India has acquired from the USA.
• It is a boost to maritime ISR capabilities (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance)
• Long-range maritime patrol aircraft capable of undersea surveillance from a height of up to 40000 ft.
• It has an operational speed of 450 mph, range of 4,500 nautical miles and operational time of up to 10 hours.
• It is equipped with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars capable of engaging multiple targets
simultaneously. Magnetic Anomaly Detection radar will help locate submarines in deep seas.
Characteristics
CHINOOK
• Acquired from USA under Foreign Military Assistance
• Heavy-lift Capability
• Modern heavy-lift helicopter with payload lifting capacity of 10-12.5 tonne
• Vertical-lift platform
• Will replace the Mi-26 heavy-lift helicopters of IAF.
Importance
• Airlift artillery, light armoured vehicles, troops and supplies to difficult Himalayan mountainous
terrains.
• Assist Border Road Organisation to carry road construction and engineering equipment to
difficult high-altitude terrains of North East.
• Deployed in disaster relief operations.
29. NETRA
• The Netra Airborne Early Warning & Control System (AEW&CS) aircraft is a multi-sensor platform indigenously
developed by DRDO.
• Netra has an indigenously developed Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar system mounted on the
Embraer ERJ 145 twin-engine aircraft.
• The AESA radar is an airborne surveillance system with detection and tracking capabilities. It can track and find
aircraft, missiles, ships and vehicles.
MISCELLANEOUS
WHAT IS A-SAT?
Anti-satellite technology is a counter-space capability of a country to neutralise space-based assets of an enemy
country.
TYPES OF A-SAT
• Missile-based A-SAT: A missile is used to hit and destroy satellite using:
o Direct-ascent kinetic kill vehicle (Chinese A-SAT in 2007, India now, USA and Russia)
o Co-orbiting missile (Russia has this type)
• Co-orbital drones: Approach the target satellite and deviate it from its orbit. (China, UK, Russia are working on
this technology)
• High-energy lasers: Blind the sensors of the satellites.
• Interception and jamming of signals from the satellites by sending more powerful radio signals.
TARGET
• Microsat R was a military imaging satellite placed in an orbit 274 km above the Earth surface with an orbital
velocity of 7.8km/s.
33. INDRAJAAL
• Hyderabad-based Grene Robotics has launched Indrajaal, India's first Al-powered anti-drone system.
• It provides a 360-degree coverage/defence against all types and intensities of unmanned autonomous threats
across regions up to 4000 square kilometres.
• It can quickly and accurately identify, categorise, track, and eliminate threats in real time.
• It offers protection from all kinds of autonomous drones, including low Radar Cross Section (RCS) threats,
medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) and high-altitude long-endurance (HALE) UAVs.
• It can also be used for loitering munitions, smart bombs, rocket showers, nano and micro drones, and even
swarm drones.
• HAPS can work like a geostationary satellite and can be easily redeployed over another location, or can be
reequipped with a different payload.
• Primary utility of HAPS vehicles is in the field of surveillance and monitoring, but it can be also useful in disaster
management, emergency/public safety communications, maritime surveillance, land border control
applications, etc.
36. MAYA OS
• Maya OS is an operating system developed by experts from the Indian Defence Research and Development
Organisation, the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), and the National Informatics Centre
(NIC).
• The Indian Defence Ministry has decided to replace Microsoft’s Windows with Maya OS on all its computers.
• It is an open-source Ubuntu-based operating system launched to prevent malware attacks by cybercriminals
increasingly targeting critical infrastructure and government agencies.
• It is powered by an endpoint detection and protection system called "Chakravyuh". Chakravyuh is an end-
point anti-malware and antivirus software that creates a virtual layer between the user and the internet,
preventing hackers from accessing sensitive data.