Lets play physics 9681634157

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Laws of electromagnetic induction:

i) The induced e.m.f. in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linked with the circuit.
ii) The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tries to oppose the cause of its
generation i.e. the variation of magnetic flux producing it.

In mathematical form the above laws can be expressed as,

𝑑𝜙
𝜀=− ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑑𝑡
𝜀 is induced emf also called back emf.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/faradays-law/latest/faradays-law_en.html

• Differential form of faradays law:- Let 𝜙 be the magnetic flux linked with a circuit at
anytime 𝑡 then the laws of e.m. induced induction can be expressed as,
𝑑𝜙
𝜀=− ; 𝜀 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 … … . . (1)
𝑑𝑡

If the electrical field in space is 𝐸⃗ , then, e.m.f. around a closed path 𝑐,

𝜀 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 … … … . (2)
𝑐

⃗ then the
If 𝑆 is an open surface bounded by the curve 𝐶 placed in a magnetic field 𝐵
magnetic flux through the surface.

⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 … … . . (3)
𝜙=∫ 𝐵
𝑆

𝑑
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 … … … … (4)
𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑆

If the circuit is rigid and stationary then neither ‘S’ nor ’C’ depends on ’t’ hence,

⃗
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑐 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
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⃗ =𝐵
The partial derivative is taken since 𝐵 ⃗ (𝑥, 𝑡)

Using Stoke’s law,

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = ∫
∫ ∇ ∙ 𝑑𝑆
𝑠 𝜕𝑡

Since this is true for any arbitrary surface 𝑆,

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −
∴ ∇ … … … . . (6)
𝜕𝑡
This is the differential form of Faradays law.

• Self induction:- When a current (𝐼)flows in a circuit, the magnetic flux(𝜙) produced
by the current depends on the geometry of the circuit and for non ferromagnetic
material, it is proportional to the current. Thus we can write,
𝜙∝𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝜙 = 𝐿 𝐼 … … … … . . (1)
Where the constant (depends on the geometry of the circuit) is called self
inductance of the circuit. It can be defined as total flux linked with the circuit when
unit current flows through it.
Now for rigid stationary 𝑐𝑘𝑡,
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐼
= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡
∴ Induced e.m.f.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝜀=− =− . = −𝐿 … … . (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
From equation (2) we can define ‘L’ as the e.m.f. induced in the circuit for a unit rate
of change of current in it.

• Limit and Dimensions:- In S.I unit L is express in Henry.

1𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1𝐻 = =
1𝑎𝑚𝑝 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝
[𝐿] = [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 𝐼 −2 ]
2 −2

• Calculation of Self – inductances:-

• A Solenoid:- The magnetic induction𝐵 ⃗ at a point inside an air cored very long
solenoid is,
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𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
𝑙

Where 𝑁 is the total turns on the solenoid, 𝑙 is

the length and 𝐼 be the current,
If 𝐴 be the crossectional area of the solenoid; flux linked with each turn,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝐴
𝜙1 = 𝐵𝐴 =
𝑙
∴ Total flux linked,
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐼𝐴
𝜙 = 𝑁𝜙1 =
𝑙
∴ Self inductance of the Solenoid,
𝜙 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
𝐿= =
𝐼 𝑙
[If the solenoid is not too long then we have magnetic field at any axial point P as,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
2𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝑙−𝑥 𝑥
= [ + ]
2𝑙 √(𝑙 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑎2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝑁
In a length 𝑑𝑥 about P there are number of terms and hence flux linked in these
𝑙
turns,
𝑁
𝑑𝜙 = ( 𝑑𝑥) 𝐵𝐴
𝑙
𝑙
𝐵𝐴𝑁
∴ 𝜙=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴𝐼 𝑙 𝑙−𝑥 𝑥
= ∫ [ + ] 𝑑𝑥
2𝑙2 2
0 √(𝑙 − 𝑥 ) + 𝑎 2 2
√𝑥 + 𝑎 2

𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴𝐼
= 2
[−√(𝑙 − 𝑥 )2 + 𝑎2 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ]
2𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
= [√𝑙2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎] 𝐼
𝑙2
𝜇0 𝑁2 𝐴 2
∴ Self inductance 𝐿 = 2 [√𝑎2 + 𝑙 − 𝑎]
𝑙
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• Two long parallel wires:- Let us consider two long parallel wires carrying the same
current in opposite directions, separated by a distance 𝑑. We assume that diameter of
each wire is much less that ′𝑑′; so that the flux inside the material of the wire may be
neglected.
Total field at any point at a distance 𝑥 from one wire.
𝜇0 𝐼 1 1
𝐵= [ + ]
2𝜋 𝑥 𝑑 − 𝑥

