MadrasAgric.J.,2024; https://doi.org/10.29321/MAJ.10.

000J01

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Challenges and Opportunities in Plant Disease Management:

A Brief Review
Senthilraja N 1* , R. K. Gangwar 2 and C. K. Borad 3
1*
Department of Entomology, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat 388110, India
2
Main Rice Research Station, Anand Agricultural University, Nawagam Ta. & Dist. Kheda, Gujarat 387540, India
3
Main Vegetable Research Station, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat 388110, India

ABSTRACT
Plant diseases can reduce human food availability. Modern plant
disease management faces problems due to climate change, fungicide
resistance, pesticide residues and biodiversity loss. This review discusses
problems and challenges in plant disease management and future
Received: 11 Jan 2024
research needs for effective management. Plant disease forecasting
models can be used to predict plant diseases ahead of time. Protected
Revised: 21 Jan 2024
cultivation combats climate change. It is necessary to find more evidence
Accepted: 2 Feb 2024
that plant pathogen diversity has a dilution effect on disease incidence.
Deep learning-based disease diagnosis will help detect diseases faster.
More hybrid fungicides should be developed to minimize fungicidal
resistance problems. Among the molecular methods of plant disease
management, RNA interference-mediated gene silencing and genome
editing with CRISPR is more promising in plant disease management.

Keywords: Climate change; Fungicide resistance; Gene silencing; Genome editing; Hybrid fungicides.

INTRODUCTION
Plant diseases are well known to reduce the food times have contributed to a significant reduction in the
available to humans by interfering with crop yields. frequency and intensity of epidemics (Oerke, 2006).
During the early agricultural era, plant disease Despite this, plant disease management is facing
management approaches were extremely limited and various problems due to climate change, fungicide
the people lived in fear of famine. People blamed resistance, pesticide residue loss of biodiversity and
disease outbreaks on vengeful spirits, the anger of challenges in detecting plant diseases and developing
the gods, or unfavourable orientations of the stars or new plant protection chemicals. In India, recently there
moons. The Robigalia was an ancient Roman religious has been an incidence of rice blast in Nagaland, coconut
festival celebrated on April 25 each year for the deity wilt in Kerala, mango anthracnose in Karnataka and
Robigus. Its major ritual was to sacrifice red dogs, foxes, southern rice black-streaked dwarf virus (SRBSDV)
and cows to appease Robigus and prevent the rusts of paddy in Punjab, Haryana and Uttarakhand
from destroying their crops. Food shortages resulting and gummy stem blight affects the cultivation of
from disease epidemics cause severe consequences cucurbitaceous vegetables like cucumber, bitter gourd,
to human society, such as the Irish famine (1840s) ash gourd, muskmelon, and ridge gourd. Recently,
caused by potato late blight and the Bengal famine Mahapatra et al. (2020) reported gummy stem blight
(1943) caused by rice brown spot. Modern plant in watermelon. Future plant disease management
disease management began with Pierre Marie Alexis should be strengthened to ensure food availability
Millardet’s accidental discovery of the Bordeaux by overcoming these problems and challenges in an
mixture in 1882 to control grapevine downy mildew, ecologically sustainable, environmentally viable and
and nowadays various components such as host-plant socially acceptable way. This review discusses various
resistance, cultural practices, biological control, and challenges in plant disease management and future
chemical control are used in disease management. research needs for their effective management.
The scientific and technological advances in recent 111|1-3|
*Corresponding author's e-mail: [email protected]
MadrasAgric.J.,2024; https://doi.org/10.29321/MAJ.10.000J01

