Science & Technology Environment: TSPSC Group 1
Science & Technology Environment: TSPSC Group 1
Science & Technology Environment: TSPSC Group 1
Simplify Success
P u b l i c a t i o n s
Science & Technology
Environment
For TSPSC Group 1 Prelims & Mains
Also useful for:
• APPSC Group 1
• UPSC CSE
Ravi Garlapati
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Note: The highlighted parts above i.e., point 3 and point 4 are covered in this book.
Mains Syllabus
Paper – V (I & II Sections) & Paper – IV (Section III)
PAPER- V (Section – I): The role and impact of Science and Technology
1. Classical and Emerging areas of Science & Technology : Value addition by Science
&Technology, Current Science & Technology developments in India and importance of
Science & Technology as an engine for National Development ; Industrial development &
Urbanization.
2. National Policy of Science & Technology: changes in Policy from time to time: Technology
missions ICT: Basics in Computers, Robotics, Nano technology and Communication.
3. Space program in India and its applications with special reference to industrial,agricultural
and other rural development activities, INSAT, IRS systems, EDUSAT and Chandrayaan-1 and
future programme.
4. Application of Space Technology in India with references to Education, Agriculture and
Industry. Climatic change, Floods, Cyclone, Tsunami, Natural and Manmade Disaster
Management.
5. Energy Resources: Energy demands, Indian energy scenario- hydel, thermal and nuclear.
Importance of renewable resources - Solar, Wind, small/Mini/Micro hydel, Biomass, waste
based, geothermal, tidal & fuel cells. Energy security - Role of Science & Technology, Bio-fuel
cultivation and extraction.
The guiding principle in writing this book had been to make it as easy as possible for you to
complete the syllabus in a reasonable period of time and ensure that whatever studied is
retainable so that you can score the maximum in the exam.
The language used is simple, concise, and logical to facilitate better retention. In the interest of
gaining maximum marks possible – precise technical words are used but only when/where it is
absolutely needed.
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• latest Current Affairs based MCQs for Prelims
• latest Current Affairs based questions and answers for Mains
Chemistry………………………………………………399
1. Chemistry, Matter & its Composition
…………………………………………………………399
2. Atomic Structure……………………………404
3. Chemical Bonding…………………………..409
4. Periodic Table……………… ……………….412
5. Chemical Reactions & Equations……..416
6. Elements & Compounds……………….…420
7. Chemistry in Everyday life…………...…429
Chemistry MCQs …………………………….…432
24. Consider the following statements: 28. India recorded the highest number of
A. One of the causes of Global warming is Tiger deaths in 2021. Consider the
greenhouse effect. following in relation to this :
B. The atmosphere absorbs part of the A. A total of 127 Tigers died.
long wave infra-red radiation emitted by B. Gujarat ranks first in this fatality.
the earth. C. Madhya Pradesh ranks first in this
C. The gases that absorbs long wave fatality.
terrestrial radiation are called as D. Maharashtra and Karnataka occupy
greenhouse gases. second and third position respectively.
D. Carbon dioxide and Nitrous oxide are Choose the correct answer :
greenhouse producing gases. (1) A, B & D only (2) A, C & D only
Choose the correct statements: (3) A & B only (4) B & D only
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 4
29. Match the following Cyclones of 2021
with their intensity : 30. Match the following Corona Virus variants
with their originating country:
Cyclone Intensity Variant Country of Origin
A. GULAB 1. Very Severe Cyclonic A. Alpha 1. Brazil
Storm B. Beta 2. United States
B. YAAS 2. Severe Cyclonic Storm C. Delta 3. United Kingdom
C. TAUKTAE 3. Cyclonic Storm D. Gamma 4. India
D. SHAHEEN 4. Lowest Cyclonic 5. South Africa
Storm Choose the correct answer :
5. Extremely Severe (1) A-3; B-5; C-4, D-1
Cyclonic Storm (2) A-2; B-3; C-4, D-5
Choose the correct answer : (3) A-5; B-4; C-1, D-2
(1) A-5; B-2; C-4; D-3 (4)A-5; B-4; C-2, D-3
(2) A-2; B-5; C-4; D-1
(3) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
(4) A-3; B-1; C-5; D-2
Classification of Questions
Area No. Of Static No. Of dynamic Total No. Of
questions questions* Questions
General Science & Science and 15 08 23
Technology
Environment 02 02 04
Disaster Management 0 03 03
Total 17 13 30
* Dynamic questions means questions from current affairs
1. What is the difference between Science and Technology? How are they interdependent?
Science and technology are closely related but they are not the same thing. Science is the study of
the natural world through observation and experimentation. It is the pursuit of knowledge about
the world around us and how it works. Technology, on the other hand, is the application of
scientific knowledge to practical purposes. It involves the design, development, and use of tools,
machines, materials, and processes to solve problems and meet human needs.
Science and technology are interdependent because scientific knowledge is often the
foundation for the development of new technologies. Advances in science, such as the discovery
of the principles of electricity, have led to the creation of technologies such as the electric motor,
which has revolutionized industry and transportation. Similarly, advances in computer science
have led to the development of new technologies such as the internet and smartphones, which
have transformed the way we communicate and access information.
In turn, technology can drive scientific discovery by providing new tools and methods for
scientific research. For example, the development of powerful microscopes and telescopes has
allowed scientists to observe and study the natural world in new ways, leading to new
discoveries and insights.
Overall, science and technology are intertwined and dependent on each other. Scientific
knowledge provides the foundation for the development of new technologies, while technology
can drive scientific discovery by providing new tools and methods for research.
5. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 17th century with examples.
The 17thcentury, also known as the Age of Enlightenment, was a time of significant scientific
and technological advances. This period saw the development of new scientific methods and the
rise of important figures in the scientific community.
Some of the major advances of this time include the development of the scientific
method, the invention of the telescope and microscope, and the advancement of knowledge in
the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy.
One of the most significant scientific advances of the 17thcentury was the development of
the scientific method. This method, which is still used today, involves making observations,
forming hypotheses, and testing those hypotheses through experimentation. One of the most
famous proponents of the scientific method was Sir Francis Bacon. His ideas laid the foundation
for the modern scientific method, and his work had a significant impact on the scientific
community.
Another major technological advance of the 17thcentury was the invention of the
telescope. This invention allowed scientists to observe the heavens in greater detail than ever
before. Galileo Galilei, an Italian astronomer, who is considered to be the father of modern
observational astronomy, was one of the first to use the telescope to observe the heavens and
made many important discoveries, including the existence of mountains on the moon, the phases
of Venus, and the four largest moons of Jupiter.
The microscope also revolutionized the field of biology during the 17th century. This
powerful tool, which was invented by Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, allowed
6. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 18th century with examples.
The 18th century was a period of great scientific and technological advancement, known as the
Age of Enlightenment. Some of the major scientific and technological advances during this period
include:
1. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution began in the late 18thcentury, and it
transformed the way goods were manufactured. New machines, such as the spinning
jenny and power loom, revolutionized textile production, and steam power was
harnessed to power factories and transportation. The development of the steam engine
by James Watt was a major breakthrough in this period.
2. Chemistry: The 18th century saw many advances in chemistry, including the discovery of
oxygen by Joseph Priestley, the invention of the first periodic table by Dmitri
Mendeleev, and the identification of many new chemical elements, including hydrogen,
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.
3. Astronomy: The 18th century was a time of great progress in astronomy. Astronomers
developed new telescopes and techniques for observing the stars and planets, leading to
the discovery of many new celestial objects. One notable example is the discovery of the
planet Uranus by William Herschel in 1781.
4. Medicine: The 18th century saw significant advances in medicine, including the
development of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner, which helped to eradicate the
disease, and the discovery of nitrous oxide (laughing gas) by Joseph Priestley, which led
to the development of anesthesia.
5. Physics: The 18thcentury was a time of great progress in physics. Isaac Newton's laws of
motion and gravity had a profound impact on the field, and new discoveries were made
7. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 19th century with examples.
The 19th century was a period of rapid scientific and technological advancement, characterized
by the Industrial Revolution and a wave of new discoveries and inventions. Some of the major
scientific and technological advances of the 19thcentury include:
1. Electricity: The discovery and harnessing of electricity was one of the most significant
technological advancements of the 19thcentury. Innovations such as the telegraph and the
electric motor transformed communication and transportation, while Thomas Edison's
invention of the light bulb revolutionized everyday life.
2. Steam power: The development of the steam engine in the late 18thcentury paved the
way for the Industrial Revolution, and steam power continued to play a major role in
transportation and manufacturing throughout the 19thcentury. The steam locomotive,
invented by George Stephenson, enabled faster and more efficient transportation, while
steam-powered factories increased productivity and efficiency.
3. Chemistry: The 19th century saw many advances in chemistry, including the discovery of
many new chemical elements, such as helium, neon, and argon. The development of
synthetic dyes, such as mauveine, had a profound impact on the textile industry.
4. Medicine: The 19th century saw significant advances in medicine, including the
development of anesthesia, antiseptics, and germ theory. The discovery of X-rays by
Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 revolutionized medical imaging.
5. Transportation: The 19th century saw many innovations in transportation, including the
development of steamships, the expansion of railroads, and the invention of the bicycle.
6. Mathematics: The 19th century saw many advancements in mathematics, including the
development of non-Euclidean geometry, which challenged the long-held beliefs of
Euclidean geometry.
7. Geology: The 19th century was a time of great progress in geology, with the discovery of
many new geological phenomena and the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
8. Biology: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, published in 1859, had a profound impact
on the scientific understanding of the natural world as well as biology.
Overall, the 19thcentury was a time of great progress in science and technology, laying the
foundation for many of the technological advancements that would shape the 20thand 21st
centuries.
8. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 20th century with examples.
The 20thcentury saw a tremendous acceleration in scientific and technological advancement,
with numerous breakthroughs that transformed virtually every aspect of human life. Here are
some of the major scientific and technological advances of the 20th century:
11. What is artificial intelligence? Discuss the importance of artificial intelligence to India.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that involves creating intelligent
machines that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as speech
recognition, problem-solving, and decision-making.
The importance of AI to India cannot be overstated. Here are some of the reasons why AI is
important to India:
1. Economic Growth: AI is expected to drive economic growth and create new job
opportunities in India. According to a report by NASSCOM, the Indian AI market is
expected to reach $5.1 billion by 2025, creating over 2.5 lakh new jobs.
2. Healthcare: AI has the potential to transform healthcare in India by improving diagnosis,
treatment, and patient outcomes. AI-powered healthcare systems can analyze vast
amounts of patient data and identify patterns and trends that can help doctors make
more informed decisions.
3. Agriculture: AI can help improve crop yields and reduce waste in the agriculture sector.
AI-powered sensors and drones can be used to monitor soil moisture levels, crop health,
and weather patterns, allowing farmers to make more informed decisions about
irrigation, fertilization, and crop management.
4. Education: AI can be used to personalize learning and improve student outcomes in
India. AI-powered educational tools can adapt to the learning styles and needs of
individual students, providing personalized feedback and support.
5. Smart Cities: AI can be used to create more efficient and sustainable cities in India. AI-
powered systems can be used to manage traffic flow, optimize energy consumption, and
improve public safety.
In conclusion, AI has the potential to transform India in numerous ways, from driving
economic growth to improving healthcare, agriculture, education, and urban planning. As such,
investing in AI research and development is crucial for India's future success.
12. What is meant by GPT in Chat GPT? How does the GPT Technology work?
In Chat GPT, GPT stands for "Generative Pre-trained Transformer." It refers to a type of machine
learning model that is trained on large amounts of text data to generate human-like language
responses to user inputs.
GPT models are based on the Transformer architecture, which uses self-attention
mechanisms to allow the model to focus on different parts of the input sequence. This allows the
14. Discuss how science and technology have contributed to India's national development
in different fields.
Science and technology have played a crucial role in India's national development over the years.
The government has made significant investments in research and development, which has led
to advancements in various fields such as agriculture, healthcare, energy, IT, and space.
1. Agriculture: The use of technology has led to an increase in crop productivity and
efficiency. The Green Revolution, which was implemented in the 1960s and 1970s,
made use of high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation systems. This
increased crop productivity and helped India become self-sufficient in food
production.
2. Healthcare: The use of technology has led to the development of new drugs, medical
equipment, and vaccines. India has a robust pharmaceutical industry, which produces a
wide range of drugs at affordable prices.
3. Energy: Besides achieving universal household electricity connection, India has made
significant progress in the field of renewable energy. India had set an ambitious target of
generating 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022 which it further increased to 450 GW
by 2030.
4. ICT Developments: India has a strong IT industry that has made significant
contributions to the country's economy by enabling world class IT exports. The
government's 'Digital India' initiative aims to provide digital infrastructure and services
to citizens.
5. Space Exploration: The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has developed a
range of satellites and launch vehicles, and has also successfully sent a spacecraft to
Mars.
In conclusion, science and technology have played a vital role in India's national
development. The country has made significant progress in various fields, such as
agriculture, healthcare, energy, space, and IT, and has set ambitious targets for the future.
The government's continued investment in research and development will undoubtedly lead
to further advancements and contribute to the country's overall development.
17. What are the impacts of unplanned urbanization on the twin cities of Telangana?
Unplanned urbanization can have a range of negative impacts on the twin cities of Telangana,
including Hyderabad and Secunderabad. Some of the impacts of unplanned urbanization in these
cities include:
1. Traffic congestion: Unplanned urbanization can result in haphazard development and
poor transportation infrastructure, leading to traffic congestion and longer commute
times. This can lead to increased air pollution, reduced productivity, and reduced quality
of life for residents.
2. Inadequate infrastructure: Unplanned urbanization can result in inadequate
infrastructure, including water and sewage systems, healthcare facilities, and schools.
This can result in poor living conditions, health hazards, and limited access to essential
services.
3. Environmental degradation: Unplanned urbanization can lead to environmental
degradation, including deforestation, loss of green spaces, and water pollution. This can
have a negative impact on the health and well-being of residents and can contribute to
climate change.
4. Informal settlements: Unplanned urbanization can result in the growth of informal
settlements, which lack basic amenities and infrastructure. These settlements can be
18. Explain how planned technological interventions are the way forward for sustainable
urbanization in Telangana?
Planned technological interventions are essential for achieving sustainable urbanization in
Telangana. Here are some reasons why:
1. Efficiency: Technological interventions can improve the efficiency of urban systems,
such as energy, water, and transportation. For example, smart building management
systems can optimize energy consumption, while intelligent traffic management systems
can reduce traffic congestion and improve air quality.
2. Sustainability: Technological interventions can also help to promote sustainability by
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, and creating green
infrastructure. For example, solar panels and wind turbines can be integrated into
building design to provide renewable energy, while green roofs and walls can be used to
reduce the urban heat island effect and improve air quality.
3. Resilience: Technological interventions can also enhance the resilience of urban areas to
climate change, natural disasters, and other shocks. For example, flood monitoring
systems can alert residents to potential flooding, while emergency response systems can
coordinate rescue efforts and minimize the impact of disasters.
4. Inclusion: Technological interventions can also help to promote social inclusion and
reduce inequality by increasing access to essential services and improving the quality of
life for all residents. For example, smart transportation systems can improve access to
public transportation, while digital connectivity can provide access to information and
services for residents in underserved areas.
To achieve sustainable urbanization in Telangana, it is essential to adopt a holistic approach
that combines urban planning, design, and management strategies with planned technological
interventions. By leveraging technology to improve efficiency, promote sustainability, enhance
resilience, and promote inclusion, we can create cities that are livable, healthy, and prosperous
for all their residents.
19. What role does Science and Technology play in industrial development? Elaborate
with examples.
Science and technology play a crucial role in industrial development. They are the key drivers of
innovation and productivity, and they have enabled industrial processes to become more
efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable.
2. Discuss the challenges for the new Science, Technology and Innovation policy? Suggest
the way forward.
Challenges for new STIP
▪ Financing: STIP faces the challenges of how to finance the R&Ds and startups and what
role do the industries and government play in it.
▪ Enhancing quality: STIP has to play a key role in enhancing the profoundness, quality
and the relevance of our basic researches.
▪ Gender parity: Geographic representation of women is not always very balanced while
active participation includes all of the people of the country.
▪ Equal Involvement: Not all great ideas come from PhD holders, a farmer knows what
challenges are faced by him and what are his needs so he could provide better solutions
for himself. The challenge is to have equal involvement from all the sectors.
▪ Implementation: The governance and proper implementation of this policy in order to
obtain maximum benefits still exists as a challenge.
▪ Collaboration: Innovation does not take place with a homogenous system of working, it
will occur when different minded people and systems are brought together.
Way Forward
▪ The advantage of this policy should be taken and bring together the knowledge
(academia) and economy (industry) to work.
▪ Areas in the country those are important from the point of view of r&d and s&t to be
selected and go the whole hog in making an impact on them.
▪ Students need to be exposed to the technology platforms at the early but correct age. The
technology platforms are information technology, biotechnology, nanotechnology,
cognitive technology and quantum technology.
▪ Innovation needs to be prioritized, all other fields will eventually go hand in hand.
▪ Academia has a bigger role to play in bringing the industries and government together.
9. Briefly write about the objectives and significance of e-National Agriculture Market.
e-National Agriculture Market (eNAM) is an online trading platform for agricultural commodities
in India. It was launched in 2016 as part of the government's Digital India initiative to provide
farmers with a transparent and efficient system for selling their produce.
The primary objectives of eNAM are:
1. To create a single national market for agricultural commodities: eNAM aims to provide
farmers with access to a nationwide market for their produce, thereby increasing their
bargaining power and reducing transaction costs.
2. To promote transparency and efficiency in agricultural trade: eNAM aims to eliminate
intermediaries in the agricultural supply chain and provide farmers with direct access to
buyers. This helps to reduce transaction costs and ensure fair prices for farmers.
3. To promote the use of technology in agricultural trade: eNAM uses technology to
provide real-time information on market prices, quantity, and quality of agricultural
10. Discuss the challenges India faces in expansion of ICT applications. Also mention the
solutions to these challenges.
India has made significant progress in expanding the use of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) applications in recent years. However, there are several challenges that India
faces in the expansion of ICT applications.
Some of these challenges include:
1. Digital Divide: India has a significant digital divide between urban and rural areas, with
rural areas having limited access to digital infrastructure and services. This limits the
adoption of ICT applications in rural areas.
Solution: The government needs to focus on providing digital infrastructure and services
to rural areas through initiatives like BharatNet and Common Service Centers (CSCs).
2. Limited Digital Literacy: A significant proportion of the Indian population has limited
digital literacy, which limits the adoption of ICT applications.
Solution: The government needs to focus on increasing digital literacy through initiatives
like the National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) and Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (DISHA).
3. Cybersecurity Risks: The adoption of ICT applications has also led to an increase in
cybersecurity risks, including cyber-attacks, data breaches, and identity theft.
Solution: The government needs to focus on developing robust cybersecurity measures
and promoting cybersecurity awareness among citizens and businesses.
4. Lack of Local Language Support: Many ICT applications are only available in English,
which limits their adoption in non-English speaking regions of the country.
Solution: The government needs to focus on promoting the development of ICT
applications in local languages to increase their adoption in non-English speaking
regions.
5. Infrastructure Challenges: India faces several infrastructure challenges, including
power outages and poor network connectivity, which limit the adoption of ICT
applications.
Solution: The government needs to focus on improving infrastructure, including power
and network connectivity, to support the expansion of ICT applications.
In conclusion, the expansion of ICT applications in India faces several challenges, including the
digital divide, limited digital literacy, cybersecurity risks, lack of local language support, and
11. What is cyber threat? Write about different types of cyber threats?
A cyber threat is any malicious activity that seeks to damage, disrupt, steal, or gain unauthorized
access to computer systems, networks, and electronic devices. Cyber threats can come from a
variety of sources, including criminals, hackers, nation-states, and insiders. There are several
types of cyber threats, including:
1. Malware: Malware refers to any software that is designed to harm computer systems,
networks, and electronic devices. Malware can take many forms, including viruses,
worms, Trojans, ransomware, and spyware.
2. Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack that uses fraudulent emails, text
messages, or websites to trick users into revealing sensitive information, such as login
credentials, financial information, or personal data.
3. Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks: DoS and
DDoS attacks involve overwhelming computer systems and networks with a flood of
traffic or requests, causing them to crash or become unavailable.
4. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks: MitM attacks involve intercepting and altering
communications between two parties, allowing attackers to steal sensitive information
or manipulate data.
5. Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs): APTs are long-term targeted attacks that are
typically carried out by nation-states or advanced cybercriminal groups. APTs involve a
series of sophisticated and coordinated attacks aimed at stealing sensitive information or
disrupting critical systems.
6. Insider Threats: Insider threats involve individuals within an organization who abuse
their access to systems, data, or networks for malicious purposes, such as stealing
confidential information or causing damage to systems.
7. Password attacks: Password attacks involve using software tools to guess or crack user
passwords, allowing attackers to gain unauthorized access to systems or data.
In conclusion, cyber threats are a significant and growing concern for individuals, businesses,
and governments worldwide. It is essential to understand the different types of cyber threats
and take appropriate measures to protect against them, including implementing robust
cybersecurity measures, educating employees and users, and maintaining regular backups of
critical data.
12. What is Digital Divide? Discuss the causes and impacts of digital divide. Suggest some
measures to bridge digital divide.
Digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to information and
communication technologies (ICTs) and those who do not. This gap is typically based on
differences in socioeconomic status, geographic location, age, gender, and other factors. The term
digital divide can also refer to disparities in digital literacy and the ability to use digital
technologies effectively.
Causes of digital divide:
1. Socioeconomic factors: Income and education are the primary determinants of access
to technology. People with lower incomes and less education are less likely to have
access to computers and the internet.
13. Write about the new ICT policy of the Telangana government, 2021.
The government of Telangana, India, recently announced its new Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) policy for the period of 2021-2026. The policy is designed to
establish Telangana as a leading hub for emerging technologies and digital innovation.
Some of the key objectives of the policy are:
1. To create a conducive environment for the growth of the ICT sector in Telangana.
2. To promote the use of emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain,
Cybersecurity, and Data Analytics.
3. To strengthen the startup ecosystem and create new job opportunities in the ICT sector.
4. To promote digital literacy and skills development among the youth and women in the
state.
To achieve these objectives, the Telangana government has outlined a series of initiatives
and strategies. Some of the key initiatives include:
2.5 Robotics
16. Define robot and robotics? What are the laws of robotics?
A robot is a machine or device that can perform tasks autonomously or with minimal human
input. Robotics is the field of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and
use of robots. Robots can be used in various applications, including manufacturing, healthcare,
space exploration, and entertainment.
The Laws of Robotics are a set of principles devised by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov in
his 1942 story "Runaround" and later expanded in his other works. The laws are as follows:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come
to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the first law.
3. A robot must protect its existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
first or second law.
These laws were meant to be a moral framework for robots to prevent them from harming
humans and to ensure they behave in an ethical manner. However, in reality, the development
and use of robots are governed by various laws and regulations, including safety standards, data
privacy laws, intellectual property laws, and liability laws. These laws aim to ensure that robots
are safe, reliable, and operate within ethical and legal boundaries.
21. What are some of the robots designed and built in India?
India has made significant progress in the development and deployment of robots across various
industries. Here are some examples of robots designed and built in India:
1. ASIMO: Developed by the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, ASIMO is a humanoid
robot designed to perform complex tasks in real-world environments. It has a range of
sensors and actuators that enable it to interact with the environment and carry out tasks
such as object recognition and manipulation.
2. Manav: Developed by the Manipal Institute of Technology, Manav is a humanoid robot
that can walk, talk, and interact with humans. It has a range of sensors and actuators that
enable it to move around and perform tasks such as picking up objects and moving them
from one place to another.
3. Daksha: Developed by the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO),
Daksha is a remotely operated robot used for bomb disposal and surveillance. It has a
range of sensors and cameras that enable it to detect and neutralize bombs and gather
intelligence.
2.6 Nanotechnology
22. What is nanotechnology? Write about the evolution of nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is the field of science and technology that deals with the manipulation of matter
at the atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. It involves the study, design, creation, and
application of materials, devices, and systems with dimensions ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers (nm).
The concept of nanotechnology was first proposed by physicist Richard Feynman in his famous
lecture "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" in 1959. However, it was not until the 1980s that
the term "nanotechnology" was coined by scientist K. Eric Drexler in his book "Engines of
Creation."
The evolution of nanotechnology can be traced back to the early work of scientists such as
Robert Boyle, who in the 17th century, observed that the properties of materials change when
their size is reduced. In the 20th century, the development of microscopy techniques such as
electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopy allowed scientists to observe and
manipulate matter at the nanoscale.
In the 1980s, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) enabled the imaging of
individual atoms and the manipulation of matter at the atomic scale. This breakthrough led to
the development of new materials such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene, which
have unique properties due to their small size and high surface area.
In the 1990s, the field of nanotechnology began to expand rapidly, with researchers exploring
the potential applications of nanomaterials in various fields, including electronics, medicine, and
energy. Today, nanotechnology is a rapidly growing field with a wide range of applications, from
the development of new materials with enhanced properties to the creation of nanoscale devices
for medical diagnosis and treatment.
23. Elaborate on the various applications of the nanotechnology that influence the human
life.
Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications that are already influencing human life in
numerous ways. Here are some of the most significant applications of nanotechnology:
1. Medicine: Nanotechnology is having a significant impact on medicine, with numerous
applications in drug delivery, imaging, and diagnostics. For example, nanoscale drug
delivery systems can target specific cells or tissues, increasing the effectiveness of
treatments and reducing side effects. Nanoparticle-based imaging agents can improve
the sensitivity and specificity of medical imaging techniques, allowing for earlier and
25. What are the initiatives of the government of India in promoting nanotechnology?
The government of India has recognized the potential of nanotechnology and has taken several
initiatives to promote research, development, and commercialization in this field. Here are some
of the key initiatives:
1. National Nanotechnology Mission (NNM): The NNM was launched in 2007 with the
aim of promoting research and development in nanotechnology and its applications. The
mission has established several centers of excellence across the country and provides
funding for research projects, infrastructure development, and capacity building.
2. Nano Science and Technology Consortium (NSTC): The NSTC was established in 2006
with the aim of promoting collaboration between academia, industry, and government in
nanotechnology research and development. The consortium provides a platform for
researchers and entrepreneurs to share knowledge and resources, and facilitates the
commercialization of nanotechnology-based products and services.
3. Nanomission Program: The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has launched
the Nanomission Program to promote the development of nanotechnology-based
products and services in India. The program provides funding for research and
development projects, technology incubation centers, and pilot-scale manufacturing
facilities.
4. Nano Mission Council: The Nano Mission Council was set up to oversee the
implementation of the National Nanotechnology Mission and provide guidance and
support for research and development initiatives in nanotechnology. The council
includes experts from academia, industry, and government, and advises the government
on policy matters related to nanotechnology.
5. Nano Science and Technology Park (NSTP): The DST has established the NSTP to
provide a platform for collaboration between industry and academia in nanotechnology
research and development. The park provides state-of-the-art facilities for research and
development, and supports the incubation of technology startups and small and medium
enterprises (SMEs).
6. Nanotechnology-based Products Development Program: The Ministry of Micro,
Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) has launched a program to promote the
development of nanotechnology-based products by SMEs. The program provides funding
and technical support for product development, and aims to promote the
commercialization of nanotechnology-based products in the domestic and international
markets.
Overall, the government of India has taken several initiatives to promote nanotechnology
research, development, and commercialization. These initiatives aim to promote collaboration
between academia, industry, and government, and to support the development of innovative
products and services based on nanotechnology.
3. Distinguish between polar and equatorial orbits of artificial satellites. Which of the
above two orbits is suitable for a (a) Geostationary satellite (b) Satellite used for weather
forecasting?
Polar and equatorial orbits are two types of orbits in which artificial satellites can be placed
around the Earth. The main differences between these two types of orbits are:
1. Polar Orbit: A polar orbit is an orbit in which a satellite passes over the Earth's North
and South poles. A polar orbit is inclined at an angle of 90 degrees to the equator.
Satellites in polar orbits provide
complete global coverage and are
suitable for remote sensing, Earth
observation, and mapping applications.
The orbital period of a polar satellite is
typically 90 minutes.
2. Equatorial Orbit: An equatorial orbit is
an orbit in which a satellite circles the
Earth's equator. An equatorial orbit is
inclined at an angle of 0 degrees to the
equator. Satellites in equatorial orbits
provide coverage of a specific region on
the Earth's surface and are ideal for
communication, broadcasting, and
weather monitoring applications. The
orbital period of an equatorial satellite depends on its altitude and can range from a few
hours to several days.
4. With respect to satellite orbits explain what are GEO, LEO, MEO, and SSO.
GEO, LEO, MEO, and SSO are different types of satellite orbits used in space technology.
1. GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit is a type of orbit in which a satellite is positioned at an
altitude of approximately 36,000 km above the Earth's surface. A satellite in a GEO orbit
completes one orbit of the Earth in approximately 24 hours, which is the same as the
Earth's rotation period. This allows the satellite to appear stationary in the sky relative to
an observer on the ground, making it ideal for communication, broadcasting, and
weather monitoring applications.
2. LEO: Low Earth Orbit is an orbit in which a satellite is positioned at an altitude between
160 km to 2,000 km above the Earth's surface. A satellite in a LEO orbit completes one
orbit of the Earth in approximately 90 minutes, which makes it suitable for applications
such as remote sensing, Earth observation, and satellite-based navigation systems.
5. Write a brief note on the PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles of ISRO.
The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has developed two major launch vehicles, the
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV),
which have played a significant role in India's space program.
1. PSLV: The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle is a four-stage rocket designed to place small to
medium-sized satellites into polar orbits. The PSLV has been used for a variety of
missions, including Earth observation, remote sensing, and scientific research. The first
successful launch of the PSLV took place in 1993, and it has since become a reliable and
cost-effective launch vehicle. The PSLV is known for its high reliability, and it has a
success rate of over 95%.
2. GSLV: The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle is a three-stage rocket designed to
place larger payloads, including communication and weather satellites, into
geosynchronous orbits. The GSLV has been used for a range of missions, including the
launch of India's first lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1. The GSLV uses both liquid and solid
propellants and has been designed to provide greater payload capacity than the PSLV.
The first successful launch of the GSLV took place in 2001, and it has since been used for
a variety of missions.
ISRO has continued to improve both the PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles, with new versions
being developed to increase their payload capacity and capabilities. The PSLV and GSLV have
been critical to the development of India's space program, and they have enabled the country to
launch a wide range of satellites for various applications.
6. Briefly explain the Unified Launch Vehicle and Reusable Launch Vehicle projects of
ISRO. Comment on their significance to the Indian space program.
The Unified Launch Vehicle (ULV) and Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) projects are two major
initiatives of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) that have the potential to
significantly advance India's space program.
1. Unified Launch Vehicle: The ULV is a project that aims to develop a new generation
launch vehicle capable of carrying heavier payloads into space. The ULV will be a
modular rocket system that can be configured to meet various mission requirements,
including sending payloads to low Earth orbit, geosynchronous transfer orbit, and even
to the Moon and Mars. The ULV will use liquid and solid propellants and is designed to be
a cost-effective and reliable launch vehicle.
2. Reusable Launch Vehicle: The RLV is a project that aims to develop a reusable space
launch vehicle, which can be used for multiple missions. The RLV will be a winged
vehicle, similar to an aircraft, which can take off vertically like a rocket and land
horizontally on a runway like an airplane. The goal of the RLV project is to develop a
reusable launch vehicle that can significantly reduce the cost of launching satellites into
orbit.
The ULV and RLV projects are significant to the Indian space program as they have the
potential to significantly advance India's space capabilities. The ULV will provide India with a
cost-effective and reliable launch vehicle capable of carrying heavier payloads, which will enable
the country to undertake more ambitious space missions. The RLV project will allow India to
7. Discuss briefly about the engine that is expected to power ISRO's major upcoming
projects such as Unified Launch Vehicle and Reusable Launch Vehicle.
The engine that is expected to power ISRO's major upcoming projects, such as the Unified
Launch Vehicle (ULV) and Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV), is the Semi-Cryogenic Engine (SCE).
The Semi-Cryogenic Engine is a liquid-fuelled rocket engine that uses a combination of liquid
oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants. The engine is designed to provide high thrust and a
high specific impulse, which makes it more efficient than existing rocket engines. The SCE is
being developed to meet the demands of the next-generation launch vehicles like the ULV and
RLV.
The development of the Semi-Cryogenic Engine is a significant step for ISRO as it will enable the
country to undertake more ambitious space missions. The engine is expected to provide a
significant boost to India's space capabilities, as it will be more powerful and efficient than the
engines currently in use.
The SCE has undergone several ground tests, and ISRO plans to conduct a series of flight tests in
the coming years. The engine is expected to be used in ISRO's future launches, including the
Aditya-L1 mission to study the Sun.
Overall, the development of the Semi-Cryogenic Engine is a significant step for ISRO as it will
enable the country to achieve its ambitious space goals, including manned missions, deep space
exploration, and commercial satellite launches.
9. What are some of the important satellites in INSAT satellite series of ISRO?
The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a series of geostationary satellites operated by
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The INSAT system consists of a constellation of
satellites that provide a range of services for telecommunications, meteorology, remote sensing,
and broadcasting. Here are some of the important satellites in the INSAT satellite series of ISRO:
1. INSAT-3D: INSAT-3D is a meteorological satellite that provides real-time weather
information, including satellite images, weather forecasts, and cyclone warnings. The
satellite has advanced imaging and sounding capabilities, which are used for monitoring
and predicting weather patterns.
2. INSAT-3DR: INSAT-3DR is a meteorological satellite that provides similar services to
INSAT-3D. The satellite has improved imaging and data relay capabilities, enabling faster
and more accurate weather prediction.
3. INSAT-4B: INSAT-4B is a communications satellite that provides voice, data, and video
connectivity across India. The satellite has multiple transponders, which are used for a
range of applications like distance learning, telemedicine, and e-governance.
4. INSAT-4CR: INSAT-4CR is a communications satellite that provides similar services to
INSAT-4B. The satellite has improved communication capabilities, including higher data
rates and better coverage.
5. INSAT-3E: INSAT-3E is a meteorological satellite that provides weather information for
disaster management and agriculture. The satellite has advanced imaging and sounding
capabilities, which are used for monitoring and predicting weather patterns.
6. GSAT-18: GSAT-18 is a communications satellite that provides voice, data, and video
connectivity across India. The satellite has advanced communication capabilities,
including high-throughput Ka-band transponders, which are used for broadband
services.
In conclusion, the INSAT satellite series of ISRO consists of a range of satellites that provide
critical services for telecommunications, meteorology, remote sensing, and broadcasting. The
satellites have advanced capabilities, which are used for monitoring weather patterns, providing
communication infrastructure, and enabling access to essential services.
11. What are some of the important satellites in IRS system of ISRO?
The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) system of ISRO consists of several satellites that provide a wide
range of remote sensing data and services. Here are some of the important satellites in the IRS
system:
1. IRS-1C and IRS-1D: Launched in 1995 and 1997 respectively, these satellites were the
first high-resolution imaging satellites in the IRS system. They provide images with a
spatial resolution of up to 5.8 meters and have been used for a variety of applications,
including land use mapping, mineral exploration, and disaster management.
2. IRS-P3: Launched in 1996, this satellite is used for oceanographic and atmospheric
studies. It carries sensors that provide information on sea surface temperature, ocean
color, and wind speed, which are used for oceanographic research, fishing zone
detection, and weather forecasting.
19. Traditional methods of in-person education have been disrupted by the Covid-19
pandemic. How can India's Space Program help in restoring and expanding access to
education in India?
India's Space Program has the potential to play a significant role in restoring and expanding
access to education in India, particularly during the Covid-19 pandemic. Here are several ways in
which India's Space Program can contribute:
1. Satellite-based Internet Connectivity: India's Space Program, specifically the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO), has launched a number of communication satellites,
such as GSAT-19 and GSAT-11, that provide satellite-based internet connectivity to
remote and rural areas in India. These satellites can be utilized to provide high-speed
internet access to schools, colleges, and educational institutions in areas with limited or
no internet connectivity. This can enable remote learning and virtual classrooms,
allowing students and teachers to connect, share resources, and engage in online
education, even in areas with poor terrestrial internet infrastructure.
2. Tele-education and Tele-training: India's Space Program can leverage satellite
communication capabilities to provide tele-education and tele-training programs. Live
classes, recorded lectures, and educational content can be transmitted via satellite to
remote areas where access to quality education is limited. Teachers and experts from
urban areas can conduct virtual classes and workshops for students and teachers in rural
areas, thus expanding access to education and professional development opportunities.
3. EdTech Applications: India's Space Program can collaborate with EdTech companies to
develop and deploy educational applications that leverage satellite technology. For
example, educational content, interactive lessons, and assessments can be delivered
through satellite-based e-learning platforms accessible via smartphones, tablets, or other
devices. This can provide students with self-paced learning opportunities and enable
them to access educational resources remotely, bridging the gap created by in-person
education disruptions.
20. Discuss the role of ISRO in the industrial growth of the country.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has played a significant role in the industrial
growth of India. Since its inception in 1969, ISRO has been working towards developing
indigenous satellite technology, launch vehicles, and space exploration. Its efforts have led to the
creation of a robust space industry in India, with significant contributions to various sectors of
the Indian economy.
Here are some ways in which ISRO has contributed to the industrial growth of the country:
1. Development of Indigenous Technologies: ISRO has developed several indigenous
technologies, such as remote sensing, communication, and navigation, which have been
transferred to various industries in India. These technologies have led to the creation of
new products and services and have improved the efficiency and quality of existing ones.
2. Infrastructure Development: ISRO has built several infrastructure facilities, such as
launch pads, satellite testing facilities, and communication networks, which have been
utilized by both the government and private industries in India. This has led to the
development of a robust space industry and has enabled the growth of other industries
such as telecommunications, transportation, and agriculture.
3. Human Resource Development: ISRO has a robust human resource development
program, which includes training programs for engineers and scientists. This has led to
the creation of a skilled workforce in India, which has contributed to the growth of
various industries, including aerospace, defense, and electronics.
4. Commercialization of Space Technology: ISRO has been actively commercializing its
space technology, offering launch services to other countries and private companies. This
has led to the creation of a thriving satellite launch industry in India, which has
contributed to the growth of other industries such as broadcasting, telecommunications,
and weather forecasting.
5. Research and Development: ISRO has been actively involved in research and
development activities, which have led to the development of new technologies and
products. This has led to the growth of several industries, including healthcare,
agriculture, and energy.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 53
Overall, the contributions of ISRO to the industrial growth of India are significant. Its efforts
have led to the development of a robust space industry, which has contributed to the growth of
other industries in the country. Its indigenous technologies, infrastructure facilities, human
resource development programs, and research and development activities have all played a
significant role in the industrial growth of the country.
22. What is Telemedicine? What are the applications of telemedicine programmes carried
out by ISRO?
Telemedicine refers to the use of telecommunications and information technologies to provide
healthcare services remotely. Telemedicine allows healthcare professionals to provide medical
services and consultations to patients who are located in remote or underserved areas.