∴ The flux through an elemental area of width 𝑑𝑥 and length unity is,
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑−𝑎 1 1
𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ [ + ]
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑−𝑥
𝜇0 𝐼
= [ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑑 − 𝑥 )]𝑑−𝑎
𝑎
2𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑−𝑎 𝑎
= [ln − ln ]
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑑−𝑎
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑 − 𝑎
= ln
𝜋 𝑎
∴Self induction per unit length,
𝜙 𝜇0 𝑑 − 𝑎
𝐿= = ln
𝐼 𝜋 𝑎
• Long coaxial cable: Let us consider two co-axial cylinders of radii 𝑎and 𝑏, (𝑏 > 𝑎) as
shown in the fig, carrying the same current 𝐼 in the opposite directions.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law it is easy to show that the magnetic field outside the
cable is zero and at an internal point at a distance 𝑟 from the axis (𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏) the
field is,
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
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From an elemental area of radial width 𝑑𝑟 and axial length

unity the flux through it will be,
𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ . 𝑑𝑟 × 1 =
𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
∴ Total flux per unit length,
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑏 𝑑𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑏
𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ = ln
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑟 2𝜋 𝑎
Self induction per unit length,
𝜙 𝜇0 𝑏
𝐿= = 𝑙𝑛
𝐼 2𝜋 𝑎
Here we neglect the flux within the materials of the two cylinders taking 𝑏 ≫ 𝑎.

• Mutual inductance: Let us consider two fixed loop 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 placed close to
each other. If a current 𝐼 through 𝑐1 produces flux 𝜙 in the loop 𝑐2 . If now 𝐼1 is
varied, the flux will also vary and there will be an e.m.f in loop 𝑐2 . This is known as
Mutual Induction.
Let 𝜙2 be flux through loop 𝑐2 due to current 𝐼1 in loop 𝑐1 , 𝜙1 be flux through loop 𝑐1
due to a current 𝐼2 in 𝑐2 in the absence of ferromagnetic material.
𝜙2 = 𝑀21 𝐼1
𝜙1 = 𝑀12 𝐼2
The proportionality constants 𝑀12 ,𝑀21 are called mutual inductance of the loops.
These depends on the geometry of the circuits, their dimensions and permeability of
the surrounding medium.
∴E.m.f induced in loop 𝑐2 due to current 𝑐1 ,
𝑑𝜙2 𝑑 𝑑𝐼1
𝐸2 = − = − (𝑀21 𝐼1 ) = −𝑀21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙1 𝑑 𝑑𝐼2
𝐸1 = − = − (𝑀12 𝐼2 ) = −𝑀12
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Thus mutual induction of two loops is numerically equal to the emf induced in one
loop due to unit rate of change of current in other.
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• Neumann’s Formula:Let us consider two loops of wires 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 at rest in vacuum. A
current 𝐼1 through 𝑐1 produces a magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵1 at the site of 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 2. So the flux
linked with loop 𝑐2 , due to current in the loop 𝑐1 ,

⃗ 1 . 𝑑𝑆2
𝜙2 = ∫ 𝐵
𝑆2

⃗ × 𝐴1 ). 𝑑𝑆2
= ∫ (∇
𝑆2
⃗ 1.
𝐴1 being magnetic vector potential corresponding to 𝐵
Using Stoke’s law,

𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐴1 . 𝑑𝑙2
𝑐2

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙1
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐴1 = ∮
4𝜋 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙1 . 𝑑𝑙2
∴ 𝜙2 = ∮ ∮ = 𝑀21 𝐼1
4𝜋 𝑐2 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙1 . 𝑑𝑙2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀21 = ∮ ∮
4𝜋 𝑐2 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
Since |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 | = |𝑟1 − 𝑟2 | and the order of the integration may be interchanged we
can write,
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙1 . 𝑑𝑙2
𝑀 = 𝑀21 = 𝑀12 = ∮ ∮
4𝜋 𝑐2 𝑐1 |𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
This is Neumann’s formula and 𝑀 is simply referred to as the mutual induction
between the loops.