Challenges in plant disease management Kaur et al. (2010) investigated the competitive
1. Climate change fitness of metalaxyl-resistant (PI-24) and sensitive (PI-
31) populations of Phytophthora infestans in three
Climate change entails long-term shifts in distinct combinations and the results revealed that
temperature and weather systems. These changes metalaxyl-resistant isolates of P. infestans were highly
might be natural, such as variations in the solar cycle. pathogenic and showed competitive fitness in a mixed
However, since the 1800s, human activities have been population. To minimise resistance development,
the primary cause of climate change, owing mostly fungicides with site-specific action should be used in
to the use of burning of coal, petroleum, and gas. A combination with fungicides of other modes of action.
disease will develop when a virulent pathogen infects The fungicide trend is that if a particular mode of action
a susceptible host under favourable environmental fungicide becomes popular in controlling diseases,
conditions and at an appropriate time (Agrios more fungicides are developed with a minor difference
2005). Climate change can alter the environmental with the same mode of action group. Such fungicides
conditions to be favourable for pathogens or make have resistance risk and thus have an impact in terms
the host susceptible to pathogen attack. Increases of resistance management (Thind 2021).
in temperature, moisture, and Carbon dioxide are the
3. Pesticide residue
major consequences of climate change.
Pesticide residue refers to the pesticide substance
Due to favourable weather conditions, pathotype
that remains on or in food after they are applied to
78S84 of wheat yellow rust was first detected from
food crops. Carbendazim was regularly higher than the
northern India posing a major threat to cultivar
EU MRLs despite the consignments being tested in
PBW343 in wheat (Prashar et al. 2007) and wheat
India There have been cases where “organic basmati
yellow rust started appearing early in the last week of
rice” consignments have been rejected in the EU for
December (Jindal et al. 2012). Temperature affects
the presence of carbendazim (Mukherjee et al. 2019).
Arabidopsis susceptibility to Pseudomonas syringae
In 2017, the EU lowered the MRL for tricyclazole in
pv. tomato considerably (Huot et al. 2017). The
Basmati rice from 1 PPM to 0.01 PPM. Between 1st
relative prevalence of soil-borne fungal plant diseases
January 2017 and 30th October 2022, there were
increases as temperatures rise. According to Delgado-
47 notifications on the RASFF (Rapid Alert System
Baquerizo et al. (2020), the relative abundance of
for Food and Feed) window regarding basmati rice
plant pathogens will increase globally. The rice plants
exported from India that did not comply with European
cultivated in elevated CO2 concentrations were more
Union (EU) standards. Ten of the 47 alerts were
susceptible to leaf blasts than those planted in ambient
rejected at the border, indicating that the consignment
CO2 (Kobayashi et al. 2006). With increasing relative
was denied entry into the EU due to its risk to human
humidity and leaf wetness, infection of Sclerotinia
and animal health or the environment. The presence
sclerotiorum in lettuce and Uromyces viciae fabae
of pesticides such as tricyclazole (10 notifications),
in peas increased respectively (Clarkson et al. 2014;
propiconazole, thiamethoxam, carbendazim, and
More et al. 2020).
bromide beyond the allowed level was the most
2. Fungicide resistance prominent reason for the rejection of Basmati rice
Fungicidal resistance refers to an acquired, consignments. Other major causes of rejection
heritable reduction in the sensitivity of a fungus to a were mycotoxins such as Ochratoxin A and Aflatoxin
specific anti-fungal agent or fungicide (FRAC 2022). B1 (RASFF 2022). To reduce the pesticide residue
A few individuals in the fungi population are naturally problem in basmati rice exports, alternative pesticides
resistant to certain types of chemicals. When a should be used if a pesticide is banned/prohibited by
chemical is used, it controls almost all the fungi in the importing countries. Basmati Export Development
the population. Survivors are resistant to the action Foundation (BEDF) conducts awareness drives, where
of the chemical and lead to the next generation. the scientists explain the pesticide residue problem in
Applying the same fungicide with the same mode of basmati rice export to farmers and exporters due to
action repeatedly enables the resistant population to the injudicious use of pesticides. Farmers are advised
multiply. Hence leads to the development of fungicide to stop spraying tricyclazole at least 40 days before
resistance.
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harvesting to avoid its residue (PPQS 2021). To reduce its negative effects should be studied in future to get a
mycotoxin problems in basmati rice, the moisture clear impact of the loss of diversity on plant diseases.
content of seeds should be lowered to less than 14 per 5. Development and use of new plant protection
cent within 24 hours of harvesting. Preservatives like chemicals
benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, propionic acid, sorbic
Forecasting the market changes is challenging,
acid and sodium diacetate should be used to prevent
thus being a factor in the complexity of a new
fungal contamination during storage. Appropriate
product invention and development. In chemical
storage conditions (Ultra Hermetic storage) to avoid
crop protection, the investment of companies into
favourable conditions for aspergillus growth (Naik and
research and development represents only 6-7 % of
Sudini 2011).
sales (Leadbeater 2015). The cost of developing new
4. Loss of biodiversity products is high, and the regulatory hurdles continue