Telemedicine can also be used to provide medical consultations to patients who are unable to
visit healthcare facilities due to mobility issues or other barriers.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has been using its satellite communication
technology to provide telemedicine services to remote areas of India. The applications of
telemedicine programmes carried out by ISRO are as follows:
23. Discuss the role and applications of Indian space programme in disaster management.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has been at the forefront of disaster
management in India, providing critical inputs for timely and effective disaster response. Here
are some of the key roles and applications of the Indian space programme in disaster
management:
1. Early Warning Systems: Satellite-based remote sensing technology is used to monitor
weather patterns, track natural disasters like cyclones, floods, and earthquakes, and
issue timely warnings. The Indian Space Programme has developed a comprehensive
suite of applications for disaster management, including the Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) for oceanic and tsunami events, and the National
Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) for other disasters like cyclones and floods.
2. Disaster Response and Damage Assessment: The Indian Space Programme has been
instrumental in providing real-time information to aid disaster response efforts. Data
from satellites like the RISAT-1 and CARTOSAT-1 is used for high-resolution imaging that
helps in assessing the extent of damage caused by natural disasters. This information is
used to guide relief efforts, facilitate rehabilitation activities, and assess the impact of
disasters on infrastructure and the environment.
3. Resource Management: Satellite-based remote sensing technology is used to monitor
and manage resources during disaster response efforts. Data from satellites like the
RESOURCESAT-2 and CARTOSAT-1 is used for land-use mapping, forest cover
monitoring, and water resources management. This information is used to plan and
implement disaster response activities like rescue and relief operations, rebuilding
infrastructure, and managing natural resources.
4. Communication: The Indian Space Programme provides critical communication
infrastructure during disaster response efforts. The GSAT series of communication
satellites provide voice, data, and video connectivity to remote and inaccessible regions,
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 55
thereby enabling access to essential services like healthcare, education, and banking.
This infrastructure is used to coordinate disaster response efforts and provide critical
information to affected communities.
5. International Cooperation: The Indian Space Programme has been actively involved in
international cooperation for disaster management. The programme has partnered with
international agencies like the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)
and the International Charter Space and Major Disasters to share data and provide
technical assistance for disaster management.
In conclusion, the Indian Space Programme, driven by ISRO, has played a crucial role in
disaster management in India. The various applications of the programme, including early
warning systems, disaster response and damage assessment, resource management,
communication, and international cooperation, have helped in minimizing the impact of
disasters, saving lives, and promoting resilience.
4. What is Disaster Management Cycle? Explain the various stages of disaster management
cycle.
The disaster management cycle is a framework for understanding the different phases of
disaster management. It consists of four stages, each with a distinct focus and set of activities:
1. Preparedness: The preparedness stage involves activities that help communities and
organizations to prepare for disasters. This includes developing disaster management
plans, conducting risk assessments, training personnel, stockpiling resources, and
establishing communication protocols.
2. Response: The response stage involves activities that are focused on providing
immediate relief and assistance to affected populations. This includes search and rescue
operations, medical assistance, food and shelter distribution, and emergency
communication.
3. Recovery: The recovery stage involves activities that help affected communities to
recover from the impacts of a disaster. This includes damage assessment, debris removal,
rebuilding infrastructure, restoring essential services, and providing long-term
assistance to affected populations.
4. Mitigation: The mitigation stage involves activities that are focused on reducing the
impact of future disasters. This includes implementing measures to reduce the
5. Elaborate on the legal and institutional framework for disaster management in India at
various levels.
Disaster management in India is guided by a comprehensive legal and institutional framework,
which is designed to ensure effective and efficient disaster response at all levels. The framework
includes laws, policies, guidelines, and institutions that operate at the national, state, and local
levels.
At the national level, the Disaster Management Act, 2005, is the key legal instrument that
governs disaster management in India. The Act provides a comprehensive framework for
disaster management, including the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, the
establishment of national and state disaster management authorities, and the formulation of
disaster management plans and policies.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the apex body responsible for
disaster management in India. It is headed by the Prime Minister of India and has representation
from various ministries, departments, and agencies. The NDMA is responsible for coordinating
disaster management efforts across the country and providing technical and financial assistance
to state governments.
At the state level, each state has a State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA), which is
responsible for disaster management within its jurisdiction. The SDMA is headed by the Chief
Minister of the state and includes representatives from various departments and agencies. The
SDMA is responsible for coordinating disaster response efforts within the state and ensuring that
the state is prepared to respond to disasters.
In addition to the NDMA and SDMA, each district has a District Disaster Management
Authority (DDMA), which is responsible for disaster management at the local level. The DDMA is
headed by the District Magistrate and includes representatives from various departments and
agencies. The DDMA is responsible for coordinating disaster response efforts within the district
and ensuring that the district is prepared to respond to disasters.
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is the primary agency responsible for
disaster response in India. It is a specialized force that is trained and equipped to respond to
various types of disasters, including natural disasters, industrial accidents, and terrorist attacks.
The NDRF is deployed during disasters to provide search and rescue, medical aid, and other
forms of assistance.
In addition to the legal and institutional framework, India has also developed a National
Disaster Management Plan, which outlines the country's overall approach to disaster
management. The plan includes strategies for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery, and is regularly updated to reflect changing needs and priorities.
10. Is climate change a disaster? How to approach climate change from disaster
management perspective?
Climate change is not a traditional disaster in the sense that it does not result from a sudden,
unexpected event. However, the impacts of climate change can lead to a range of disasters, such
as floods, droughts, hurricanes, wildfires, and extreme heat events. In this sense, climate change
4.4 Floods
11. What are floods? Assess the risk of floods to India.
Floods are a natural disaster caused by excessive amounts of water overflowing from water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, or oceans onto surrounding land areas. Heavy rainfall, snowmelt,
and dam or levee failures are common causes of floods.
India is particularly prone to floods due to its monsoon climate and extensive river systems. The
country experiences both slow-onset floods, which develop gradually over time due to heavy and
prolonged rainfall, and flash floods, which occur suddenly due to intense rainfall or dam failures.
Floods in India have resulted in significant loss of life, displacement of people, and damage to
property and infrastructure. For example, the 2019 floods in the state of Kerala resulted in over
400 deaths and the displacement of over 1 million people. In 2020, floods in the states of Assam,
Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh affected over 8 million people and caused over 200 deaths.
In addition to the immediate impacts, floods can also have long-term effects on communities,
including the loss of livelihoods, damage to crops, and the spread of water-borne diseases.
In conclusion, floods are a significant risk in India, and the country is taking measures to reduce
the impact of floods on its people and infrastructure. While progress has been made, more can be
done to strengthen early warning systems, improve infrastructure. promote responsible land use
practices, and preserve and restore natural features.
12. Briefly describe the impacts of floods. Discuss the measures to mitigate the risk of
floods.
Floods can have significant impacts on communities and infrastructure. The most immediate
impact of a flood is the flooding itself, which can cause loss of life, injuries, and damage to
buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. Floods can also cause landslides and soil erosion,
which can further increase the risk of flooding and damage.
4.5 Cyclones
13. What are cyclones? Assess the risk of cyclones to India.
Cyclones, also known as hurricanes or typhoons, are large, rotating storm systems characterized
by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges. Cyclones form over warm ocean waters and
can cause significant damage to coastal areas, including damage to infrastructure, loss of life, and
disruption of economic activities.
India is particularly vulnerable to cyclones due to its long coastline and location in the
tropical region. The eastern and western coasts of India are especially prone to cyclones, with
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea being the primary regions of cyclone formation.
The risk of cyclones to India is significant, with many coastal communities facing the
threat of cyclones each year. In recent years, India has experienced several severe cyclones,
including Cyclone Amphan in 2020, which caused significant damage and loss of life in West
Bengal and Odisha.
The risk of cyclones to India is compounded by factors such as population growth,
urbanization, and climate change. As coastal populations continue to grow and infrastructure
development increases, the impact of cyclones can become more severe, leading to more
significant loss of life and damage to property.
To address the risk of cyclones in India, it is crucial to develop and implement effective
disaster management strategies that can help to mitigate the impacts of cyclones and build
resilience to their effects. This includes measures such as early warning systems, evacuation
The process begins with the heating of the ocean surface by the sun, which causes warm, moist
air to rise rapidly, creating an area of low pressure. As the air rises, it cools and the moisture
condenses into clouds, releasing heat energy that further intensifies the storm.
The Coriolis effect, caused by the Earth's rotation, then causes the rising air to spin and form a
rotating system of clouds and thunderstorms, known as the eyewall. The eyewall is where the
strongest winds and heaviest rainfall occur.
As the tropical cyclone moves across the ocean, it can intensify or weaken depending on a variety
of factors, including sea surface temperature, wind shear, and other environmental conditions.
When the tropical cyclone makes landfall, it can cause significant damage due to strong winds,
heavy rainfall, storm surge, and flooding. Therefore, it's essential to monitor and prepare for
these storms to minimize their impact on human lives and infrastructure.
15. Briefly describe the impacts of cyclones. Discuss the measures to mitigate the risk of
cyclones.
Impacts of cyclones can be significant and can include the following:
1. Damage to infrastructure: Cyclones can cause significant damage to buildings, roads,
bridges, and other critical infrastructure, leading to disruptions in transportation and
communication.
4.6 Tsunami
16. What is Tsunami? Assess the risk of tsunamis to India.
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves with very long wavelengths (typically several hundred
kilometers) caused by large-scale disturbances of the ocean, such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides. When a tsunami approaches land, the shallow waters cause the wave
to increase in height and decrease in wavelength, resulting in a devastating surge of water.
India is vulnerable to the risk of tsunamis due to its location along the Indian Ocean,
which is prone to earthquakes and other geological activity that can trigger tsunamis. In
particular, the country's eastern and western coasts are at risk, with the eastern coast being
more vulnerable due to its proximity to the Sumatra subduction zone, where the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake and tsunami originated.
India has experienced several tsunamis in the past, with the most devastating being the
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The tsunami was triggered by a 9.1 magnitude earthquake off the
coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, and resulted in the deaths of over 230,000 people in 14 countries,
including India.
18. Briefly describe the impacts of tsunami. Discuss the measures to mitigate the risk of
tsunami.
Tsunamis can have devastating impacts on coastal communities and infrastructure. The most
immediate impact of a tsunami is the massive surge of water that can cause widespread flooding,
resulting in loss of life, injuries, and damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructure.
Tsunamis can also cause landslides and soil erosion, which can further increase the risk of
flooding and damage.
Fossil Fuel
Non-Fossil Fuel
Note: 1000 MW (Megawatts) = 1 GW (Gigawatt); therefore total installed capacity can be written
as 411 GW.
2. Discuss the strategies and methods to be implemented by India to meet the growing
energy demands
India faces a significant challenge in meeting its growing energy demands sustainably, while also
ensuring energy security and affordable energy access for all. Here are some strategies and
methods that India could implement to address these challenges:
1. Increase investment in renewable energy: India has set an ambitious target of
achieving 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030, which will require significant
investment in wind, solar, and other renewable technologies. The government should
continue to incentivize and support renewable energy projects, including by providing
subsidies, tax incentives, and low-cost financing.
2. Promote energy efficiency: Energy efficiency is a key strategy to reduce energy demand
and promote sustainable energy use. The government could implement policies and
programs to promote energy-efficient buildings, appliances, and transportation. This
could include setting energy efficiency standards, providing incentives for energy-
efficient products, and promoting public transport and electric vehicles.
3. Define conventional energy sources. Compare and contrast the conventional energy
sources from non-conventional energy sources.
Conventional energy sources refer to the traditional sources of energy that have been widely
used for decades, mainly fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which are burned to
generate electricity, power transportation, and provide heating and cooling for homes and
industries. These energy sources are called "conventional" because they have been the primary
sources of energy for many years and have been relied upon as the backbone of the world's
energy systems. However, their usage has been linked to environmental problems such as
climate change and air pollution.
Conventional energy sources and non-conventional energy sources have several differences,
which can be compared and contrasted on various fronts:
1. Nature of the Source: Conventional energy sources are finite resources that are
extracted from the earth, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Non-conventional energy
sources, on the other hand, are renewable resources that are derived from natural
sources like sunlight, wind, water, and geothermal heat.
2. Availability: Conventional energy sources are readily available, and their supply is often
stable, but their availability is limited and will eventually be depleted. In contrast, non-
conventional energy sources are available in abundance and are renewable, which means
that they can be replenished over time.
3. Environmental Impact: Conventional energy sources are known to have a significant
impact on the environment, primarily through greenhouse gas emissions and air
6. What are the limitations of the coal based thermal power in India? What are the
solutions to those limitations?
Coal-based thermal power is the most dominant source of electricity generation in India,
accounting for around 70% of the total electricity generated in the country. However, it also has
several limitations that need to be addressed to ensure sustainable and efficient power
generation. Some of the significant limitations of the coal-based thermal power in India are:
8. What are the limitations of the natural gas in India's energy sector? Suggest solutions.
While natural gas has significant potential in India's energy sector, it also has some limitations
that need to be addressed to ensure sustainable and efficient energy production. Here are some
of the key limitations and solutions:
1. Limited domestic production: Despite India's significant natural gas reserves, domestic
production has been limited due to factors such as regulatory hurdles, lack of
infrastructure, and exploration challenges. To address this, the government needs to
incentivize domestic natural gas exploration and production, streamline the regulatory
process, and invest in infrastructure development.
2. Price volatility: Natural gas prices in India are subject to volatility due to global market
conditions and import dependence. To mitigate this, the government can explore long-
term contracts with natural gas suppliers, increase domestic production, and develop a
strategic natural gas reserve to ensure energy security.
3. Infrastructure limitations: India's natural gas infrastructure is still developing, with
challenges such as inadequate pipeline connectivity, insufficient regasification capacity,
and limited storage facilities. The government can address these limitations by investing
in infrastructure development, promoting public-private partnerships, and providing
incentives for private investment in the sector.
4. Competition with renewable energy: Renewable energy sources such as solar and
wind are becoming increasingly cost-competitive, which could limit the growth potential
of natural gas in India's energy mix. To address this, the government can promote the
complementary use of natural gas and renewable energy, such as using natural gas as a
backup to intermittent renewable sources.
5. Environmental concerns: While natural gas is cleaner than coal, it still produces
greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change. To address this, the
government can promote the use of low-carbon natural gas technologies such as biogas
and hydrogen, and incentivize carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.
Overall, addressing these limitations requires a combination of government policies, private
sector investment, and infrastructure development. By promoting domestic production,
enhancing infrastructure, and incentivizing low-carbon natural gas technologies, India can
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 76
harness the potential of natural gas in its energy sector while mitigating environmental impacts
and ensuring energy security.
9. Discuss the potential of shale gas and coal bed methane (CBM) in India.
Shale gas and coal bed methane (CBM) are unconventional sources of natural gas that have the
potential to significantly augment India's energy resources.
Here's a closer look at their potential:
Shale gas potential in India:
Shale gas is natural gas trapped in shale formations deep underground. India has significant
shale gas reserves, estimated at around 96 trillion cubic feet (tcf).
However, the exploitation of these reserves has been limited due to several challenges, including
regulatory hurdles, technological limitations, and environmental concerns.
To unlock the potential of shale gas in India, the government has taken steps to streamline the
regulatory process, encourage exploration and production, and promote the use of advanced
drilling techniques.
The government has also proposed a new policy framework that includes revenue sharing,
auction-based exploration, and marketing freedom for shale gas operators.
Coal bed methane potential in India:
CBM is natural gas trapped in coal seams. India has significant CBM reserves, estimated at
around 92 tcf.
The exploitation of CBM reserves has been limited due to technical challenges, such as low
permeability, and regulatory hurdles.
To unlock the potential of CBM in India, the government has taken steps to promote exploration
and production, including providing fiscal incentives such as tax breaks and allowing 100% foreign
direct investment (FDI) in the sector. The government has also announced plans to auction CBM
blocks and promote public-private partnerships to develop CBM infrastructure.
The potential of shale gas and CBM in India is significant, and their exploitation can provide a
much-needed boost to the country's energy security. However, their development must be
carried out in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner. The government
must ensure that adequate regulatory frameworks are in place, and that the local communities
are consulted and adequately compensated.
The development of these unconventional natural gas sources must also be complemented by a
transition towards renewable energy sources, to ensure that India's energy mix is sustainable
and meets its climate goals.
11. What are the limitations of hydroelectricity in India? Suggest some solutions.
While hydroelectricity has significant potential in India, there are some limitations that need to
be addressed to fully exploit this source of renewable energy. Some of the major limitations are:
1. Seasonal variations in water flow: India's rivers are subject to seasonal variations in
water flow, which can affect the output of hydroelectric power plants. During the dry
season, water levels in rivers can drop significantly, leading to a decrease in power
generation.
2. Environmental and social impacts: Large hydroelectric projects can have significant
environmental and social impacts, including displacement of local communities, loss of
biodiversity, and changes to the natural flow of rivers.
3. High capital costs: The construction of large hydroelectric projects can be capital-
intensive, which can make them economically unfeasible in some cases.
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power is the
second-largest source of low-carbon electricity in the world today (after Solar power).
12. Discuss the current scenario of nuclear energy in India
Nuclear energy is an important component of India's energy mix, accounting for around 1.6% of
the country's total installed electricity capacity. Here is an overview of the current scenario of
nuclear energy in India:
1. Installed capacity: India has 22 nuclear power reactors in operation with a total
installed capacity of 6,780 MW, located across various states including Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Gujarat. In addition, construction of four more reactors with
a combined capacity of 3,400 MW is underway.
2. Contribution to energy mix: Nuclear energy currently accounts for around 1.6% of
India's total installed electricity capacity, and 2% of total electricity generated.
3. Expansion plans: India has set an ambitious target of increasing its nuclear power
capacity to 22,480 MW by 2031, as part of its efforts to diversify its energy mix and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This would require the construction of several new
nuclear power plants over the next decade.
4. Safety and security: The safety and security of nuclear power plants are of utmost
importance. India has taken several measures to ensure the safety and security of its
nuclear power plants, including setting up an independent nuclear regulatory body and
implementing stringent safety standards.
5. International cooperation: India has been expanding its cooperation with other
countries in the field of nuclear energy, including the construction of new reactors with
the help of foreign partners. India has also signed several agreements with countries
such as Russia, France, and the US to cooperate in the development of nuclear energy and
related technologies.
6. Public perception: Nuclear energy has been a controversial topic in India, with concerns
over safety, security, and nuclear waste management. There have been protests against
the construction of new nuclear power plants in some parts of the country, particularly
in areas that are vulnerable to natural disasters.
In conclusion, nuclear energy is an important component of India's energy mix, providing a
significant amount of electricity generation capacity. India has ambitious plans to expand its
nuclear power capacity over the next decade, but this will require careful attention to safety and
security measures, as well as addressing public concerns over nuclear energy. The successful
13.What are the major concerns and challenges with nuclear power in India? How to
address them?
Nuclear power is an important component of India's energy mix, but it also poses several
challenges and concerns. Here are some of the major challenges and concerns with nuclear
power in India and potential ways to address them:
1. Safety concerns: The safety of nuclear power plants is of utmost importance. There are
concerns over the potential risks associated with nuclear accidents, particularly in the
event of a natural disaster or terrorist attack. To address these concerns, India should
continue to invest in safety measures and regulations. The government should also work
closely with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to ensure that the highest
safety standards are met.
2. Waste management: Nuclear power generates radioactive waste, which requires careful
handling and disposal. There are concerns over the lack of safe storage and disposal
facilities for nuclear waste in India. To address this, India needs to develop safe and
secure storage and disposal facilities for nuclear waste. This could involve investing in
research and development to identify new storage technologies and sites.
3. Cost: Nuclear power plants are expensive to build and maintain, and the cost of nuclear
energy is often higher than other forms of energy. To address this, India needs to
improve the efficiency of its nuclear power plants and explore opportunities to reduce
costs through international cooperation and technology transfer.
4. Public perception: Nuclear power has been a controversial topic in India, with concerns
over safety, security, and nuclear waste management. There have been protests against
the construction of new nuclear power plants in some parts of the country. To address
this, the government should engage in dialogue with communities and stakeholders to
address their concerns and ensure transparency in the decision-making process.
5. Dependence on foreign technology: India currently depends on foreign technology for
its nuclear power plants, which could pose challenges for the transfer of technology and
maintenance of the plants. To address this, India should invest in research and
development of its own nuclear technologies and strengthen domestic capabilities in the
field of nuclear power.
In conclusion, nuclear power is an important component of India's energy mix, but it also
poses several challenges and concerns. To address these challenges, India needs to invest in
safety measures, waste management, and cost reduction, engage with communities and
stakeholders, and strengthen domestic capabilities in nuclear technology. With careful planning
and management, nuclear power can continue to play a role in India's energy mix while meeting
the highest safety and security standards.
15. Define New Energy sources. Write about various new energies that are being
developed in India.
New energy sources refer to the emerging technologies and methods that are being developed to
meet the world's growing energy demand while minimizing the environmental impact. In India,
several new energy sources are being developed to meet the country's energy needs and reduce
its carbon footprint. Here are some of the new energies that are being developed in India:
1. Solar Energy: India has a vast potential for solar energy due to its geographical location
and abundant sunlight. The government of India has set a target to achieve 100 GW of
solar energy capacity by 2022. Rooftop solar, solar farms, and floating solar are some of
the methods being developed in India.
2. Wind Energy: India has a significant potential for wind energy, particularly in coastal
areas. The government has set a target to achieve 60 GW of wind energy capacity by
2022. Onshore wind turbines and offshore wind turbines are some of the methods being
developed in India.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 81
3. Bioenergy: Bioenergy refers to the energy produced from organic matter such as crop
residues, forest residues, and municipal solid waste. India has a significant potential for
bioenergy, and the government has set a target to achieve 10 GW of bioenergy capacity
by 2022. Biogas, biomass power, and biofuels are some of the methods being developed
in India.
4. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy refers to the energy produced from the heat of
the earth's crust. India has a limited potential for geothermal energy due to its location,
but several geothermal projects are being developed in the country.
5. Hydrogen Energy: Hydrogen energy refers to the energy produced from the reaction of
hydrogen and oxygen. India has started developing hydrogen fuel cell technology for
vehicles and power generation.
6. Tidal Energy: Tidal energy refers to the energy produced from the movement of the
tides. India has a significant potential for tidal energy due to its long coastline. Several
tidal energy projects are being developed in the country.
7. Waste to Energy: Waste to energy refers to the energy produced from the conversion of
waste. India has a vast potential for waste to energy due to its high amount of waste
generated. Biogas, waste-to-power, and refuse-derived fuel are some of the methods
being developed in India.
These new energy sources have the potential to significantly reduce India's carbon footprint and
meet its growing energy demand. The government of India is providing support and incentives
to encourage the development and adoption of these new energy sources.
5.6.1 Solar
16. Discuss the solar energy potential in india, its limitations and solutions.
India has enormous potential for solar energy due to its geographical location, which provides
abundant sunlight throughout the year. According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE), India's solar power potential is estimated to be around 750 GW.
Some of the major advantages of solar energy in India are:
1. Abundant sunlight: India receives an average of 300 sunny days a year, making it an
ideal location for solar power generation.
2. Energy security: Solar energy can help to reduce India's dependence on imported fossil
fuels, thereby enhancing energy security.
3. Rural electrification: Solar energy can provide decentralized energy solutions for
remote and rural areas in India that are not connected to the grid.
4. Cost competitiveness: The cost of solar power has been declining rapidly, making it an
increasingly competitive source of energy in India.
However, there are some limitations to the expansion of solar energy in India, which include:
1. Land availability: The availability of land for large-scale solar power projects can be a
challenge, especially in densely populated areas.
2. Grid integration: The integration of solar power into the existing grid infrastructure can
be a challenge due to issues such as grid stability, intermittency, and variability.
3. Technology constraints: Solar power technology is still evolving, and the performance
and efficiency of solar panels can be affected by factors such as dust, humidity, and
temperature.
19. What are the challenges for wind energy sector in India? Suggest solutions to these
challenges.
While India has enormous potential for wind energy, there are several challenges that the sector
faces. Here are some of the main challenges and solutions to overcome them:
1. Intermittency: Wind power is an intermittent source of energy, and its generation
depends on the availability of wind. To address this, India needs to develop a robust grid
infrastructure to balance supply and demand. The government should also invest in
energy storage technologies such as batteries and pumped hydro storage to store excess
energy generated by wind turbines during periods of low demand.
2. High capital costs: The initial capital cost of setting up wind farms is high, which
discourages many investors. To overcome this, the government could provide incentives
such as tax breaks and subsidies to encourage investment in the sector. The government
could also facilitate the access of wind energy projects to low-cost capital by easing
financing options from banks and financial institutions.
3. Land availability: Identifying suitable land for wind farm installation is challenging. The
government could develop a comprehensive land-use plan that identifies areas with high
wind potential and encourages landowners to lease land for wind farm development.
21. What is bio energy? Explain various types of bio energy sources in India.
Bioenergy refers to energy that is generated from biomass, which is organic matter produced by
living organisms such as plants and animals. Bioenergy is considered a renewable energy source
because biomass can be replenished through natural processes like photosynthesis.
In India, bioenergy plays an important role in meeting the country's energy needs. The current
installed capacity of Bioenergy is 10GW (Jan, 2023). Indian aimed for the bioenergy of 10GW by
2022.
Some of the different types of bioenergy sources used in India include:
1. Biofuels: Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels made from biomass. The most commonly
used biofuels in India are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is primarily made from
sugarcane molasses and is used as a blending agent in petrol. Biodiesel is made from
vegetable oils, animal fats, or waste cooking oil and can be used as a substitute for diesel.
2. Biogas: Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as
agricultural waste, animal manure, and sewage. Biogas can be used for cooking, lighting,
and electricity generation.
3. Biomass power: Biomass power refers to the use of biomass to generate electricity. This
can be done through direct combustion or through a process called gasification, which
converts biomass into a gas that can be burned to produce electricity.
4. Bagasse cogeneration: Bagasse is the fibrous residue that remains after sugarcane has
been crushed to extract juice. Bagasse can be burned to produce steam, which can then
be used to generate electricity. This process is called bagasse cogeneration and is
commonly used in the sugar industry in India.
5. Wood energy: Wood energy refers to the use of wood and other woody biomass for
heating and cooking. This is a common practice in rural areas of India where access to
modern energy sources is limited.
Overall, bioenergy has the potential to play an important role in India's energy mix, particularly
in rural areas where access to modern energy sources is limited. However, there are also
concerns about the sustainability of bioenergy production, particularly if it involves the use of
food crops or leads to deforestation.
22. What is waste to energy? What are the common methods of waste to energy?
Waste to energy (WtE) is the process of converting solid waste into energy in the form of heat,
electricity, or fuel. The process involves using the combustible components of waste as fuel to
26. Are hydrogen based fuel cells rechargeable? If yes, how are they recharged?
Hydrogen-based fuel cells are rechargeable. However, instead of recharging the fuel cell by
plugging it into a power outlet like a battery, a hydrogen fuel cell is recharged by refueling it with
hydrogen.
To recharge a hydrogen fuel cell, the depleted hydrogen fuel is replaced with fresh hydrogen,
either by refilling the fuel tank or replacing the fuel cartridge. This process is similar to refueling
a gas-powered vehicle, but instead of gasoline, hydrogen is used as the fuel.
One advantage of hydrogen fuel cells is that they can be refueled quickly, taking only a few
minutes to refuel compared to the hours required to recharge a battery-powered vehicle.
Additionally, hydrogen fuel cells offer a longer driving range compared to battery-powered
vehicles.
However, the availability of hydrogen refueling infrastructure is currently limited, which is a
major challenge to the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. There are also safety
concerns related to the storage and transportation of hydrogen fuel.
In summary, hydrogen fuel cells are rechargeable by refueling them with hydrogen. This process
is similar to refueling a gas-powered vehicle, but instead of gasoline, hydrogen is used as the fuel.
However, the availability of hydrogen refueling infrastructure is currently limited, which is a
major challenge to the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
28. What are the key initiatives taken by the government of India to ensure energy
security?
The Government of India has taken several initiatives to ensure energy security. Here are some
key initiatives:
1. Diversification of Energy Sources: The government has taken steps to diversify the
country's energy mix by promoting renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro,
and biomass. The National Solar Mission, the National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy, and the
Green Energy Corridor Project are some examples of the government's initiatives in this
regard.
2. Energy Efficiency: The government has implemented several programs to promote
energy efficiency and conservation. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has launched
various programs to promote energy-efficient appliances, buildings, and industries. The
UJALA scheme, which provides LED bulbs at subsidized rates to households, has resulted
in significant energy savings.
29. How science and technology can help India achieve energy security?
Science and technology can play a crucial role in helping India achieve energy security. Here are
some ways in which science and technology can help:
1. Renewable Energy: Science and technology can help develop new and more efficient
renewable energy technologies. Research and development in areas such as solar, wind,
hydro, and bioenergy can help increase the efficiency and reduce the costs of these
technologies. India can also explore new technologies such as offshore wind and
geothermal energy.
2. Energy Storage: Energy storage technologies, such as batteries and fuel cells, can help
store energy generated from renewable sources for later use. Research and development
in this area can help increase the efficiency and reduce the costs of these technologies.
3. Smart Grids: Smart grid technologies can help improve the efficiency of the electricity
grid and enable the integration of renewable energy sources. The use of advanced
sensors, communication networks, and algorithms can help optimize the use of
electricity and reduce energy waste.
4. Energy Efficiency: Science and technology can help develop new and more efficient
appliances, buildings, and industries. Research and development in areas such as energy-
efficient lighting, building insulation, and industrial automation can help reduce energy
consumption and improve energy efficiency.
5. Carbon Capture and Storage: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies can help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel-based power plants. Research and
development in this area can help improve the efficiency and reduce the costs of these
technologies.
31. What are the differences between first, second and third generations of biofuels? Why
are first and second generation biofuels seen as threat to food security? How do third
generation biofuels manage to address those problems?
The first, second, and third generations of biofuels are differentiated based on the feedstock or
raw material used for their production, as well as the technology and processes employed. The
differences between them are as follows:
4. What is IARI? Discuss its functions and contributions to crop science research India.
IARI stands for the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, which is an agricultural research
institute located in New Delhi, India. It was established in 1905 and is considered to be one of the
premier institutes for agricultural research in the country.
Functions:
The primary function of IARI is to conduct research in various areas of agriculture and to
develop new technologies and methods to increase agricultural productivity and food
security. Some of the key areas of research at IARI include crop improvement, plant
breeding, biotechnology, agronomy, soil science, horticulture, and plant protection.
Contributions:
Over the years, IARI has made significant contributions to crop science research in India.
One of its most notable achievements is the development of high-yielding varieties of
wheat and rice, which played a crucial role in the Green Revolution that transformed
India's agricultural landscape in the 1960s and 70s.
In addition to its contributions to crop improvement, IARI has also made important
contributions to research on soil management, water conservation, and sustainable
agricultural practices. Its research has helped to address some of the major challenges
facing Indian agriculture, such as soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate change.
IARI also plays a key role in training and capacity building in the field of agriculture. It
offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses in agricultural sciences and
conducts training programs for farmers, extension workers, and other stakeholders in
the agricultural sector.
Overall, IARI has played a critical role in advancing crop science research in India and has made
significant contributions to the development of the country's agricultural sector. Its research and
development efforts have helped to increase agricultural productivity, enhance food security,
and improve the livelihoods of millions of farmers across the country.
11. Write about the important medicinal and aromatic plants and their uses for human.
Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years, and many of the world's
most important medicines are derived from plant sources. In addition to their medicinal
properties, many plants are also used for their aromatic properties, which are used in perfumes,
cosmetics, and other products.
Here are some of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants and their uses for humans:
1. Aloe Vera: Aloe Vera is a succulent plant that has been used for centuries to treat burns,
cuts, and other skin conditions. It is also used in cosmetics and skin care products for its
soothing and moisturizing properties.
2. Chamomile: Chamomile is a flowering plant that is often used to make tea. It is known
for its calming properties and is used to treat anxiety, insomnia, and digestive problems.
3. Echinacea: Echinacea is a flowering plant that is used to boost the immune system and
treat colds, flu, and other respiratory infections.
12. Write about the important aromatic plants and their uses for humans.
Aromatic plants are those that contain essential oils and other fragrant compounds. These plants
have been used for centuries for their medicinal, cosmetic, and culinary properties, as well as for
their pleasant scents. Here are some of the most important aromatic plants and their uses for
humans:
1. Lavender: Lavender is one of the most popular and versatile aromatic plants. Its
essential oil is used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also
used in cosmetics and personal care products for its soothing properties and pleasant
scent.
2. Rosemary: Rosemary is an herb that is often used in cooking, but it also has medicinal
properties. Its essential oil is used in aromatherapy to improve memory and
concentration, and it is also used in cosmetics and personal care products for its
invigorating scent.
3. Peppermint: Peppermint is a refreshing and invigorating aromatic plant. Its essential oil
is often used in aromatherapy to treat digestive problems and headaches. It is also used
in cosmetics and personal care products for its cooling and refreshing properties.
4. Eucalyptus: Eucalyptus is an aromatic plant that is commonly used to treat respiratory
problems. Its essential oil is often used in aromatherapy to help relieve congestion and
coughs.
5. Chamomile: Chamomile is an aromatic plant that is known for its calming properties. Its
essential oil is used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also
used in cosmetics and personal care products for its soothing properties.
6. Jasmine: Jasmine is a fragrant flower that is often used in perfumes and cosmetics for its
sweet and exotic scent. Its essential oil is also used in aromatherapy to promote
relaxation and reduce anxiety.
7. Sandalwood: Sandalwood is a fragrant wood that is used in perfumes and cosmetics for
its warm and exotic scent. Its essential oil is also used in aromatherapy to promote
relaxation and reduce anxiety.
These are just a few examples of the many important aromatic plants and their uses for humans.
Aromatic plants continue to play an important role in aromatherapy, cosmetics, perfumes, and
13. What are essential oils? Enumerate the important uses of essential oils?
Essential oils are highly concentrated plant extracts obtained through various methods such as
steam distillation, cold pressing, or solvent extraction. They contain the volatile aromatic
compounds from plants that give them their characteristic aroma and flavor. Essential oils are
used in a wide range of applications due to their therapeutic properties, fragrance, and flavor.
Some important uses of essential oils include:
1. Aromatherapy: Essential oils are commonly used in aromatherapy, a form of alternative
medicine that utilizes the inhalation or topical application of essential oils to promote
physical and emotional well-being. Different essential oils are believed to have various
therapeutic effects, such as promoting relaxation, reducing stress, improving mood,
enhancing sleep, and supporting respiratory health.
2. Personal care and beauty products: Essential oils are widely used in the formulation of
personal care and beauty products such as soaps, lotions, creams, perfumes, and hair
care products. They provide natural fragrances and can also possess beneficial
properties for the skin and hair, such as moisturizing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging
effects.
3. Cleaning and household products: Essential oils are used in many cleaning and
household products as natural alternatives to synthetic fragrances and chemicals. They
can provide a pleasant scent and possess antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral
properties, making them useful for cleaning and disinfecting purposes.
4. Culinary uses: Some essential oils are used as flavorings in food and beverages due to
their intense aroma and taste. They are used sparingly to add unique flavors to dishes,
desserts, beverages, and confectionery.
5. Natural remedies: Essential oils are often used in natural remedies for various health
conditions. For example, tea tree oil is used for its antiseptic properties, lavender oil for
its calming effects, and peppermint oil for its digestive properties. However, it's
important to note that the use of essential oils for medicinal purposes should be done
with caution and under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.
6. Insect repellents: Essential oils such as citronella, lemongrass, and eucalyptus are
commonly used in natural insect repellents due to their strong scent and insect-repelling
properties. They are used in candles, sprays, and diffusers to keep mosquitoes, flies, and
other insects at bay.
7. Emotional well-being: Essential oils are believed to have an impact on emotional well-
being and are used in practices such as meditation, massage, and relaxation techniques.
They are thought to help reduce stress, anxiety, and promote relaxation and a positive
mood.
8. DIY projects: Essential oils are popular in DIY (do-it-yourself) projects for making
homemade products such as candles, bath salts, room sprays, and more. They provide
natural scents and can be customized to suit individual preferences and needs.
18. Explain the uses of plants as sources of wood, fibre, rubber, and beverages to the
mankind
Plants have provided humans with a variety of resources for thousands of years. Here are some
of the main uses of plants as sources of wood, fiber, rubber, and beverages:
1. Wood: Wood from trees is one of the most important natural resources used by humans.
It is used to build homes, furniture, tools, and paper. Some of the most commonly used
trees for wood include pine, oak, and maple.
2. Fiber: Plants are a rich source of fiber, which is used to make textiles, paper, and rope.
Cotton is one of the most widely used plant fibers for textiles, while hemp and jute are
commonly used for rope and paper.
3. Rubber: Rubber is a natural product that comes from the sap of rubber trees. It is used
to make a variety of products, including tires, footwear, and gloves. Other plants, such as
guayule and dandelion, are also used to produce natural rubber.
4. Beverages: Plants have been used to make beverages for thousands of years. Tea and
coffee are two of the most widely consumed beverages in the world, and both are made
from plants. Other plants used to make beverages include cacao (for chocolate), hops (for
beer), and grapes (for wine).
Overall, plants have provided humans with a wide range of resources that have been essential to
our development and survival. From building materials to food and beverages, plants continue to
play an important role in our daily lives.
19. Briefly explain the plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices
Plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices have been used by humans for various purposes
for centuries.
20. Discuss the fodder and energy uses of the plants to the mankind.
Plants have been used for fodder and energy for millennia and continue to play a significant role
in meeting human needs. Here are some of the key uses of plants for fodder and energy:
1. Fodder: Fodder refers to plants that are grown specifically to feed livestock, such as
cattle, sheep, and goats. Common fodder plants include grasses, legumes, and corn. These
plants provide a source of nutrition for animals, helping to maintain their health and
productivity. In turn, livestock provide food, milk, and other products for human
consumption.
2. Energy: Plants are also an important source of energy for humans, providing fuel for
heating, cooking, and transportation. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, were
originally derived from ancient plants and animals, but today many renewable sources of
energy are derived directly from plants. For example, biomass energy involves burning
plant materials, such as wood, to generate heat and electricity. Biofuels, such as ethanol
and biodiesel, are made from plant materials such as corn and soybeans.
3. Industrial uses: In addition to fodder and energy, plants are also used for a variety of
industrial purposes, such as manufacturing paper, textiles, and building materials. For
example, bamboo is a fast-growing plant that can be used to make a variety of products,
including furniture, flooring, and paper.
Overall, plants are an essential resource for meeting human needs for food, fuel, and other
products. However, it is important to use these resources sustainably and responsibly to avoid
overexploitation and environmental degradation.
8. Discuss the different types of potential risks involved with genetic engineering. Also
suggest some measures to deal with them.
Genetic engineering is a powerful technology that can have a range of potential risks associated
with it. Here are some of the main types of risks associated with genetic engineering and some
measures that can be taken to overcome them:
1. Environmental risks: Genetic engineering can have unintended environmental impacts,
such as the spread of transgenes into wild populations, which can have ecological
consequences that are difficult to predict or control.
• To overcome this risk, researchers can conduct rigorous environmental risk
assessments and use containment measures such as gene drives to prevent the
spread of transgenes into wild populations.
2. Health risks: Genetic engineering can pose health risks to humans and other organisms.
For example, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used in agriculture may have
unintended effects on non-target species and the environment.