• Conclusions:
(i) 𝑀(= 𝑀12 = 𝑀21 )is purely geometrical quantity. It depends on the shape , size
and relative position of the loops.

(ii) The flux through the loop 𝐶1 when a current 𝐼 flows around 𝐶2 is equal to the
flux through 𝐶1 due to some current flowing through 𝐶2 , are the same. Thus it is also
called reciprocity theorem.

Calculation of Mutual inductance:-

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1. Two solenoids:Let us consider a very short solenoid 𝑆 wounded over a long
narrow air-cored solenoid 𝑃 about its centre.
If a current 𝐼 flows through the primary (𝑃) coil, the magnetic induction
produced at its centre,
𝑁1
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑙
𝑁1 is the total number of terns on 𝑃 over length 𝑙.
If 𝐴 be the crossectional area of 𝑃, then total number of terns 𝑁2 would be,

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴
Φ = 𝐵. 𝐴. 𝑁2 = 𝐼
𝑙

∴ Therefore, the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary

solenoids,
𝜙2 𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴
𝑀= =
𝐼 𝑙

2. Two parallel coaxial circular loops: Let us consider two parallel circular coaxial
coils 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 of radii 𝑎, 𝑏 respectively and the distance between their centres
𝑜1 and 𝑜2 𝑏𝑒 𝑥.
We assume that (𝑏 ≪ 𝑎) such that magnetic field all over it may be assumed to be
uniform.
If 𝐼 be the current through coil 𝐶1 , the magnetic field at the site of the coil 𝐶2 due
to coil 𝐶1 would be,
𝜇0 𝑁1 𝐼𝑎2
̅
𝐵=
2 2 3
(𝑎 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝑁1 being number of turns in coil 𝐶1
∴ Total flux linked with the coil 𝐶2 ,
𝜙2 = 𝐵. 𝜋𝑏 2 . 𝑁2
𝜇0 𝜋𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
= 3
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝑁2 is the number of terms in coil 𝐶2 .
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∴ Mutual inductance between the two coils,
𝜙2 𝜇0 𝜋𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
𝑀= = 3
𝐼
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2
If the coils are coplanar, then 𝑥 = 0,
𝜇0 𝜋𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑏 2
∴𝑀=
2𝑎
[ if𝐶2 is not too small we have to use Neumann’s formula]

• Coefficient of Coupling: It is defined as the fraction of the magnetic flux generated by

one coil that gets linked up with the other.
Let us consider two coils 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 having self inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 and coupled
together. Let a current 𝐼1 through 𝐶1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 a flux 𝜙1 .
∴ 𝜙1 = 𝐿1 𝐼1
If 𝐾1 fraction of it gets link with 𝐶2 then,
𝜙2 = 𝐾1 𝜙1 = 𝐾1 𝐿1 𝐼1 = 𝑀𝐼1
𝑀 is the mutual inductance between them.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐾1 𝐿1
Similarly if a current 𝐼2 flows through 𝐶2 produces a flux 𝜙2 , a fraction (𝐾2 ) of which
links with 𝐶1 then,
𝜙1 = 𝐾2 . 𝜙2 = 𝐾2 𝐿2 𝐼2 = 𝑀𝐼2
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐾2 𝐿2
∴ 𝑀2 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑀 = 𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐾 = √𝐾1 𝐾2
This constant 𝐾 is called Coefficient of Coupling.
It can have value from 0 𝑡𝑜 1. It depends on the geometry and relative position of the
coils.
𝐾 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀2 ≤ 𝐿1 𝐿2
• Inductances in series and parallel:-
1. Series Connection: Let us consider two coils of self inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2
connected in series. Let 𝐼 current pass through the coils at time 𝑡.
Let the mutual flux favours the self flux of the coils.
Now induced emf in coil 1 due to its self inductance,
𝑑𝐼
𝜖11 = 𝐿1
𝑑𝑇
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And the emf induced in coil 2 due to current 𝐼 in coil 1 is,

𝑑𝐼
𝜖21 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑇
M is the mutual inductance between the coil.