Plant biodiversity, which is critical for sustaining to be stringent (Jeger et al. 2021). With increasing
long-term production, is under threat. Our farmed awareness and concerns for humans and wildlife,
crops, which are genetically homogenous, are regulatory measures were initiated and the guidelines
extremely sensitive to external shocks such as biotic are revised from time to time, which makes the
and abiotic stresses (ICAR 2015). The disease is most introduction of new fungicides and other pesticides
prevalent in cultivated plants, intermediate in wild quite challenging (Thind 2021). Controlling a wide range
plants managed by humans, and least prevalent in of diseases in a wide range of crops and countries with
completely wild plants. On the other hand, biodiversity a single blockbuster fungicide makes the research
is highest in wild plant environments and lowest in and development investment most cost-effective
cultivated plant ecosystems. Spillover occurs when a (Leadbeater 2015). So, from a business perspective,
virus spreads from its normal host (domestic or wild) only broad-spectrum chemicals like Demethylation
to a new host (wild or domestic). Spillback happens Inhibitors (like triazoles), strobilurins and SDHI
when a virus spreads from the new host to the native (succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor) fungicides are
host. The term “natural host” refers to the source very attractive. However, due to biochemical specificity
of the virus in this environment, however, it may not in the mode of action, these fungicides can experience
always refer to the host where the virus first emerged faster development of resistance in pathogens (Thind
(Roossinck and Garcia-Arenal 2015). 2011).
Opportunities in plant disease management
Not only the diversity of plants but also the
biodiversity of plant pathogens is also important. 1. Plant disease forecasting models
According to Ingram (1999), studies on pathogen Forecasting of plant diseases means predicting
diversity and ecology receive little attention until they the occurrence of plant disease in a specified area
represent a threat to agriculture. There is a need to ahead of time so that suitable control measures can
catalogue the diversity of plant pathogens in natural be undertaken in advance to avoid losses. EPIDEM
environments, with a focus on species-rich ecosystems (potato early blight), EPIMAY (maize southern leaf
like rainforests, grasslands, and seas, and a red data blight), EPIVEN (Apple scab), BLITE CAST (potato late
book for plant pathogens also needs to be created. blight), MELCAST (watermelon gummy stem blight)
A policy for the conservation of plant pathogens and MARYBLIGHT (apple fire blight) are some of the
is required since pathogen diversity is particularly computer simulation models which are used for
important for plant breeders when it comes to forecasting plant disease epidemics.
identifying novel disease resistance elements in both
JHULSACAST, a system for forecasting the potato
natural populations of host plants and plant breeding
late blight in western Uttar Pradesh, India, was
experiments (Ingram 2002). Biodiversity loss frequently
developed using disease and weather data collected
increases disease transmission and preserving intact
over a decade (Singh et al. 2000). Potato late blight
ecosystems and their endemic biodiversity reduces
was successfully forecasted using JHULSACAST model
the prevalence of infectious diseases (Keesing et al.
in Punjab, Tarai region of Uttarakhand and plains of
2010).
West Bengal (Arora et al. 2012; Pundhir et al. 2014;
Evidence to support the dilution effect of plant Chakraborty et al. 2015)
pathogen diversity on the disease incidence or any of 111|1-3|
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Tang et al. (2017) investigated the impacts of tomato plants. Their findings show that the suggested
climate change on wheat powdery mildew outbreaks system can efficiently distinguish nine distinct kinds of
from 1970 to 2012 in China. They built a multi- diseases and pests, as well as cope with complicated
regression model by combining the per cent acreage scenarios from the surrounding region of a plant. The
of powdery mildew and the pathogen’s temperature convergence of rising worldwide smartphone adoption,
requirements to estimate changes in epidemics in advances in computer technology, and advances in
the 2050s and 2080s under various representative deep learning have opened the path for smartphone-
concentration pathways. According to the findings, aided plant disease detection (Mohanty et al. 2016).
wheat powdery mildew acreage will increase by 2050 Plantix, Agrio-Precision Agriculture and Crop Doctor are
and 2080, creating a larger threat to China’s winter some of the deep learning-based mobile applications
wheat in the future. For the prediction of sterility available for disease detection.
mosaic disease occurrence in pigeon pea, support 4. Hybrid fungicides
vector regression, artificial neural networks, and their
Fungicide, which unites the disease-fighting power
combination with autoregressive integrated moving
of botanical and conventional chemistries. Protective
average models were used by Paul et al. (2020). At S
foliar applications of difenoconazole-TTO (Tea Tree Oil)
K Nagar (Gujarat), Gulbarga (Karnataka), and Vamban
in field trials were highly effective in controlling scabs
(Tamil Nadu), hybrid models outperformed individual
of apples and generally provided significantly higher
models, whereas individual models outperformed
disease control than difenoconazole alone. Similarly, on
hybrids with autoregressive integrated moving average
apples and almonds, difenoconazole–TTO treatments
models at Rahuri (Maharashtra).
were similarly or more effective than applications
2. Protected cultivation