10. Is there any difference between gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing?
Below is the overview of the differences between gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing:
1. Gene therapy: Gene therapy involves the direct alteration of an individual's genes to
treat or prevent disease. It aims to correct or replace faulty genes with functional ones to
cure or mitigate the effects of genetic disorders. Gene therapy can be performed on
somatic cells, which are non-reproductive cells of the body, or on germ cells, which are
reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) that can pass on genetic changes to future
generations. Gene therapy is still a developing field with ongoing research and clinical
trials, and it has the potential to revolutionize the treatment of genetic diseases.
2. Transgenic organisms: Transgenic organisms are organisms that have had their genes
modified by the insertion of genes from another species. This is done using genetic
engineering techniques to introduce foreign genes into the genome of an organism.
Transgenic organisms are created for various purposes, such as improving agricultural
crops, generating animal models for research, and producing therapeutic proteins.
Examples of transgenic organisms include genetically modified crops, genetically
engineered bacteria for insulin production, and genetically modified mice for studying
human diseases.
3. Gene enhancement/genome editing: Gene enhancement or genome editing refers to
the intentional modification of an individual's genes to improve or enhance certain traits
or characteristics. This can involve changing the DNA sequence of an individual's genes
to enhance physical abilities, cognitive function, or other traits. Gene enhancement is a
controversial topic due to ethical concerns, such as potential risks, fairness, and societal
11. Explain the ethical concerns in gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing with examples? When can genome editing be considered
ethical?
Gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene enhancement/genome editing raise several
ethical concerns related to safety, efficacy, and social implications. Here are some examples:
1. Gene therapy: Gene therapy involves the introduction of genetic material into a patient's
cells to treat or cure a genetic disease. Some ethical concerns associated with gene
therapy include the risk of unintended consequences, such as off-target effects or
immune reactions, as well as the potential for permanent genetic changes that can be
passed on to future generations.
• Example: In 1999, a teenager named Jesse Gelsinger died during a clinical trial for
gene therapy. The trial was halted, and an investigation found that the
researchers had failed to disclose information about previous adverse reactions
in animal studies.
2. Transgenic organisms: Transgenic organisms are organisms that have been genetically
modified by the insertion of foreign DNA. Some ethical concerns associated with
transgenic organisms include the risk of unintended consequences, such as ecological
disruption or unforeseen effects on human health, as well as the potential for unintended
spread of transgenes into wild populations.
• Example: In 2002, a genetically modified strain of corn called StarLink was found
in the human food supply, despite the fact that it had not been approved for
human consumption. This incident raised concerns about the regulation and
oversight of genetically modified organisms.
3. Gene enhancement/genome editing: Gene enhancement or genome editing involves
the intentional modification of an individual's genetic makeup to enhance certain traits
or characteristics. Some ethical concerns associated with gene enhancement include the
potential for exacerbating existing social inequalities, as well as the possibility of
unintended consequences, such as unforeseen effects on physical or mental health.
• Example: In 2018, a Chinese scientist named He Jiankui announced that he had
used genome editing to create the world's first gene-edited babies. The
announcement was widely criticized for its lack of scientific rigor, as well as
ethical concerns related to the safety and long-term implications of genetic
modification.
When considering the ethics of genome editing, it is important to weigh the potential
benefits against the potential risks and consider the social implications of the technology.
Genome editing may be considered ethical when it is used to treat or prevent serious genetic
diseases or to enhance human health and well-being in a responsible and transparent manner,
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 117
with appropriate oversight and regulation. However, genome editing for non-medical purposes,
such as enhancing physical or mental abilities or creating designer babies, raises serious ethical
concerns and should be subject to careful scrutiny and debate.
13. What are the concerns/risks with stem cell research? Suggest some measures to deal
with them.
Stem cell research has the potential to revolutionize medicine by providing new treatments for a
range of diseases and conditions. However, there are also concerns and risks associated with this
field of research, including:
1. Ethical concerns: Some people have raised ethical concerns about the use of embryonic
stem cells, which involves the destruction of human embryos. This has led to debates
about the moral and ethical implications of stem cell research.
2. Risk of tumor formation: There is a risk that stem cells could form tumors or cause
other unintended effects when used in therapies. This is a particular concern with
pluripotent stem cells, which have the potential to differentiate into any cell type in the
body.
3. Immune rejection: There is a risk that stem cell therapies could be rejected by the
immune system, leading to graft-versus-host disease or other complications.
To address these concerns, several measures have been proposed:
1. Ethical guidelines: Ethical guidelines have been established to ensure that stem cell
research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. These guidelines provide a
framework for researchers to follow when working with stem cells, and help to ensure
that the research is conducted in a way that is consistent with societal values and norms.
2. Safety protocols: Researchers can minimize the risk of tumor formation and other
unintended effects by using rigorous safety protocols in their research. This includes
carefully testing the safety and efficacy of stem cell therapies in animal models before
moving on to human trials.
3. Immune compatibility: To minimize the risk of immune rejection, researchers can
develop stem cell therapies that are compatible with the patient's immune system. This
can involve using the patient's own stem cells or using stem cells from a donor who is a
close genetic match to the patient.
4. Education and public awareness: Educating the public about the benefits and risks of
stem cell research can help to build support for this field of research and alleviate
concerns about the ethical and safety issues involved. This can involve working with
patient advocacy groups, scientific societies, and other stakeholders to raise awareness
and provide accurate information about stem cell research.
15. Discuss the role of genetically modified crops in agriculture with a note on the
legitimate concerns about transgenic agriculture.
Genetically modified (GM) crops have been developed to help address several challenges in
agriculture, such as improving crop yields, increasing resistance to pests and diseases, reducing
the need for chemical inputs like pesticides and herbicides, and improving nutritional value.
Here are some of the potential benefits and concerns associated with GM crops:
Benefits of GM crops in agriculture:
1. Increased crop yields: GM crops
can produce higher yields than
traditional crops, which can help
to feed a growing global
population.
2. Improved resistance to pests
and diseases: GM crops can be
engineered to produce proteins
that are toxic to pests, reducing
the need for chemical pesticides.
3. Drought and stress resistance:
GM crops can be engineered to be
more resilient to drought and
7.5 Bio-fertilizers
16. What are bio-fertilizers? What are their types?
Bio-fertilizers are natural fertilizers that contain living microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi,
and algae, that enhance soil fertility and plant growth.
Unlike chemical fertilizers, which provide plants with nutrients directly, bio-fertilizers work by
improving the soil ecosystem and facilitating nutrient cycling.
Here are some of the main types of bio-fertilizers:
1. Nitrogen-fixing bio-fertilizers: These contain bacteria that can convert atmospheric
nitrogen into a form that plants can use, such as ammonia or nitrate.
• Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria include Rhizobium, and Azotobacter
2. Phosphorus-solubilizing bio-fertilizers: These contain microorganisms that can
solubilize insoluble forms of phosphorus in the soil, making it available to plants.
• Examples of phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms include Bacillus
megateriumand Pseudomonas fluorescens.
3. Potassium-solubilizing bio-fertilizers: These contain microorganisms that can
solubilize insoluble forms of potassium in the soil, making it available to plants.
• Examples of potassium-solubilizing microorganisms include Bacillus coagulans
and Pseudomonas sp.
4. Plant growth-promoting bio-fertilizers: These contain microorganisms that can
enhance plant growth and development by producing plant growth hormones, enhancing
nutrient uptake, and suppressing plant pathogens.
• Examples of plant growth-promoting microorganisms include Trichoderma
harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens.
7.6 Bio-pesticides
19. What are bio-pesticides? What are their benefits over chemical pesticides?
Bio-pesticides are a type of pest control product that are derived from natural substances like
plants, bacteria, or fungi. They are used to control pests in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.
The benefits of bio-pesticides over chemical pesticides include:
1. Environmental safety: Bio-pesticides are often considered to be safer for the
environment than chemical pesticides, as they typically have lower toxicity and degrade
more quickly in the environment.
20. What are the limitations of bio-pesticides vis à vis conventional pesticides?
While bio-pesticides have many benefits over conventional chemical pesticides, they also have
some limitations that can make them less effective in some situations. Here are some limitations
of bio-pesticides compared to conventional pesticides:
1. Limited spectrum of activity: Bio-pesticides are often more targeted in their activity,
meaning they are only effective against specific pests or diseases. This can make them
less effective against a broad range of pests compared to conventional pesticides.
2. Variable efficacy: The efficacy of bio-pesticides can be variable and dependent on
environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, which can make them less
reliable in some situations.
3. Shorter shelf life: Bio-pesticides often have a shorter shelf life than conventional
pesticides, meaning they may need to be used soon after purchase and cannot be stored
for long periods of time.
4. Limited availability: Bio-pesticides are not as widely available as conventional
pesticides, and may not be stocked in as many stores or be available in as many
formulations.
5. Higher cost: Bio-pesticides can be more expensive than conventional pesticides, due to
the cost of development, production, and registration.
7.8 Cloning
22. What is cloning? Explain different types of cloning with suitable examples?
Cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copy of an individual plant or animal. It
can be done through a number of different techniques, including:
1. Organism/Reproductive cloning: This involves creating a new individual that is
genetically identical to the original organism. In animals, this is typically done through a
23. Discuss the advantages of cloning and also mention the ethical concerns associated
with the cloning process.
Advantages of Cloning:
1. Preservation of Endangered Species: Cloning can be used to preserve endangered or
extinct species by creating genetically identical copies of the animal.
2. Medical Advances: Cloning technology has the potential to create tissues or organs that
are genetically identical to a patient’s own cells, which could be used for transplantation
without the risk of rejection.
3. Agriculture: Cloning can be used to create genetically identical crops that are resistant
to pests and diseases, reducing the use of pesticides and increasing crop yields.
4. Animal Research: Cloning can be used to create genetically identical animals for
research purposes, which can be used to study diseases and develop new treatments.
5. Reproduction: Cloning can be used to help couples who are struggling with infertility by
creating a genetically identical copy of one of the partners.
Ethical Concerns Associated with Cloning:
7.9 Bio-Fuels
Note: Bio-fuels are also discussed as part of the Chapter 5: Energy Resources.
24. What are Bio-fuels? What are their types?
Biofuels are renewable fuels that are produced from biomass, which is organic matter such as
plants and agricultural waste. There are three main types of biofuels:
1. Ethanol: This is an alcohol that is produced by fermenting sugars from crops such as
corn, sugarcane, and switchgrass.
• Ethanol is commonly used as a fuel additive in petrol, and can also be used in high-
concentration blends such as E85 (85% ethanol and 15% petrol).
2. Biodiesel: This is a renewable diesel fuel that is produced from vegetable oils or animal
fats.
• Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel in
various concentrations. In India – mostly B5 blend (95% petro-diesel + 5% bio-
diesel) is used.
• Jatropha and Derris India are the two most suitable crops for the production of Bio-
diesel
7.11 Miscellaneous
26. What is CRISPR-Cas9? Briefly explain its functioning and give its applications.
CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome editing technology that allows scientists to make precise
and targeted modifications to the DNA of living organisms. It is a type of site-directed nuclease
(nuclease is an enzyme that breaks down nucleic acids) that uses RNA-guided endonucleases to
target and cleave specific DNA sequences.
The CRISPR-Cas9 system is derived from a natural bacterial immune system that defends against
invading viruses. The system consists of two main components: the Cas9 enzyme (nuclease),
which acts as a molecular "scissors" that can cut DNA at specific sites, and a guide RNA molecule,
which directs the Cas9 enzyme to the target DNA sequence.
To use the CRISPR-Cas9 system for genome editing, scientists design a specific guide RNA
molecule that matches the target DNA sequence they want to modify. The guide RNA is then
combined with the Cas9 enzyme and introduced into the cells of the organism they want to
modify. The Cas9 enzyme then cuts the DNA at the target site, which triggers the cell's natural
DNA repair mechanisms. Scientists can then
introduce new genetic material or modify the
existing DNA sequence during the repair process.
The CRISPR-Cas9 system has numerous
applications in basic research, biotechnology, and
medicine. Some of its most notable applications
include:
1. Gene editing: The CRISPR-Cas9 system can
be used to introduce precise genetic
modifications to an organism, such as
introducing or correcting mutations,
knocking out specific genes, or adding new
genetic information.
2. Functional genomics: The CRISPR-Cas9
system can be used to systematically
knockout genes in order to study their
functions and roles in biological processes.
3. Agriculture: The CRISPR-Cas9 system can be used to develop crops with desirable traits,
such as increased yield or disease resistance.
4. Therapeutics: The CRISPR-Cas9 system holds promise for treating genetic diseases,
such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia, by correcting disease-causing mutations.
Overall, the CRISPR-Cas9 system has revolutionized genome editing and has opened up new
possibilities for advancing scientific understanding and developing new technologies and
treatments.
6. What is fermentation? Describe the process of industrial fermentation and explain its
social and economic relevance.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts organic compounds, such as sugars and
carbohydrates, into other products using microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, or fungi. The
process is often used in industrial applications to produce a wide range of products, including
food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels.
The process of industrial fermentation typically involves the following steps:
1. Inoculation: A culture of microorganisms is added to a nutrient-rich medium, such as a
sugar solution.
2. Incubation: The mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions of temperature,
pH, and oxygen levels to allow the microorganisms to grow and produce the desired
product.
9. FSSAI is playing a key role in improving the food safety in India. Critically evaluate.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) was established in 2011 to ensure
food safety and promote public health in India. FSSAI has taken several steps to improve food
safety in India, such as setting standards for food products, regulating food imports, and
enforcing food safety regulations.
One of the major initiatives taken by FSSAI is the implementation of the Food Safety and
Standards Act, 2006, which aims to consolidate various food safety laws in India and ensure that
food products meet specific safety and quality standards. This has helped to streamline the
regulatory process and ensure that food products are safe for consumption.
FSSAI has also launched several public awareness campaigns to educate consumers about the
importance of food safety and the role of FSSAI in regulating the food industry. This has helped
to create a culture of food safety in India and encourage people to demand safe and healthy food
products.
However, there are still some challenges that FSSAI faces in improving food safety in India. One
of the biggest challenges is the lack of awareness among food businesses about food safety
standards and regulations. Many small food businesses in India still do not have adequate
knowledge about food safety, which can lead to non-compliance with regulations.
10. Write briefly about Encephalitis disease including symptoms, treatment, and
prevention.
Encephalitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the brain, which can cause
neurological symptoms such as headache, fever, confusion, seizures, and in severe cases, coma
and death. Encephalitis can be caused by a variety of factors, including viral, bacterial, fungal, or
parasitic infections, as well as autoimmune disorders, drug reactions, or toxins.
Viral encephalitis is the most common cause of encephalitis worldwide, and is often transmitted
through the bites of infected mosquitoes or ticks. Common viruses that can cause encephalitis
include herpes simplex virus, West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and tick-borne
encephalitis virus.
Treatment for encephalitis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In
cases of viral encephalitis, antiviral medications may be used to treat the infection. Supportive
care such as fluids, oxygen, and medications to manage symptoms may also be given.
Prevention measures for encephalitis include practicing good hygiene, avoiding contact with
infected animals or insect vectors, and getting vaccinated against viral causes of encephalitis
when available.
12. What is the cause of Chikungunya? What are its symptoms, treatment and preventive
measures?
Chikungunya is a viral disease that is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes, primarily
the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus species. The virus belongs to the Alphavirus genus of the
family Togaviridae.
The symptoms of Chikungunya typically include fever, severe joint pain, headache, muscle pain,
joint swelling, and rash. In some cases, individuals may experience long-term joint pain and
inflammation, which can persist for months or even years after the initial infection.
Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for Chikungunya. Treatment usually involves
the use of pain relievers, fever reducers, and anti-inflammatory medications to help manage the
symptoms. Bed rest and increased fluid intake are also recommended to help alleviate the
symptoms.
Preventive measures for Chikungunya include avoiding mosquito bites by wearing long-sleeved
clothing and using insect repellent, especially during the daytime when the Aedes mosquitoes
are most active. Eliminating mosquito breeding sites, such as standing water, around homes and
communities is also important in reducing the spread of the disease.
Vaccines for Chikungunya are currently under development, but none have been approved for
general use yet. Therefore, prevention measures and early detection of the disease are the most
effective strategies for controlling the spread of Chikungunya.
14. Discuss the frequent spread of dengue fevers in Telangana and India.
Dengue fever is a significant public health concern in Telangana and India due to its frequent
outbreaks and high morbidity rates. The primary reason for the frequent spread of dengue in
Telangana and India is the presence of the Aedes mosquitoes that transmit the virus. These
mosquitoes breed in stagnant water and can be found in both rural and urban areas.
Factors such as rapid urbanization, inadequate sanitation, and lack of effective mosquito control
measures have contributed to the increase in the incidence of dengue in Telangana and India.
The disease is more prevalent during the monsoon season when the mosquito population is at its
highest.
Dengue fever is a notifiable disease in India, and the government has taken several measures to
control its spread, including the implementation of mosquito control programs, public
awareness campaigns, and the provision of diagnostic and treatment facilities. However, these
efforts have been limited by inadequate resources, infrastructure, and manpower.
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has further complicated the situation as resources and attention
have been diverted towards controlling the spread of the coronavirus, resulting in limited
resources for dengue control efforts.
In summary, dengue fever remains a significant public health concern in Telangana and India,
and concerted efforts are needed to control its spread. This requires a multifaceted approach
that includes improving sanitation, implementing effective mosquito control measures, and
increasing public awareness of the disease.
15. Write about the influenza viral disease. Discuss its types, pathogenesis, symptoms,
treatment, and preventive measures.
Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is a viral respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses.
The disease is highly contagious and can spread rapidly from person to person. Influenza viruses
can cause mild to severe illness, and in severe cases, it can be fatal.
Types: There are three types of influenza viruses: A, B, and C. Influenza A viruses are known to
cause pandemics and epidemics and have a high mutation rate, leading to the emergence of new
strains. Influenza B viruses cause seasonal epidemics and are less likely to cause pandemics.
Influenza C viruses usually cause mild respiratory illness and do not cause epidemics.
Pathogenesis: Influenza viruses enter the body through the respiratory tract, specifically the
nose, mouth, or throat, and then infect the respiratory epithelial cells. The virus replicates in the
host cells and then spreads to adjacent cells, causing inflammation and damage to the
The HN nomenclature of influenza viral diseases refers to the two surface glycoproteins of the
virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). These glycoproteins are important for virus
entry and exit from host cells and are targets of the host immune response.
There are 18 subtypes of H and 11 subtypes of N, resulting in different strains of influenza viruses
such as H1N1 (spread in 2009; called Swine flue) and H3N2 (recently spread in India in 2023).
The nomenclature is used to classify and track circulation of different strains, and knowing the
subtype is crucial for developing vaccines, antivirals, and predicting pandemics.
16. What causes Bird flu disease? Elaborate on its types and treatment.
Bird flu, also known as avian influenza, is a viral disease that primarily affects birds. The virus is
highly contagious and can spread quickly among birds, leading to severe outbreaks in poultry
farms and bird populations. In rare cases, the virus can also infect humans, leading to serious
illness and death.
The bird flu virus is classified into two types: low pathogenic and high pathogenic. Low
pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) is a milder form of the disease, while high pathogenic avian
influenza (HPAI) is more severe and can cause significant illness and death in both birds and
humans.
Bird flu outbreaks have occurred in several countries around the world, including India. The first
reported case of bird flu in India was in 2006, and since then, several outbreaks have occurred in
different states, leading to the culling of millions of birds. In India, the most common subtype of
bird flu virus is H5N1.
Humans can contract bird flu through close contact with infected birds or their droppings, or by
handling contaminated objects. Symptoms of bird flu in humans can range from mild to severe
and include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, and breathing difficulties. There is no
17. What is meant by Vector-borne diseases? Discuss with examples some common
vector-borne diseases that afflict India.
Vector-borne diseases are infections that are transmitted to humans by the bite of infected
arthropods, including mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, sandflies, and blackflies. These vectors act as
carriers for the pathogens that cause the diseases, and transmit them to humans during the
feeding process.
In India, several vector-borne diseases are prevalent, and they pose a significant public health
challenge. Some common vector-borne diseases that afflict India include:
1. Malaria: Malaria is a parasitic disease transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito. It is
prevalent in several parts of India, especially in areas with poor sanitation and limited
access to healthcare.
2. Dengue fever: Dengue fever is caused by the dengue virus, which is transmitted by the
Aedes mosquito. It is endemic in several parts of India, and outbreaks occur frequently,
especially during the monsoon season.
3. Chikungunya: Chikungunya is a viral disease transmitted by the Aedes mosquito. It is
characterized by fever, joint pain, and rash, and is prevalent in several parts of India.
4. Japanese encephalitis: Japanese encephalitis is a viral disease transmitted by the Culex
mosquito. It is prevalent in several parts of India, especially in rural areas, and can cause
severe neurological complications.
5. Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease transmitted by the sandfly. It is
prevalent in several parts of India, especially in areas with poor sanitation and limited
access to healthcare.
To control the spread of vector-borne diseases in India, it is essential to implement effective
vector control measures, including the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual
spraying, and environmental management. Additionally, increasing public awareness of the
diseases and their prevention is crucial to reducing their incidence and impact.
18. Why is Mosquito called the most dangerous species? Discuss briefly with reference to
various diseases it causes.
Mosquitoes are considered one of the most dangerous species on the planet due to their ability
to transmit a range of infectious diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, Zika
virus, and chikungunya, among others. Mosquitoes are responsible for millions of deaths
worldwide, making them a significant public health threat.
Malaria is one of the most deadly diseases spread by mosquitoes, accounting for over 400,000
deaths each year. Mosquitoes transmit the malaria parasite from person to person through their
bite, causing flu-like symptoms, fever, and chills, which can progress to severe anemia and organ
failure.
Dengue fever is another disease transmitted by mosquitoes and is a leading cause of illness and
death in tropical and subtropical regions. It causes flu-like symptoms, including high fever,
severe headache, and joint pain, and can progress to severe bleeding, shock, and even death.
24. Discuss the burden of Tuberculosis disease in India. What are the goals of India
government regarding TB elimination?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), India accounts for 28% of all TB cases in the
world, according to the Global TB Report 2022. An estimated 449,000 people died of
tuberculosis (TB) in India in 2019, which is the highest number of TB deaths in any country.
The Government of India has set ambitious goals for TB elimination through the National
Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025. The goals of the plan include:
1. Achieving a 90% reduction in TB incidence and 95% reduction in TB deaths by 2025,
compared to 2015 levels.
2. Ensuring access to quality diagnosis and treatment for all TB patients, including those
with drug-resistant TB.
3. Enhancing TB surveillance and monitoring systems to improve data collection and
analysis.
4. Strengthening research and development efforts to improve TB diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention.
5. Addressing social determinants of TB, such as poverty, malnutrition, and poor living
conditions.
To achieve these goals, the Indian government has implemented several initiatives, such as
expanding the reach of the national TB program, improving TB diagnosis and treatment services,
increasing access to TB drugs and diagnostic tests, and promoting community involvement in TB
prevention and control. The government is also implementing digital technologies to improve TB
management and treatment outcomes.
While progress has been made in reducing TB incidence and mortality in India, there is still a
long way to go to achieve the elimination targets. Continued efforts and investment are required
to accelerate progress towards TB elimination in India.
29. What is black fungus? Write about the pathogenesis, symptoms, and treatment of
black fungus?
Black fungus, also known as mucormycosis is a rare but serious fungal infection that can affect
various parts of the body, including the sinuses, lungs, brain, and skin. It is caused by a group of
fungi called mucormycetes, which are commonly found in soil, plants, and decaying organic
matter.
Pathogenesis: The pathogenesis of black fungus involves the inhalation of fungal spores, which
can enter the body through the respiratory tract. The spores can then invade the blood vessels
and spread to other parts of the body, causing tissue damage and necrosis (cell death). People
with weakened immune systems, such as those with diabetes, cancer, or HIV, are at higher risk of
developing black fungus.
Symptoms: The symptoms of black fungus depend on the site of infection and can vary from
mild to severe. Common symptoms include fever, headache, facial pain or swelling, blurred
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 158
vision, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, skin lesions, and blackening or discoloration of the
infected area.
Treatment: Treatment of black fungus involves a multidisciplinary approach and may include
antifungal medication, surgical debridement (removal of infected tissue), and supportive care.
Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for the successful management of black fungus.
Antifungal drugs such as amphotericin B, posaconazole, and isavuconazole are used to treat the
infection, and the choice of drug and duration of treatment depend on the severity and location
of the infection.
In addition to medical treatment, it is important to manage the underlying conditions that can
increase the risk of black fungus, such as diabetes, and to maintain good hygiene and cleanliness.
People with diabetes should monitor their blood sugar levels regularly and follow a healthy
lifestyle to prevent the development of black fungus.
In conclusion, black fungus is a serious fungal infection that requires prompt diagnosis and
treatment. It is important to be aware of the symptoms and risk factors of the infection and seek
medical attention if any symptoms occur.
34. What are "life style disorders"? Discuss life style disorders and their relevance to
India.
Lifestyle disorders, also known as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), are health conditions
that are caused by an individual's lifestyle choices and habits. These include unhealthy diet, lack
of physical activity, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol consumption. Some common lifestyle
disorders include obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and certain types of
cancer.
In India, lifestyle disorders have become a significant public health concern due to changing
lifestyles, rapid urbanization, and increasing socio-economic development. According to the
World Health Organization, NCDs are responsible for 61% of deaths in India, with cardiovascular
disease, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes being the leading causes.
The high prevalence of lifestyle disorders in India is attributed to several factors, including
unhealthy dietary habits, lack of physical activity, stress, and environmental factors such as
pollution. Urbanization and globalization have led to changes in dietary habits, with an
increasing trend towards the consumption of processed foods, high in fat, salt, and sugar. In
addition, sedentary lifestyles have become increasingly common, with many people spending
long hours in front of screens and engaging in minimal physical activity.
Preventing and managing lifestyle disorders in India requires a multi-faceted approach that
involves both individual behavior change and policy-level interventions. Some measures that can
help reduce the burden of lifestyle disorders in India include promoting healthy diets,
encouraging physical activity, implementing tobacco control policies, and improving access to
healthcare services. Education and awareness campaigns can also play a crucial role in raising
awareness about the importance of adopting healthy lifestyles to prevent lifestyle disorders.
3. What are antibodies and antigens? What role do they play in immune system?
Antibodies and antigens are both important components of the immune system.
Antigens are molecules that can trigger an immune response. These can be proteins,
carbohydrates, or other molecules found on the surface of pathogens such as viruses or bacteria.
When the immune system recognizes an antigen as foreign, it mounts a response to destroy the
pathogen and prevent infection.
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by B cells in response to an
antigen. Antibodies are designed to recognize and bind specifically to a particular antigen, often
on the surface of a pathogen. This binding can neutralize the pathogen directly, or it can mark it
for destruction by other cells in the immune system.
Antibodies play a key role in the adaptive immune response, providing targeted protection
against specific pathogens. Once the immune system has encountered a particular antigen, B
cells can produce antibodies that recognize and neutralize that antigen quickly and efficiently if
the pathogen is encountered again.
Overall, antibodies and antigens are important components of the immune system, working
together to recognize and destroy foreign invaders and protect the body from infection and
disease.
4. Describe and differentiate between active and passive immunity along with their
advantages and disadvantages.
Active and passive immunity are two types of immunity that can develop in response to
pathogens or vaccines.
Active immunity is a type of immunity that develops as a result of an individual's own immune
response to a pathogen or vaccine. When the immune system encounters a pathogen, it mounts a
response to produce specific antibodies against that pathogen. The process of producing these
antibodies can take several days, but once the antibodies have been produced, the individual has
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 164
long-lasting immunity against that pathogen. This type of immunity can also develop as a result
of vaccination, in which a weakened or inactive form of the pathogen is introduced to the body,
triggering an immune response and the production of specific antibodies.
Advantages of active immunity include:
• Long-lasting protection: Active immunity provides long-lasting protection against
specific pathogens.
• Memory response: Once the immune system has encountered a pathogen or vaccine, it
retains memory of that pathogen, enabling it to respond more quickly and efficiently in
the future if the same pathogen is encountered again.
Disadvantages of active immunity include:
• Delayed protection: It can take several days for the immune system to produce specific
antibodies against a pathogen or vaccine, leaving the individual susceptible to infection
during that time.
• Requires a functional immune system: Active immunity relies on the individual's own
immune system to produce antibodies, so individuals with compromised immune
systems may not develop effective immunity.
Passive immunity, on the other hand, is a type of immunity that is acquired from an external
source. Instead of the individual's own immune system producing antibodies, antibodies are
introduced into the body from an external source, such as through breast milk or through
injection of antibodies obtained from another individual or animal. Passive immunity is usually
short-lived and provides immediate but temporary protection against a specific pathogen.
Advantages of passive immunity include:
• Immediate protection: Passive immunity provides immediate protection against specific
pathogens.
• No need for a functional immune system: Passive immunity does not rely on the
individual's own immune system to produce antibodies, so individuals with
compromised immune systems can still benefit from passive immunity.
Disadvantages of passive immunity include:
• Short-lived protection: Passive immunity is usually short-lived and provides temporary
protection against specific pathogens.
• No memory response: Passive immunity does not provide memory response, so the
individual is not protected against future encounters with the same pathogen.
In summary, both active and passive immunity have their advantages and disadvantages. Active
immunity provides long-lasting protection and memory response but requires a functional
immune system and takes time to develop. Passive immunity provides immediate protection and
does not require a functional immune system but is short-lived and does not provide memory
response.
9. Write about the different types of modern vaccines available today. How are the
modern vaccines better than the conventional vaccines?
There are several types of modern vaccines that are currently available, including mRNA
vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and protein subunit vaccines. These vaccines have several
advantages over conventional vaccines, including improved safety, efficacy, and speed of
development.
1. mRNA vaccines: mRNA vaccines, such as the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19
vaccines, use a small piece of genetic material called messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct
cells in the body to produce a protein from the pathogen. The immune system then
recognizes this protein as foreign and mounts an immune response against it. mRNA
vaccines have several advantages over conventional vaccines, including their speed of
development, which allows for rapid response to emerging infectious diseases. They are
also generally safe and do not contain any live virus or bacteria.
2. Viral vector vaccines: Viral vector vaccines, such as the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19
vaccine and the Ebola vaccine, use a harmless virus to deliver genetic material from the
pathogen into cells in the body. This genetic material then instructs cells to produce a
protein from the pathogen, which triggers an immune response. Like mRNA vaccines,
viral vector vaccines are generally safe and do not contain any live virus or bacteria.
3. Protein subunit vaccines: Protein subunit vaccines, such as the HPV vaccine and the
hepatitis B vaccine, use purified proteins from the pathogen to stimulate an immune
response. These vaccines are generally safe and effective, but may require booster shots
to maintain immunity.
10. Describe the journey of development from conventional to modern day vaccines
(Recombinant vaccines).
The development of vaccines has evolved significantly over time, from the first use of variolation
to protect against smallpox in ancient China to the development of modern recombinant
vaccines. Here is a brief overview of the journey of vaccine development:
1. Conventional vaccines: Conventional vaccines were first developed in the 18th and
19th centuries and were typically made from weakened or killed pathogens. For
example, the smallpox vaccine was made from the cowpox virus, which provided
immunity to smallpox. These vaccines were effective but had some limitations, including
the risk of reversion to virulence and the need for large quantities of live virus or
bacteria to produce the vaccine.
2. Subunit vaccines: In the 1960s, researchers began developing subunit vaccines, which
contained only a small part of the pathogen, such as a protein or sugar molecule. This
allowed for a more targeted immune response and reduced the risk of side effects.
Examples of subunit vaccines include the hepatitis B vaccine and the human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine.
3. Recombinant vaccines: Recombinant DNA technology, which was developed in the
1970s, allowed for the creation of recombinant vaccines. These vaccines are made by
inserting the genetic material from a pathogen into a harmless carrier virus or bacterium.
The carrier then produces a protein from the pathogen, which triggers an immune
response. Examples of recombinant vaccines include the hepatitis B vaccine, the human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, and the COVID-19 vaccines developed by Pfizer-BioNTech
and Moderna.
The development of recombinant vaccines has revolutionized the field of vaccinology, allowing
for the creation of highly targeted and effective vaccines with fewer side effects. Recombinant
vaccines are also faster and less expensive to produce than conventional vaccines, as they do not
require large quantities of live virus or bacteria.
Overall, the journey of vaccine development has been a long and complex one, with many
important discoveries along the way. Today, recombinant vaccines represent the cutting edge of
vaccine development and hold great promise for protecting against a wide range of infectious
diseases.
14. Explain the production process of Rabies vaccines (in traditional method).
Traditional rabies vaccine production process:
• Culturing the virus: The rabies virus is grown in cell cultures, typically using chicken
embryo cells or a continuous cell line, under controlled laboratory conditions.
17. Write a note on the different types of Covid-19 vaccines with examples.
There are several types of COVID-19 vaccines currently available or in development. Here are the
four main types of COVID-19 vaccines along with examples:
1. mRNA vaccines: mRNA vaccines contain a small piece of genetic material called
messenger RNA (mRNA), which provides instructions for the body to produce a protein
found on the surface of the virus that causes COVID-19. This protein triggers an immune
response that can protect against the virus. Examples of mRNA vaccines include the
Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.
2. Viral vector vaccines: Viral vector vaccines use a harmless virus to deliver a piece of the
COVID-19 virus's genetic material into the body. This genetic material then produces a
3. It is important to balance the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain
the environment for future generations. Elaborate.
Or
What is need for sustainable development?
Balancing the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain the environment is
critical for several reasons.
First, the natural environment provides essential resources and servicesthat support human life
and well-being, including clean air and water, fertile soil, and diverse ecosystems that support
biodiversity and provide ecosystem services such as pollination and climate regulation. These
resources and services are finite and can be depleted or degraded through unsustainable
development practices, leading to negative impacts on human health and well-being.
Second, economic development is essential for improving living standards and reducing poverty,
particularly in developing countries. However, unsustainable development practices can lead to
environmental degradation and negative impacts on the health and well-being of local
1.2 Environmentalism
4. What is environmentalism? Discuss briefly the history of environmentalism.
Environmentalism is a social and political movement that seeks to protect the natural world and
promote sustainability. It involves advocating for policies and practices that promote
conservation, reduce pollution, and address environmental problems.
The history of environmentalism can be traced back to the 19th century when writers and
thinkers began to express concerns about the impact of industrialization on the environment. In
the early 20th century, conservationists such as John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt helped to
establish national parks and protected areas to preserve natural habitats and wildlife in the USA.
The modern environmental movement emerged in the 1960s and 1970s in response to growing
concerns about pollution, resource depletion, and other environmental problems. Rachel
Carson's book "Silent Spring," published in 1962, helped to raise awareness about the negative
impacts of pesticides and other chemicals on the environment and human health.
In 1970, the first Earth Day was organized, which brought together millions of people to
demonstrate for environmental protection. This event helped to catalyze the passage of
landmark environmental legislation in the United States, such as the Clean Air Act and the Clean
Water Act.
Since then, environmentalism has become a global movement, with activists and organizations
working to address issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental justice.
The movement has also evolved to include a broader focus on sustainability, recognizing the
interconnections between environmental, social, and economic issues.
13. Write about the role played by NGT in protecting environment citing some examples.
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has played a significant role in protecting the environment in
India. Since its inception, the NGT has heard several cases related to environmental issues and
has issued orders and directives aimed at mitigating environmental harm.
Here are some examples of the role played by the NGT in protecting the environment:
1. Ban on Plastic: In 2016, the NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the
National Capital Region (NCR).
• The NGT's order directed the government to ensure that no plastic was used in
the NCR and that violators would be fined. The ban was implemented to reduce
plastic pollution, which was causing significant harm to the environment and
public health.
2. Regulating Construction Activities: In 2018, the NGT ordered a ban on all construction
activities in Delhi and the NCR, citing severe air pollution in the region.
• The NGT's order directed the government to ensure that construction activities
did not take place in the NCR until adequate measures were taken to control air
pollution.
3. Restoring Wetlands: In 2017, the NGT ordered the restoration of the wetlands in and
around Bengaluru.
• The NGT's order directed the government to ensure that the wetlands were
protected and restored, and no construction activities were allowed in the area.
The order was implemented to protect the biodiversity of the region and
maintain the ecological balance.
4. Regulating Mining Activities: In 2019, the NGT imposed a fine of Rs 100 crore on a
mining company in Odisha for violating environmental laws.
• The NGT's order directed the company to pay the fine and also ordered the
suspension of mining activities in the region. The order was implemented to
prevent environmental harm caused by mining activities, including air and water
pollution and damage to biodiversity.
6. Stopping Construction in Eco-Sensitive Areas: In 2016, the NGT ordered a halt to all
construction activities in the eco-sensitive areas of the Aravalli mountain range in
Haryana.
• The NGT found that the construction activities were causing significant harm to
the environment and wildlife in the area. The order has helped in protecting the
biodiversity and ecosystems of the Aravalli mountain range.
7. Monitoring River Cleaning Efforts: In 2017, the NGT set up a monitoring committee to
oversee the cleaning of the Yamuna river in Delhi.
• The NGT found that the government was not doing enough to clean the river, and
the monitoring committee was necessary to ensure that the cleaning efforts were
effective. The monitoring committee has helped in improving the quality of the
Yamuna river water.
8. Holding Industries Accountable for Pollution: In 2018, the NGT ordered four
industrial units in Delhi to pay a compensation of Rs. 5 crore for causing environmental
damage due to their activities.
• The NGT found that the units were polluting the air and water in the area, causing
harm to the environment and public health. The order has helped in holding
industries accountable for their environmental impact.
In conclusion, the NGT has played a crucial role in protecting the environment in India through
its decisions and orders. The examples cited above demonstrate the NGT's effectiveness in
addressing environmental issues and holding polluters accountable. The NGT's role in protecting
the environment is crucial in ensuring sustainable development and protecting the rights of
future generations
14. Critically analyze the NGT's achievements and suggest solutions to improve.
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has made significant achievements in protecting the
environment in India since its establishment in 2010. However, there are several challenges that
the NGT faces that could hinder its effectiveness in the future. Here's a critical analysis of the
NGT's achievements and suggestions for improvement:
Achievements of NGT:
1. Specialized Forum: The NGT has provided a specialized forum for the effective and
speedy disposal of cases related to environmental protection and conservation. This has
helped in ensuring that environmental disputes are resolved quickly and efficiently.
2. Environmental Justice: The NGT has played a crucial role in promoting environmental
justice and ensuring that environmental laws and regulations are enforced effectively. It
has helped in holding industries and individuals accountable for their environmental
impact.
2.1 Forests
Covered Syllabus: Forest resources- Commercialization of forests - Forest Acts vs Forest dwellers/
users.
1. Write a note on the Salient Features of India State of the Forest Report (ISFR), 2021.
India State of the Forest Report (ISFR), 2021 is the 17thedition of the biennial report published
by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change, Government of India. The report provides a comprehensive assessment of
the forest cover and tree resources in India, along with detailed information on the changes in
forest cover, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and forest-related policies and programs.
The salient features of the ISFR, 2021 are:
1. Total forest and tree cover: The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.6% of the
geographical area of the country.
• The Total Forest cover is 7,13,789 sq km which is 21.7% of the geographical area
of the country.
• The Tree cover is 2.9% of the geographical area of the country.
2. Increase in forest cover: According to the report, the total forest and tree cover in India
has increased marginally by 2261 square kilometers (0.28% in forest & tree cover;
0.06% in overall area) over the last two years. This includes a growth in forest cover of
0.22% while tree cover growth of 0.76%.