∴ The emf induced in coil 2 due to its self inductance,

𝑑𝐼
𝜖22 = −𝐿2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦,
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐼
𝜖12 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑇
As the fluxes aid one another, total emf,

𝜖 = 𝜖11 + 𝜖22 + 𝜖12 + 𝜖21

𝑑𝐼
= −(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀)
𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒,

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

Again, if mutual flux opposes self-flux then,

𝜖𝑠 = 𝜖11 + 𝜖22 − 𝜖21 − 𝜖21

&
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀

• Parallel connection:The fig. Shows two coils of self inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are connected
in parallel. Let total current 𝐼 be divided into parts 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 .
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
Assuming the mutual flux aids the self flux, total emf induced in coil (1),
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𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
𝜖1 = −𝐿1 −𝑀
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑀 → 𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
Similarly for coil (2)

𝑑𝐼2 𝑑𝐼1
𝜖2 = −𝐿2 −𝑀
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
Since two coils are in parallel,

𝜖1 = 𝜖2 =∈ (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
∴ 𝐿1 +𝑀 = −𝜖
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
𝑀 + 𝐿2 = −𝜖
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 ( 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝑑𝐼1 −𝜖(𝐿2 − 𝑀)
=
𝑑𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝑑𝐼2 −𝜖(𝐿1 − 𝑀)
=
𝑑𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2 −𝜖(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀)
∴ = + =
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
Or,
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 𝑑𝐼
𝜖=−
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀 𝑑𝑇
∴ Equivalent induction of the circuit,
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
If the mutual flux opposes the self-flux, the equivalent inductance,

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
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• Energy stored in an inductor: Let an emf 𝜖 is suddenly suspended to an inductor 𝐿
having resistance 𝑟. If 𝑖 be the current at any time 𝑡 after switching on, the back emf
𝑑𝑖
produced – 𝐿 amd net e.m.f
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝜖−𝐿
𝑑𝑡
According to 𝑘𝑉𝐿
𝑑𝑖
𝜖=𝐿 + 𝑟𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Work done by the source delivering a small change 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡, in time dt,
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜖 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖 + 𝑖 2 𝑟𝑑𝑡
∴ Total work done when current increases from zero to 𝐼 in time 𝑇,
𝐼 𝑇
𝑈 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑖 + 𝑟 ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑇
1
= 𝐿𝐼 2 + 𝑟 ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
2 0
The 2 term represents the Joule heat loss in the resistance.
nd

The 1st term is the work done against the back emf and can be regarded as energy
stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
∴ Magnetic energy stored in an inductor 𝐿,
1
𝑈𝑚 = 𝐿𝐼 2
2
• 𝑴 ≪ 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 ; From energy consideration: We consider two fixed circuits 1 and 2 as
𝟐

shown in fig; ϵ1 ,ϵ2 are the instantaneous emfs and 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 are instantaneous currents.
∴ The emf equations,
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝜖1 = 𝑖1 𝑅1 + 𝐿1 +𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1
𝜖2 = 𝑖2 𝑅2 + 𝐿2 +𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Considering (+)ve coupling.
Now the rate of energy supplied from the source must be equal to the rate of Joule
heat dissipation plus rate of energy stored (𝑈) in magnetic field.
𝑑𝑈
𝜖1 𝑖1 + 𝜖2 𝑖2 = 𝑖12 𝑅1 + 𝑖22 𝑅2 +
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈
𝑜𝑟 = 𝜖1 𝑖1 + 𝜖2 𝑖2 − (𝑖12 𝑅1 + 𝑖22 𝑅2 )
𝑑𝑡
∴ using (1) and (2) we can write ,
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1
= 𝐿1 𝑖1 + 𝐿2 𝑖2 + (𝑀𝑖1 + 𝑀𝑖2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑
= 𝐿1 𝑖1 + 𝐿2 𝑖2 + 𝑀 (𝑖1 𝑖2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Assuming 𝑖1 = 𝑖1 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0 and integrating from 𝑡1 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡2 = 𝑡,
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐿1 𝑖12 + 𝐿2 𝑖22 + 𝑀𝑖1 𝑖2
2 2
2𝑈 𝐿2 𝑀
∴ = 𝑖12 + 𝑖22 + 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1
𝑀 2 𝐿2 𝑀2 2
= (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) + ( − )𝑖
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿12 2
Since 𝑈 ≥ 0. ∴ L.H.S of equation(1) is always (+)ve quantity or zero, and cannot be
(-)ve