with other synthetic fungicides like DMI, QoI and
Protected cultivation is very promising in combating SDHI groups, or their mixtures (Reuveni et al. 2022).
the problems due to climate change. Low tunnel Tea tree oil provides a unique set of terpenes that
technology was adopted by farmers of the Jaipur disrupt cell membranes while inhibiting sporulation,
district of Rajasthan as protected cultivation. Under spore germination, respiration, ion transport and
this technology, the cucurbitaceous vegetables are mycelial growth. TTO also battles bacterial pathogens,
grown inside the low tunnels during winter, creating by inhibiting the infection process. Difenoconazole
congenial weather conditions and preventing the crops reinforces TTO by inhibiting fungal ergosterol
from frost injury and aphid infestation. The incidence biosynthesis for double kick-back curative control. So,
of Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) was very low in these fungicides can be effectively used as a strategic
low tunnels in comparison to open field cultivation approach in fungicide resistance management in
and the yield of cucurbitaceous vegetables grown orchards.
in low tunnels was significantly superior to the open 5. RNA interference (RNAi) Mediated Gene
field cultivation (Gangwar et al. 2015). Low tunnel Silencing
systems allow for increased environmental control and
The regulation of the expression of genes in a cell
improved marketable fruit yield and quality compared
to prohibit the expression of a specific gene is known
with the open-field plots of strawberries (Anderson et
as gene silencing. The RNAi method includes the
al. 2019).
homology-dependent silencing of genes responsible
3. Deep learning-based rapid disease diagnosis for infection in the host plant before translation. It
Accurate and quicker identification of plant is also known as post-transcriptional gene silencing
diseases and pests might aid in the development (PTGS). Silencing of OsERF922 using RNAi enhanced
of an early treatment approach while significantly the resistance of rice against Magnaporthe oryzae.
decreasing economic losses. However, due to a lack The elevated disease resistance of these RNAi plants
of sufficient technical infrastructure, timely detection was associated with increased expression of PR
of plant diseases remains challenging. Deep learning (Pathogenesis-Related), PAL (Phenylalanine Ammonia
is a machine learning approach that trains computers Lyase) and the other genes encoding phytoalexin
to do what people do instinctively: learn by doing. biosynthetic enzymes (Liu et al. 2012). Pessina et
Fuentes et al. (2017) created a deep learning-based al. (2016) reduced susceptibility to powdery mildew
method for detecting diseases and insect pests in
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in grapevine through the knockdown of MLO (Mildew years, various disease forecasting models such as
Locus O) genes using RNAi-mediated gene silencing. JHULSACAST have made it possible to predict potato
Tomato leaf curl disease resistance is conferred by late blight successfully. More hybrid fungicides should
the expression of artificial microRNAs (amiRNAs) be developed to minimize fungicidal resistance
targeting the ATP binding domain of AC1 in transgenic problems. RNA interference-mediated gene silencing
tomatoes without affecting tomato yield (Sharma and reduced powdery mildew severity in grapevine.
Prasad 2020). Interference with viral βC1 ORF confers Genome editing using CRISPR appears to be a more
resistance to Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus (YVMV) in promising technology for reducing disease incidence.
transgenic okra lines (Ganesh et al. 2022). Research on the impact of biodiversity loss on plant
6. Genome Editing diseases should be increased. Basmati Export
Development Foundation educates basmati farmers
Genome editing is a type of genetic engineering to stop pesticide indiscriminate use. The same kind
in which DNA is inserted, deleted or replaced in of effort is also required in other crops to motivate
the genome of a living organism using engineered farmers in this regard.
nucleases. Mega nucleases, Zinc finger nucleases
Funding and Acknowledgment
(ZFNs), Transcription activator-like effector nucleases
(TALENs), Clustered regularly interspaced short No funding was received to assist with the
palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/ CRISPR associated preparation of this manuscript
protein system (CRISPR/Cas) are the different genome Ethics statement
editing tools.
No specific permits were required for the described
Advantages of CRISPR-based genome editing over field studies because no human or animal subjects
Mega nucleases, ZFN and TALEN were involved in this review
• RNA guided (Recognition of the DNA site is Originality and plagiarism
controlled by RNA–DNA interactions). Authors ensure that we have written and submitted
• Possibility of multiplexing (modifying several only entirely original review article
genomic sites simultaneously). Data availability
• Can introduce multiple gene mutations Not applicable
concurrently with a single injection. Consent for publication
• CRISPR transfections also have higher All the authors agreed to publish the content
efficiency.
Conflict of interest
Wang et al. (2016) reported the improvement of
There were no conflicts of interest in the publication
rice blast resistance by engineering a CRISPR/Cas9
of this content
SSN (C-ERF922) targeting the OsERF922 gene in rice
and results revealed that the number of blast lesions Author contributions
formed following the pathogen infection significantly Idea conceptualization-SN, RKG, Writing original
decreased in engineered lines compared to wild-type draft - SN, Writing- reviewing &editing -SN, RKG, CKB
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