6. Discuss the evolution of forest acts in India in the context of the rights of the forest
dwellers. Or
Explain the tussle between Forest Acts and forest dwellers in India. How was this sought
to be addressed through the Forest Rights Act, 2006?
The evolution of forest acts in India has been marked by a shift in focus from the conservation of
forests to the recognition and protection of the rights of forest dwellers. During the colonial
period, forests in India were considered as a valuable natural resource that needed to be
conserved and exploited for economic gains. This led to the enactment of various forest acts such
as the Indian Forest Act of 1865 and the Forest Act of 1927, which declared forests as state
property and gave the government exclusive control over forest resources.
The Forest Acts led to the displacement and marginalization of millions of forest-dwelling
communities who depended on forests for their livelihoods. These communities were denied
access to forest resources and were treated as encroachers and criminals. The Forest Acts did
not recognize the customary rights and practices of forest-dwelling communities and did not
provide for their participation in the conservation and management of forests.
The recognition of the rights of forest-dwelling communities began with the enactment of the
Forest Conservation Act of 1980, which recognized the role of forest-dwelling communities in
the conservation of forests. The act provided for the involvement of forest-dwelling communities
in the management of forests and recognized their right to use and access forest resources for
their livelihoods.
However, it was the enactment of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 that marked a significant shift in
the recognition and protection of the rights of forest-dwelling communities. The act recognized
the rights of forest-dwelling communities to use, manage and conserve forest resources, and
aimed to ensure their participation in the conservation and management of forests. The act
recognized three types of forest rights: individual forest rights, community forest rights, and
habitat rights, and provided for their recognition and protection.
The evolution of forest acts in India has been marked by a gradual shift towards the recognition
and protection of the rights of forest-dwelling communities. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
represents a significant milestone in this regard, as it recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling
communities to access and use forest resources, and promotes their participation in the
conservation and management of forests. The act has helped to address the historical injustices
faced by forest-dwelling communities, and has empowered them to participate in the
conservation and management of forests. However, the implementation of the act has faced
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 192
several challenges, including lack of awareness among forest-dwelling communities about their
rights, inadequate resources for implementation, and resistance from vested interests.
2.2 Water
Covered Syllabus: Water: surface water and groundwater, competing demand for water -
drinking, industrial and agriculture.
7. Describe the total water resources of India divided into surface water and groundwater.
How much is replenished in terms of annual rainfall? How much of the rainfall can be
utilized?
India's total water resources include both surface water and groundwater. Surface water
resources refer to the water that is present in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other surface water
bodies, while groundwater resources refer to the water that is present underground in aquifers
(Aquifers are underground layers of rock or soil that hold and transmit water.).
As per the latest available data from the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, the total
usable water resources in India are estimated to be 1,120 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM), which
includes 690 BCM of surface water and 430 BCM of groundwater.
India receives an average annual rainfall of 1170 millimeters, leading to a total gross rainfall of
4000 BCM, which is the main source of replenishment for its water resources. This rainfall is
distributed unevenly across the country and varies from region to region, with some areas
receiving very high rainfall and others receiving very little.
However, not all of the rainfall can be utilized for various purposes due to several reasons such
as insufficient storage capacity, lack of proper management, and inadequate infrastructure. As
per the Central Water Commission, the utilizable water resources of India are estimated to be
around 690 BCM (out of the total 4000 BCM), which is equivalent to the surface water resources
of the country.
In summary, India's total water resources are estimated to be 1,120 BCM, which includes 690
BCM of surface water and 430 BCM of groundwater. The annual replenishment of these
resources comes from an average annual rainfall of 1170 millimeters, but the utilizable water
resources are only around 690 BCM.
8. Analyse the demand for water in India by domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors.
India is one of the world's most water-stressed countries, with limited water resources and a
rapidly growing population. The demand for water in India is primarily driven by three sectors:
domestic, industrial, and agricultural.
1. Domestic sector: The domestic sector includes household and municipal water use. The
domestic sector is the smallest water consumer in terms of volume but plays a critical
role in meeting the basic needs of people. According to the Central Water Commission
(CWC), the domestic sector's total water demand in India is estimated to be around 8%
of the total water demand. In urban areas, the demand for domestic water is much
higher, accounting for up to 50% of the total water demand.
2. Industrial sector: The industrial sector is the second-largest water consumer in India,
accounting for around 5% of the total water consumption. The demand for water in the
industrial sector is primarily driven by the manufacturing and mining industries.
Industries such as textiles, paper, and chemicals are significant water consumers. The
9. Discuss the water crisis being faced by India.Provide relevant examples and statistics.
India is currently facing a severe water crisis, particularly in many parts of the country where
water scarcity has become a major issue. Here are some examples and numbers that illustrate
the water crisis in India:
1. Overexploitation and depletion of groundwater: India is the largest user of
groundwater in the world, with around 230 billion cubic meters of groundwater
extracted annually for various uses such as irrigation, drinking water, and industrial
purposes. However, overexploitation and depletion of groundwater resources have led to
a significant decline in water levels in many parts of the country. As per the Central
Ground Water Board, around 60% of India's districts are currently facing a groundwater
crisis, with water levels declining at an alarming rate of 0.3 meters per year.
2. Erratic rainfall patterns: Climate change and erratic rainfall patterns have also
contributed to the worsening water situation in the country. In 2019, India received 10%
below-average rainfall during the monsoon season, which resulted in drought-like
conditions in many parts of the country. This affected agriculture, which is the largest
consumer of water in India, and led to crop failures and loss of livelihoods for farmers.
3. Water scarcity in urban areas: Rapid urbanization and population growth have put
immense pressure on water resources in urban areas. According to a report by the
For example, if a particular level of groundwater level is maintained, higher MSP can be provided
to the farmers of that region.
MSP can also be provided based on crop’s water usage = Crops that consume a high amount of
water will get less MSP.
In summary, addressing the water crisis in India requires a multi-faceted approach that involves
adopting good water management practices, interlinking of rivers, coordination in acquifer
usage, establishing River basis authority, coordinating efforts among states, community level
management, charging money for water usage, good farming practices, and incentivizing water
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 196
conservation. A sustained effort by the government, civil society, and other stakeholders is
needed to ensure sustainable and equitable access to water for all.
12. What is rain water harvesting? How is rain water harvesting implemented? How can
India benefit from rainwater harvesting?
Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting, storing and using rainwater for various
purposes such as irrigation, drinking water, and groundwater recharge. It involves the collection
of rainwater from rooftops, surface runoff, and other catchment areas, and its storage in tanks or
underground reservoirs for later use.
Rainwater harvesting can be implemented in various ways, depending on the local conditions
and the purpose of the harvesting. Some common methods of rainwater harvesting include:
1. Rooftop rainwater harvesting: This involves collecting rainwater from rooftops using
gutters and downspouts, and storing it in tanks or underground cisterns.
2. Surface runoff harvesting: This involves collecting rainwater from paved or unpaved
surfaces such as roads, parking lots, and fields, and diverting it into storage tanks or
recharge pits.
13. Describe the salient features of National Water Policy, 2012 of India.
The National Water Policy of India was last revised in 2012, and it provides guidelines for the
development and management of water resources in the country.
Some of the salient features of the National Water Policy, 2012 are:
1. Comprehensive and integrated approach: The policy emphasizes the need for a
comprehensive and integrated approach to water resource management, including
conservation, efficient use, and equitable distribution of water resources.
2. Participatory approach: The policy recognizes the importance of involving all
stakeholders in water management, including local communities, NGOs, and private
sector organizations.
3. Demand-side management: The policy emphasizes the need for demand-side
management measures, such as water conservation and efficient use of water, to reduce
the pressure on water resources.
4. River basin approach: The policy promotes a river basin approach to water
management, which involves planning and management of water resources at the river
basin level, rather than individual projects or schemes.
5. Water pricing: The policy emphasizes the need for appropriate water pricing
mechanisms, which reflect the true value of water and encourage efficient use of water.
6. Groundwater management: The policy recognizes the importance of groundwater
resources and emphasizes the need for sustainable management of groundwater,
including regulation of groundwater use, promotion of recharge, and prevention of over-
exploitation.
14. Write about the methods to boost efficiency in water utility and conservation.
Boosting efficiency in water utility and conservation is crucial to ensure sustainable
management of water resources, especially in the face of increasing demand and scarcity of
water in many parts of the world. Here are some methods that can be used to improve efficiency
in water utility and conservation:
1. Leak detection and repair: Water leaks in distribution systems can result in significant
loss of water and reduced efficiency. Regular monitoring and repair of leaks can help
reduce water loss and improve the efficiency of water distribution.
2. Water metering and billing: Accurate metering and billing of water consumption can
help identify areas of high consumption and encourage users to conserve water.
3. Water pricing: Appropriate water pricing mechanisms, such as tiered pricing, can
encourage efficient use of water and discourage wasteful consumption.
4. Demand-side management: Implementing demand-side management measures, such
as water conservation campaigns and water-efficient fixtures and appliances, can reduce
water consumption and improve efficiency.
5. Recycling and reuse: Implementing systems for recycling and reuse of wastewater can
help reduce demand for freshwater and improve efficiency in water management.
6. Rainwater harvesting: Harvesting and using rainwater can help augment the
availability of water and reduce demand for freshwater.
7. Smart water management: Using advanced technologies such as remote sensing,
Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence (AI) can help optimize water
management and improve efficiency.
8. Groundwater management: Regulating groundwater use and promoting recharge of
aquifers can help ensure sustainable use of groundwater resources and improve
efficiency.
9. Green infrastructure: Implementing green infrastructure such as rain gardens, green
roofs, and bioswales can help reduce stormwater runoff and recharge groundwater
resources.
10. Policy and regulatory framework: Developing and implementing effective policies and
regulations can help promote sustainable water management practices and improve
efficiency in water utility and conservation.
Overall, a combination of these methods can help improve the efficiency of water utility and
conservation, reduce wastage, and promote sustainable use of water resources.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 199
15. What is watershed? Highlight the importance of watershed in conserving the natural
resources.
A watershed is an area of land where all of the water that falls within it drains to a common
point, such as a river, lake, or ocean. It includes all of the land and water bodies, as well as the
plants, animals, and people that depend on them. Watersheds can vary in size from a few acres to
entire river basins.
Watersheds are essential for conserving natural resources because they are the source of many
of the resources we depend on, such as water, food, and energy. Here are some key ways in
which watersheds are important for conserving natural resources:
1. Water supply: Watersheds are the source of most of our freshwater resources, including
drinking water, irrigation water, and water for industrial and commercial uses.
Conserving and managing watersheds is essential to ensure a sustainable supply of water
for all uses.
2. Biodiversity: Watersheds are home to a wide range of plant and animal species, many of
which are unique to specific watersheds. Conserving watersheds is essential to protect
biodiversity and prevent the loss of species.
3. Soil conservation: Watersheds are essential for soil conservation because they regulate
the flow of water and prevent soil erosion. Conserving watersheds helps maintain soil
fertility and prevent soil degradation.
4. Climate regulation: Watersheds play an important role in regulating the climate by
storing and releasing water, regulating temperature, and absorbing carbon dioxide.
Conserving watersheds can help mitigate the impacts of climate change by reducing
carbon emissions and increasing resilience to extreme weather events.
5. Economic benefits: Watersheds provide a range of economic benefits, including fishing,
agriculture, forestry, and recreation. Conserving watersheds can help ensure sustainable
economic development and provide long-term benefits for local communities.
Overall, watersheds are essential for conserving natural resources and ensuring sustainable
development. By protecting and managing watersheds, we can ensure a sustainable supply of
water, protect biodiversity, maintain soil fertility, regulate the climate, and support economic
development.
16. India has many traditional water harvesting systems. List some of these traditional
water harvesting systems along with the areas in which they are found.
India has a rich heritage of traditional water harvesting systems that have been used for
centuries to capture and conserve rainwater. Here are some of the traditional water harvesting
systems found in different parts of India:
1. Rooftop rainwater harvesting: This system involves collecting rainwater from rooftops
and storing it in tanks for later use. This system is found in various parts of India,
including Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
2. Tankas: Tankas are underground tanks that are used to collect and store rainwater. This
system is found in Rajasthan and other parts of North India.
3. Johads: Johads are earthen dams that are built across small streams to conserve
rainwater. This system is found in Rajasthan, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.
17. Write about the total land resources of India and their distribution based on different
uses that land is put to.
India has a total land area of approximately 3.28 million square kilometers, which is divided into
different land uses based on factors such as geography, climate, and population density.
The following are the different land resources and their distribution based on usage in India:
1. Agricultural land: India is predominantly an agricultural country, with approximately
60% of its total land area dedicated to agriculture. The agricultural land is mainly used
for cultivating crops such as wheat, rice, maize, and sugarcane. The states with the
largest agricultural land area are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
2. Forests: India has a total forest cover of around 24% of its total land area including tree
cover. The forests in India are distributed across the country, with the highest forest
cover in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.
3. Urban land: India has witnessed rapid urbanization in the last few decades, with the
urban land area increasing from 2.5% in 1901 to around 7.5% in 2011. The urban land is
mainly used for residential and commercial purposes, and the highest concentration of
urban areas is in the states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh.
4. Pasture and grazing land: India has a significant livestock population, and around 4.5%
of its total land area is used for pasture and grazing land. These lands are mainly found in
18. Write a note on the competing uses of land in India for food, feed, fuel, and fibre.
India faces several challenges in managing its land resources, as there are competing uses for
different purposes, such as food, feed, fuel, and fibre.
1. Food: India is the second-most populous country in the world, and food security is a
significant concern. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for over 50% of the
Indian population, and around 60% of the total land area is dedicated to agriculture.
However, with increasing population pressure and land degradation, ensuring food
security remains a significant challenge.
2. Feed: India has a significant livestock population, and around 4.5% of the total land area
is used for pasture and grazing land. However, the demand for animal feed is increasing
with the growth of the dairy and meat industry, leading to the diversion of agricultural
land for fodder production.
3. Fuel: With the increasing demand for energy, there is a growing interest in using biofuels
as a renewable energy source. The production of biofuels requires land resources,
primarily for growing crops such as sugarcane, oilseeds, and jatropha. This has led to the
diversion of agricultural land for biofuel production, leading to concerns about food
security.
4. Fibre: India is one of the largest producers of cotton in the world, and cotton cultivation
requires significant land resources. The demand for cotton and other fibers for the textile
industry is increasing, leading to the expansion of cotton cultivation and other fiber
crops, leading to the conversion of forest and agricultural land.
In conclusion, India's land resources face competing uses for food, feed, fuel, and fiber, leading to
several challenges such as food security, land degradation, and environmental concerns.
Addressing these challenges requires sustainable land management practices that balance the
competing uses of land and promote inclusive and equitable development.
20. Discuss the measures for improving the land resources in India.
Improving land resources in India requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the root
causes of land degradation, promotes sustainable land management practices, and enhances the
resilience of communities and ecosystems.
Improving the management of land resources is essential for promoting sustainable
development and addressing the challenges of food security, livelihoods, and environmental
sustainability. Here are some measures for improving the land resources in India:
1. Sustainable land management practices: The adoption of sustainable land
management practices such as conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and sustainable
grazing practices can improve soil health, reduce soil erosion, and enhance agricultural
productivity.
2. Land-use planning: The development of land-use plans at the regional and local levels
can help balance competing demands for land resources and promote equitable and
sustainable land use.
3. Watershed management: Watershed management practices such as rainwater
harvesting, soil and water conservation measures, and sustainable irrigation practices
can enhance water availability, reduce soil erosion, and improve agricultural
productivity.
4. Forest conservation and restoration: Forest conservation and restoration measures
such as afforestation, reforestation, and restoration of degraded forests can enhance
biodiversity, improve soil health, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
22. What is the need for the reclamation or improvement of wastelands in India?
There are several needs for the reclamation of wastelands in India:
1. Increase in the availability of cultivable land: India has a large population and limited
arable land. Developing wastelands can provide additional land for cultivation, which can
help increase agricultural productivity and food security.
2. Prevention of soil erosion: Wastelands are often prone to soil erosion, which can have
serious consequences for the environment and local communities. Developing these
areas can help prevent soil erosion and restore ecological balance.
3. Promotion of rural livelihoods: Developing wastelands can create employment
opportunities for rural communities and help promote sustainable livelihoods.
4. Promotion of biodiversity: Wastelands can be restored to support the growth of native
plants and animals, which can help promote biodiversity and ecosystem health.
11. What is meant by ecological succession? Discuss the types and significance of
ecological succession.
Ecological succession is the process by which an ecosystem changes over time as a result of both
biotic and abiotic factors. It involves the gradual replacement of one community of organisms by
another until a stable and self-sustaining community, known as a climax community, is
established.
There are two primary types of ecological succession:
1. Primary succession: Primary succession occurs in an area that has not previously
supported life, such as a newly formed volcanic island or a bare rock surface. The process
begins with the colonization of pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, which
gradually transform the environment by breaking down rock and soil and creating
organic matter. As the environment becomes more hospitable, larger and more complex
plant and animal communities become established, leading to the eventual development
of a climax community.
2. Secondary succession: Secondary succession occurs in an area that has been disturbed
or disrupted by natural or human-caused events, such as a wildfire, flood, or abandoned
agricultural land. In this case, the process begins with the re-establishment of species
that survived the disturbance, such as weeds and grasses. These species gradually
transform the environment and create conditions that are more suitable for the re-
establishment of other plant and animal communities. Over time, the ecosystem may
return to a state similar to its previous condition or develop a new climax community.
The significance of ecological succession lies in its ability to restore and maintain the health and
resilience of ecosystems. Succession plays a critical role in the recovery of ecosystems that have
been damaged or disrupted by natural or human-caused events. It also allows for the adaptation
of ecosystems to changing environmental conditions, such as climate change, and the
development of more diverse and stable communities of organisms.
Furthermore, succession can also have economic and cultural significance. For example,
secondary succession can lead to the re-establishment of valuable timber or agricultural lands,
while primary succession can create new habitats for ecotourism and recreation.
In summary, ecological succession is a natural process that allows ecosystems to adapt and
evolve over time. Understanding the factors that influence succession and its role in ecosystem
functioning is essential for effective ecosystem management and conservation.
3.4 Biodiversity
Covered Syllabus: Bio diversity and its conservation, Types of Bio diversity, threat to Bio diversity.
15. What is biodiversity? Trace the evolution of the concept of biodiversity.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the diversity of species, genetic
diversity, and ecosystem diversity. It encompasses all living organisms, from the smallest
bacteria to the largest animals, and their interactions with each other and their environment.
The concept of biodiversity has evolved over time. In the past, biodiversity was often measured
in terms of the number of species present in a particular area. However, as scientists began to
recognize the importance of genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity, the definition of
biodiversity expanded to include these aspects.
The term "biodiversity" was first coined in the mid-1980s by biologist Edward O. Wilson. Wilson
was concerned about the rapid loss of species due to human activities, such as habitat
destruction and pollution, and he saw biodiversity as a way to measure and conserve the
richness of life on Earth.
Since then, the concept of biodiversity has become increasingly important in conservation
biology and ecology. In 1992, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity was
established to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The convention
recognizes biodiversity as a vital resource for human well-being and emphasizes the importance
of protecting it for future generations.
Today, biodiversity is considered essential for maintaining the functioning of ecosystems and the
provision of ecosystem services, such as clean water, air, and food. It is also recognized as a key
indicator of the health of the planet and the potential impact of human activities on the
environment.
In conclusion, the concept of biodiversity has evolved over time, from a focus on species
diversity to a broader understanding that includes genetic and ecosystem diversity. This
evolution reflects a growing recognition of the importance of biodiversity for the health of the
planet and the well-being of humanity.
18. Biodiversity is rapidly decreasing in the last few decades. In this context, write about
the various threats to biodiversity with examples.
Biodiversity is facing numerous threats due to human activities. Here are some of the main
threats to biodiversity with suitable examples:
1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Habitat loss and fragmentation occur when natural
habitats are destroyed or broken up into smaller fragments. This can occur due to human
activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture. For example, the
destruction of the Amazon rainforest for agricultural purposes is a major threat to the
biodiversity of the region.
2. Climate Change: Climate change is a major threat to biodiversity as it can alter the
distribution and abundance of species, and cause changes in ecosystem functioning. For
example, the warming of the oceans is leading to the loss of coral reefs, which are
important habitats for a range of marine species.
3. Pollution: Pollution can harm biodiversity by contaminating habitats and causing harm
to species. For example, the release of chemicals and pollutants into rivers and oceans
can harm fish and other aquatic species.
4. Overexploitation: Overexploitation occurs when species are harvested or used at a rate
that exceeds their natural rate of reproduction. For example, overfishing is a major threat
to the biodiversity of marine ecosystems.
5. Invasive Alien Species: Invasive Alien species can harm biodiversity by outcompeting
native species for resources and altering ecosystem functioning. For example, the
introduction of the Asian carp to the Great Lakes region of North America is threatening
native fish species.
6. Wildlife Trade: Wildlife trade can harm biodiversity by putting pressure on species that
are already threatened or endangered. For example, the demand for elephant ivory and
rhino horn is contributing to the decline of these species.
7. Disease: Disease outbreaks can harm biodiversity by reducing the population sizes of
species and altering ecosystem functioning. For example, the spread of Canine Distemper
Virus in lions in Gir forest of India led to massive deaths among them.
In conclusion, biodiversity faces a range of threats due to human activities, including habitat loss
and fragmentation, climate change, invasive species, wildlife trade, pollution, and disease. By
taking action to address these threats, we can work to protect and preserve the diversity of life
on Earth.
20. What is biodiversity hotspot? Trace the evolution of the concept of biodiversity
hotspot.
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of
biodiversity and under threat from human activities. These regions contain a high proportion of
endemic species and have suffered significant habitat loss, making them important targets for
conservation efforts.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was first introduced in 1988 by Norman Myers, an English
environmentalist and biologist. Myers identified 10 regions in the world that met the criteria for
a biodiversity hotspot, including the Tropical Andes, the Mediterranean Basin, and the Eastern
Arc Mountains. He argued that these regions were important for conservation efforts because
they contained a high proportion of the world's plant and animal species, many of which were
endemic, and were under threat from human activities.
Since then, the concept of biodiversity hotspots has been refined and expanded. In 1990, Myers
and colleagues updated the list of hotspots to include 18 regions, and in 1999, Conservation
International further refined the criteria to include the requirement that a hotspot must have
lost at least 70% of its original habitat. Currently a total of 36 biodiversity hotspots are identified
in the world.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots has been widely adopted by conservation organizations and
governments around the world as a means of prioritizing conservation efforts. By focusing
resources on these regions, it is hoped that biodiversity loss can be slowed and species can be
protected from extinction. However, some critics have argued that the concept of hotspots is too
simplistic and ignores the value of biodiversity outside of these regions. Nevertheless, the idea of
biodiversity hotspots remains an important tool for conservation efforts today.
The IUCN classification system is based on a set of criteria that assess the extinction risk of a
species. The system categorizes species into eight categories, each with its own criteria for
assessment:
1. Extinct (EX): A species is considered extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the
last individual has died.
2. Extinct in the Wild (EW): A species is considered extinct in the wild when it only exists
in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range.
3. Critically Endangered (CR): A species is considered critically endangered when it faces
an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
4. Endangered (EN): A species is considered endangered when it faces a very high risk of
extinction in the wild.
5. Vulnerable (VU): A species is considered vulnerable when it faces a high risk of
extinction in the wild.
6. Near Threatened (NT): A species is considered near threatened when it is close to
qualifying for a threatened category, but does not currently meet the criteria.
7. Least Concern (LC): A species is considered least concern when it does not meet any of
the criteria for a threatened category.
8. Data Deficient (DD): A species is considered data deficient when there is not enough
information available to assess its extinction risk.
The IUCN classification system is widely used by conservation organizations, governments, and
researchers to prioritize conservation efforts and allocate resources to protect species at risk of
extinction. It has played a critical role in raising awareness about the extinction crisis and has
been instrumental in guiding conservation efforts around the world.
25. Compare and contrast between National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries are both protected areas in India that aim to conserve
wildlife and their habitats. However, there are some differences between the two:
Feature National Parks Wildlife Sanctuaries
Legal Status Established under the Wildlife Established under the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 Protection Act, 1972
Purpose To conserve natural landscapes To protect and conserve specific
and wildlife species wildlife species
Size Generally larger in size than Smaller in size than National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Accessibility Limited access and activities for Often open to visitors with
tourists restricted activities
Management Managed by the central Managed by the state government
28. Briefly explain the salient features of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 is a comprehensive legislation enacted by the Government of
India to protect and conserve wildlife and their habitats. Some of the salient features of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 include:
1. Prohibition on hunting: The act prohibits hunting of any wild animal listed in the
schedules of the act, thereby providing legal protection to a wide range of species from
being hunted or killed.
2. Protected areas: The act empowers the government to declare certain areas as national
parks, sanctuaries, and closed areas for the protection and conservation of wildlife and
their habitats. These protected areas serve as crucial habitats for various species of
wildlife.
3. Regulated trade: The act regulates the trade of wildlife and their derivatives through a
system of permits and licenses. It prohibits the trade of endangered species listed in the
schedules of the act, thereby curbing illegal trade and promoting conservation.
4. Conservation of habitats: The act recognizes the importance of protecting the habitats
of wildlife and empowers the government to take measures for the conservation of
forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems that are critical for wildlife survival.
5. Endangered species conservation: The act provides for the conservation of
endangered species by listing them in the schedules of the act and imposing strict
penalties for their hunting, killing, or trade.
6. Conservation authorities: The act establishes various authorities at the national, state,
and local levels, such as the National Board for Wildlife, State Wildlife Advisory Boards,
and Wildlife Wardens, to oversee the implementation of wildlife conservation measures
and ensure effective protection of wildlife.
29. Write a brief note on the major international agreements to conserve biodiversity?
There are several major international agreements and conventions that have been established to
conserve biodiversity. Some of the most important ones are:
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): This is the most important global
agreement that was established in 1992 and has been ratified by 196 countries. The CBD
aims to conserve biodiversity, ensure its sustainable use, and promote the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
2. Nagoya Protocol: The Nagoya Protocol is a supplementary agreement to the CBD that
was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The protocol aims to ensure that the benefits
arising from the utilization of genetic resources are shared fairly and equitably between
the providers and users of these resources. It also promotes the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity.
3. Cartagena Protocol: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international agreement
under the CBD that aims to protect biodiversity from potential risks posed by living
modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. The protocol seeks to
ensure that the transboundary movement, handling, and use of LMOs are done safely,
taking into account the potential risks to human health and the environment
4. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES): This is an international agreement that was established in 1973 and has been
ratified by 183 countries. CITES aims to ensure that international trade in wild animals
and plants does not threaten their survival.
5. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: This is an international treaty that was established
in 1971 and has been ratified by 171 countries. The Ramsar Convention aims to conserve
and protect wetlands and their biodiversity.
6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This is an
international treaty that was established in 1992 and has been ratified by 197 countries.
The UNFCCC aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to
prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.
These agreements and conventions provide a framework for international cooperation and
action to conserve biodiversity and protect the natural world. They recognize the importance of
biodiversity for human well-being and the need to take action to protect it. The agreements also
30. What is Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? What are its objectives?
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a global agreement that was established in 1992
and has been ratified by 196 countries.
Its main objectives are to conserve biodiversity, ensure its sustainable use, and promote the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
The CBD recognizes that biodiversity is essential to the functioning of ecosystems and to human
well-being, and that its loss threatens the sustainability of life on Earth. The Convention calls on
all signatory countries to take action to protect biodiversity and to integrate conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources into their national development plans and policies.
The CBD has three main objectives:
1. Conservation of biodiversity: The CBD calls on countries to identify and protect
important ecosystems and species, and to develop and implement strategies for the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. Sustainable use of biodiversity: The CBD recognizes the importance of using
biodiversity in a sustainable way, and calls on countries to promote sustainable practices
in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, and forestry.
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits: The CBD acknowledges that the benefits arising
from the use of genetic resources should be shared in a fair and equitable way, and calls
on countries to establish legal frameworks to govern access to genetic resources and the
sharing of benefits arising from their use.
To achieve these objectives, the CBD encourages international cooperation and collaboration,
and provides a framework for countries to work together to address global challenges such as
climate change and the loss of biodiversity.
Pollution can occur from a variety of sources, including industrial activities, transportation,
agricultural practices, and household waste.
• Air pollution, for example, is caused by the release of harmful chemicals and particles
into the atmosphere from sources such as factories, power plants, and vehicles. This can
lead to respiratory problems, allergies, and other health issues in humans and animals.
• Water pollution occurs when toxic substances, waste products, or chemicals are dumped
into bodies of water, making it unfit for human consumption and harming aquatic life.
• Soil pollution can also occur due to the disposal of hazardous waste, agricultural
chemicals, and other pollutants.
Environmental pollution can have severe consequences for the planet, including climate change,
loss of biodiversity, and the destruction of natural habitats. Addressing environmental pollution
requires a concerted effort from individuals, organizations, and governments to reduce
emissions, recycle waste, and adopt sustainable practices. By taking action to mitigate pollution,
we can help preserve the health and well-being of the planet and its inhabitants.
Reducing the emission of these pollutants is critical to protecting public health and the
environment.
4. How can air pollutants be classified? Or What are the primary and secondary air
pollutants?
Air pollutants can be classified in different ways, but one common classification is based on their
origin and their effects on the environment and human health. Based on this classification, air
pollutants can be categorized into primary and secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from a source. Examples
include:
1. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from power plants and factories that burn coal or oil.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO) from vehicle exhaust.
3. Particulate matter (PM) from construction sites, unpaved roads, and wildfires.
4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) from vehicle exhaust and power plants.
Both primary and secondary pollutants can have harmful effects on human health and the
environment. Therefore, it is important to reduce emissions of both types of pollutants through
regulations, policies, and individual actions.
Here are some of the health hazards associated with major air pollutants:
1. Particulate matter (PM): Exposure to PM can cause respiratory problems such as
coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath, as well as heart disease, stroke, and lung
cancer. PM can also exacerbate existing health conditions such as asthma and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Exposure to NOx can cause respiratory problems, such as
coughing and wheezing, and can exacerbate asthma symptoms. NOx can also contribute
to the formation of ground-level ozone and particulate matter, which can have additional
health effects.
3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Exposure to SO2 can cause respiratory problems such as coughing
and wheezing, and can exacerbate asthma symptoms. SO2 can also contribute to the
formation of acid rain, which can damage crops and other vegetation.
4. Ozone (O3): Exposure to ozone can cause respiratory problems such as coughing,
wheezing, and shortness of breath. Ozone can also exacerbate existing health conditions
such as asthma and COPD, and can reduce lung function.
5. Carbon monoxide (CO): Exposure to high levels of CO can be deadly, causing headaches,
nausea, dizziness, confusion, and even death. Lower levels of exposure can cause fatigue,
headaches, and chest pain.
6. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Exposure to VOCs can cause respiratory
problems, such as coughing and wheezing, as well as headaches, dizziness, and nausea.
Some VOCs are also carcinogenic and can cause cancer.
Overall, air pollution can have serious health consequences, particularly for vulnerable
populations such as children, the elderly, and people with pre-existing health conditions.
Reducing air pollution can therefore have significant public health benefits.
Overall, preventing and mitigating air pollution requires a multi-pronged approach involving
individual actions, government policies, and technological solutions. By taking steps to reduce
emissions, we can protect public health and the environment.
7. What is Particulate Matter? Write about the sources and types of particulate matter.
Particulate matter (PM) refers to tiny particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air.
These particles can be made up of a variety of substances, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and
chemicals. PM is a major air pollutant and can have harmful effects on human health and the
environment.
Sources of particulate matter include both natural and human-made sources. Some examples of
sources of particulate matter are:
1. Natural sources: PM can come
from natural sources such as
dust storms, wildfires, and
volcanic eruptions.
2. Human-made sources: PM can
come from human-made sources
such as vehicle exhaust,
industrial processes,
construction sites, and burning
of fossil fuels.
8. Discuss the health impacts of particulate matter. Also suggest the ways to minimize
particulate matter pollution.
Exposure to particulate matter (PM) can have a range of harmful health effects, depending on the
size of the particles and the duration and frequency of exposure.
9. What are the most common and hazardous pollutants in indoor air? What are their
impacts? Suggest measures to minimize indoor pollution.
The most common and hazardous pollutants in indoor air can vary depending on the location
and the activities taking place in the building.
10. What is Acid rain? Explain how acid rains occur, their impacts, and the measures to
prevent acid rains.
Acid rain is a form of precipitation that is acidic, with a pH lower than 5.6. It is formed when
emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from human activities such as
burning fossil fuels react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere. These
emissions can be transported over long distances by the wind and can fall back to the earth's
surface as acid rain.
1. Reducing emissions:
The primary way to
prevent acid rain is to
reduce emissions of
sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. This can
be done by using cleaner
fuels and technologies,
reducing energy
consumption, and
implementing emissions
controls on power plants
and other industrial sources.
2. Using alternative energy sources: Using renewable energy sources such as solar and
wind power can reduce the amount of fossil fuels burned and thereby reduce emissions
of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
3. Promoting energy efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, vehicles, and
appliances can reduce energy consumption and the associated emissions of pollutants.
4. Implementing international agreements: International agreements such as the Acid
Rain Program in the United States and the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution in Europe have been successful in reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides and thereby reducing the incidence of acid rain.
5. Supporting research and development: Investing in research and development of
cleaner technologies and alternative energy sources can help develop new solutions to
prevent acid rain.
Overall, by taking measures to prevent acid rain, we can protect the environment and human
health and reduce the economic costs associated with damage to infrastructure and natural
resources.
11. What is AQI (Air Quality Index)? Who monitors AQI in India? What is the contribution
of PM to AQI?
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a numerical scale used to measure the quality of air and provide
information about air pollution levels to the public. It is based on measurements of various air
pollutants, including particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) monitors the AQI in various cities across the
country. The CPCB uses data from continuous air quality monitoring stations to calculate the AQI
and provides real-time air quality information to the public through various platforms, including
websites and mobile apps.
In many Indian cities, high levels of PM2.5 are a significant contributor to the poor air quality
and high AQI readings. Measures to reduce PM emissions, such as promoting cleaner fuels,
implementing emissions controls on vehicles and industrial sources, and improving public
transportation and active transportation options, can help improve air quality and reduce the
AQI in India.
12. What does the term electrostatic precipitation refer to? Elaborate on how an
electrostatic precipitator works.
Electrostatic precipitation is a technology used to remove particulate matter (PM) from industrial
exhaust gases using an electrostatically charged surface. An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is the
device that uses this technology.
An electrostatic precipitator consists of a series of metal plates or tubes that are electrically
charged with a high voltage DC power supply. The plates are arranged parallel to each other, and
the exhaust gases are passed between them. As the gases pass through the plates, the particulate
matter becomes electrically charged and is attracted to the charged plates. The plates are
periodically cleaned by a process called rapping, where they are shaken to remove the
accumulated particulate matter.
13. Write about the evolution of the Bharat Stage (BS) Emission norms of India.
The Bharat Stage (BS) emission norms are a set of regulations implemented by the Indian
government to control the emissions of pollutants from vehicles with internal combustion
engines.
The BS norms are based on European emission standards and are progressively more stringent,
with each new stage setting stricter limits on the levels of pollutants allowed in vehicle exhaust
emissions.
The evolution of the Bharat Stage emission norms in India can be traced back to the year 2000
when the first BS-I norms were introduced for four-wheeler vehicles in Delhi. These standards
were equivalent to the Euro 1 emission standards and set limits on the levels of carbon
In 2005, the BS-II norms were introduced in Delhi, and subsequently in other metro cities, which
were equivalent to the Euro 2 standards. The BS-II norms further reduced the limits on CO, HC,
and NOx emissions and also introduced limits on the levels of particulate matter (PM) emissions.
In 2010, the BS-III norms were implemented, which were equivalent to the Euro 3 standards.
The BS-III norms introduced further reductions in the limits on CO, HC, and NOx emissions, as
well as stricter limits on PM emissions.
In 2017, the BS-IV norms were implemented across the country, which were equivalent to the
Euro 4 standards. The BS-IV norms reduced the limits on all major pollutants, including CO, HC,
NOx, and PM emissions.
In 2020, the BS-VI norms were implemented across the country, which are equivalent to the
Euro 6 standards. India skipped BS – V and went direct to BS – VI from BS – IV. The BS-VI norms
set the strictest limits on all major pollutants, including a significant reduction in the limit of
sulfur content in fuel, which has been reduced from 50 parts per million (ppm) to 10 ppm.
The evolution of the Bharat Stage emission norms shows the government's commitment to
reducing vehicle emissions and improving air quality in India. The implementation of the BS-VI
norms has resulted in a significant reduction in vehicle emissions and has helped improve air
quality in many cities across the country.
Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged into water bodies without proper
treatment, or when natural water sources are contaminated by chemicals, waste products, and
other harmful substances.
In summary, water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by pollutants, which can be
caused by a variety of factors such as industrial and agricultural activities, domestic waste, oil
spills, improper disposal of hazardous waste, landfills, and mining activities. These pollutants
can cause long-term damage to the ecosystem and pose a threat to human health.
1. Health problems: Water pollution can lead to a variety of health problems such as
gastrointestinal illnesses, skin diseases, reproductive problems, and neurological
disorders. Waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery are also common
in areas with high levels of water pollution.
2. Loss of biodiversity: Water pollution can have a devastating impact on aquatic life,
leading to the loss of biodiversity. Fish and other aquatic animals can die or become sick
when exposed to high levels of pollutants. This can disrupt the food chain and impact the
entire ecosystem.
3. Reduced recreational opportunities: Water pollution can make lakes, rivers, and
beaches unsafe for swimming and other recreational activities. This can lead to a loss of
tourism revenue and reduced quality of life for residents.
4. Economic impacts: Water pollution can have significant economic impacts, such as
decreased property values and increased healthcare costs. Industries that rely on clean
water sources, such as fishing and tourism, can also suffer.
5. Groundwater contamination: Water pollution can contaminate groundwater sources,
which can be a major source of drinking water. Contaminated groundwater can be
difficult and expensive to treat, and can cause serious health problems for those who
consume it.
6. Algal blooms: Water pollution can cause excessive growth of algae in water bodies,
leading to the formation of harmful algal blooms. These blooms can produce toxins that
are harmful to humans and animals, and can also lead to oxygen depletion in the water,
resulting in the death of aquatic life.
In summary, water pollution can have serious and far-reaching effects on human health, aquatic
life, and the environment. It is important to take measures to prevent water pollution and ensure
that our water sources remain clean and safe for all to use.
17. Write in detail about the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted by the Indian Parliament in
1974 to prevent and control water pollution in India. The act was amended in 1988 to provide
more stringent measures for pollution control.
The key provisions of the act include:
1. Establishment of State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) to regulate and enforce the provisions of the act.
2. Prohibition of discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a prescribed limit.
3. Setting of water quality standards for various uses of water, such as drinking, bathing,
and industrial use.
4. Issuance of consent for the establishment and operation of industries that discharge
pollutants into water bodies.
5. Inspection of industries and establishments to ensure compliance with the provisions of
the act.
18. Define Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and write its importance.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required by
microorganisms to decompose the organic matter present in a water sample. It is expressed in
milligrams of oxygen per liter of water (mg/L). The BOD test is conducted over a period of five
days, and hence it is also called the 5-day BOD test.
BOD is an important parameter in assessing the water quality, as it indicates the level of organic
pollution in the water. The higher the BOD value, the higher the level of organic pollution, and
hence the lower the water quality.