In particular
𝐿1
𝑖2 = 𝑖
𝑀 1
the 1st term vanishes,

𝐿2 𝑀2
∴ − ≥0
𝐿1 𝐿12

𝑀2 𝐿2
𝑜𝑟, ≤
𝐿12 𝐿1

∴ 𝑀 ≤ √𝐿1 𝐿2

• Faraday’s disc:- This is a conducting disc of radius a rotating about its axis with
constant angular velocity 𝜔 ⃗ , placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⊥lr to its plane.
Let any time 𝑡 a radius of the disc makes an angle θ with y axis. In interval 𝑑𝑡, it
rotates through an angle 𝑑𝜃
1
∴ Area swept out by out in time 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎. 𝑎𝑑𝜃
2
1 2
∴ Flux cut in time 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝑎 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑑𝜙 1 𝑑𝜃
∴ Rate of change of flux = 𝐵. 𝑎2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
1
= 𝑎2 𝜔𝐵.
2
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*Induced emf between centre and rim,

𝑑𝜙 1
𝜖𝑠 = | | = 𝐵𝑎2 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2

• Conducting bar moving on tracks through a constant Magnetic Field: Motional emf: Let
us consider two parallel rails of negligible resistance connected at one end, are
separated by a distance 𝑙. A rod moves at a constant velocity 𝑣 on fixed rails (𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 ).
An external uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ is applied normal to the plane 𝑜𝑓 the rails.

Let at time 𝑡, the distance transversed by the rod 𝑥,

∴ Area generated → 𝐿𝑥
∴ Flux linked with this area 𝜙 = 𝐵 𝐿𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑥
∴ Rate of change of flux→ = 𝐵𝐿 = 𝐵𝐿𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 = 𝜖𝑠 = − = −𝐵𝐿𝑣
𝑑𝑡
This is called Motional e.m.f
If 𝑅 be the resistance of the loop,
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∴ induced current
𝐸 𝐵𝐿𝑉
=− 𝑖=
𝑅 𝑅
[Here we assume that 𝑖 is so small that magnetic field produced by it is very
⃗]
negligible compare to 𝐵
• We consider two parallel rails of negligible resistance separated by a distance d and
connected to a cell of emf E at one end. A jumper of mass 𝑚 and resistance slides
without friction along the rails.
• Velocity of the jumper: Let at any instant the jumper moves with velocity 𝑣.
∴ Induced emf = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
∴ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑜ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤,
𝜀 − 𝐵𝑣𝐿
𝑖=
𝑅
As the force on the conductor is 𝐵𝑖𝑣𝐿
𝑑𝑣 𝐵𝑙 𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝜀
∴𝑚
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵𝑖𝑙 =
𝑅
(𝜀 − 𝐵𝑣𝑙) = −
𝑅
(𝑣 − 𝑏𝑙1)
𝐵2 𝑙2
𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝜀 = − 𝑚𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑣−
𝐵𝑙
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,
v
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝜀 = − 𝑚𝑅 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑣− 0
𝐵𝑙
𝜀
𝑣− 𝐵2 𝑙2
∴ ln 𝐵𝑙
𝜀 = − 𝑚𝑅 𝑡
−
𝐵𝑙
𝜀 𝐵2 𝑙 2
∴ 𝑣 = [1 − 𝑒 𝑚𝑅 𝑡 ]
−
𝐵𝑙
𝜀
𝑖𝑓 𝑡 →∝, 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝐵𝑙

• EDDY CURRENT: When magnetic field B ⃗ changes with time, currents are induced in
the conducting materials placed in the region where B is non-zero. These currents
are termed eddy currents. They heat up the conducting materials through Joule
losses and are therefore undesirable in electromagnetic devices.
The effects of eddy currents can be minimized by using laminated conductors
instead of a single large body. use of thin sheets of lamina insulated from each
other increases the resistance to the flow of eddy current and consequently the
effect of eddy current are minimised.
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It can be shown that the power loss due to eddy current can be reduced by a factor
1
proportional to by subdividing the cross-section (perpendicular to B⃗ − field) of
𝑛
the conductor into n- equal parts by lamination.

.............................................................................................................................................................

magetic theory
Paper: PHS-A-CC-6-13-TH Credits: 4

1. REVIEW OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

Electrodynamics before Maxwell: - So far in our study in electricity and magnetism we find
these following four basic equations.

In free space in medium

𝜌
(i) 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ = ⁄𝜖0 (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤) 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐷
⃗ =𝜌
(ii) 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗ =0 (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 ′ 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ) 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐻
⃗ =0
𝜕𝐵 ⃗ 𝜕𝐵 ⃗
(iii) 𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − (Faraday’s law) 𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
(iv) 𝛻⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 (𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤) ′ ⃗ × ⃗H
∇ ⃗ =J
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Generalized Ampere’s circuital law and Maxwell’s equations: - Ampere’s circuital law (in
free space)
𝛻⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 ………………. (1)
Taking 𝛻⃗ ∙ on both sides,
𝛻⃗ ∙ (𝛻⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 (𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽) …………….. (2)
Since the divergence of curl of any vector is always zero; from (2) we should have,
Now continuity equation, reads,
𝜕𝜌
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽 = − which indicates, apart from the case of steady state
𝜕𝑡
(ρ = constant); ⃗
𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 ≠ 0.
Hence Ampere’s Law is bound to fail for non-steady state current.

Maxwell assumed that definition of J is incomplete and we have to replace 𝐽 by

𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 where 𝐽𝑑 should be such that,
𝛻⃗ . (𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 ) = 0
i.e. 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽𝑑 = −𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽
𝜕𝜌
=
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 ⃗
𝜕𝐸
= 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
(𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽𝑑 = 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗
∴ 𝐽𝑑 = 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 ,
With this, ampere’s law modified to,
𝛻⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 )
𝜕𝐸⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛻⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
This is ampere’s law in modified form.

Displacement current: - In electromagnetism, displacement current is a quantity

appearing in Maxwell's equations that is defined in terms of the rate of change of electric
displacement field. Displacement current has the units of electric current density, and it
has an associated magnetic field just as actual currents do.
However it is not an electric current of moving charges, but a time-varying electric field.
It is current in the sense that it can produce magnetic field. It is not linked with the motion
of the free charges.

An example illustrating the need for the displacement current arises in connection with capacitors
with no medium between the plates. Consider the charging capacitor in the figure. The capacitor
is in a circuit that causes equal and opposite charges to appear on the left plate and the right plate,
charging the capacitor and increasing the electric field between its plates. No actual charge is
transported through the vacuum between its plates. Nonetheless, a magnetic field exists between
the plates as though a current were present there as well. One explanation is that a
 Lets play physics 9681634157
fictitious displacement current ID "flows" in the vacuum, and this current produces the magnetic
field in the region between the plates according to Ampère's law:

Maxwell’s equation:- The four fundamental equations of electromagnetic are known as

Maxwell’s equations are given in S.I. unit as follows,
In vacuum,

𝜌
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ =
𝜖0
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗ =0
⃗
𝜕𝐵
𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗
𝛻⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
⃗ ,D
E ⃗⃗ are electric field vectors B ⃗ ,H
⃗⃗ are magnetic field vectors related by the relations .
⃗E = 𝜖0 ⃗D⃗; B ⃗ = 𝜇0 ⃗H
⃗
Inside the materials,
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐷
⃗ = 𝜌 (Gauss’s law in electrostatics)
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗ = 0 (Gauss’s law in magneto static)
𝜕𝐵⃗
𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − (Faradays law of induction)
𝜕𝑡
⃗
𝜕𝐷
𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ =𝐽+ (Modified ampere’s law)
𝜕𝑡
Physical significance: -
Equation (1) (𝜵 ⃗⃗ = 𝝆 ): represents Gauss’s law in electrostatics in differential form.
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑬
𝝐𝟎
Integrating equation (1) over a volume we obtain,
1
∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
𝜖 𝑣 𝑣
 Lets play physics 9681634157
1
i.e. ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠 , electric flux through a closed surface is equal to ∫𝑣 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 i.e. total charge
𝜖
enclosed divided by permittivity of space.

⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
Equation (2) (𝜵 ⃗ = 𝟎) : represents Gauss’s Law in magnetostatics, along with the fact
that magnetic poles always exists in pair i.e. monopole does not exists.
Integrating equations (2) over volume 𝑉,

∫ 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∯ 𝐵
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑣 𝑠
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠 , total magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero, implying that flux
i.e. ∮ 𝐵
entering the volume equals the flux leaving it. So there is no source or sink inside the
volume, i.e. monopole does not exist.