The significance of BOD lies in its ability to measure the level of organic pollution in water
bodies. Organic pollutants such as sewage, agricultural runoff, and industrial discharge can lead
to high BOD values, indicating a lower quality of water. High BOD levels can also result in the
depletion of dissolved oxygen in water, which can harm aquatic life and cause eutrophication.
Therefore, BOD serves as an important tool for the assessment and management of water
resources.
BOD is also used to design and monitor wastewater treatment plants. By measuring the BOD of
influent and effluent wastewater, the efficiency of the treatment plant can be evaluated, and the
required treatment process can be determined.
In conclusion, BOD is an important parameter in assessing water quality, and its measurement is
essential in the management and treatment of wastewater.
20. Discuss briefly the major causes and impacts of soil pollution.
Soil pollution is caused by a variety of human activities, including industrial activities,
agricultural practices, and improper waste disposal. The major causes of soil pollution are:
1. Industrial activities: Industries release a variety of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and
other pollutants into the soil. These pollutants can persist in the soil for long periods and
can harm soil fertility and plant growth.
2. Agricultural practices: The use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers in agriculture
can lead to soil pollution. These chemicals can leach into the soil and contaminate
groundwater, affecting soil fertility and harming human health.
3. Improper waste disposal: Improper disposal of household waste, industrial waste, and
hazardous waste can lead to soil pollution. The pollutants from these wastes can seep
into the soil and contaminate it, affecting soil quality and human health.
The impacts of soil pollution can be severe and long-lasting. Some of the major impacts of soil
pollution are:
1. Reduced soil fertility: Soil pollution can lead to reduced soil fertility, making it difficult
for plants to grow and reducing crop yields.
2. Contamination of groundwater: Soil pollution can lead to the contamination of
groundwater, affecting the quality of drinking water and posing a risk to human health.
3. Harmful effects on human health: Exposure to polluted soil can lead to a variety of
health problems, including skin disorders, respiratory problems, and cancer.
4. Biodiversity loss: Soil pollution can harm soil organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and
insects, leading to a loss of biodiversity.
5. Climate change: Soil pollution can contribute to climate change by releasing greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere.
21. What are the ways in which soil pollution can be prevented?
There are several ways in which soil pollution can be prevented:
1. Reduce the use of chemicals: Reducing the use of chemicals, such as fertilizers,
pesticides, and herbicides in agriculture can help prevent soil pollution.
2. Proper waste disposal: Proper disposal of household waste, industrial waste, and
hazardous waste can help prevent soil pollution. Recycling, composting, and incineration
are some of the ways to dispose of waste properly.
3. Controlling soil erosion: Soil erosion can lead to soil pollution. Measures such as
planting trees, shrubs, and grasses, using erosion control fabrics, and practicing crop
rotation can help control soil erosion.
4. Soil testing: Testing soil for pollutants can help identify contaminated areas and prevent
further pollution.
5. Remediation: Remediation is the process of cleaning up contaminated soil. Various
methods such as bioremediation, phytoremediation, and thermal desorption can be used
to remediate contaminated soils.
6. Education and awareness: Education and awareness programs can help raise public
awareness about soil pollution and its impacts. This can encourage individuals and
businesses to take steps to prevent soil pollution.
In conclusion, preventing soil pollution requires a combination of measures, including reducing
the use of chemicals, proper waste disposal, controlling soil erosion, soil testing, remediation,
and education and awareness. By taking these steps, we can protect soil quality, human health,
and the environment.
23. Discuss the measures taken by the Government of India to handle plastic pollution.
Suggest some more measures to minimize it.
The Government of India has taken several measures to handle plastic pollution in the country.
Some of these measures include:
1. Ban on single-use plastics: The government has banned the manufacture, sale, and use
of single-use plastics in several states and cities across India. This includes items such as
plastic bags, straws, cups, and cutlery.
2. Extended Producer Responsibility: The government has implemented the concept of
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which makes producers responsible for the
collection and disposal of their products. This has led to an increase in plastic recycling
and waste management efforts.
3. Plastic waste management rules: In 2016, the government introduced the Plastic
Waste Management Rules, which focus on waste reduction, segregation, and recycling.
The rules also mandate the use of recycled plastic in certain products.
4. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) has also
contributed to efforts to tackle plastic pollution by promoting waste management and
cleanliness.
Some additional measures that could be taken to minimize plastic pollution in India include:
1. Awareness campaigns: The government could launch awareness campaigns to educate
people on the impacts of plastic pollution and the importance of reducing plastic use.
2. Incentives for eco-friendly alternatives: The government could provide incentives for
businesses and individuals to use eco-friendly alternatives to plastic products, such as
reusable bags and containers.
3. Enforcement of regulations: The government could increase enforcement of existing
regulations to ensure that plastic waste is properly managed and disposed of.
4. Innovative solutions: The government could support the development of innovative
solutions to plastic pollution, such as biodegradable plastics and sustainable packaging
materials.
5. Improved waste management infrastructure: The government could invest in
improving waste management infrastructure, such as waste collection and recycling
facilities, to ensure that plastic waste is properly managed and disposed of.
Overall, tackling plastic pollution requires a multifaceted approach that involves government
action, industry cooperation, and individual behavior change.
25. What are the impacts of sound pollution? How can it be minimized?
The impacts of sound pollution, also known as noise pollution, can be numerous and varied.
Some of the most significant effects include:
1. Health Effects: Exposure to excessive noise levels can cause a range of health problems,
including hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, anxiety, and sleep disturbance.
2. Environmental Effects: Noise pollution can have a negative impact on wildlife, causing
behavioral changes and even affecting their reproductive success.
3. Social Effects: Noise pollution can interfere with communication, disrupt social
activities, and decrease the overall quality of life for individuals living in affected areas.
26. What is radioactive pollution? What are its impacts and suggest measures to prevent
or minimize radioactive pollution.
Radioactive pollution is the presence of radioactive substances in the environment, which can
cause harm to human health and the environment. These substances are produced by nuclear
power plants, nuclear weapons testing, and other industrial processes.
The impacts of radioactive pollution can be severe, including increased risk of cancer, birth
defects, and other health problems. It can also cause damage to the environment, including soil,
water, and wildlife.
Measures to prevent or minimize radioactive pollution:
1. Proper waste disposal: Radioactive waste should be properly stored, transported, and
disposed of to prevent contamination of the environment.
2. Radiation shielding: Protective shields can be used to reduce exposure to radiation in
nuclear facilities and during transportation.
3. Improved nuclear facility design: Improved designs for nuclear power plants and
other nuclear facilities can reduce the risk of accidents and limit the spread of radiation.
4. Increased regulation: Governments can enact regulations to limit the amount of
radioactive substances released into the environment and to enforce proper waste
disposal and storage.
5. Education and awareness: Education and awareness programs can help raise public
awareness about the risks of radioactive pollution and the importance of taking steps to
prevent it.
In conclusion, radioactive pollution can have severe impacts on human health and the
environment. To prevent or minimize radioactive pollution, proper waste disposal, radiation
shielding, improved facility design, increased regulation, and education and awareness are
necessary. By taking these steps, we can protect ourselves, our communities, and the
environment from the harmful effects of radioactive pollution.
27. What is thermal pollution? Write about its sources, impacts and the measures to
minimize it.
Thermal pollution is a type of environmental pollution that occurs when there is a significant
change in the temperature of natural water bodies or air, caused by human activities. This can
have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems and can also affect human health.
Sources of Thermal Pollution:
1. Industrial Activities: Many industries, such as power plants, chemical factories, and oil
refineries, release heated water into nearby water bodies as part of their cooling
processes.
2. Urbanization: The construction of buildings and roads in urban areas can result in the
replacement of green spaces with heat-absorbing surfaces such as asphalt, leading to the
urban heat island effect.
3. Deforestation: The removal of trees and vegetation from areas can reduce the cooling
effect of transpiration and increase the amount of heat absorbed by the ground surface.
Impacts of Thermal Pollution:
28. What is light pollution? Write about its sources, impacts, and the measures to
minimize it.
Light pollution is the excessive and unnecessary artificial light in the environment, which has
negative impacts on the natural environment, wildlife, and human health. It is caused by various
sources such as streetlights, commercial lighting, and outdoor advertising.
The impacts of light pollution are numerous. It disrupts the natural behavior of animals, birds,
and insects, and interferes with their migration and breeding patterns. It also affects human
health by disrupting the natural sleep-wake cycle, leading to insomnia and other sleep disorders.
Moreover, light pollution wastes a significant amount of energy and contributes to carbon
emissions, which further exacerbates climate change.
30. What is solid waste? Discuss the different types of solid waste generated in India.
Solid waste refers to any non-liquid refuse or garbage generated by human activities that is no
longer useful and needs to be disposed of properly. It can include a wide range of materials, such
as household waste, industrial waste, construction waste, and hazardous waste.
In India, the types of solid waste generated can be broadly classified into the following
categories:
1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): MSW refers to the waste generated from households,
markets, offices, and other non-industrial sources. It includes items such as food waste,
paper, plastic, metal, glass, and textiles.
2. Industrial Waste: Industrial waste is generated from manufacturing and industrial
processes. It can include hazardous and non-hazardous waste, such as chemicals, toxic
materials, and electronic waste.
3. Electronic Waste (E-waste): E-waste refers to discarded electronic devices, such as
computers, mobile phones, televisions, and other electronic appliances.
4. Biomedical Waste: Biomedical waste includes waste generated from healthcare
facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, and laboratories. It can include infectious waste,
sharps waste, and chemical waste.
5. Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste: C&D waste includes waste generated from
construction sites and demolition activities. It includes materials such as concrete, bricks,
and wood.
6. Agricultural Waste: Agricultural waste includes waste generated from farms and
agricultural practices. It includes materials such as crop residue, animal waste, and farm
equipment.
The proper management and disposal of solid waste is crucial to prevent environmental
pollution and to protect public health. It is essential to segregate waste at the source, recycle and
reuse materials wherever possible, and dispose of waste in an environmentally sustainable
manner.
33. Describe how solid waste impacts humans, other living beings, and environment?
Improper disposal of solid waste can have several negative impacts on humans, other living
beings, and the environment. Some of the impacts of solid waste are:
1. Health hazards: Poor management of solid waste can result in the breeding of disease-
carrying pests, such as rats, flies, and mosquitoes, which can cause diseases like dengue,
34. Critically discuss the various challenges and issues arising out of waste management
in Indian towns and cities.
Waste management in Indian towns and cities faces a range of challenges and issues. Some of the
most significant challenges are:
1. Lack of Infrastructure: One of the major challenges of waste management in India is the
lack of infrastructure, including inadequate waste collection and transportation facilities.
2. Inefficient Waste Collection: Inefficient waste collection, including poor segregation at
source, often results in the mixing of hazardous and non-hazardous waste, making it
difficult to recycle and dispose of waste safely.
3. Open Dumping: Open dumping is a common practice in many Indian cities, leading to
environmental pollution, health hazards, and the release of methane gas from
decomposing waste.
4. Limited Recycling: Despite the availability of recycling technologies, the recycling of
waste in India is still limited due to a lack of awareness and the absence of proper
infrastructure and investment.
5. Limited Public Participation: Public participation in waste management is low due to a
lack of awareness and limited incentives to participate in waste reduction programs.
6. Lack of Enforcement: Laws and regulations related to waste management are not
adequately enforced, leading to non-compliance by waste generators, transporters, and
disposal facilities.
7. Financial Sustainability: The cost of waste management is high, and the financial
sustainability of waste management systems in India remains a significant challenge.
To address these challenges and issues, there is a need for a comprehensive waste management
strategy that includes investment in infrastructure, waste segregation at source, public
awareness campaigns, and the enforcement of laws and regulations related to waste
management. Improving the financial sustainability of waste management systems, promoting
recycling and composting, and encouraging public participation in waste management programs
can also contribute to addressing these challenges. It is crucial that all stakeholders, including
the government, private sector, civil society, and citizens, work together to develop effective
waste management systems that are sustainable, environmentally sound, and socially equitable.
36. Write about the Salient features of Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules,
2016.
The Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2016 is a set of guidelines issued by the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, to regulate the
management of solid waste in the country. The salient features of the rules are as follows:
1. Segregation of waste: The rules mandate that waste should be segregated into three
categories - biodegradable, non-biodegradable, and domestic hazardous waste - at the
source of generation.
2. Responsibility of generators: The rules impose the responsibility of waste generation,
segregation, storage, and transportation on the generator, such as households,
commercial establishments, and industries.
3. Waste collection and transportation: The rules mandate that waste collection and
transportation should be carried out in a scientific and systematic manner, with the use
of suitable vehicles and equipment.
4. Disposal of waste: The rules prohibit the dumping of waste on roadsides, open spaces,
or water bodies, and require the disposal of waste in designated sites, such as landfills, or
waste-to-energy plants.
37. What are the various types of solid waste management methods?
There are several methods of solid waste management, which can be broadly classified into the
following categories:
1. Landfilling: This is the most commonly used method for disposing of solid waste. The
waste is buried in a designated landfill site, and the site is covered with soil once it is full.
2. Incineration: This method involves the burning of solid waste at high temperatures,
reducing it to ash and other byproducts.
3. Composting: Organic waste such as food and garden waste is decomposed naturally by
microorganisms, resulting in a nutrient-rich compost that can be used as a fertilizer.
4. Recycling: Waste materials such as plastic, paper, metal, and glass are sorted and
processed into new products.
5. Waste-to-energy (WtE): This method involves the conversion of solid waste into
energy, either through incineration or other processes.
6. Pyrolysis: This is a thermal treatment process in which solid waste is heated in the
absence of oxygen to produce fuel, gas, and char.
7. Plasma gasification: This method involves heating solid waste to high temperatures in a
low-oxygen environment, producing a synthetic gas that can be used as fuel.
The selection of the appropriate method for solid waste management depends on factors such as
the type of waste, its quantity, and its composition. The most effective approach is to adopt a
combination of these methods to achieve sustainable and efficient solid waste management.
41. What is electronic waste (e-waste)? Write about the challenges of e-waste to India.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to any electronic device or equipment that has reached the
end of its useful life and is discarded. Examples of e-waste include computers, mobile phones,
televisions, refrigerators, and other electronic devices. E-waste is a growing problem globally, as
the volume of discarded electronic devices continues to increase due to rapid technological
advancements and the high rate of consumerism.
India is one of the largest consumers of electronic devices in the world and, as a result, is facing
significant challenges related to e-waste. The following are some of the challenges of e-waste to
India:
1. High Volume of E-Waste: India generates a vast amount of e-waste due to its large
population and rapid economic growth. The volume of e-waste is expected to increase
further in the coming years.
2. Lack of Proper Disposal Infrastructure: India lacks adequate infrastructure for the
disposal and management of e-waste. Most e-waste is either dumped in landfills or
illegally exported to other countries, which can have significant environmental and
health impacts.
3. Health Risks: E-waste contains hazardous materials such as lead, mercury, and
cadmium, which can have severe health impacts on workers and communities involved
in handling e-waste.
4. Informal Sector: Most e-waste in India is managed by the informal sector, which lacks
proper training and protective gear to handle hazardous materials safely.
5. Lack of Awareness: Many individuals and businesses in India are not aware of the
environmental and health impacts of e-waste and do not take appropriate measures for
its disposal.
To address these challenges, India has implemented several measures to manage e-waste,
including the E-Waste Management Rules, 2016, which requires producers to take back and
recycle their products at the end of their useful life. However, effective implementation and
enforcement of these measures remain a challenge. Therefore, there is a need for a concerted
42. Write a note on the problems and opportunities associated with recycling of e-waste.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to discarded electronic devices such as computers,
smartphones, TVs, and other electronic gadgets. Recycling of e-waste presents both problems
and opportunities.
One of the main problems with e-waste recycling is the presence of toxic materials in the devices.
Many electronic devices contain toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and
brominated flame retardants, which can cause health problems if they are not handled properly.
If e-waste is not recycled correctly, these toxic substances can leach into the soil and water,
polluting the environment and posing a threat to human health.
Another challenge with e-waste recycling is that it requires specialized equipment and
processes. E-waste often contains a mix of materials such as metals, plastics, and glass, which
makes it difficult to recycle. The lack of proper recycling infrastructure and technology in many
countries also makes e-waste recycling a challenging task.
Despite these challenges, e-waste recycling also presents opportunities. The recycling of e-waste
can help to conserve natural resources by reducing the need for raw materials. It also helps to
reduce the amount of waste that goes into landfills and reduces the environmental impact of
electronic devices. Additionally, e-waste recycling can create job opportunities in the recycling
industry.
The ozone layer functions primarily by absorbing and scattering incoming UV radiation from the
sun. This process converts the UV radiation into heat, which dissipates into the surrounding
atmosphere. Without the ozone layer, much of the UV radiation from the sun would reach the
Earth's surface, leading to a significant increase in skin cancer, cataracts, and other health
problems in humans and animals.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 258
In addition to protecting life on Earth from harmful UV radiation, the ozone layer also plays a
role in regulating the Earth's climate. Ozone is a greenhouse gas, and its presence in the
atmosphere contributes to the
greenhouse effect, which helps keep the
Earth's surface warm enough to support
life. However, too much ozone in the
lower atmosphere can lead to air
pollution and smog, which can have
negative effects on human health and
the environment.
Overall, the ozone layer is a crucial
component of the Earth's atmosphere
that protects life on Earth from harmful
UV radiation and helps regulate the
Earth's climate.
3. Write about Ozone hole and Ozone layer depletion including their causes and impacts.
What are the measures to deal with Ozone layer depletion?
Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning and reduction of the protective ozone layer in the
Earth's stratosphere, which can lead to an increase in harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching
the Earth's surface. The most well-known example of ozone layer depletion is the ozone hole
over Antarctica, which was first discovered in the 1980s.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion: The primary cause of ozone layer depletion is the release of
human-made chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other ozone-depleting
substances (ODSs), into the atmosphere. These chemicals are used in refrigeration, air
conditioning, aerosols, solvents, and other industrial and
consumer products. Once released into the atmosphere,
these chemicals rise to the stratosphere, where they
break down ozone molecules and reduce the ozone
layer's thickness and coverage.
Impacts of Ozone Layer Depletion: The depletion of
the ozone layer has several negative impacts on the
environment and human health, including:
1. Increased UV radiation exposure: Ozone
depletion allows more UV radiation to reach the
Earth's surface, increasing the risk of skin cancer,
cataracts, and other health problems in humans
and animals.
2. Reduced crop yields: Increased UV radiation
can also harm crops and reduce agricultural
productivity.
Impacts of Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification has several negative impacts on marine
ecosystems, including:
1. Reduced growth and
survival of marine
organisms: The increased
acidity of seawater can make
it difficult for marine
organisms to build and
maintain their shells,
skeletons, and other hard
structures, which can reduce
their growth and survival.
• These shells are made
of calcium carbonate.
The H+ ions released
by carbonic acid react
with calcium carbonate and dissolve it in following chemical reaction thus
making life difficult for these shell forming organisms and corals.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 260
• CaCO3 + 2H+ -> Ca2+ + H2O + CO2
2. Impacts on food webs: Ocean acidification can also affect the food webs in marine
ecosystems, as changes in the growth and survival of certain organisms can have ripple
effects throughout the food chain.
3. Impacts on coral reefs: Coral reefs are particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification, as
increased acidity can make it difficult for corals to build and maintain their calcium
carbonate structures, leading to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
In conclusion, ocean acidification is a serious environmental issue that has negative impacts on
marine ecosystems and the services they provide. It is crucial to take measures to reduce CO2
emissions and promote sustainable practices to minimize ocean acidification's effects.
7. Climate change is becoming the single largest threat to the world. How does this affect
India?
Climate change is a significant threat to India, as the country is already experiencing the impacts
of a changing climate. Here are some ways in which climate change affects India:
1. Extreme weather events: India is vulnerable to extreme weather events such as floods,
droughts, cyclones, and heatwaves, which have become more frequent and intense due to
climate change. These events can cause significant damage to infrastructure, agriculture,
and human lives.
2. Water scarcity: Climate change is causing changes in precipitation patterns, leading to
water scarcity in many regions of India. This has significant impacts on agriculture,
drinking water availability, and overall economic development.
3. Health impacts: Climate change is leading to an increase in vector-borne diseases such
as dengue and malaria, as well as heat-related illnesses. This has significant impacts on
public health and healthcare systems.
4. Biodiversity loss: Climate change is affecting ecosystems and biodiversity in India, with
species extinction and loss of habitat becoming more common. This has significant
impacts on agriculture, fisheries, and other industries that depend on natural resources.
5. Economic impacts: Climate change has significant economic impacts on India, with the
country's agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors being particularly vulnerable.
Climate change can also lead to increased costs associated with infrastructure damage,
disaster management, and healthcare.
10. Explain the salient features of National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) is a comprehensive plan developed by the
Government of India to address climate change and its impacts in the country. Here are some of
its salient features:
1. Mitigation: The plan includes measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, such as
promoting renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing emissions from
transportation.
2. Adaptation: The plan includes measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change, such
as improving water management, promoting climate-resilient agriculture, and
strengthening disaster management systems.
3. Technology: The plan emphasizes the need for technology development and transfer to
support climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. This includes promoting
research and development in areas such as renewable energy and energy efficiency.
4. Sustainable development: The plan recognizes the importance of sustainable
development, with a focus on promoting low-carbon growth, reducing poverty, and
improving livelihoods.
11. Discuss the major international agreements to minimize Climate Change. Comment on
their performance.
There have been several international agreements to minimize climate change, including:
1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This is an
international treaty signed in 1992 with the objective of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The
UNFCCC has since led to several other international agreements and initiatives, including
the Paris Agreement.
2. Kyoto Protocol: This was an international agreement reached in 1997 that set binding
targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions for developed countries. The Kyoto
Protocol was seen as a major step forward in international efforts to address climate
change, but its impact was limited due to the lack of participation from major emitters
such as the United States.
3. Paris Agreement: This is an international treaty signed in 2015 with the goal of limiting
global temperature rise to below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts
to limit the increase to 1.5°C. The Paris Agreement requires countries to submit
nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining their efforts to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
Overall, the performance of these international agreements has been mixed. While they have led
to some progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing global awareness of
climate change, they have been criticized for their lack of binding targets and enforcement
mechanisms. The Paris Agreement has been hailed as a significant step forward in international
efforts to address climate change, but its success will depend on the ability of countries to
implement their NDCs and increase their ambition over time.
Additionally, the withdrawal of the United States from the Paris Agreement under the Trump
administration has been seen as a major setback for international climate action. However, the
Biden administration has since rejoined the Paris Agreement and has signalled a renewed
commitment to addressing climate change at the international level.
Overall, while international agreements have been important in raising awareness of climate
change and spurring action, more ambitious targets and concrete actions are needed to
effectively address this global challenge.
14. What is Green House Effect? Explain how Green House Effect is contributing to Global
warming.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap
heat from the sun and keep the planet warm. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's
temperature would be too cold to support life. However, the excessive build-up of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide
(N2O), due to human activities is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect, leading to global
warming.
When sunlight enters the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by the Earth's surface, while
the rest is reflected back into space. The absorbed sunlight heats the Earth's surface, which then
emits infrared radiation back into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb
this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, including back to the Earth's surface,
trapping the heat and keeping the planet warm.
15. What are the major Green House Gases? Discuss their sources and contribution to
global warming.
The major greenhouse gases responsible for global warming are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases.
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 is the most significant greenhouse gas, accounting for about
76% of total emissions. Its primary source is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
and gas, which releases CO2 into the atmosphere. Deforestation and other land-use
changes also contribute to atmospheric CO2 concentrations by reducing the amount of
carbon that can be absorbed by forests and other vegetation.
2. Methane (CH4): Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas, accounting for
about 16% of total emissions. Its primary sources are agriculture, livestock, and fossil
fuel production. In agriculture, methane is emitted from enteric fermentation in
livestock, rice cultivation, and manure management. Fossil fuel production, including oil
and gas extraction and coal mining, also releases methane.
3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O): N2O accounts for about 6% of total greenhouse gas emissions. Its
primary sources are agricultural soils and nitrogen fertilizers. N2O is also emitted from
fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, and some industrial processes.
4. Fluorinated Gases: Fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), are synthetic gases used in
refrigeration, air conditioning, and other industrial processes. They are potent
17. What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)? Briefly discuss the Sustainable
Development Goals.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 goals adopted by the United Nations in
2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The SDGs aim to address global
challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental degradation, and to
achieve sustainable development by 2030. The 17 SDGs are:
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 269
1. No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture.
3. Good Health and Well-being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages.
4. Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote
lifelong learning opportunities for all.
5. Gender Equality: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6. Clean Water and Sanitation: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and
modern energy for all.
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth: Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all.
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure: Build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.
10. Reduced Inequalities: Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities: Make cities and human settlements inclusive,
safe, resilient, and sustainable.
12. Responsible Consumption and Production: Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns.
13. Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
14. Life Below Water: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources
for sustainable development.
15. Life on Land: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and biodiversity loss.
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective,
accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Partnerships for the Goals: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the
global partnership for sustainable development.
The SDGs are interconnected and address a range of economic, social, and environmental issues.
They provide a framework for countries to work towards sustainable development and to
ensure that development is inclusive and leaves no one behind. Achieving the SDGs requires
collaboration and partnership between governments, civil society, the private sector, and
individuals, and requires action at the local, national, and global levels.
18. Critically analyse the progress of India towards Sustainable Development Goals.
India has made progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), but
challenges remain in some areas. Here is a critical analysis of India's progress towards the SDGs:
1. No Poverty: India has made significant progress in reducing poverty. According to the
World Bank, the poverty rate in India fell from 21.6% in 2011 to 9.2% in 2020. However,
Fathers of Biology
• Aristotle is known as the father of Biology, Zoology, and Embryology
• Hippocrates is known as father of medicine
• Theophrastus is known as the father of Botany
• Linnaeus is known as father of Taxonomy (classification of organisms)
Cell
• Cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Some
organisms are made up of single cell (unicellular) while, other organisms such as human
are made up of billions of cell (multicellular).
• All cells contain three basic structures, i.e. plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Plasma membrane: Outer most covering, of lipids (fats) and proteins.
Cell Theory
• Cell theory was developed by M. Schleiden, a German botanist, and T. Schwann, a
British zoologist. Rudolf Virchow also made contributions to the theory.
• The main principles of cell theory are:
o All living things are made up of cells and their products
o Cells come from pre-existing cells
o Cells are the fundamental units of life
o Viruses do not follow this theory.
Basic Types of Cells
• There are two basic types of cells, i.e. prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are smaller, simpler, and Eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex, and
lack a true nucleus and other membrane- contain a true nucleus and various membrane-
bound organelles. bound organelles, such as mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
Their genetic material is usually in the form They also have multiple linear chromosomes
of a single circular chromosome in the enclosed within the nucleus.
cytoplasm.
Bacteria and archaea are examples of Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are examples
prokaryotic organisms. of Eukaryotic organisms
Chromosome
• Chromosomes are DNA molecules that have condensed due to histone proteins. When
not condensed, they are called chromatids.
• During cell division, chromosomes appear as two identical chromatids attached at a
point called centromere. Telomeres are located at the ends of chromosomes.
Genes
• Genes are a segments of DNA that contain the instructions for making proteins, which
are essential for the growth, development, and functioning of living organisms.
Chromosomes consist of multiple genes, which serve as fundamental units of heredity in
living organisms. Genes regulate the transmission of genetic material from one
generation to the succeeding generation.
Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle refers to the series of events that occur in a cell leading to its growth,
duplication, and division into two daughter cells. The cell cycle consists of interphase,
which is divided into three stages (G1, S, and G2), and mitosis or meiosis, depending on
the type of cell division.
• During interphase, the cell grows and replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division.
In the G1 phase, the cell synthesizes RNA and proteins required for DNA replication,
while in the S phase, the cell replicates its DNA. In the G2 phase, the cell prepares for
mitosis or meiosis by synthesizing the proteins and organelles required for cell division.
Cell Division
• Cell division is of two types:
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
One single division of the mother cell results Two divisions of the mother cell result into
into two daughter cells. four meiotic products or haploid gametes.
A mitotic mother cell can either be haploid A meiotic mother cell is always diploid (having
(having only one set of chromosomes) or two sets of chromosomes)..
diploid.
The number of chromosomes per nucleus The meiotic products contain a haploid (n)
remains the same after division. number of chromosomes in contrast to the
(2n) number of chromosomes in mother cell.
The genotype of the daughter cells is identical Meiotic products differ in their genotype from
to that of the mother cells. the mother cell.
Lipids
• Lipids are one of the basic classes of biomolecules, which include neutral fats, oils, steroids,
and waxes, and share a common feature of being hydrophobic.
• Lipids have a number of vital functions in biological systems, including forming the structure
of membranes that surround cells and cell compartments, providing insulation against cold,
and storing concentrated energy.
Steroids
• Steroids are a type of lipid that functions both as hormones (such as the sex hormones
estrogen and testosterone) and as structural material (such as cholesterol, an integral part of
animal cell membranes).
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates, another class of biomolecules, are hydrates of carbon and occur as both
monomers and polymers. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
• Carbohydrates have many functions such as acting as precursors for building many
polymers, storing short-term energy, providing structural building materials, and serving as
molecular tags that allow recognition of specific cells and molecules.
Proteins
• Proteins are made up of amino acids and are considered polymers. They make up around
50% of the total weight of biomolecules in a cell, excluding water.
Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are long molecules made up of subunits called nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a ring-shaped molecule called a nitrogenous base, a
five-carbon sugar called pentose, and one or more phosphate groups.
• There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.
o DNA is like a cellular database that stores a vast amount of information about all the
proteins in the body. There are five different types of DNA, These are A-type, B-type, C-
type, D-type and Z-type. Out ofwhich the B-type is the major one (found in humans) and Z-
type (zig-zag helix) is the most recent one.
o RNA, on the other hand, is required to convert the information stored in DNA into
proteins. Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material. RNA also includes tRNA
(transfer RNA), rRNA, and other forms.
• Some RNA molecules, called ribozymes, have catalytic abilities similar to those of protein
enzymes.
Enzymes
Enzymes are a special type of proteins. Enzymes serve as biological catalysts (reaction
accelerators) and operate in human cells with approximately 40,000 varying types. Each enzyme
is responsible for overseeing a specific chemical reaction and can enhance reaction rates by 10-
12 times at normal temperature. In addition to facilitating all metabolic reactions in cells
(including digestion, photosynthesis, and respiration), enzymes also act as receptors, promotors,
and membrane pumps.
4. Plantae: This kingdom includes multicellular eukaryotic organisms that have cell walls
made of cellulose and obtain nutrients through photosynthesis. Examples include
flowering plants, ferns, and mosses.
5. Animalia: This kingdom includes multicellular eukaryotic organisms that lack cell walls
and obtain nutrients through ingestion. Examples include mammals, birds, fish, and
insects.
• Latest system of classification is Six Kingdom System which divides Monera into
archaebacteria and eubacteria. This system is based on comparison of RNA (ribonucleic
acid) proposed by C Woose, O Kandler and MC Wheelis in 1990.
Binomial Nomenclature
Proposed by Linnaeus the scientific name of each organism is composed of two names, i.e. a
genus name and a species name. The genus name begins with a capital letter and species name
begins with a small letter.
Scientific Names of some Organisms
General Name Scientific Name
Man Homo sapiens
Cat Felis domestica
Dog Canis familliaris
Cow Bos indicus
Rice Oryza Sativa
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Micro-biology
Note: No need to memorize all of the below list at one go. You might recognize a few of them over a
period of time which would be sufficient to identify from MCQs in Preliminary Test.
Microorganism Use/Application
Lactobacillus Used in probiotics to promote digestive health
acidophilus
Saccharomyces Used in baking and brewing to ferment dough and produce alcohol
cerevisiae
Streptomyces Used in the production of antibiotics, including streptomycin and
tetracycline
Rhizobium Used in agriculture to fix nitrogen in the soil and promote plant
Anatomy focuses on the study of the Morphology focuses on the analysis of the
internal and external structures of physical traits of organisms, their variations,
organisms, their location, and how they are and how they relate to each other in
connected. evolutionary terms.
Anatomy of Plants
• In plant anatomy, the study of various tissues is the major area to be focused. Tissue is a
group of cells having common origin and function.
Meristematic Tissues
• Meristematic tissues, also known as meristems, are types of tissues within plants that
contain cells that remain youthful and actively divide for the plant's entire life. These
meristematic cells are generally small and cube-shaped with large nuclei, small vacuoles,
and thin walls.
• There are two kinds of meristems: primary, which form early in the plant's life, and
secondary, which form later.
Wood
• Xylem is the primary component of wood. The inner, dense, durable, and darker part of the
wood is known as heartwood, while the outer portion is called sapwood.
Anatomy of Animals
Types of Tissues
• There are four main types of animal tissues, namely epithelial, connective, nervous, and
muscular tissue.
• Embryonic tissue gives rise to three primary germ layers, namely ectoderm, endoderm, and
mesoderm.
• The ectoderm further develops into the skin and nervous system, while the mesoderm is
responsible for the formation of connective tissue, muscles, skeleton, kidney, circulatory, and
reproductive organs. The endoderm forms the gut, respiratory tract, glands, and urinary
bladder.
2. Blood
• The primary transport tissue in our body is blood. It is made up of a fluid called plasma, red
blood cells (RBCs) that carry hemoglobin, white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
• Plasma contains proteins, salts, and hormones.
• Blood coagulation is the process of converting blood into a gel-like substance within 3-10
minutes of exposure to air.
• Blood transfusion involves the safe transfer of blood through an intravenous line. In order
for blood transfusion to be successful, the donor's antigen must be compatible with the
recipient's antibody (more on this in Human Physiology).
Comparison between Plasma and Lymph
Plasma Lymph
It flows in blood vessels It flows in lymphatic vessels.
It is cell-free part of blood and takes It supplies nutrition to tissue devoid of
part in excretion, respiration, etc. blood supply.
3. Bone
• The hardest tissue in our body is bone, which consists of four parts.
• The periosteum is a thick and tough envelope that surrounds the bone, and the matrix is
composed of the protein ossein. The endosteum is present on the outer surface of the bone
marrow cavity, and the bone marrow itself is a soft, semisolid, and fatty neurovascular
tissue.
• There are two types of bone marrow:
o Red bone marrow, which is present in the spongy part of the bone
o Yellow bone marrow, which is present in the shaft of long bones.
• The primary function of bone is to provide support for various organs in our body. Bones are
strong and inelastic structures, and they are joined to skeletal muscles by fibrous tissues.
• Ligaments are elastic structures that provide considerable strength and permit normal
movements. Excessive pulling of ligaments can cause strain.
Digestive System
• Humans are classified as heterotrophic organisms since they rely on other organisms for
their food.
• A complete digestive system in humans acquires food from the environment and breaks it
down into smaller molecules that are then absorbed.
• Digestion without absorption is considered incomplete because the nutrients obtained from
digestion must reach the cells by crossing the cell barrier after entering the bloodstream.
This process is known as absorption.
• The digestive system begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down through
chewing and mixed with saliva that contains enzymes.
• The food then travels down the oesophagus to the stomach, where it is mixed with stomach
acid and digestive enzymes.
• The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption, where nutrients are absorbed
into the bloodstream through the intestinal wall.
• The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes, and any remaining waste is excreted
through the rectum and anus.
• The liver and pancreas also play important roles in digestion by producing enzymes and
hormones that help break down and absorb nutrients.
Respiration System
• The respiratory system in humans is responsible for the exchange of gases between the body
and the environment. It consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli, and lungs.
• Below is the brief explanation of each of these parts:
ATP
• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is a molecule that is considered as the energy currency of
the cell. It is made up of three components: a nitrogen-containing base (adenine), a five-
carbon sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The chemical formula for ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) is C10H16N5O13P3.
• When ATP is broken down into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate,
energy is released. This energy is used for a variety of cellular activities, such as muscle
contraction, nerve impulses, active transport of molecules across cell membranes, and the
synthesis of macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids.
• ATP can be replenished through cellular respiration. Glucose and other nutrients are broken
down through a series of chemical reactions that ultimately produce ATP. This process
occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Oxygen Transport
• The process of oxygen transport begins as the atmospheric air enters the alveoli where the
exchange of respiratory gases takes place via diffusion. Inhaled air contains a higher partial
pressure of oxygen (100 mmHg) than the blood vessels (40 mmHg), which causes oxygen to
diffuse into the blood vessels.
• Majority of the oxygen (98.5%) in the blood is transported with the help of the respiratory
pigment hemoglobin present in red blood cells. Each molecule of hemoglobin can carry up to
four oxygen molecules.
Transportation System
• The transportation system in the human body involves the circulation of blood through
blood vessels and the movement of various substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, and waste products to and from different parts of the body.
• The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood to the arteries which then transport it to the
capillaries (small, thin-walled blood vessels), where oxygen and nutrients diffuse into the
tissues. The deoxygenated blood is then carried by the veins back to the heart, where it is
pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Apart from blood, other bodily fluids also transport various substances. Lymphaticvessels
carry lymph, a fluid
containing immune cells and
waste products, throughout
the body. Hormones are also
transported through the
bloodstream to regulate
different bodily functions.
• Human beings possess a
closed circulatory system
where blood flows through a
network of blood vessels.
This is different from an open
circulatory system where
blood flows in open spaces.
• The heart is the pumping
organ that works in a
rhythmic cyclic manner, with
systole (decrease in volume)
and diastole (increase in volume). The human heart beat consists of both of these and lasts
for 0.8 seconds.
• Blood is a connective tissue made up of plasma and blood cells, such as red blood cells (RBC)
and white blood cells (WBC). Platelets are another type of blood cell that checks for blood
leakage and coagulation during injury.
• Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood against the wall of the blood vessel. The
pressure is high in tubes that carry blood to body parts (systolic pressure) and low in tubes
that carry blood to the heart (diastolic pressure). The average blood pressure value is 120-
80mm of Hg.
• Blood vessels are the tubes that carry blood, and they are called arteries (except pulmonary
artery) when carrying blood to body parts and veins (except pulmonary vein) when carrying
blood towards the heart.
Excretion System
• The excretory system in humans is responsible for removing waste products and excess
materials from the body. It consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that filter blood, removing waste products and excess
water to produce urine.
• The ureters are tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder, which stores the urine until it
is eliminated through the urethra.
• The urethra is a tube that carries urine out of the body.
• The urinary system also plays a role in regulating blood pressure, maintaining the balance of
electrolytes in the body, and producing hormones that regulate the production of red blood
cells.
• Nitrogen in the form of urea is the waste product of human being which is excreted by the
dedicated excretory system.
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is a collection of glands that
secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which act
as chemical messengers to regulate various
physiological processes in the body.
• The major glands of the endocrine system include
the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid
Nervous System
• The nervous system is a complex network of cells and tissues that coordinate and
regulate the activities of the body.
• It is composed of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
• The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which receive, interpret, and process
sensory information from the body and generate appropriate responses.
• The PNS consists of all the other nerves in the body including Motor neurons and
Sensory neurons that transmit signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.
• Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. They are specialized
cells that can transmit electrical and chemical signals, allowing for communication within
the nervous system. Glial cells are also present in the nervous system and provide
support and protection to neurons.
Brain functions
Nitrogen Metabolism
• Nitrogen is a crucial macronutrient required for the production of proteins and nucleic acid.
• The process of biological nitrogen
fixation is essential for plants to obtain
nitrogen, and it occurs in the roots of
leguminous plants through a symbiotic
relationship with Rhizobium bacteria.
• The steps involved in this process include
ammonification, which converts dead
organic matter into ammonia through
microbial decomposition, and
nitrification, which converts NH4
(ammonia) and nitrites (NO2-) into
nitrates (NO3-) through the action of
nitrifying bacteria, Nitrosomonas.
• The process of denitrification involves
certain denitrifying bacteria such as
Pseudomonas that act on dead organic
matter of plant and animal origin, decay them, and release N2 back into the atmosphere.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 296
Animal Nutrition
• Animal nutrition is heterotrophic, meaning organisms obtain nutrients from other sources.
Nutrients are substances that provide nourishment to the body. The various categories of
nutrients found in animals are:
• Carbohydrates: These energy-yielding substances are also known as saccharides and
include glucose, fructose, and starch, among others.
• Proteins: These serve as structural materials in the human body and are composed of amino
acids, such as keratin, renin, and trypsin.
• Lipids: These substances serve both structural and energy-giving functions in the body and
are formed by the fusion of fatty acids.
• Vitamins: The term "vitamin" comes from the Latin words "vita," meaning life, and "amine,"
referring to an organic chemical nitrogen-containing molecule. In 1912, Polish biochemist
Casimir Funk isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex B, which he
named "vitamin."
• Vitamins have various biochemical functions, such as acting as hormones (e.g.,
vitamin D), antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E), mediators of cell signaling, and regulators
of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g., vitamin A). The largest number of
vitamins (e.g., B-complex vitamins) serve as precursors for coenzymes.
Respiration in Plants
• After photosynthesis, the food material produced by plants is broken down inside cells
using a process called cellular respiration.
• This process takes place in mitochondria and involves the basic reaction of breaking
down glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
• The energy released through this process is then used by the plant to create other
molecules that the cell needs.
Transportation in Plants
• Leaves are responsible for preparing food, while roots absorb water in plants. Once food
and water are prepared and absorbed respectively, they are transported to other parts of
the plant by the plant's transport system.
• The transport system of plants is made up of xylem and phloem.
• Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, while phloem
distributes food from the leaves to the roots.
• The xylem tissues, such as vessels and tracheids, are interconnected in the root, stem,
and leaves through photosynthesis and transpiration. This interconnectedness causes a
shortage of water at the leaves, creating a demand for water and resulting in the
movement of water from the roots to the leaves. This upward motion of water is called
transpiration in plants.
• In addition to photosynthetic products, phloem distributes various other important food
materials from the leaves to the entire plant body, particularly to the storing organs such
as roots and fruits.
Excretion in Plants
• During various life processes, plants release different types of waste products. These
waste products can be in the form of gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, which are
Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is a biological process in which two individuals contribute genetic
material to produce offspring with a unique combination of genetic traits. Both plants
and animals have evolved various mechanisms of sexual reproduction, which are crucial
for genetic diversity and adaptation.
• In plants, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes, which are produced by
specialized structures called flowers. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male
to the female reproductive structures, resulting in fertilization and the production of
seeds.
• Examples of sexually reproducing plants include apple trees, sunflowers, and
wheat.
• In animals, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of sperm and egg cells, which are
produced by the male and female reproductive systems, respectively. The fertilized egg
develops into an embryo, which eventually grows into a new individual. Sexual
reproduction in animals can involve internal or external fertilization, depending on the
species.
• Examples of sexually reproducing animals include humans, dogs, and birds.
8. Genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. It encompasses a
wide range of topics, from the molecular structure and function of DNA and other genetic
materials to the patterns of inheritance of traits in populations.
• Geneticists study how genes are passed from one generation to the next, and how they
influence traits and characteristics of organisms. They also investigate the interactions
between genes and the environment, and how these interactions can shape the
development and evolution of species.
• Advances in genetics have led to the development of many new fields, including
genomics, epigenetics, and genetic engineering, which have far-reaching implications for
fields such as medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.
• Gregor Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics. He worked on pea plants and
postulated some laws. These laws become the basic laws of genetics and called as
Mendel’s law of genetics/inheritance.
Genetic Disorders
Evolution
Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over time in response to
changes in their environment. Evolution is driven by a combination of natural selection,
genetic drift, and gene flow.
• Natural selection is the process by which individuals with advantageous traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to their offspring. This can lead to
the evolution of new species over time.
• Genetic drift refers to the random changes in allele frequencies that occur in small
populations due to chance events. Over time, genetic drift can lead to the fixation of
certain alleles and the loss of others, leading to genetic divergence and speciation.
• Gene flow is the movement of genes between populations through migration or other
means. This can increase genetic diversity within populations and can counteract the
effects of genetic drift and natural selection.
• Evolution is also influenced by genetic mutations, which are random changes in the
DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can introduce new traits into a
population, which can then be acted upon by natural selection or other evolutionary
forces.
Note: For latest happenings such as CRISPR in genetics and in biology as a field refer to the
Biotechnology part of Science and Technology Section.
Biology MCQs
Exercise - I 1. The skin is one of the excretory
1. Regarding the immune system of the organs in the human body.
human body, consider the following 2. The adrenal glands are located on the
statements: top of the kidneys.
1. Leucocytes or white blood cells are 3. Protein digestion in the intestine
irregularly shaped, nucleated cells produces ammonia, which is
that lack hemoglobin and are converted into urea in the liver.
colorless. Which of the statements given above
2. White blood cells have a shorter life is/are correct?
span than red blood cells. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
3. Monocytes are primarily involved in (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
phagocytosis and degradation of
necrotic material in the human body. 4. Erythroblastosis Foetalis is a condition
Which of the statements given above where the second baby of a couple may
is/are not correct? die in the womb of the mother due to
(a) None (b) 1 and 2 only Rhesus (Rh) incompatibility. Which of the
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 following blood type combinations of
parents is most likely?
2. Numerous variants of Influenza A virus (a) Father having Rh+ and Mother having
have been identified thus far. What could Rh-
be the potential causes for the existence (b) Father having Rh+ and Mother having
of such a large number of strains of this Rh+
virus? (c) Father having Rh- and Mother having
1. Influenza viruses have the ability to Rh-
exchange genetic material via (d) Father having Rh- and Mother having
reassortment. Rh+
2. It is a non-segmented DNA virus.
3. It is prone to frequent mutations. 5. This organ has various supportive
Which of the above statements is/are functions within the human body. It
correct? serves as an immune system filter for
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only blood, recycles old red blood cells, and
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only stores platelets and white blood cells. In
addition, it aids in the fight against certain
3. Consider the following statements about types of bacteria responsible for
excretory organs: pneumonia and meningitis. Although it
can differ in size and shape among
6. Which of the statements below accurately 9. Which of these disease groups are all
describe the human brain? attributed to viruses?
1. The human brain is the largest brain (a) Common cold, influenza, typhoid,
in relation to body size when cholera
compared to all other vertebrates. (b) Influenza, AIDS, kala-azar, chicken pox
2. The occipital lobe, located at the back (c) Kala-azar, tuberculosis, anthrax, small
of the skull, is responsible for visual pox
processing. (d) Influenza, dengue, chikungunya, polio
3. Sound and language are processed by
the temporal lobe. 10. Which of the following illnesses or
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only infections are instances of zoonotic
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only infections?
1. West Nile virus
7. Consider the following statements 2. Brucellosis
relating to the human eye: 3. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
1. The sclera, which is the outermost 4. Nipah virus
layer of the eye, provides its 5. Blastomycosis
predominantly white color. Select the correct answer using the code
2. During eye transplantation given below:
procedures, only the retina and iris (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
are typically transplanted. (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
3. The iris is a dark, muscular diaphragm (c) 2, 4 and 5 only
that regulates the size of the pupil. (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
4. The cornea is primarily responsible
for refracting or bending light in the 11. Which of the statements below is
human eye. inaccurate regarding disease-causing
Which of the above statements are microorganisms?
correct? (a) Infection refers to the invasion and
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only proliferation of harmful microorganisms
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only in an individual.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) Parasites include both protozoa and
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 worms.
(c) A virus is unable to reproduce outside
of a host cell.
8. Consider the following statements:
(d) In order to survive for an extended
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is period, a pathogen must quickly kill every
exclusively located within the nucleus host it infects.
of a human cell.
2. Defective genes on the X chromosome
12. Which of the following statements
within human cells can lead to
accurately defines "Flavonoids"?
mitochondrial diseases.
Exercise – I Key
1. a 2. b 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. d 7. b 8. d 9. d 10. a
11. d 12. c 13. c 14. b 15. d 16. c 17. c 18. d 19. c 20. d
Explanations
1. White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are colorless because they lack hemoglobin, and
they are irregularly shaped, nucleated cells. They are heterogeneous in nature, and the
normal concentration of white blood cells in the blood varies from 4,000 to 10,000 per
microliter. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
Red blood cells, on the other hand, have a biconcave disc structure. Leucocytes are generally
short-lived, that is for about 13 to 20 days. But the RBCs have an average
life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen (the graveyard of RBCs).
So, Statement 2 is correct.
The two main categories of white blood cells are granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while
lymphocytes and monocytes are agranulocytes. Monocytes are involved in phagocytosis and
degradation of necrotic material, while eosinophils are associated with allergic and
hypersensitivity reactions. Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
Therefore, the correct answer is (b) 1 and 2 only.
2. The first and third statements are correct. The presence of numerous strains of Influenza A
virus is due to its constant mutation. One of the causes for the virus's constant mutation is
the process of reassortment, where influenza viruses swap gene segments. This genetic
exchange is possible because of the segmented nature of the viral genome, and it happens
when two different influenza viruses infect a single cell. Reassortment is akin to viral sex.
The second statement is incorrect. Influenza A virus does not have an unsegmented DNA
genome, as it is an RNA virus with a segmented genome, comprising eight distinct strands.
This makes its replication prone to errors or mutations, resulting in what is known as
"antigenic drift." This process leads to minor but ongoing mutations in surface proteins,
necessitating the frequent updating of flu vaccines.
3. The skin serves as an excretory organ in the human body, as it helps to eliminate some
harmful elements and waste through sweat. Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.
4. The Rh factor is a molecule present on the surface of red blood cells in some individuals.
Blood is considered Rh-positive if red blood cells have the Rh factor, and Rh-negative if they
do not.
An Rh-negative person, when exposed to Rh-positive blood, may develop specific antibodies
against the Rh antigens. Therefore, Rh grouping should be matched during blood
transfusions. A special case of Rh incompatibility occurs between the Rh-negative blood of a
pregnant mother and the Rh-positive blood of the fetus.
Rh antigens of the fetus do not get exposed to the Rh-negative blood of the mother during the
first pregnancy, as the two types of blood are well separated by the placenta. However,
during the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of the mother's blood being
exposed to small amounts of the Rh-positive blood from the fetus. In such cases, the mother
may start producing antibodies against Rh antigens in her blood.
In subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the Rh-negative mother can cross into the
blood of the Rh-positive fetus and destroy the fetal red blood cells. This can be fatal to the
fetus or cause severe anemia and jaundice in the baby, a condition known as erythroblastosis
fetalis. This can be prevented by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately
after the delivery of the first child.
Erythroblastosis fetalis typically occurs when a woman with Rh-negative blood is
impregnated by a man with Rh-positive blood, and conceives a fetus with Rh-positive blood.
Therefore, option (a) is correct.
5. The lymphatic system's most massive organ is the spleen. It plays a crucial role in
maintaining the body's fluid balance, but one can survive without it. Positioned in the left
upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the ribcage and above the stomach, it acts as a blood
purifier. The spleen regulates the number of red blood cells and blood storage and assists in
combating infections. If the spleen recognizes potentially harmful bacteria, viruses, or other
microorganisms in the bloodstream, it produces white blood cells known as lymphocytes,
along with the lymph nodes. These cells serve as defenders against intruders, generating
antibodies that destroy foreign microorganisms and prevent infections from spreading.
6. Statement 1 is correct. The human brain is larger in relation to body size than any other
mammal brains, and weighs about 1.5 kilograms, making up about 2 percent of a human's
body weight. The cerebrum makes up 85 percent of the brain's weight and contains about 86
billion neurons and billions of nerve fibers. The cerebral cortex is greatly enlarged in human
brains and is considered the seat of complex thought. The brain is divided into three
sections: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The largest part of the human brain is the
cerebrum, which is divided into two hemispheres.
7. Statement 1 is correct. The sclera, which is the white part of the eye surrounding the cornea,
covers more than 80% of the eyeball's surface area. In individuals with liver failure, the
sclera begins to turn yellow, a
condition known as jaundice.
Statement 2 is incorrect. During an eye
transplant, only the cornea is
transplanted. The retina is a thin layer
of tissue that lines the back of the eye
and converts light into neural signals
for visual recognition by the brain.
Statement 3 is correct. The iris, which
is the colored part of the eye, helps
regulate the amount of light entering
the eye. In bright light, the iris
contracts to reduce the amount of light
that enters the eye, thereby protecting
the retina.
Statement 4 is correct. The cornea is the eye's outermost lens and serves as a window that
focuses and controls the entry of light into the eye. By focusing light onto the retina, a clear
image of the object is formed.
8. Statement 1 is incorrect. While most of the DNA is found in the cell nucleus, some DNA is also
present in the mitochondria, which is called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Statement 2 is incorrect. Mitochondrial diseases are caused by faulty mitochondrial DNA, not
faulty genes on the X-chromosome. Certain disorders caused by mtDNA dysfunction include
diabetes, respiratory disorders, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's
disease, etc. Currently, there is no cure for mitochondrial diseases.
Statement 3 is correct. Mitochondria are structures in each cell that convert molecules into
energy, and each contains a small amount of DNA. Since only egg cells contribute
mitochondria to the developing embryo, only females can pass on mitochondrial mutations
to their children.
9. Option d is correct. Viruses can cause various diseases, including the common cold, influenza,
dengue fever, AIDS, chickenpox, smallpox, Chikungunya, Ebola, polio, and many others.
10. Zoonotic diseases are diseases transmitted from animals to humans. The following
statements are correct:
West Nile fever is a zoonosis caused by a virus transmitted by infected mosquitoes;
Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria and people can contract it through
contact with infected animals or their products;
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a virus transmitted between animals and
people;
11. Statement a is correct. An infection occurs when pathogenic microorganisms invade and
multiply in an individual or population, while a disease occurs when the infection causes
damage to the individual's vital functions or systems. Not all infections result in disease.
Statement b is correct. The agents that cause disease can be classified into five groups:
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and helminths (worms). Protozoa and worms are
commonly grouped together as parasites and are the subject of parasitology.
Statement c is correct. Intracellular pathogens need to invade host cells to replicate. These
pathogens can be further divided into those that replicate freely in the cell, such as viruses
and some bacteria, and those that replicate in cellular vesicles, such as mycobacteria.
Because viruses are obligate intracellular pathogens, they require the machinery and
metabolism of a host cell to replicate.
Statement d is incorrect. It is not advantageous for the long-term survival of a pathogen to
rapidly kill every host it infects or be wiped out by the immune response before infecting
another individual. Therefore, killing every host it infects is not beneficial for the pathogen's
long-term survival.
12. Flavonoids are plant metabolites that are found in various fruits and vegetables and are
believed to offer health benefits by means of cell signalling pathways and antioxidant effects.
They are important antioxidants and are associated with several positive effects on health,
including anti-viral, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic properties. Flavonoids
are present in most fruits, vegetables, and herbs, and can also be found in other food sources
such as dry beans, grains, red wine, green tea, and black tea.
13. Candida Auris, also known as C. auris, is a pathogen that is resistant to multiple drugs and is
considered a serious threat to global health. Recently, it has been identified in the
environment off the coast of the South Andaman district in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, marking the first time it has been found in the environment. Candida Auris was
initially discovered in a patient in Japan in 2009, and has since emerged in over 40 countries
on five continents over the past decade. While this fungus is mostly found in tropical
marshes and marine environments, it has also been detected outside of hospital settings.
16. Animal cells possess centrioles, which are barrel-shaped organelles found near the nuclear
envelope in the cytoplasm. Centrioles play a key role in organizing microtubules, which serve
as the cell's skeletal system. In contrast, plant
cells have cell walls, plastids, and a large
central vacuole that are absent in animal cells,
but they lack centrioles, which are absent in
almost all plant cells. Therefore, statement 1 is
correct.
Carbohydrates are a major source of energy
for both animals and plants. Plants synthesize
carbohydrates using light energy from the Sun
during the process of photosynthesis. In
contrast, animals consume plants or other
animals to obtain carbohydrates. Plants store carbohydrates as starch, while animals store
them as glycogen. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
17. Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are linked by peptide bonds. Carbohydrates are
macromolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a 2:1 ratio of Hydrogen to
Oxygen atoms, and they are linked by glycosidic bonds. Therefore, Statement 1 is not correct.
Fibrous proteins, such as keratin and myosin, have a fiber-like structure due to hydrogen and
disulfide bonds and are generally insoluble in water. Globular proteins, such as insulin, are
more soluble and have a spherical shape. Therefore, Statement 2 is not correct.
Triglycerides, also known as neutral fats, are essential for energy storage and are mainly
found in vegetable oils and animal fats. Therefore, Statement 3 is correct.
18. The term "Eukaryotic" means: eu = true, karyon = nucleus, as they possess a well-organized
nucleus enclosed by a nuclear envelope. The DNA is enclosed in a nuclear membrane,
forming a nucleus. Therefore, Statement 1 is incorrect.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are capable of performing both aerobic (oxygen-requiring) and
anaerobic (non-oxygen-based) metabolism. As a result, both types of organisms can live with
or without oxygen. Hence, Statement 2 is also incorrect.
19. Plant cells possess both a cell wall and a cell membrane, with the cell wall surrounding the
cell membrane, resulting in a unique rectangular shape. Animal cells, on the other hand, only
possess a cell membrane and lack a cell wall. Mitochondria and Ribosomes are present in
both plant and animal cells. Mitochondria are organelles bound by a membrane that generate
the majority of the chemical energy required to fuel cellular reactions. This chemical energy
20. Statement 1 is correct in stating that DNA is the chemical compound that carries genetic
instructions in all living things. This molecule is composed of two strands that twist around
one another to form a structure known as a double helix. Each strand contains alternating
sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. DNA is made up of 23 pairs of chromosomes and
provides information for constructing an entire organism and its proteins. The DNA code is
composed of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
The second statement is also correct. Nuclear DNA can be inherited from both parents,
whereas mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from the mother. Furthermore, nuclear DNA
has a lower mutation rate than mitochondrial DNA.
Statement 3 is correct. Most viruses contain either RNA or DNA as their genetic material. The
nucleic acid can be single- or double-stranded. The entire infectious viral particle, called a
virion, is made up of the nucleic acid and an outer protein shell. The simplest viruses only
encode enough RNA or DNA to produce four proteins.
1. b 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. d 8. a 9. d 10. a
11. a 12. a 13. d 14. c 15. b 16. d 17. d 18. b 19. c 20. c
Explanations
1. C-peptide is a substance that is produced when insulin is synthesized and released in the
body. The amount of C-peptide in blood is an indicator of the amount of insulin being
produced. In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesized as a prohormone, which
contains an additional stretch called the C peptide. This C peptide is absent in the mature
insulin, as it is removed during maturation. Typically, high levels of C-peptide in the blood
indicate high levels of insulin production and vice versa.
2. Statement 1 is correct. Beneficial unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are
mainly found in plant-based foods, including vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds. They can help
improve blood cholesterol levels, reduce inflammation, stabilize heart rhythms, and provide
other benefits.
Statement 2 is correct. Saturated fat is solid at room temperature and is mostly found in
animal-based foods, such as milk, cheese, and meat. Poultry and fish contain less saturated
fat than red meat. Tropical oils like coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter are also high in
saturated fat.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Trans-fats or trans-fatty acids (TFAs) are unsaturated fatty acids
that can come from natural or industrial sources. Consumption of TFAs is linked to a higher
risk of heart attacks and death from coronary heart disease. It can increase the levels of bad
(LDL) cholesterol and decrease the levels of good (HDL) cholesterol. TFAs are also associated
with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes, and they have negative effects on the
brain and nervous system.
3. Statement 1 is correct. Prokaryotes were the earliest life forms on Earth, which used carbon
compounds to generate their own energy. Other organisms slowly evolved to use the Sun's
energy and other compounds to generate energy.
4. Statement 1 is incorrect. Avian influenza or bird flu is a viral infection that is primarily found
in birds, but it can also infect humans and other animals. The H5N1 strain is the most
common cause of severe respiratory disease in birds, but other strains such as H7 and H8 can
also cause infection. Swine flu is caused by the H1N1 virus strain.
Statement 2 is correct. Most cases of H5N1 infection in humans have been linked to close
contact with infected live or dead birds or environments contaminated with H5N1. Although
the virus is not highly infectious to humans, there have been rare instances of human-to-
human transmission.
5. Option a is correct. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized
cell types and form every organ and tissue in the body. There are different types of stem
cells, including embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent and can give rise to any cell type
in the body, and tissue-specific or adult stem cells, which generate cells specific to the tissue
or organ in which they are found.
Option b is correct. Blood-forming stem cells in the bone marrow can produce red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Option c is correct. Adult or somatic stem cells are tissue-specific and can generate different
cell types for the specific tissue or organ in which they live. They replace lost cells due to
normal repair, disease, or injury and are found in various tissues throughout life, such as the
umbilical cord, placenta, bone marrow, muscle, brain, fat tissue, skin, and gut.
Option d is incorrect. Induced Pluripotent stem cells are produced in the lab by converting
adult cells (tissue-specific) into cells that behave like embryonic stem cells.
6. Option a is incorrect. It is not pluripotency that is present in the early stages of the fertized
eggs but totipotency.
Option b is incorrect as zygotes are produced during sexual reproduction and spores are the
result of asexual reproduction.
Option c is correct. A single totipotent cell has the potential to develop into an entire
organism, including all the specialized cells and the placental support structure needed for
fetal development.
Option d is incorrect. Pluripotency refers to the ability of a cell to differentiate into the three
primary germ cell layers of the early embryo and therefore into all cells of the adult body, but
not into extra-embryonic tissues like the placenta.
9. Option a is correct. Chlorophyll gives algae their green colour and is present in all algae.
However, some algae have other pigments that mask the green chlorophyll, leading to
different colour variations.
Option b is correct. Leaves that appear to be a colour other than green still contain
chlorophyll. The presence of other pigments masks the green colour, but photosynthesis still
takes place in these leaves.
Option c is correct. Plants respond to higher concentrations of CO2 by increasing their rates
of photosynthesis, leading to higher productivity. This has been used in some greenhouse
crops, such as tomatoes and bell peppers, where they are grown in a carbon dioxide-
enriched atmosphere to increase yields.
Option d is incorrect. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments, not the
cytoplasm.
11. Statement 1 is correct. ASF is a viral disease that affects both wild and domestic pigs and is
characterized by acute hemorrhagic fever. It has a nearly 100% case fatality rate and can be
transmitted through direct contact with infected pigs or through contaminated material and
biological vectors like ticks.
Statement 2 is incorrect. African Swine Fever is not a disease that affects humans, but it can
be catastrophic for pigs. It is a non-zoonotic disease, and currently, there is no effective
treatment or vaccine available.
Statement 3 is incorrect. The current outbreak of African Swine Fever in India, specifically in
Assam, is not the first time the disease has been reported in the country.
12. Option 1, 2, and 4 are correct. Leukocytes or White Blood Cells play a crucial role in the
immune system, as they help fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that
invade the body. They are colorless due to the lack of haemoglobin and originate in the bone
marrow, but circulate throughout the bloodstream. There are five major types of white blood
cells: neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes, and basophils.
Option 3 is incorrect. Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells (RBC) are the most abundant cells in
the blood and are formed in the red bone marrow in adults.
13. Statement 1 is correct: Insufficient clean water and sanitation, as well as poor infection
prevention and control, can facilitate the transmission of microbes, which can lead to
antimicrobial resistance.
Statement 2 is correct: The development and spread of drug-resistant pathogens with new
resistance mechanisms contribute to antimicrobial resistance, which poses a threat to our
ability to treat common infections.
Statement 3 is correct: Antibiotic resistance can affect people at any point in their lives, as
well as the healthcare, veterinary, and agricultural industries. Antimicrobial resistance is
therefore a critical global public health concern.
14. a. Incorrect. Helminth infections are caused by parasitic worms and can be transmitted
through soil. Hence called STH – Soil Transmitted Helminths.
b. Incorrect. India has the highest number of STH-infected children in the world, with 64% of
them under 14 years of age.
c. Correct. Helminth infections can cause a range of symptoms, including diarrhoea,
malnutrition, weakness, impaired growth, and physical development in infected children.
15. Statement 1 is incorrect. The liver is the largest gland in the body and weighs about 1.2 to 1.5
kg in an adult human, situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm, and has
two lobes. The average weight of the heart is 250-300 gm and it is not a gland (glands
produce harmones).
Statement 2 is correct. The liver is responsible for the production of a digestive fluid known
as bile, which is released into the gallbladder, a small, pear-shaped organ located just below
the liver in the upper right side of the abdomen.
Statement 3 is correct. The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine organ. It has the dual
function of secreting hormones into the blood (endocrine) and secreting enzymes through
ducts (exocrine).
Statement 4 is correct. The liver is the only organ in the human body that can regenerate.
After the diseased portion of the liver is removed, fibrinogen and blood platelets accumulate
in the remaining liver, triggering the earliest stages of regeneration.
16. Statement 1 is correct. Vitamin A is a group of fat-soluble retinoids, which include retinol,
retinal, and retinyl esters. Preformed Vitamin A can be found in high concentrations in liver
and fish oils, as well as in milk and eggs.
Statement 2 is correct. Vitamin A deficiency can result in night blindness. Vitamin A, also
known as retinol, aids in the conversion of nerve impulses to images in the retina.
Statement 3 is also correct as Vitamin A is involved in various bodily functions such as
immune function, vision, reproduction, and cellular communication.
In addition, vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Vitamins A, D, E,
and K are fat-soluble, while Vitamin C and all B vitamins are water-soluble.
17. Microbes cause a large number of diseases in human beings. They also cause diseases in
animals and plants. But all microbes are not harmful; several microbes are useful to man in
diverse ways.
Micro-organisms such as Lactobacillus and others commonly called lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
grow in milk and convert it to curd. Hence option 1 is correct.
Aspergillus niger is a fungal microbe of great industrial importance. This mold is used
extensively in the production of citric acid and in the production of several enzymes such as
amylases, pectinases, and proteases. Hence option 2 is correct.
Streptococcus thermophilus (S. thermophilus) is a type of probiotic ("good" bacteria) found
in the digestive tract. It produces lactic acid in the gut. "Good" bacteria such as S.
thermophilus can help break down food, absorb nutrients, and fight off "bad" organisms that
might cause diseases. Hence option 3 is correct.
18. Statement 1 is incorrect. Both DNA and RNA are capable of undergoing mutations. In fact,
RNA is often more prone to mutations due to its instability, which can lead to faster evolution
in certain organisms, such as viruses with RNA genomes.
Statement 2 is correct. RNA contains a 2'-OH group on each nucleotide, which makes it more
reactive and less stable than DNA. RNA is also known to be catalytic, which makes it even
more reactive. In contrast, DNA lacks this 2'-OH group and is chemically more stable than
RNA.
20. Statements 1 and 2 are correct as Hepatitis C and Chickenpox are viral infections. Statement
3 is also correct as the common cold is mostly caused by various types of viruses, with
rhinovirus being the most common one. However, statement 4 is incorrect as Malaria is
caused by protozoa and not viruses.
1. Which of the following statements are 4. Consider the following statements about
true? virus:
1. Prokaryotes lack a nuclear 1. It is metabolically inactive when
membrane. outside the host cell
2. Are all eukaryotes multicellular 2. It can infect various types of cells
organisms. except bacteria
Which of the statements given above 3. All Coronaviruses are RNA viruses.
is/are correct? Which of the above statements is/are
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
2. How does noise pollution impact human
health negatively? Select all that apply:
1. Hypertension 5. How can bacteria be beneficial?
2. Hearing disability 1. Treating sewage
3. Sleeping disorders 2. Manufacturing medications
4. Anxiety 3. Enhancing soil productivity
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only 4. Developing vaccines
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Select the correct answer using the code
given below:
3. This contagious fungal infection is also (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
known as tinea pedis or ringworm of the (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
foot. It affects the skin on the feet, and it
thrives in a warm and moist environment. 6. Consider the following statements about
Additionally, it can spread to the toenails harmones.
and the hands. 1. Hormones play a crucial role in the
Which disease is being referred to in the physical and psychological changes
passage above? that occur during adolescence.
2. The pituitary gland is responsible for
(a) Mycetoma (b) Athlete’s foot
secreting many hormones, but it is not
16. Which of the following statements 20. With reference to the coagulation of blood
accurately defines the term "Cytokine in human beings, consider the following
storm"? statements:
(a) An atypical increase in sea levels 1. Haemostasis leads to cessation of
during a cyclone. bleeding from a blood vessel which is
(b) Excessive production of particular the first stage of wound healing.
signaling proteins that can be detrimental 2. Haemophilia is a genetic disorder in
to the body. which the blood does not clot properly.
(c) A swarm of locusts that causes Which of the statements given above
significant damage to crops. is/are correct?
(d) A sudden surge in the prices of (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
essential goods. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. b
11. d 12. c 13. d 14. b 15. c 16. b 17. c 18. b 19. b 20. c
Explanations
2. Excessive noise in the surroundings is referred to as noise pollution and may result in
various health problems, such as hypertension (high blood pressure) (statement 1 is
correct), hearing disability (temporary or permanent impairment of hearing due to
continuous exposure to loud sound) (statement 2 is correct), sleeping disorders (statement 3
is correct), and anxiety (statement 4 is correct).
5. Statement 1 is true as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are utilized in sewage treatment plants
to reduce organic matter and biological oxygen demand, thus making treated sewage water
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 326
suitable for natural water bodies. Microorganisms can also clean up the environment by
breaking down harmful substances.
Statement 2 is correct, with antibiotics being produced from bacteria and fungi, and used to
treat various diseases.
Statement 3 is correct, as certain bacteria can increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from
the atmosphere.
Statement 4 is also correct, with vaccines being created from microorganisms to prevent
diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox, and hepatitis. Antigens from the pathogens
trigger an immune response in the body.
7. Pair 1 is correct. Mushroom is a type of fungus that belongs to the category of Saprotrophs,
which means that it derives its nutrition from dead and decaying organic matter.
Pair 2 is incorrect. Insectivorous plants are partial heterotrophs and they are not examples of
parasitic nutrition in plants. Parasitic plants depend on other living organisms for their
nutrition because they cannot photosynthesize. On the other hand, insectivorous plants can
photosynthesize, but they lack sufficient nitrogen. They consume insects to fulfill their
nitrogen requirement.
Pair 3 is correct. Both plants and algae are autotrophs, which means they are capable of
making their own food from simple substances. Algae contain chlorophyll and can also
prepare their food by photosynthesis.
8. Statement 1 is correct. Bile is a complex fluid composed of water, electrolytes, and organic
molecules, such as bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids, and bilirubin. It moves through the
biliary tract and flows into the small intestine. Bile acids are vital for digesting and absorbing
fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Most vertebrates' liver secretes bile to aid in the digestion of lipids
in the small intestine. In humans, the liver secretes bile, which is then stored and
concentrated in the gallbladder.
Statement 3 is correct. Food coming from the stomach is acidic, and the pancreatic enzyme
requires an alkaline environment to function. Bile helps in this process. Bile salts break down
large fat globules into smaller ones, making enzyme action more effective.
10. Living organisms are defined as those that possess the ability to reproduce, and thus,
bacteria, algae, and fungi are all considered living beings due to their reproductive
capabilities. However, viruses are not considered alive by scientists because they lack several
properties associated with living organisms. Specifically, they are incapable of reproduction
without the aid of a host cell, and they do not use the standard cell division method for
replication. As a result, viruses are considered non-living entities.
11. People with the O blood group have neither A nor B antigens on their red blood cells.
13. Edible unicellular microorganisms are referred to as Single-cell proteins (SCP), which are
increasingly utilized as protein supplements in human diets. However, their large-scale
adoption is subject to certain limitations.
Statement 1 is correct. Microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast that grow rapidly have a
high concentration of nucleic acid. The ingestion of such biomass causes an increase in
plasma uric acid levels, which can lead to gastrointestinal problems or kidney stones.
14. Statement 1 is incorrect. Cord blood is not found in the nervous tissues of the spinal cord.
Instead, it refers to the blood that remains in the umbilical cord and placenta after childbirth.
Cord blood banking involves the collection, processing, and cryopreservation of cord blood
stem cells and other immune cells for potential medical purposes.
Statement 2 is correct. Hematopoietic stem cells, which are present in cord blood, have the
ability to differentiate into various blood cell types and can be used to treat certain diseases.
Cord blood can be collected after childbirth, and its stem cells can be extracted and stored for
possible future use in medical treatments.
15. The secretion of the enzyme lipase by the pancreas is crucial for digesting and absorbing
dietary fats. Lipase breaks down triglycerides (fats) into free fatty acids and glycerol.
Additionally, lipase plays a critical role in the mechanism of certain cholesterol-lowering
medications. So, Statement 1 is correct.
A fatty acid is a molecule made up of a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a long hydrocarbon
chain. When every carbon atom in the hydrocarbon chain is bonded to as many hydrogen
atoms as possible, it is called a saturated fatty acid. If a fatty acid has one or more double
bonds in its hydrocarbon chain, it is called an unsaturated fatty acid. Monounsaturated fatty
acids have one double bond, while polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double
bonds. So, Statement 2 is not correct.
The liver produces very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol, which is released into
the bloodstream to provide body tissues with triglycerides. VLDL cholesterol is considered
"bad" because it can cause plaque buildup in the arteries, leading to a condition called
atherosclerosis. Plaque can harden and narrow arteries, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich
blood to the body. This can cause heart disease and other conditions. So, Statement 3 is
correct.
16. When an immune response activated by the body to combat an infection becomes severe, it
is referred to as a cytokine storm. Cells release signaling proteins called cytokines, and
during a cytokine storm, an excessive amount of cytokines is rapidly released into the
bloodstream. Although cytokines typically regulate immune responses, in this scenario, they
can be detrimental and may even result in death. The overproduction of immune cells is a
hallmark of a cytokine storm, which can be hazardous since an abundance of immune cells
may attack not only infected but also healthy tissues.
17. Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other
body part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the
hemoglobin that carries oxygen in the blood.
18. Connective tissue (also called fibrous tissue) is one of the four primary types of animal tissue,
along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
Connective tissues support and connect different tissues and organs of the body. They are
widely distributed in every part of the body.
A ligament is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches bone to bone, and usually serves to
hold structures together and keep them stable. This tissue is very elastic. It has considerable
strength. Hence option (b) is the correct answer.
A tendon is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. A tendon serves to move
the bone.
Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels and
nerves and in the bone marrow. It fills the space inside the organs and supports internal
organs.
Cartilage is a strong, flexible connective tissue that protects the joints and bones. It acts as a
shock absorber in the body. Cartilage at the end of your bones reduces friction and prevents
them from rubbing together at the joints.
19. The digestion in stomach is taken care of by the gastric glands present in the wall of the
stomach. These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and
mucus. Pepsin in gastric juice digests proteins such as those in meat, eggs, seeds, or dairy
products. The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the
enzyme pepsin. Hence option 1 is not correct.
The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic
enzymes to act. The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to
digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for
the digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats.
Lipase enzymes are produced by a number of different glands and organs in the body,
including the pancreas, liver, and stomach. Hence option 2 is correct.
Lactase is an enzyme found in the mammalian small intestine that digests lactose, which is a
sugar found in milk. Hence option 3 is correct.
20. Hemostasis is the physiological process by which the body stops bleeding at the site of an
injury, such as a cut or a wound. It involves a complex series of events that work together to
form a blood clot to prevent further blood loss. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Haemophilia is the main blood clotting disorder. It is characterised by excessive bleeding. It
is due to the absence of some of the factors required in the blood clotting cascade. Hence,
statement 2 is correct.
Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot inside the blood vessel. It blocks the flow of
blood. Thrombosis can occur in arteries as well as veins. Arterial thrombosis affects the
blood supply and leads to the damage of tissue.
Physical Quantities
Physical quantities are properties of objects or phenomena that can be measured or quantified.
These can include properties like length, mass, time, temperature, and electric charge. In physics,
we often use standard systems of units to measure physical quantities, such as the International
System of Units (SI).
Fundamental Quantities
The SI system defines seven fundamental quantities, also known as base units, which are used as
the basis for measuring all other physical quantities. These fundamental quantities and their
respective SI units are:
1. Length - meter (m)
2. Mass - kilogram (kg)
3. Time - second (s)
4. Electric current - ampere (A)
5. Temperature - Kelvin (K)
6. Amount of substance - mole (mol)
7. Luminous intensity - candela (cd)
Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are physical quantities that can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
quantities using mathematical equations or relationships. For example, velocity is a derived
quantity because it can be expressed as the ratio of distance (length) to time. Other examples of
derived quantities include acceleration, force, energy, power, and pressure.
Here is a table of some common derived quantities and their corresponding SI units:
Derived Quantity Symbol SI Unit
Kinematics
Kinematics is a branch of classical mechanics that deals with the motion of objects without
considering the forces that cause the motion. It is concerned with describing the position,
velocity, and acceleration of objects as they move through space and time. In other words,
kinematics describes how objects move, but not why they move.
• Kinematics is important in many areas of science and engineering, including physics,
astronomy, biomechanics, and robotics.
• The study of kinematics involves the use of mathematical equations and graphs to
describe and analyze motion.
Speed
Speed is a scalar quantity that describes the rate at which an object moves, taking into account
only the magnitude of the motion, not the direction. Speed is measured in meters per second
(m/s) or other units of length per time. The average speed of an object over a given time period
can be calculated using the following equation:
average speed = total distance traveled / total time taken
where distance is the total distance traveled by the object, and time is the duration of the motion.
It is important to note that speed does not take into account changes in direction, only changes in
magnitude of the motion. For example, a car traveling at 60 km/h to the east and then turning to
travel at 60 km/h to the north will have the same speed, but a different velocity (magnitude and
direction of motion).
Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity that describes the rate at which an object changes its position over
time, taking into account both the magnitude (speed) and direction of the object's motion. The
average velocity of an object over a given time period can be calculated using the following
equation:
average velocity = change in displacement / change in time
where displacement is the change in position of the object, and time is the duration of the
motion.
Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity that describes the rate at which an object changes its velocity
over time, taking into account both the magnitude and direction of the change. The average
acceleration of an object over a given time period can be calculated using the following equation:
average acceleration = change in velocity / change in time
where velocity is the change in velocity of the object, and time is the duration of the motion.
• It is important to note that acceleration can be positive or negative, depending on the
direction of the change in velocity. Positive acceleration means that the object is speeding
up, while negative acceleration means that the object is slowing down.
Force
Work
Work is a measure of energy transfer that occurs when a force is applied to an object and the
object is displaced in the direction of the force. Work (W) is represented mathematically as the
product of the force (F) and the displacement (d) of the object in the direction of the force.
This can be expressed as: W = Fdcos()
where W is the work done, F is the force applied, d is the displacement of the object, and is the
angle betweenthe force and the displacement vectors.
Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in units of joules (J), which is equivalent to a newton-
meter (N*m).
• It's important to note that work is only done when there is a displacement of the object in
the direction of the force. If the object doesn't move, or if it moves perpendicular to the
force, no work is done.
• Work can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of the force and
displacement.
o Positive work is done when the force and displacement are in the same direction,
while negative work is done when the force and displacement are in opposite
directions.
o For example, if you push a box across a table with a force of 10 newtons over a
distance of 2 meters, and the angle between the force and displacement vectors is
zero (meaning they are in the same direction), then the work done on the box is:
W = 10 N * 2 m * cos(0) = 20 J
o This means that 20 joules of energy were transferred from you to the box as you
pushed it across the table.
Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 336
• Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa with the help of some mechanical
device.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object.
• It is given by the formula KE = (1/2)mv2, where m is the mass of the object and v is its
velocity.
• This means that the kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and its velocity.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy that an object possesses due to its position or its configuration.
• It is given by the formula PE = mgh, where m is the mass of the object, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height of the object above some reference point.
• This means that the potential energy of an object depends on its mass, the strength of
gravity, and its height above the ground.
Escape Velocity
• Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object needs to achieve in order to escape the
gravitational pull of a massive body, such as a planet, without being pulled back.
• The formula for calculating the escape velocity from the surface of a planet is given by:v =
√(2GM / r)
where v is the escape velocity, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the planet,
and r is the distance from the center of the planet to the object's starting point.
• For Earth, the mass (M) is approximately 5.97 x 1024 kg, and the radius (r) is
approximately 6,371 km. Using these values and the gravitational constant (G = 6.674 x
10-11 Nm^2/kg^2), we can calculate the escape velocity:
v = √(2 x 6.674 x 10^-11 x 5.97 x 10^24 / 6,371,000)
Satellites
• A satellite is an object that orbits around a planet or other celestial body. Satellites can be
natural, like the moon orbiting around the Earth, or artificial, like a communication
satellite launched into orbit around the Earth.
Geostationary satellite
• A geostationary satellite is a type of artificial satellite that orbits the Earth at a fixed
position above the equator, in a circular orbit at an altitude of approximately 36,000
km.
• These satellites are designed to remain fixed relative to a specific location on the Earth's
surface and are used for a variety of purposes such as telecommunications, weather
forecasting, and navigation.
Polar satellite
• A polar satellite is another type of artificial satellite that orbits the Earth in a north-
south direction, passing over the Earth's poles as it orbits.
• These satellites are placed in orbits that are at a much lower altitude compared to
geostationary satellites, typically around 800 km, and are used for applications such as
remote sensing, climate monitoring, and scientific research.
• While geostationary satellites remain fixed above the equator, polar satellites orbit
around the Earth and provide coverage of the entire globe over a period of time. Both
types of satellites have their own advantages and are used for specific purposes.
Electricity
• Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the movement of charged particles, such as
electrons or ions.
• It is a fundamental force of nature that plays a crucial role in our daily lives, powering
everything from light bulbs and electronic devices to cars and factories.
• Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, such as a wire.
• It can be generated by a variety of sources, including batteries, generators, and power
plants.
Electric Charge
• Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that determines how it interacts with
electric and magnetic fields.
• All matter is made up of atoms, which are composed of positively charged protons,
negatively charged electrons, and neutral neutrons.
• Electric charge can be either positive or negative, depending on whether there is an
excess of protons or electrons in an object.
• Electric charge is quantized, meaning it can only exist in discrete amounts. The smallest
unit of electric charge is the charge of a single electron, which is equal in magnitude to
the charge of a proton but opposite in sign.
• The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (C).
• Electric charge can be transferred from one object to another through a process known
as charging. There are two ways in which an object can be charged: by gaining or losing
electrons. When an object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged, and when it
loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
• How two electric charges interact with each other is given by Coulomb’s Law.
Coulomb's Law
• Coulomb's Law is a fundamental law of electrostatics that describes the interaction
between electric charges.
• It states that the force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• Mathematically, Coulomb's Law is expressed as: F = kq1q2/r2
where F is the electrostatic force between the two charges, q1 and q2 are the
magnitudes of the charges, r is the distance between them, and k is the Coulomb
constant.
Electric Potential
• Electric potential, also known as voltage, is the measure of the electric potential energy
per unit charge in an electric circuit. It is the energy required to move an electric charge
between two points in an electric field.
• The unit of electric potential is the volt (V). Electric potential difference, or voltage
difference, between two points is the difference in electric potential between them and is
measured in volts.
Electric Current
• Electric Current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, such as a wire. It is
measured in amperes (A) and is defined as the amount of charge that flows through a
conductor per unit time.
• Electric Current (I) = q/t where q is the amount of charge, t is the time period.
• The direction of current flow is from the point of higher electric potential to the point of
lower electric potential.
Power
• Electric power refers to the amount of electrical energy generated or used up within a
given period of time. It is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
• The formula to calculate electric power is P = VI, where P represents power, V represents
voltage, and I represents current.
• The unit of power is the watt, which is equivalent to one joule per second (J/s).
• Another commonly used unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is
the amount of energy used by a 1-kilowatt appliance for one hour. 1 kWh is equal to 3.6 ×
10^6 joules (J).
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's law is a fundamental principle in electronics that relates the three concepts of
electric potential, electric current, and resistance.
• It states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the voltage across it and inversely proportional to its resistance.
• The equation for Ohm's law is: I = V/R
where I is the electric current, V is the electric potential difference or voltage, and R is the
resistance of the conductor.
Types of Materials
Materials can be classified based on their electrical conductivity, which is a measure of their
ability to conduct electric current.
Electric Dipole
• An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite electric charges separated by a small
distance.
• The strength of an electric dipole is measured by its dipole moment, which is defined as
the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between them.
• Electric dipoles are important in many areas of physics, including electromagnetism and
quantum mechanics.
• Electric dipoles have a number of important properties. They create an electric field that
varies with distance, and this field can be used to exert forces on other charges. They also
have a magnetic moment, which allows them to interact with magnetic fields.
Additionally, electric dipoles can be used to create polar molecules, which have
important applications in chemistry and biology.
Capacitor
• A capacitor is an electrical device that stores electric charge.
• It consists of two conductive plates separated by a non-conductive material, or dielectric.
When a voltage is applied to the plates, charge accumulates on them, creating an electric
field between them. The amount of charge that a capacitor can store is determined by its
capacitance, which is measured in farads (F).
• Capacitors have many practical applications in electronics and electrical engineering.
They can be used to filter out unwanted signals, store energy, and provide a source of
electrical power. Capacitors are also used in many types of sensors and transducers, and
they are a fundamental component in the design of electronic circuits.
Electric Cell
• An electric cell is a mechanism that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy.
The operation of electric cells is founded on the chemical effect of electric current.
• There are two categories of electric cells.
1. Primary cells, such as Voltaic, Daniell, and Leclanche cells, cannot be recharged
2. Secondary cells like acid and alkali accumulators can be recharged repeatedly.
EMF of a Cell
• The emf (electromotive force) of a cell refers to the amount of work done by the cell to
move a positive charge from one terminal of the cell to the other.
• It is not an actual force, but rather a measure of the energy supplied by the cell to the
circuit. In other words, emf is the work done by the cell per unit charge and is measured
in volts.
Magnet Properties
• Attractive property: Magnets can attract small magnetic materials like iron, nickel,
cobalt, and steel. The attraction is strongest at the poles, where unlike poles attract and
like poles repel.
• Directive property: A magnet when freely suspended, aligns itself in the approximate
North-South direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
• Magnetic poles exist in pairs: If a magnet is cut into two equal pieces transverse to its
length, the North and South poles of the magnet will not be separated.
Magnetic Substances
There are three types of magnetic substances: Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic.
Paramagnetic Substances:
• Substances that are weakly magnetized in the direction of a magnetic field when
placed in a strong magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
• Examples of paramagnetic substances are aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese,
solutions of salts of iron, nickel, and oxygen.
• These substances are attracted towards a strong magnetic field in a non-uniform
magnetic field.
• The magnetism of these substances decreases as the temperature increases.
Diamagnetic Substances:
• Substances that are weakly magnetized in the opposite direction of a magnetic field
when placed in a strong magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
• Examples of diamagnetic substances are gold, silver, zinc, copper, mercury, water,
alcohol, air, and hydrogen.
• These substances are attracted towards a weak magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic
field.
• The magnetism produced in these substances does not change with an increase or
decrease in temperature.
Ferromagnetic Substances:
• Substances that are strongly magnetized in the direction of a magnetic field when
placed in it are called ferromagnetic substances.
• Examples of ferromagnetic substances are iron, nickel, and cobalt.
• The magnetism produced in these substances decreases with an increase in temperature,
and at a specific temperature called Curie temperature they lose their magnetic
properties.
• At the Curie temperature, a paramagnetic substance becomes diamagnetic.
• The Curie temperature for iron is 770°C, and for nickel, it is 358°C.
Electron
• Sir J.J. Thomson discovered the electron (e-) in 1897 while examining the characteristics
of cathode rays.
• The electron is a negatively charged particle with an e/m ratio of 1.76x108 c/g.
• Robert Millikan used the oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron as -
1.6x10-19C.
• Electron has a definite mass and is about 2000 times lighter than the lightest atom –
Hydrogen
Proton
• The proton (p+) was discovered by Rutherford in 1909 during his gold foil alpha-
particle scattering experiment.
• Protons are positively charged particles with a charge of +1.6x10-19 C (which is the same
magnitude as an electron).
• The atomic number of an element corresponds to the number of protons in its nucleus.
Neutron
• In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron (n).
• The neutron is an uncharged particle with a mass of 1.674x10-24 gm (equal to that of
proton).
• The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus.
Summary of Important Sub-atomic Particles
Particle Discoverer Charge Mass Relative
Mass*
Electron J.J. Thomson -1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Proton Ernest Rutherford +1 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Neutron James Chadwick 0 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Meson Yukawa Hideki 0 2.2 x 10^-28 kg 274
Photoelectric Effect
• The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metal when light of
suitable frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect.
• The ejected electrons are called photoelectrons and the current produced due to
emitted electrons is called photocurrent.
• The energy of the electrons emitted in the photoelectric effect is directly proportional to
the frequency of the incident light.
• Photoelectric effect was first explained by Einstein in 1905
Radioactivity
• The spontaneous process by which a nucleus changes its state with the emission of α, β,
or γ-rays is called radioactivity.Radioactivity is not influenced by temperature, pressure,
electric or magnetic fields.
• The activity of a radioactive substance is the number of decays per unit time.
o Activity A = Nλ where λ is the decay constant, and N is the number of
radioactive nuclei
• The period during which the activity of a radioactive substance decreases to half its
initial value is known as the half-life.
o T1/2 = ln(2) / λ = 0.693/ λ where T1/2 is the half-life, ln is the natural
logarithm, and λ is the decay constant.
Properties of α, β, or γ-rays
Alpha particle (α)
• Alpha particles are positively charged particles consisting of two protons and two
neutrons (He2+).
• The mass of alpha particles is equal to the mass of a helium nucleus (they are doubly
ionized helium).
• Alpha particles can be deflected in both magnetic and electric fields.
• The velocity of alpha particles is much less than the velocity of light, approximately
1/10th of the speed of light.
• Alpha particles have the lowest penetrating power compared to beta and gamma
particles. Their penetrating power is 1/100th of beta particles and 1/10,000th of gamma
rays.
Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves are a type of wave that consists of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields (in a sine wave or sinusoidal wave) which move through space at the
speed of light. They are produced by the motion of electrically charged particles and do
not require a medium for their propagation.
• Electromagnetic waves include a wide range of frequencies, ranging from radio waves
with the lowest frequencies to gamma rays with the highest frequencies.
• They exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties and play a significant role in
many areas of modern technology and science.
• The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is represented by the equation c =
1/√(ε0 μ0), where ε0 represents the permittivity of free space, and μ0 represents the
permeability of free space.
X-rays
X-rays are a type of electromagnetic waves. In 1885, a German scientist named Prof. Roentgen
discovered X-rays.
• X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons are suddenly stopped on a metal with a
high atomic number.
Properties of X-rays:
(i) X-rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields,
(ii) they travel at the speed of light,
(iii) they carry no electric charge,
(iv) they exhibit both particle and wave nature,
(v) they are invisible.
Applications of X-rays
X-rays have a wide range of applications in various fields. Here are a few examples:
1. Medical imaging: X-rays are commonly used for medical imaging to visualize bones and
soft tissues. X-ray images are used to diagnose and monitor a range of medical conditions
such as fractures, tumors, infections, and lung diseases.
2. Industrial radiography: X-rays are used to inspect the integrity and quality of materials in
manufacturing and industrial processes.
3. Airport security: X-rays are used in airport security scanners to detect prohibited items
such as weapons and explosives hidden in luggage.
4. Astronomy: X-rays are used in astronomy to study high-energy phenomena such as black
holes, supernovae, and quasars.
5. Non-destructive testing: X-rays can be used to inspect and test the structural integrity of
materials and components without damaging them.
6. Forensics: X-rays are used in forensic investigations to examine and identify bones, teeth,
and other skeletal remains.
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission
• Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two smaller nuclei,
typically by bombarding it with neutrons. This process releases a large amount of energy
in the form of radiation and is used in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons
(Atom bombs).
• One example of a nuclear fission reaction is: U-235 + n → Ba-141 + Kr-92 + 3n
o In this reaction, uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, causing it to split into barium-
141, krypton-92, and three neutrons.
• In above reaction more neutrons are released than consumed. If these released neutrons
strike other Uranium nuclei, they can cause them to undergo fission as well, creating a
chain reaction that releases a large amount of energy. This is called Nuclear Chain
Reaction.
o This chain reaction is the basis for nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons.
Nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
This process also releases a large amount of energy and is the process that powers the
sun and other stars. Scientists are trying to replicate this process on Earth to create a
source of clean and virtually unlimited energy.
• One example of a nuclear fusion reaction is: 2H + 3H → 4He + n + energy
Note: Nuclear power in India and other aspects are covered in Chapter 5: Energy Resources in Part
– I of this book.
Solar System
• Solar System is a collection of the Sun and all the objects revolving around it.
• The Sun is a medium sized star which emits energy due to the process of nuclear fusion.
• The photosphere, the innermost part of the sun, appears as a bright disk, and is a denser
mixture of gases and vapors. The outermost part, known as the chromosphere, is a
rarefied mixture of gases and vapors located above the photosphere.
Planets
• A planet is a celestial body that orbits a star, is spherical in shape due to its own gravity,
and has cleared its orbit of other debris or objects.
• The eight planets in our solar system, in order of their distance from the sun, are:
• In addition to the eight planets, our solar system also includes dwarf planets, such as
Pluto, as well as numerous asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies.
Comets
• Comets are small celestial bodies composed of rock, dust, and ice. When they come close
to the Sun, the heat causes the ice to vaporize and create a glowing coma or atmosphere
around the nucleus.
• Comets also have a long tail that points away from the Sun due to the solar wind.
Galaxy
• A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system that consists of stars, stellar
remnants, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and dark matter.
• There are an estimated 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe, and they come in
a variety of shapes and sizes, including spiral, elliptical, and irregular.
• The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our solar system. It has 250 billion stars in it.
Nebula
• A nebula is a vast cloud of gas and dust in space, primarily made up of hydrogen and
helium.
• Nebulae are often the birthplace of stars, as the gas and dust can collapse under gravity
to form new stars.
• They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and can be seen in the night sky as faint,
glowing patches.
Constellation
• A constellation is a group of stars that forms a recognizable pattern or shape as viewed
from Earth.
• These patterns were given names by ancient civilizations and used for navigation and
storytelling.
• There are 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.
Properties of Light
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
• Rectilinear propagation of light refers to the tendency of light to travel in straight lines
through a homogeneous and transparent medium, such as air or a vacuum.
• Astronomical distances are measured in light years because light travels in a straight
line.
• If an opaque object is placed between a source of light and a screen, a shadow of the
object appears on the screen. The type of shadow obtained depends on the type of light
source used.
o If the light source is a point source, the shadow obtained is a region of total
darkness known as the umbra. However, if the light source is an extended
Reflection of Light
• Reflection of light is the process by which light bounces off a smooth surface (such as a
mirror) and changes direction, without penetrating the surface or being absorbed by it.
Laws of Reflection
• The first law of reflection is "the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection" ∠i =
∠r
• The second law of reflection is "the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane."
Refraction of Light
• Refraction of light occurs when light rays are
deflected from their original path as they pass
from one transparent medium to another.
• When light travels from a denser medium to a
rarer medium, it moves away from the normal,
and when it travels from a rarer medium to a
denser medium, it moves towards the normal.
• This is due to the fact that the speed of light is
different in different media.
Reflection and Refraction
• During refraction, the speed and wavelength of
light change, while its frequency remains constant.
• Refractive Index: The ratio of speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of light in any
medium (v) is called refractive index of the medium.
o Refractive index of a medium (μ) = c/v
• Relative Refractive Index: The refractive index of second medium with respect to first
medium
o 1μ2 = μ2/ μ1 = v1/v2 = Height of object/Height of image
Laws of Refraction
• The first law of refraction, also known as Snell's law, states that the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair of
media.
o Sin i/Sin r = 1μ2 (Constant) = μ2/ μ1
• The second law of refraction states that the incident ray, the refracted ray, and the
normal to the surface of the interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
Mirros
• A mirror is a flat or curved surface that reflects light and forms an image.
Plain Mirror
• A plane mirror is a flat, smooth, and highly
reflective surface typically cut from a plain glass.
Spherical Mirror
• A spherical mirror is a mirror with a curved surface, where the reflecting surface is
shaped like a portion of a sphere.
Spherical Mirrors are of two types:
• Concave mirror is a part of a hollow glass sphere, having outer surface silvered and
reflection takes place at inner (concave) surface.
• Convex mirror is a part of a hollow glass sphere, having inner surface silvered and
reflection takes place at outer (convex) surface.
Lenses
• A lens is an optical device that refracts (bends) light rays, causing them to converge or
diverge.
• It is typically made of a transparent material, such as glass or plastic, and has one or
more curved surfaces.
• Lenses are used in a variety of optical instruments, including cameras, telescopes,
microscopes, and eyeglasses.
• There are two main types of lenses: convex (or converging) lenses and concave (or
diverging) lenses.
1. Convex lenses bulge outwards in the center and are thicker at the center than at the
edges.
• They converge the light rays and bring them together to form a real or virtual
image.
• Examples of convex lenses include a magnifying glass, a camera lens, and the
lenses in eyeglasses used to correct farsightedness.
2. Concave lenses are thinner in the center than at the edges, and they diverge the light
rays.
• They spread the light out and make objects appear smaller.
• Examples of concave lenses include those used in some eyeglasses to correct
nearsightedness and the lenses used in projectors to create a larger image on a
screen.
Rainbow
• After a rainfall, when sunlight is present, a circular rainbow consisting of seven different
colors can be observed in the sky, opposite to the sun's position.
• The formation of a rainbow occurs due to the dispersion of sunlight by water droplets
that are suspended in the air. Within each water droplet, the sunlight undergoes
dispersion and then internal reflection, which results in the creation of a rainbow.
Colour of Objects
• When light comes into contact with an object, only a portion of it is reflected. The
reflected light determines the color of the object.
• For example, when white light is shone on a rose, it appears red because the rose reflects
only the red portion of the light and absorbs all other colors. However, if the same rose is
viewed in green light, it appears black because it absorbs the green light and reflects no
color.
• Red, green, and blue are primary colors, meaning they cannot be produced by mixing
other colors.
• When two primary colors are mixed, the resulting colors are called secondary colors.
o For instance, yellow, magenta, and cyan are secondary colors.
• When primary and secondary colors are combined to produce white light, they are
referred to as complementary colors.
o For example, when red and cyan are mixed, they produce white light. Similarly,
red and magenta, green and magenta, and blue and yellow also produce white
light when mixed together.
Human Eye
• The human eye is an optical device that produces a real image of objects on the retina.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 361
• The retina consists of hundreds of thousands of cone and rod cells, which are sensitive to
the colors and intensities of light,
respectively.
• The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length
of the eye lens, which is a convex lens
made of a jelly-like material. This ability of
the eye to adjust its focus is known as the
power of accommodation.
• The iris is a colored diaphragm that
controls the size of the pupil and the
amount of light entering the eye.
• The near point is the closest distance
from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly, and the distance from the eye to the
near point is called the least distance of distinct vision (D). For a healthy eye, D is 25 cm.
• The far point is the farthest distance from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly.
Scattering of Light
• When light passes through a medium containing suspended particles with sizes
comparable to the wavelength of light, it scatters in different directions. This is known as
the scattering of light.
o As a result, red light, which has the longest wavelength, is scattered the least, and
violet light, which has the shortest wavelength, is scattered the most.
• Red is used for danger signals because it is scattered the least, making it visible from a
far distance.
• The sky appears blue because blue light is scattered the most by the atmosphere and
enters our eyes.
Polarisation
• Polarization is the process of confining the electric vectors of light to a single direction.
o In unpolarized light, the electric vectors are present in all possible directions in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of the light's propagation.
• Polaroids are thin, large sheets of crystalline polarizing material that can be used to
polarize light. They are commonly found in sunglasses, automobile windshields, train
window panes, and camera lenses.
Doppler’s Effect of Light
• The Doppler effect in light refers to the change in the apparent frequency of light that is
observed when there is relative motion between the source of light and the observer.
• The observed frequency differs from the actual frequency of the light emitted from the
source.
o The light that is received from stars and galaxies shows red shift, which suggests
that the universe is expanding.
o The speed of an automobile can be determined by measuring the Doppler shift
in the electromagnetic wave reflected from the vehicle.
Types of Waves
There are two types of waves: mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
• Mechanical waves require a medium, such as air, water, or solid material, for their
propagation. Examples of mechanical waves include sound waves and water waves.
• Electromagnetic waves, on the other hand, do not require a medium for their
propagation. Examples of electromagnetic waves include light waves, radio waves, and X-
rays.
Nature of Waves
• The nature of waves can be categorized into two types: transverse waves and
longitudinal waves.
• A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles
to the direction of wave propagation.
• In a transverse wave, the crest is the position of maximum displacement in the upward
direction, while the trough is the position of
maximum displacement in the downward
direction.
• Light wave are an example of transverse waves
• A longitudinal wave, on the other hand, is a wave
in which the particles of the medium vibrate in the
same direction as the wave is propagating.
• In a longitudinal wave, the density and pressure of the medium vary, with some points
experiencing maximum compression (called compressions) and other points
experiencing minimum pressure (called rarefactions).
• Sound wave are an example of longitudinal waves.
• Longitudinal waves can be produced in solids, liquids, and gases, while transverse waves
can be produced in solids and on the surface of a liquid, but not in the interior of a liquid
or in a gas.
Sound
• Sound is a type of energy that gives rise to the sensation of hearing and is created by
objects that vibrate.
• These waves are longitudinal and mechanical in nature, requiring a medium to propagate
and are unable to travel through a vacuum.
• There are three categories of sound waves based on their frequency: infrasonicwaves
with frequencies between 0 to 20 Hz, audiblewaves with frequencies between 20 Hz to
20000 Hz, and ultrasonic waves with frequencies greater than 20000 Hz.
Propagation of Sound
• When an object vibrates, it causes the particles of the surrounding medium to vibrate as
well. However, these particles do not travel directly from the vibrating object to the ear.
• The particle in contact with the vibrating object is initially displaced from its equilibrium
position and then exerts a force on the adjacent particle, causing it to be displaced from
its position of rest. The first particle then returns to its original position, and this process
continues throughout the medium until the sound reaches the ear.
Speed of Sound
• When sound waves transition from one medium to another, their wavelength and speed
changes but their frequency remains constant.
• The speed of sound varies depending on the medium it travels through, such as air,
water, or iron. Generally, the speed of sound in solids (vs) is greater than that in liquids,
and the speed of sound in liquids(vl) is greater than that in gases (vg). Therefore, vs> vl>
vg.
• Sound cannot be heard on the surface of the moon or in outer space because there is no
air to transmit the waves.
• The speed of sound in air increases with an increase in temperature.
• Sound waves travel faster in humid air than in dry air.
• Compared to the speed of light, the speed of sound in air is much slower. As a result,
during the rainy season, the flash of lightning is seen first, and the sound of thunder is
heard later.
Shock Waves
• Shock waves are formed when an object travels at a speed faster than the speed of sound
in air, creating a cone-shaped disturbance that expands continuously.
Doppler’s Effect
• The Doppler effect refers to the apparent change in the frequency of a sound source due
to the relative motion between the source and observer.
• Various applications of the Doppler effect include its use by police to detect speeding
vehicles, at airports for aircraft guidance, and for studying the heart beats and blood flow
in different parts of the body.
• Additionally, astrophysicists use the Doppler effect to measure the velocities of planets
and stars.
SONAR
• SONAR, which stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging, is a technology used to measure
the depth of the sea and to locate enemy submarines and shipwrecks.
Human Ear
• The ear is an incredibly sensitive organ in our body that allows us to hear.
• The outer part of the ear is shaped like a funnel, which helps to funnel sound waves
towards a thin membrane at the end of a canal, known as the eardrum. The eardrum is
similar to a stretched rubber sheet, which vibrates when sound waves reach it. These
vibrations are then passed on to the inner ear, where the signal is transmitted to the
brain. In this way, we are able to hear sounds.
7. Properties of Matter
Matter
• Matter refers to anything that has mass and takes upspace. Matter is made up of
fundamental particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are organized into
atoms and molecules.
• Matter can exist in different states such as solid, liquid, and gas, depending on the
arrangement of its particles and the temperature and pressure conditions.
• Matter is the building block of everything around us, from the stars in the sky to the
computer or phone you are using to read this answer.
Solid
• A solid is a state of matter that has a definite shape and volume.
• Solids are characterized by closely packed atoms or molecules (interatomic &
intermolecular spaces are minimum) that vibrate around fixed positions.
Properties of Solid
Some properties of Solid are given below
Plasticity
• Plasticity describes the opposite of Elasticity where a body is unable to regain its original
shape after the removal of the deforming force.
Strain
• Strain is the fractional change in configuration, including length, volume, and shape.
Strain has no unit.
• Longitudinal strain = change in length/length = ΔL/L
• Volume strain = change in volume/volume = ΔV/V
• Shearing strain = θ = change in angle
Stress
• Stress is the internal restoring force per unit area of cross-section of a deformed body,
with two types of stress: normal and tangential stress.
• The limit of elasticity of a material body is the maximum deforming force that it can
withstand and still retain its elastic properties.
Hooke’s Law
• The strain produced in a body is directly proportional to the stress applied to it within
the limit of elasticity
• Strain α Stress or Stress/Strain = constant (E) where, constant E is called modulus of
elasticity.
Elastic Limit
• The Elastic Limit refers to the maximum stress and strain that a wire can endure without
experiencing permanent deformation. When the stretching/deforming force is removed,
the wire returns to its original length.
Elastic Fatigue
• Elastic fatigue refers to the phenomenon where an elastic body becomes less elastic over
time when subjected to repeated alternating deforming forces.
• This can result in structures such as bridges becoming less elastic and eventually
deemed unsafe after extended use.
Plastic Behaviour
• Plastic Behaviour occurs when a wire is stretched beyond its Elastic Limit and the strain
increases rapidly. When the stretching force is removed, the wire does not return to its
original length, and a permanent increase in length occurs.
Fracture Point
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 368
• If the deformation continues beyond the plastic behavior, the wire eventually breaks at a
point called the Fracture Point.
Fluids
• Fluids are substances that can flow and take on the shape of their container. They include
both liquids and gases and are characterized by their ability to deform under applied
shear stress.
• Fluids play a crucial role in many physical processes, including hydraulics, aerodynamics,
and fluid mechanics, and have numerous applications in engineering, physics, and
everyday life.
Fluid Density
• Ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its density. It is a scalar quantity expressed
in Kg/m3 units in SI system.
• Density (d) = Mass (m)/Volume (V)
• Relative Density of a solid = Weight of the body in air/Weight of the same volume of
water at 40 C. = Weight of the body in Air/Loss in weight of the body in water
• Relative Density of a Liquid = Density of the Liquid/Density of water at 40 C.
= Loss in weight of a solid in liquid/Loss in weight of the same solid in water
• Density of water is maximum at 40C. Water being dipolar can dissolve more number of
substances than any other liquid.
• Hydrometer is an instrument that is used to measure the density and relative density of
liquid.
Fluid Pressure
• Fluid pressure refers to the force per unit area exerted by a fluid, such as a gas or a liquid,
on the surface of an object or a container that is in contact with it.
• The pressure of a fluid is typically caused by the constant collisions between the
molecules of the fluid and the surfaces that they come into contact with.
• The pressure of a fluid is typically measured in units of pascals (Pa; 1Pa = 1
Newton/meter2), pounds per square inch (psi), or atmospheres (atm), depending on the
context.
• In general, the pressure of a fluid increases with depth or height, as well as with the
density of the fluid.
• Fluid Pressure (P) = Force (F)/Area (A)
• Pressure exerted by a liquid column is given by P = h ρg
o where, h = height of liquid column, ρ = density of liquid, g = acceleration due to
gravity.
Pascal’s Law
• Pascal's law states that the pressure exerted on a confined fluid at any point is
transmitted equally and without reduction in all directions throughout the liquid.
• This principle forms the basis for various applications such as hydraulic lifts, hydraulic
presses, and hydraulic brakes.
Buoyancy
• When an object is immersed, either partially or fully, in a liquid, it experiences an upward
force known as buoyant force or upthrust. This phenomenon is referred to as buoyancy.
• The magnitude of buoyant force is equivalent to the weight of the liquid that is displaced
by the submerged portion of the object.
• The centre of buoyancy, which is the point of application of the buoyant force, is located
at the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid.
Archimedes’ Principle
1. When an object is partially or completely submerged in a fluid, the buoyant force (Fb)
exerted on it is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object:
• Fb = ρVg
o where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the volume of the displaced fluid,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
2. The weight of the object (W) in air is reduced by an amount equal to the buoyant force
(Fb) when the object is submerged in the fluid:
• W' = W – Fb
o where W' is the weight of the object in the fluid, and W is its weight in air.
3. The specific gravity (SG) of an object, which is the ratio of its density to the density of the
fluid, can be calculated using the equation:
• SG = ρobject / ρfluid
o where ρobject is the density of the object, and ρfluid is the density of the fluid.
• The specific gravity of an object determines whether it will float or sink in the
fluid.
Laws of Floatation
• According to the Law of Floatation, a body will float in a fluid if its weight is equivalent to
the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the immersed portion of the body.
• For a body in a floating state, the centre of gravity (g) and the centre of buoyancy (B)
must be located on the same straight line.
Surface Tension
• Surface tension is a characteristic of liquids that causes them to minimize their free
surface area (free surface area = surface area openly exposed outside).
• It is defined as the force acting perpendicularly per unit length on an imaginary line
drawn at the surface of the liquid, measured in newtons per meter.
• The minimum surface area of a given amount of liquid is achieved when it forms a
spherical shape, which is why raindrops and other small liquid bodies tend to take on a
spherical form.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension
• An increase in temperature leads to a decrease in surface tension.
• The surface tension of a liquid reduces if the soluble impurities are less soluble in it.
Conversely, if the impurities are highly soluble in the liquid, its surface tension increases.
2. Which of the following statements about 5. With reference to Large Hadron Collider
the Coronal Hole is incorrect? (LHC), consider the following statements:
a) These are regions on the Sun’s surface 1. It is built to study particles that are the
from where solar winds flow out into smallest known building blocks of all
space. things.
b) They can be the cause of geomagnetic 2. Liquid Argon is used in Large Hadron
storms on Earth. Collider to keep its components cool.
c) They usually appear darker than their 3. ATLAS is the largest general purpose
surroundings due to their lower particle detector experiment at the LHC.
temperatures. Which of the statements given above
d) These are easily visible to human eyes, is/are correct?
without using any visual aid. a) 1 only b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Which of the following is/are cited by the
scientists as evidence/evidences for the 6. Which of the following statements about
continued expansion of universe? (UPSC dark energy is/are incorrect?
PRELIMS 2012) 1. According to Einstein's Theory of
1. Detection of microwaves in space Relativity, empty space can have its
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in own energy.
space 2. The expansion of the universe will be
3. Movement of asteroids in space decelerated as more space comes into
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in existence and energy gets diluted.
space 3. The effect of gravity supports the
Select the correct answer using the codes effect of dark energy in the expansion
given below: of the universe.
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only Choose the correct option from below.
c) 1, 3 and 4 d) None a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
1. d 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. d 8. d 9. c 10. d
11. d 12. a 13. a 14. c 15. b 16. a 17. d 18. d 19. d 20. b
Explanations
1. Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or smaller nuclei.
The fission process often produces gamma photons and releases a very large amount of
energy.
Nuclear Fusion occurs when two atoms slam together to form a heavier atom, like when two
hydrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom. While Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun,
Nuclear Fission reaction does not occur normally in nature.
Nuclear fission produces more radioactive waste than nuclear fusion because very few
radioactive particles are produced in the case of nuclear fusion. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear fission. Hence statement 2 is correct.
The energy released by fission is a million times greater than that released in chemical
reactions; but lower than the energy released by nuclear fusion. Hence statement 3 is correct.
2. Option a is correct: Coronal holes are regions on the sun’s surface from where fast solar wind
gushes out into space.
Option b is correct: These fast solar wind streams sometimes interact with earth’s magnetic
field, creating what’s called a geomagnetic storm. This can expose satellites to radiation and
interfere with communications signals.
Option c is correct: Because they contain little solar material, they have lower temperatures
and thus appear much darker than their surroundings.
Option d is incorrect: Coronal holes appear as dark areas in the solar corona in extreme
ultraviolet (EUV) and soft x-ray solar images. The phenomenon is typically invisible to the
human eyes.
5. Statement 1 is correct: The Large Hadron Collider is a giant, complex machine built to study
particles that are the smallest known building blocks of all things. It is a 27-km-long track-
loop buried deep underground and located at the Swiss-French border. It is the world’s
largest and most powerful particle accelerator.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The LHC uses liquid helium to keep its critical components ultracold
(colder than interstellar space). Since the LHC’s powerful electromagnets carry almost as
much current as a bolt of lightning, they must be kept chilled.
Statement 3 is correct: ATLAS is the largest general-purpose particle detector experiment at
the LHC. ATLAS is one of two general-purpose detectors at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
It investigates a wide range of physics, from the search for the Higgs boson to extra
dimensions and particles that could make up dark matter.
In 2012, scientists using LHC’s experiments had announced to the world the discovery of the
Higgs boson or the ‘God Particle’.
6. Statement 1 is correct. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, empty space can have its
own energy, which is a property of space itself.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Dark energy is a form of energy that exists in space and is not
diluted as space expands. Therefore, as more space comes into existence, more energy-of-
space appears, causing the universe to expand faster and faster.
Statement 3 is also incorrect. Although gravity is an attractive force that can slow down the
expansion of the universe, the effect of dark energy counteracts this force, causing the
universe to expand at an accelerating rate.
8. Redshift and blueshift are used by astronomers to determine the distance of an object from
Earth. When an object moves away from us (Earth), the sound or light waves emitted by the
object are stretched out, resulting in a lower pitch and a shift towards the red end of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which has longer wavelengths. This is known as redshift.
Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.
The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of a wave as observed by an observer moving
relative to the source of the wave. It is used in radar guns by traffic police to measure the
speed of moving vehicles. If a vehicle is moving towards the radar device, the frequency of
the reflected wave increases, and if it is moving away, the frequency decreases, allowing the
police to determine the speed of the vehicle. Therefore, Statement 2 is correct.
Infrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies below the range of audible sound,
typically below 20 Hz. Volcanoes, earthquakes, ocean waves, and meteorites are some
natural sources of infrasound. Therefore, Statement 3 is correct.
9. LIGO is a detector that uses lasers to detect gravitational waves. These waves were first
predicted by Albert Einstein in his general theory of relativity, which states that massive
accelerating objects such as black holes or neutron stars orbiting each other would disrupt
space-time, causing "waves" of distorted space to radiate from the source. These ripples
travel at the speed of light and carry valuable information about the nature of gravity itself.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
LIGO operates in a vacuum chamber, similar to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in
Switzerland, to minimize interference from air molecules and other particles. Therefore,
statement 2 is correct.
The collision of two black holes is a violent event that produces massive ripples through the
fabric of space-time, known as gravitational waves, which travel at the speed of light.
Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
Gravitational waves can be produced by any object with mass that accelerates, including
single objects like humans, cars, and airplanes. Therefore, statement 4 is incorrect.
10. Semiconductors such as Silicon and Germanium are materials with conductivity between
conductors and non-conductors that are commonly used in microprocessor manufacturing
for various devices.
Superconductors are materials that exhibit superconductivity, a state in which there is no
electrical resistance. Unlike in conductors such as copper, where free electrons move
randomly and collide with other particles, offering resistance to the current flow, in a
superconductor, all the electrons align themselves in a particular direction and move
coherently without obstruction, resulting in zero resistance. This property makes
superconducting materials highly efficient for use in electrical appliances.
The critical temperature for superconductivity is usually below zero degrees Celsius, making
it difficult to achieve. However, recent research has shown that nanosized films and pellets
11. The Sun's magnetic fields interact with Earth's magnetic fields to create Geo tails (refer to the
image below; a type of blowing back of earth’s magnetic
field). Sunspots have a magnetic field about 2,500 times
stronger than Earth's, resulting in a more compressed
magnetic field of Earth side facing the sun and
increased area of the Geo tail on the other side of the
Earth. This confirms Statement 1. Sunspots also have a
high magnetic pressure and cause the temperature of
the Sun's corona to decrease due to the concentrated
magnetic field preventing the flow of hot gas from the
Sun's interior. Therefore, Statements 2 and 3 are true.
12. Computed tomography (CT) imaging uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the
body. Therefore, option (a) is correct. Beta rays and magnetic resonance are not used in CT
imaging, so options (c) and (d) are incorrect. Gamma rays can be emitted during radioactive
decay, but they are not used in CT imaging. Therefore, option (b) is also incorrect.
13. Distilled or pure water is free of salts and is not a good conductor of electricity. Water needs
to have dissolved ions to conduct electricity. Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
Water is amphoteric in nature, meaning it can act as both an acid and a base. This is because
the water molecule contains hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms that can donate and accept
protons. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Water has an anomalous behavior when it comes to its density. Unlike other liquids, the
volume of water decreases when heated from room temperature to 4°C, after which it
increases. Therefore, water contracts on heating between 0°C and 4°C. Hence, statement 3 is
correct.
14. If Earth and Mars swap positions, Mars would experience a significant increase in
temperature, which could melt the polar caps and release gases from the soil, resulting in a
warmer, more Earth-like climate. However, the opposite would happen to Earth, where the
intensity of sunlight would reduce, and the planet would freeze over, causing most living
organisms to go extinct. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
Assuming that Earth's rotation time equals Mars's current rotation time (24.6 hours), the
length of a day on Earth would increase, not decrease, making statement 2 incorrect.
When Earth occupies Mars's position, the planet's orbital period around the sun would
increase since Mars's orbital period is around 687 days. Thus, statement 3 is correct.
15. A quark is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks
combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons
and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.