⃗⃗
⃗ = − 𝝏𝑩) represents Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬
Equation (3) (𝜵
𝝏𝒕
Integrating equation (3) over any closed surface, bounded by path c, and using Stokes
theorem,
⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = − ∯ ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = − ∯ 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
So (-)ve rate of change of magnetic flux is equal to induced e.m.f in a closed circuit. This is
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.

Equation (4) represents generalized Ampere’s law, modified by introduction of

displacement current along with the conduction current. It tells us that a changing electric
field produces a changing magnetic field as the reverse, consistent with equations of
continuity of charge.
From equation (4) taking divergence on both sides,

𝜕
𝛻⃗ ∙ (𝛻⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
𝑜𝑟, 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽 + 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝜖 𝐸⃗ = 0
𝜕𝑡 0
𝜕
𝑜𝑟, 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽 + 𝜖 (𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ ) = 0
𝜕𝑡 0
𝜕𝜌
𝑜𝑟, 𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
It represents equation of continuity of charge.
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Decay of free charges; Relaxation time:- An important deduction that follows immediately
from Maxwell’s equation is the decay of free charges on conductors.
From Maxwell’s equations,

⃗
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐸⃗
𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ =𝐽+ ⃗
= 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕
∴ 𝛻⃗ ∙ (𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) = 𝜎𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ + 𝜖 (𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ ) [ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜎, 𝜖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
𝜕𝑡
𝜎𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝑂𝑟, 0 = +
𝜖 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜎
𝑂𝑟, = − 𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝜖
𝜎
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜌 = 𝜌0 𝑒 − 𝜖 𝜕𝑡

= 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝜖
Where 𝜏 = is called relaxation time i.e. free charges decay exponentially with a time
𝜎
ϵ
constant ; placed in a medium of conductivity σ and permittivity ϵ .
σ

1
ii) relaxation time 𝜏 can be defined as the time require to decay the charge to the (=
𝑒
0.37) times its initial value. Hence smaller the value of 𝜏, better is the conductor.

WAVE EQUATION IN FREE SPACE

In free space there is no charge (ρ=0) or current (J=0). Hence Maxwell’s equations take
the following form,
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ = 0 ……………… (1)
𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐻
⃗ = 0 …………… (2)
𝜕𝐵 ⃗ 𝜕𝐻 ⃗
𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − = −𝜇0 ……………………. (3)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗
𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ =∈0 …………………. (4)
𝜕𝑡
Taking curl of equations (3)
𝜕
𝛻⃗ × (𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) = −𝜇0 (𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)
𝜕𝑡
 Lets play physics 9681634157
𝜕
Or, 𝛻⃗ (𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝛻 2 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇0 𝜕𝑡 (𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)
𝜕2 𝐸⃗
Or, 𝛻 2 𝐸⃗ =∈0 𝜇0 𝜕𝑡 2 …………………………..(5)
Similarly taking curl of equation (4)
𝜕
𝛻⃗ × (𝛻⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) =∈0 (𝛻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝐻
⃗
Or, 𝛻⃗ (𝛻⃗ ∙ 𝐻
⃗ ) − 𝛻2𝐻
⃗ = −∈0 𝜇0 2
𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝐻
⃗
⃗ =∈0 𝜇0 2 ……………………(6)
Or , 𝛻 2 𝐻 𝜕𝑡

Speed of e.m wave:- equation (5) and (6) shows ⃗E and ⃗H

⃗ both satisfies wave equations o
the form,
1 𝜕2 𝜓
𝛻 2𝜓 =
𝐶 2 𝜕𝑡 2

This gives velocity of propagation of E.M. wave,

1
𝐶=√ ≃ 3 × 108 m/s
∈0 𝜇 0

As ∈0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁 − 𝑚2 (𝐹/𝑚)

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 ( 𝐻/𝑚)

This is precisely the speed of light in vacuum.

Plane wave solution: - The simplest solutions of equations (5) &(6) are of the form,
𝐸⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐸⃗0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘⃗∙ 𝑟−𝜔𝑡) … … … … … … . (7)

⃗ 0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘⃗∙ 𝑟−𝜔𝑡) … … … … … … . . (8)

⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐻
𝐻

Here 𝐸⃗0 , 𝐻⃗ 0 are complex amplitudes which are constants in space and time ; ⃗k is the
wave vector determining the direction of propagation of wave.
⃗k is defined as,`
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑛 𝜔
⃗ =
𝑘 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂ …………………(9)
𝜆 𝐶 𝐶
Where n̂ is unit vector along the direction of propagation.