An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. An atom consists of
a central nucleus that is surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons. The
16. According to the Singularity theory, the center of a black hole is an ultimate no man's land
where matter is squeezed into an infinitely small point, and the concepts of space and time
cease to exist. Therefore, Statements 1 and 2 are correct.
Our Sun is an average-sized star that is not large enough to turn into a black hole at the end
of its life cycle. For the Sun to become a black hole, it would need to be about 20 times more
massive. Stars that are born with this size or greater can end their lives as black holes after
exploding into a supernova and collapsing back into a black hole. A white dwarf, not a black
hole, is the end stage of the Sun's life cycle. Therefore, Statement 3 is incorrect.
17. Statement 1 is incorrect: The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon (Not surface
phenomenon). Particles from the bulk (Not only from the surface) of the liquid gain enough
energy to change into the vapour state.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure. The vapor pressure is the pressure
exerted by the molecules of a substance in the gas phase, in equilibrium with the molecules
in the liquid phase. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic energy of its
molecules also increases, and more of the molecules gain enough energy to escape the
surface of the liquid and become a gas.
When the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric pressure, the liquid starts to
boil. At this point, bubbles of vapor form within the liquid and rise to the surface.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Evaporation is a form of vaporisation that happens on the surface of
liquids (not a bulk phenomenon) and it involves the transition of the liquid particles into the
gaseous phase. The liquid particles will generally escape and enter the surrounding air as a
gas when a molecule near the surface consumes enough energy to overcome the vapour
pressure.
18. An artificial satellite orbiting around the Earth does not fall down. This is because the
attraction of Earth i.e., gravity provides the necessary acceleration for its motion. Satellites
don’t fall from the sky because they are orbiting the Earth. Even when satellites are
thousands of kilo meters away, Earth’s gravity still attracts them.
Gravity, combined with the satellite’s momentum from its launch into space - cause the
satellite go into orbit above Earth, instead of falling back down to the ground.
19. Statement 1 is correct. According to Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, Light will
be affected the same way as matter is affected by gravity.
Statement 2 is correct. Based on this theory, Hubble found that distant galaxies move away
faster than those that are relatively nearby and the universe is indeed expanding.
Statement 3 is correct. According to this theory, gravity is caused by a warping of space and
time. Gravity is the curvature of the universe, caused by massive bodies, which determines
the path that objects travel.
Exercise - II
1. Which of the following statements best 3. With reference to various occurrences in
describes the reason for the absence of daily life, consider the following pairs:
any twinkling effect in the planets? Optical Phenomenon: Examples
a) They reflect the light emitted from the 1. Reflection: Stars seen as glowing in the
Sun. sky
b) They are smaller in size than the stars. 2. Diffraction: Halo around Sun
c) They are closer to the Earth compared 3. Refraction: Rainbow formation in the
to stars. sky
d) They are revolving around the sun. Which of the pairs given above is/are
matched correctly?
2. With reference to Plasma, consider the a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
following statements: c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
1. It is a state of matter that is made up of
only neutral atoms and molecules of 4. With reference to Newton’s laws of
different elements. motion, consider the following pairs:
2. It is referred as "super solid particles" Law of Motion: Witnessed in
as it has definite shape and volume. 1. Newton’s first Law: Weightlifter
3. It has properties of conducting struggling to stand straight with the
electricity and emitting light. increasing amount of weight.
Which of the statements given above 2. Newton’s second Law: The impact of
is/are correct? moving
a) 1 and 3 only b) 3 only truck on walls is bigger than that of cycle
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1 only moving at the same speed.
5. Regarding the Raman effect, which of the 8. Which of the following statements are
following statements is/are true? true?
1. The Raman effect involves the 1. Capillary action can cause liquids to
scattering of light by molecules of a flow against gravity or magnetic
medium that have been excited to fields.
different energy levels. This is a weak 2. Adding a solute to a solvent may
effect. increase surface tension due to solute
2. Raman spectroscopy is used to depletion at the interface.
identify illegal drugs without a) 1 only b) 1 and 2
damaging their packaging materials. c) 2 only d) None
a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 9. Which of the following statements about
the Higgs Boson particle are true?
6. Consider the following pairs: 1. All matter particles acquire mass only
Lens/Mirror: Use in contact with Higgs field.
1. Concave lens : Spy holes in the 2. If the Higgs field disappeared
doors suddenly, all matter would collapse
2. Convex lens : Magnifying due to dispersion of massless
glass electrons at the speed of light.
3. Concave mirror : Solar 3. Bose-Einstein Condensate is the fifth
furnace state of matter formed when elements
4. Convex mirror : Rear-view are superheated.
mirrors a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
How many pairs given above are c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
correctly matched?
a) Only one pair 10. Which statements are correct about
b) Only two pairs gravity and electromagnetic force?
1. Gravity is always attractive while
c) Only three pairs
electromagnetic force is always
d) All four pairs repulsive.
2. The gravitational force is the force of
7. Consider the following statements with mutual attraction between any two
reference to myopia: objects by virtue of their masses.
1. A person with myopia cannot see 3. Electromagnetic force can act over
nearby objects clearly. large distances without any medium
18. Light can be described both as a wave and 20. Consider the following statements with
as a particle. Which of the following reference to dark energy:
phenomena illustrates the particle nature 1. Dark energy was discovered and
of light? proven by Albert Einstein.
a) Interference 2. It is believed that more than 60% of
b) Polarisation the universe’s total mass-energy
content is dark energy.
c) Diffraction
Which of the statements given above is/are
d) Photoelectric effect
correct?
a) 1 only b) 2 only
19. Consider the following statements
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
regarding the speed of sound:
1. The speed of sound decreases as it
moves from solid to liquid medium.
Exercise – II Key
1. c 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. c 6. d 7. c 8. b 9. a 10. c
11. d 12. a 13. d 14. c 15. a 16. a 17. b 18. d 19. b 20. b
Explanations
1. Stars emit their own light and they twinkle due to the atmospheric refraction of light. Stars
are very far away from the earth.
Option a is incorrect: Planets reflect light emitted from the Sun. This statement does not
substantiate the reason that why the planets do not twinkle.
Option b is incorrect: Planets do not twinkle because they appear larger in size than the stars
as they are relatively closer to earth.
Option c is correct: Planets are closer to the Earth compared to the distant stars. Hence, the
shift due to atmospheric refraction is smaller. Thus, due to the closeness of planets to the
earth, planet do not twinkle.
Option d is incorrect: Though the planets are revolving around the sun, but this is not the
right reason for the absence of any twinkling effect in the planets.
2. The three classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. In the 20th century, however,
increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the
identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal
conditions. But now scientists are agreeing on five states of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma
and Bose Einstein Condensate.
3. Pair 1 is correct: The stars emit certain light rays into the space that will gradually come into
the earth’s atmosphere; it will act as incident light that hits the earth’s surroundings and
strikes back again to them, leading to the shining property of stars.
Pair 2 is correct: In meteorological terms, the term corona describes the ring of light around
the sun or the moon that is formed when the sunlight or moonlight gets diffracted by small
water vapours or ice crystals.
Pair 3 is correct: Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from one
medium to another.
Common Examples of refraction of light are Twinkling of stars in a clear sky and Rainbow
formation in the sky. In sky light entering a water droplet is refracted. It is then reflected by
the back of the droplet. As this reflected light leaves the droplet, it is refracted again, at
multiple angles. And thus, rainbow is formed.
4. Newton's laws of motion are three basic laws that describe the relationship between the
motion of an object and the forces acting on it.
Pair 1 is incorrect: Same weightlifter struggling to stand straight with increasing load of
weight was explained by Newton’s third law. The first law of motion is also known as the law
of inertia. It states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or uniform
motion until and unless a net external force acts on it.
Pair 2 is correct: The Second law of motion states that the force acting on the body is equal to
the product of its mass and acceleration i.e., F=ma where f is force, m is mass and a is
acceleration. The impact produced by the objects depends on their mass and velocity
(acceleration). Given the same velocity, the damage caused by the truck is bigger than the
cycle because of the higher mass of the truck.
Pair 3 is incorrect: The initial jerk we get when the bus suddenly starts/stops is because of
inertia (resistance to change) i.e., Newton's first law. Newton’s third law of motion states that
to every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. It refers to the situation when
one body exerts a force on another body. The force exerted by heavy weight on weightlifters
makes it difficult for him/her to stand straight with heavier weight.
5. C.V. Raman discovered that when monochromatic light passes through a substance, it is
scattered and produces additional frequencies other than the incident frequency. This is
7. Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
8. Capillary action is the phenomenon of liquids rising or falling in narrow tubes or porous
materials due to the adhesive and cohesive forces of the liquid molecules. It can cause liquids
to flow against gravity or magnetic fields. Hence, statement 1 is true.
Surface tension is the force per unit length acting on the surface of a liquid due to the
potential energy of the molecules. Completely soluble substances may increase surface
tension due to solute depletion at the interface, causing repulsion of solutes from the
interface. Therefore, statement 2 is true.
9. The Higgs field is an energy field that exists throughout the universe and interacts with other
particles through the Higgs boson. It gives mass to all other particles in the universe, except
massless particles. Thus, statement 1 is true.
If the Higgs field disappeared, all matter particles would lose their mass and collapse,
including electrons, which would disperse at the speed of light. Hence, statement 2 is also
correct.
Bose-Einstein Condensate is not the fifth state of matter formed when elements are
superheated, but a state of matter that is formed when a group of atoms or subatomic
particles are cooled to absolute zero. Therefore, statement 3 is incorrect.
10. Gravity is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects in the universe by virtue of
their masses. Gravity is always attractive, unlike electromagnetic force, which can be either
attractive or repulsive, depending on the charges of the interacting particles. Hence
statement 1 is wrong while statement 2 is correct.
Electromagnetic force is a combination of electrostatic and magnetic forces. It is very strong
compared to the gravitational force and can act over large distances without any medium.
Electromagnetic waves can travel not only through air and solid materials but also through
the vacuum of space, without the need for a medium to propagate. Hence statement 3 is
correct.
11. The third law of motion or Newton's third law of motion states that when one exerts a force
on another object, the second object instantly exerts a force back on the first. These two
forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. These forces act on different
objects and never on the same object.
Launching a rocket relies on Newton’s Third Law of Motion. The rocket engine produces hot
exhaust gases which flow out of the back of the engine. In reaction, a thrusting force is
produced in the opposite reaction. Hence option 1 is correct.
12. Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or movement of
neighboring portions relative to one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow.
The viscosity of honey lies between 2000 and 10,000 centipoise (cP) and the viscosity of
water lies between 1 cP (centipoise). Hence option (a) is the correct answer.
Honey while more viscous than water, doesn't have higher surface tension than water.
Mosquitoes are able to stand on water but slowly sink into honey.
13. The atomic model also called as ‘Nuclear Model’ was devised by Ernest Rutherford who was
an English physicist. Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are
arranged within an atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for this. In this experiment,
fast- moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom.
Rutherford's atomic model, nuclear atom, or planetary model of the atom, provides a
description of the structure of atoms. The model described the atom as a tiny, dense,
positively charged core called a nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around
which the light, negative constituents, called electrons, circulate at some distance, much like
planets revolving around the Sun.
Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897. J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube
experiment discovered the subatomic particle the electron.Eugene Goldstein discovered
positive particles by using a tube filled with hydrogen gas. The positive particle was named
the proton.
British physicist Sir James Chadwick discovered neutrons in the year 1932.Hence option (d)
is the correct answer.
14. The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory.
In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny
ball” (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature, and infinite
density.
At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now
generally accepted that the event of the big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the
present.
As it grew, some energy was converted into matter. There was particularly rapid expansion
within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion slowed down.
As the universe expanded, both the density and temperature dropped. Hence option (c) is the
correct answer (incorrect statement).
The expansion of the universe means an increase in space between the galaxies. The
expansion continues even to the present day.
16. India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is a proposed particle physics research mega
project. The objective of the project was to study neutrinos in a 1,200-metre-deep cave. The
project is proposed to be set up near Bodi West hills in in Theni district in Tamil Nadu. The
project is handled by the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
Statement 1 is correct: The INO needs to be underground in order to reduce background
noise and increase the sensitivity of the detector. The rock layer of over 1 km in all directions
shields the detector from other cosmic rays. Since neutrinos can easily pass through
anything, they will reach the detector while the other particles will be filtered out by the rock
in the mountain.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The underground observatory does not preserve the physical
properties of neutrinos as they are not affected by atmospheric matter.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Neutrinos do not require vacuum-like conditions to react with other
atoms and it can be detected in underground as well as in the atmosphere.
17. The boiling point of water decreases with a decrease in pressure and increases with an
increase in pressure. Food is cooked in less time in a pressure cooker because the pressure
increases inside the cooker which also increases the boiling point of water (the boiling point
of water now becomes 120 degrees C as opposed to 100 degrees C attained in open vessels).
More heat is required to reach the boiling point which is sufficient to cook food in a reduced
time.Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
18. Light can be described both as a wave and as a particle. The key difference between the wave
and particle nature of light is that the wave nature of light explains that light can behave as
an electromagnetic wave, whereas the particle nature of light explains that light consists of
particles called photons.
The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of interference, diffraction, and
polarization. On the other hand, in the photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve
energy and momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of a bunch of particles –
the photon.
Photo-electric effect:
• The emission of free electrons from a metal surface when light is shone on it, is called
photoemission or the photoelectric effect. This effect led to the conclusion that light is
19. Speed of sound is in general proportional to the density of the medium (not applicable to
gases). Hence statement 1 is correct.
The speed of sound in a medium depends on the temperature of the medium. In any medium,
as we increase the temperature the speed of sound increases.. Hence statement 2 is correct.
20. Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that is believed to permeate all of space and
accelerate the expansion of the universe. It is called "dark" because it is not directly
observable, and its nature and properties are not well understood.
The existence of dark energy was first proposed in the late 1990s by astronomers who were
studying the brightness and distance of supernovae, which are exploding stars. Hence
statement 1 is not correct.
The scientists in 1990s found that the rate of expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather
than slowing down as expected. One possible explanation for this acceleration is the
presence of dark energy.
Roughly 68% of the universe’s energy-mass content is estimated to be dark energy. Hence
statement 2 is correct.
Exercise - III
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. Which of the following best describes (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2
dark matter?
(a) A type of energy that permeates all of 3. With reference to battery energy storage,
space how do sodium-ion batteries differ from
(b) Matter that emits no light or lithium- ion batteries?
electromagnetic radiation and is difficult 1. Sodium-ion batteries have lower
to detect energy density than lithium-ion
(c) Matter that absorbs light and batteries.
electromagnetic radiation, making it 2. In cold environments, sodium-ion
invisible to telescopes batteries are less efficient as compared
(d) A type of antimatter that is attracted to lithium-ion batteries.
to matter and creates a repulsive force 3. The abundance of raw materials
required to make sodium-ion batteries
2. Consider the following statements with makes them cheaper compared to their
reference to sound waves: lithium counterparts.
1. Sound is an electromagnetic wave Select the correct answer using the code
that can travel both with and given below.
without a material medium. (a) 3 only (b) 2 only
2. Sound waves are longitudinal waves (b) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
in which particles oscillate to and
fro about their mean position. 4. With reference to the domestic electric
Which of the statements given above circuit, consider the following statements:
is/are correct?
1. b 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. d 8. c 9. b 10. d
11. a 12. c 13. a 14. b 15. a 16. d 17. c 18. a 19. d 20. d
21. a 22. a 23. d
Explanations
1. Dark matter is a type of matter that doesn't emit, absorb, or reflect light or any other form of
electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to telescopes and other instruments that detect
light. It's called "dark" because it can't be seen directly, but its presence is inferred from its
gravitational effects on visible matter, such as stars and galaxies.
Dark energy, on the other hand, is a mysterious form of energy that permeates all of space
and is causing the universe to expand at an accelerating rate. Unlike dark matter, dark energy
doesn't cluster around galaxies or other structures but appears to be evenly distributed
throughout space.
Roughly 68% of the universe’s mass-energy content is estimated to be dark energy. Dark
matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the
universe. Together dark energy and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass-energy
content.
2. Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a material
medium like air, water, steel, etc., for its propagation. It cannot travel through a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves differ from mechanical waves in that they do not require a medium to
propagate. This means that electromagnetic waves can travel not only through the air and
solid materials but also through the vacuum. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
In longitudinal waves, particles do not move from one place to another but they simply
oscillate back and forth about their position of rest. This is exactly how a sound wave
propagates, hence sound waves are longitudinal waves. Hence statement 2 is correct.
A transverse wave is one in which the individual particles of the medium move about their
mean positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
5. Overloading in the circuits: If suddenly the voltage in a circuit increases, it carries more
current than usual. This situation is called overloading.
The electric fuse is an important component of all domestic circuits. A fuse in a circuit
prevents damage to the appliances and the circuit due to overloading.
Overloading can occur when the live wire and the neutral wire come into direct contact.
(This occurs when the insulation of wires is damaged or there is a fault in the appliance.) In
such a situation, the current in the circuit abruptly increases. This is called short-circuiting.
Hence option 1 is correct.
Overloading can also occur due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage. Hence option 2 is
correct.
Sometimes overloading is caused by connecting too many appliances to a single socket.
Hence option 3 is correct.
6. Exp. Statement 1 is correct. The term "Solar Minimum" refers to the period in the 11-year
solar cycle when solar activity is at its lowest. This results in a reduction of sunspots and
solar flares, which can sometimes be absent for several consecutive days.
Statement 2 is correct as well. During the Solar Minimum phase, the sun's magnetic field
weakens, resulting in less protection from cosmic rays. This may pose health hazards to
astronauts who travel in space.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Solar minimum does not imply that a total solar eclipse will not
occur. Nonetheless, during a total solar eclipse, it is possible to visually observe the Sun's
position in its cycle without the aid of a telescope.
7. Statement 1 is correct. Raman spectroscopy is a technique used to measure the intensity and
wavelength of light that is inelastically scattered from molecules. The Raman scattered light
has wavelengths that differ from the incident light due to molecular vibrations. Raman
spectrometer has great potential for use in applications such as monitoring and ensuring the
quality of industrial food processing, ensuring food safety in agricultural plant production,
and inspecting pharmaceutical products.
Statement 2 is correct.. Raman spectroscopy has a variety of uses in advanced
nanotechnology, such as detecting cancer, analyzing various substances in forensic science,
and identifying and characterizing the original and decayed compounds in art and
archaeological objects.
8. Statement 1 is incorrect as planets generally have more lithium content than their stars.
Stars tend to destroy lithium as they evolve into red giants. However, some stars are lithium-
rich due to the production of lithium in the Red Clump stage.
Statement 2 is correct as Earth has more lithium content than the Sun.
Statement 3 is correct as stars tend to destroy lithium as they evolve into red giants through
low-temperature nuclear burning.
9. Statement 1 is incorrect. Ceres is not an icy exoplanet. It is actually a dwarf planet located in
the inner solar system.
Statement 2 is correct. It is the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
According to the data collected by NASA’s Dawn spacecraft, dwarf planet Ceres reportedly
has salty water underground. These findings have given Ceres the status of an ocean world
as it has a big reservoir of salty water underneath its frigid surface.
With a diameter of 940 km, Ceres is both the largest of the asteroids and the only recognized
dwarf planet inside Neptune’s orbit. Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt rounded by
its own gravity.
10. Statement 1 is incorrect. The recently unveiled nuclear reactor at Kakrapar, Gujarat is the
largest indigenously developed variant of the Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
with a capacity of 700 MW. India's nuclear reactor fleet mainly consists of PHWRs that use
natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as a moderator.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The new reactor is located in Kakrapar, Gujarat. Additional
information: Achieving criticality is the first step towards power production in a nuclear
reactor. It happens when each fission event releases enough neutrons to sustain a
continuous chain reaction.
11. Statement 1 is correct. Scientists at the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST) in
Mohali, Punjab have developed an electron gas with ultra-high mobility that can speed up the
transfer of quantum information and signals between different parts of a device, thereby
increasing data storage and memory.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The high mobility of the electron gas would reduce the collision
between electrons during their flow, resulting in low resistance and minimal energy
dissipation in the form of heat. This means that such devices do not heat up easily and
require less input energy to operate.
12. A Ploonet is a moon that has broken free from the gravitational pull of its planet. In contrast,
a dwarf planet is a celestial body that orbits a star and has enough mass to be nearly
spherical but has not cleared its orbit of other debris. Examples of dwarf planets include
13. The term SONAR is an abbreviation for "SOund Navigation And Ranging." It is a device that
utilizes ultrasonic waves to gauge the distance, direction, and speed of submerged objects.
Hence Statement 1 is correct.
Lidar, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote sensing method that uses
light in the form of a pulsed laser to determine ranges (variable distances) to the Earth.
These light pulses, when combined with other data collected by the airborne system,
produce precise, three-dimensional information about the shape of the Earth and its surface
features. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Lidar does not work well in fog, rain, snow, or dusty weather. It also
has difficulty detecting glass walls or doors.
14. Refraction is the phenomenon of bending of light, sound or waves as they pass through one
transparent medium to another. This phenomenon has led to the development of various
optical instruments such as lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms and even rainbows.
Dispersion refers to the splitting of white light into its constituent colors, which occurs when
white light passes through a prism. The colors of the spectrum are in order: violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of light back into the medium when light
travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium, and the angle of incidence is greater
than a certain limiting angle called the critical angle.
The Tyndall effect, also known as Tyndall phenomenon, is the scattering of a beam of light by
a medium that contains small suspended particles like smoke or dust. This effect makes
visible a beam of light entering a window and is named after John Tyndall, a 19th-century
British physicist who studied it extensively.
15. Pair 1 is correctly matched. Myopia, or nearsightedness, is a condition in which close objects
appear clearly but distant objects are blurry. It can be corrected using a concave lens, which
diverges the light and shifts the focal point back onto the retina.
Pair 2 is incorrectly matched. Hypermetropia, or farsightedness, is a condition in which
distant objects are clearer than near ones. It can be corrected using a convex lens, which
converges the light and shifts the focal point forward onto the retina.
Pair 3 is incorrectly matched. Astigmatism is a common vision problem caused by an
irregularly shaped cornea or lens, which causes light to be focused unevenly onto the retina.
It can be corrected using a cylindrical lens, which corrects the uneven refraction of light.
16. The Milankovitch Cycles, named after Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch, describe how
Earth's climate is influenced by its tilt, orbit shape, and axis direction. These cyclical orbital
movements cause variations in the amount of solar radiation that reaches Earth's
atmosphere and where it reaches. The Milankovitch cycles include eccentricity, obliquity,
and precession. These small changes have a large impact on Earth's climate over tens of
17. Statement 1 is wrong as Wolf-Rayet stars are one of the hottest and most luminous types of
stars, with surface temperatures a thousand times hotter than the sun. These massive stars
have lost their outer hydrogen layers.
Statement 2 is incorrect as supernovae are powerful and luminous explosions that occur
when there is a change in the core of a star, and they are the biggest explosion observed by
humans. However, they are difficult to observe in our own galaxy due to dust.
Statement 3 is accurate as neutron stars are formed from the collapsed core of a massive
supergiant star that has run out of fuel. They are currently the smallest and densest known
class of stellar objects, with the exception of black holes and a few hypothetical objects.
18. Einstein's theory of special relativity states that the laws of physics are the same for all non-
accelerating observers and the speed of light in a vacuum remains constant regardless of the
observer's velocity. It also introduced the concept of space-time, which combines space and
time into a single continuum.
The Big Bang Theory describes the origin of the universe as a singularity that suddenly began
expanding.
Quantum theory explains the behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic
level.
String theory replaces point-like particles with one-dimensional objects called strings,
describing their propagation and interactions in space.
19. Researchers have recently discovered a new soft ionization method using nanosheets made
from molybdenum disulphide. This new method eliminates the need for external energy
sources, as liquids flowing over the modified paper produce an electric current. The
nanosheet has many applications, such as checking for contaminants in drinking water, toxic
chemicals in any liquid, and glucose in blood. The nanosheet can also be used as a self-
energised disposable sensor for breath alcohol detection, with a higher sensitivity than
standard breath analysers.
20. A launch near the equator towards the east direction gets an initial boost equal to the
velocity of Earth's surface. This is due to the fact that the surface velocity of rotation is high
near the equator, at about 1600 km per hour. Hence statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is
correct as launching satellites from the west direction would mean that they have to battle
against the angular momentum of Earth's rotation, while launching from the east would give
them an advantage due to the momentum.
Statement 3 is also correct as launching stations are generally located near the eastern
coastline to prevent satellites from falling on the built-up hinterland in the event of a launch
failure.
21. The Sun is a star, and thus generates its most of the energy through nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium and further on. Hence, Statement 1 is correct.
The Sun is a giant globe of gases. It has an atmosphere. The corona is the outermost part of
the Sun’s atmosphere. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
22. Statement 1 is incorrect, as the Earth's atmosphere blocks most forms of electromagnetic
radiation from space. However, radio frequencies, visible light, and some ultraviolet light can
reach sea level.
Statement 2 is correct, as the wavelength increases and the frequency decreases from
gamma rays to radio waves on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Statement 3 is incorrect, as radio waves cannot pass through metal and water due to the
presence of free electrons that cause them to bounce back.
23. Option a: Red dwarfs are the faintest main sequence stars, with low luminosity and a surface
temperature of about 4000°C. They make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way and
are too small to be visible to the naked eye. Proxima Centauri is an example of a red dwarf.
Option b: A black hole is a dense object in space with such strong gravity that nothing,
including light, can escape its pull.
Option c: Neutron stars form when a massive star collapses, leaving behind a core of
neutrons. They are found throughout the galaxy, often in binary systems with a companion.
Option d: Given passage describes a red giant. In a few billion years, our own sun will become
a red giant.
Classification of Matter
There can be two broad categories based on which matter can be classified:
1. Physical Composition: Based on this matter is classified into three main types: Solids,
Liquids, and Gases
2. Chemical Composition: Based on this matter is classified into two types Pure Substances
and Mixtures which are further divided as given below.
Elements Non-metals
Metalloids
Pure Substances
Organic
Compounds
Matter
Inorganic
Homogeneous
Mixtures
Heterogeneous
Laws of Gases
Notes: Solids and Liquids are discussed in Physics section. Hence only exam relevant areas of gases
are being discussed here.
Elements
• Elements are the basic building blocks of matter that cannot be chemically broken down
into simpler substances. They are made up of atoms that have the same number of
protons in their nuclei, giving them unique chemical properties.
• There are currently 118 known elements, each with its own unique set of physical and
chemical properties.
• Elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic structure, which
allows scientists to predict their behavior in chemical reactions.
Compounds
• In a compound, two or more elements are combined in a fixed ratio and cannot be
physically separated into their components.
• The properties of a compound are distinct from those of its constituent elements, and it is
a homogeneous substance with a fixed melting and boiling point. Examples of
compounds include water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and sugar.
Mixture
• A mixture is composed of two or more elements or compounds chemically combined
together in any ratio and can be separated into its constituents through physical
methods.
• It lacks a fixed melting and boiling point, and its properties reflect those of its
components without a definite formula.
Types of Mixtures
• Two categories of mixtures can be distinguished on the basis of their composition.
• Homogeneous Mixturehas the same composition and properties in every part as its
component elements.Examples include sugar dissolved in water, sulfur dissolved in
carbon disulfide, and ammonia dissolved in air.
• Heterogeneous Mixture has different compositions and properties in different parts.
Examples include colloidal solutions, mixtures of salt and sugar, and suspensions
Solution
• A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances where one substance is
dissolved into another.
• For example, lemonade is a solution of sugar and water, and the taste is consistent
throughout.
Solubility
• Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a specific temperature.
• The solubility of most substances increases with an increase in temperature, but there
are exceptions.
• For instance, the solubility of certain substances like CaO, CaCO3, CaSO4, may decrease
with an increase in temperature as their dissolution takes place with the evolution of
heat. In contrast, the solubility of NaOH increases with an increase in temperature
despite the fact that its dissolution takes place with the evolution of heat.
• The solubility of gases in water, on the other hand, decreases with an increase in
temperature as their dissolution takes place with the evolution of heat.
Colloidal Solution
• A colloidal solution is a type of heterogeneous mixture where one substance is dispersed
as very fine particles in another substance, known as the dispersion medium. The
diameter range of colloidal particles is typically between 1 nm to 100 nm.
• Colloidal solutions of soaps or detergents in water at higher concentrations are examples
of colloidal solutions.
• Colloidal solutions remain stable as the colloidal particles do not settle down even when
left undisturbed.
• Additionally, colloidal particles can scatter a beam of visible light, which is known as the
Tyndall effect.
Types of Colloidal Solutions
Dispersed phase Dispersing medium Type of solution Example(s)
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, fog
Liquid Gas Aerosol Clouds, mist
Gas Solid or Liquid Foam Shaving cream,
foam
Solid Liquid Sol Paint, ink
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, salad
dressing
Gas Liquid Aerosol Spray, aerosol can
2. Atomic Structure
Subatomic Particles
• Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons are the more popular subatomic particles that make up
atoms.
Note: Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons are discussed in Nuclear Physics Chapter in Physics section
of this book and summarized as below.
Particle Discoverer Charge Mass Relative
Mass*
Electron J.J. Thomson -1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Proton Ernest Rutherford +1 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Neutron James Chadwick 0 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Meson Yukawa Hideki 0 2.2 x 10^-28 kg 274
Positron Carl Anderson +1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Neutrino Theorized: Wolfgang 0 < 3 x 10^-36 kg <0.04
Pauli (1930);
Discovered: Cowan &
Reines (1956)
*Relative Mass is given to enable student to appreciate the relative masses of different particles;
it is not a technical term.
Fundamentally sub-atomic particles are classified into two categories:
1. Bosons are often referred to as force-carrying particles because they carry the
fundamental forces of nature, such as the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear
forces.
• These are particles with integer values of spin and obeying Bose-Einstein
statistics.
• Examples include the photon, Higgs Boson, W and Z bosons, and gluon.
2. Fermionsare often referred to as matter particles because they make up the building
blocks of matter.
Sub-atomic
Particles
Bosons
Ex: photon, Higgs Fermions
Boson, W and Z
bosons, and gluon
Quarks
Leptons Ex: Up & Down
Ex: Electrons, Quarks
neutrinos Quarks make up
Protons & Neutrons
Atomic Models
• The concept of atomic models was introduced to explain the arrangement of fundamental
particles within an atom. Some significant atomic models include Dalton's Atomic
Theory, Thomson's Atomic Model, and Rutherford's Atomic Model.
Bohr's Model:
• Bohr's model of the atom was based on the Planck’s theory
i.e., quantization of energy.
• The model proposed several postulates, including the idea
that electrons revolve in fixed circular orbits around the
nucleus without losing or gaining energy.
• The angular momentum of the electron is quantized Bohr’s Atomic Model
and can only be in integral multiples of h/ 2π
• The electron has a definite energy characteristic of the
orbit it occupies, and as long as it remains in that orbit, it does not lose energy. An
electron in first orbit (n = 1), has the lowest possible energy.
• The absorption or emission of energy can only occur through transitions of electrons
between different energy levels.
de-Broglie’s Concept
• Matter has two distinct properties, that of a wave and a particle.
• The wavelength of a microscopic particle, such as an electron, is inversely proportional to
its momentum.
o = h/p or = h/mv (since momentum is equal to mass times velocity). Here, h
represents Planck's constant, p represents momentum, and m represents the
mass of an electron.
Shell
• The concept of shells states that electrons move in orbits that have a specific energy
level, also known as stationary orbits.
• These orbits are categorized as K, L, M, and N shells with n = 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively.
• Electrons closest to the nucleus are in the n=1 shell, which has the lowest possible
energy.
• Shells are divided into sub-shells or sub-levels which are referred to as orbitals. These
orbitals are regions in the electron cloud where electrons are most likely to be found.
Electronic Configuration
• The electronic configuration indicates how electrons are arranged in various shells,
subshells, and orbitals in an atom.
• The Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle, and Hund's rule of maximum
multiplicity govern the filling of orbitals in atoms.
• In the ground state of an atom, electrons enter the orbital of lowest energy first (Aufbau
principle), with subsequent electrons entering in the order of increasing energies.
o Lower the value of (n + l ) for an orbital, lower is its energy. If two orbitals have
the same (n + l ) value, the orbital with lower value of n has lower energy.
• According to Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity, electron pairing will not take place
in orbitals of the same energy until each orbital is first singly filled with parallel spin.
Quantum Numbers
• Each electron in an atom is identified by a set of specific values assigned to four quantum
numbers. These are denoted by symbols n, l, m, and s.
3. Chemical Bonding
Atoms, molecules, or ions of elements, except noble gases, do not have a complete octet (8
valence electrons in its outermost energy level) and hence, they form chemical bonds with other
constituent atoms to attain a stable octet. This process is known as chemical bonding and is
dependent on the valency of atoms.
Valency
• Valency refers to the ability of an atom or element to form chemical bonds.
• For metals, valency is determined by the number of valence electrons in its atom.
• For non-metals, valency is calculated as 8 minus the number of valence electrons in its
atom.
Ions
• Ions are charged particles, either positively or negatively charged. A positively charged
ion is known as a cation, while a negatively charged ion is known as an anion.
• Cations have fewer electrons compared to a neutral atom, for example, Na+, H+, Mg2+,
• Anions have more electrons than a neutral atom, for example, F−, Cl−, O2−.
Electrovalent
• An electrovalent bond, also known as an ionic bond, is formed when electrons are
transferred from one atom to another.
Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons towards itself when forming a chemical bond.
• It is a relative scale called Pauling Scale that ranges from 0 to 4, with higher values
indicating a greater ability to attract electrons.
• Electronegativity influences the polarity of chemical bonds and determines the
distribution of charge in molecules, affecting their chemical properties and reactivity.
• Fluorine (F) is the element with the highest electronegativity, with a value of 3.98.
Oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and chlorine (Cl) also have high electronegativity.
• The elements with the lowest electronegativity are typically found in the alkali and
alkaline earth metal groups of the periodic table, such as cesium (Cs), francium (Fr), and
barium (Ba).
Covalent Bond
• When two atoms of the same or different elements share electrons, it forms a bond
called a covalent bond and the resulting compound is called a covalent compound.
• The number of sharing pairs of electrons can determine if the covalent bond is single,
double, or triple.
• Covalent compounds often exist as liquids or gases and have a low melting and boiling
point.
• They do not conduct electricity and are typically insoluble in water but can dissolve in
organic solvents such as alcohol.
Hydrogen Bond
• A hydrogen bond is an electrostatic force of attraction that occurs between a hydrogen
atom, which is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom, and another
electronegative atom in the same or different molecules.
• The strength of hydrogen bonding is maximum in the solid state and minimum in the
gaseous state.
• There are two main types of hydrogen bonding:
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of hydrogen bonding occurs between
different molecules of a compound, such as in molecules of HF or water (H2O).
• It results in increased solubility in water and high boiling points.
2. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of hydrogen bonding occurs within
different parts of the same molecule, as seen in compounds like o-nitrophenol.
• It results in decreased solubility in water and low boiling points.
• Molecules that contain O—H, N—H, or H—F bonds often exhibit abnormal properties
due to hydrogen bond formation.
4. Periodic Table
• The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements based on their atomic
numbers, electronic configurations, and chemical properties. It provides a systematic
organization of elements that allows for easy identification, classification, and
understanding of their properties and behavior.
• The periodic table is a fundamental tool in chemistry and serves as a concise
representation of the entire known chemical elements.
• It helps scientists to predict and explain the properties and behavior of elements, and
make connections between different elements and their chemical reactions.
• The periodic table has immense significance in understanding and advancing our
knowledge of the fundamental building blocks of matter.
Characteristics of Groups:
• All the elements in a group or vertical column of the periodic table have the same
number of valence electrons, resulting in similar chemical properties among them.
p-Block Elements
• The p-block elements comprise groups 13 to 18 (according to IUPAC numbering), with a
general electron configuration of ns np1-6.
• This is the only block that contains metals, non-metals, and metalloids.
• Heavier elements in this block exhibit the inert pair effect, where their lower valency
becomes more stable.
d-Block Elements
• The d-block elements consist of groups 3 to 12, with a general electron configuration of
(n-1) d1-10 ns1-2.
• These elements are called transition elements (except for group-12), and they contain
unpaired electrons, making them paramagnetic.
• These elements exhibit variable valency due to the small difference in energy between
the outer and penultimate shells.
• They are generally colored and used as catalysts.
f-Block Elements
• The f-block elements are usually placed below the rest of the periodic table and consist of
two rows of 14 elements each, known as the lanthanides and actinides, respectively.
• The general electron configuration for these elements is (n-2) f 1-14(n-1) d0-1 ns2.
• Elements in this block are called inner-transition elements and are only present in the
IIIB (3) group.
Periodic properties
• Periodic properties are a set of characteristics that display a repeated pattern along both
periods and groups in the periodic table. These properties can be used to predict the
behavior of elements in various chemical reactions. Some important periodic properties
include:
Ionization enthalpy: This is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an
isolated gaseous atom to form a positive ion.
• It generally increases along a period but there are exceptions like boron and oxygen,
which have smaller ionization energy than beryllium and nitrogen respectively, due to
stable electronic configuration.
• Ionization enthalpy decreases as you go down the group.
Electronegativity: This is the ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards
it.
• Electronegativity increases along a period and decreases down the group.
Metallic character: This refers to the tendency of an element to form a cation by the loss of
electrons.
• It generally decreases along a period and increases down the group.
Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reactions occur when substances undergo a chemical change, resulting in the
production of new substances. For example, when iron articles are exposed to a humid
atmosphere, they undergo rusting.
Redox reactions
Corrosion
Applications of Catalysts
Examples of the industrial applications of catalysts include
• the use of iron as a catalyst (with molybdenum as a promoter) in the Haber process for
ammonia production
• vanadium pentoxide as a catalyst in the Contact process for sulfuric acid production
• platinum gauze as a catalyst in the Ostwald process for nitric acid production
• cupric chloride as a catalyst in the Deacon process for chlorine production
Enzyme Catalysis
• Enzyme catalysis refers to the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction facilitated by
enzymes, which are biocatalysts and are typically proteins in nature. Enzymes exhibit
high specificity in their action, and their activity is highly influenced by temperature, with
an optimal temperature range usually between 25-37°C.
• The pH of the environment also significantly affects the rates of enzymatic reactions.
• Enzymes have specific pH ranges at which they are most active, and changes in pH can
greatly impact their catalytic activity.
Examples of important enzyme catalysis reactions include the conversion of starch to maltose by
diastase, maltose to glucose by maltase, glucose to ethyl alcohol by zymase, sucrose to glucose
and fructose by invertase, and urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide by urease.
Metals
• Metals are typically excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
• Silver has the highest thermal conductivity, followed by copper, and aluminum is also a
good conductor of heat. This is why cooking utensils and water boilers are often made of
copper or aluminum.
• Mercury has very high resistance to the passage of electric current.
• Metals are generally hard, but sodium and potassium are so soft that they can be easily
cut with a knife.
• Metals are malleable and ductile, which means they can be shaped without breaking and
drawn into wires, respectively.
o Gold and silver are the most malleable and ductile metals.
• Metals are usually solids at room temperature, with the exception of mercury (melting
point −39°C), which is a liquid, and cesium (melting point 28.4°C) and gallium (melting
point 29.8°C), which are liquid above 30°C.
• Metals are electropositive in nature, meaning they tend to ionize by losing electrons and
form positive ions.
• Most metal oxides are basic in nature, meaning they have a pH greater than 7, but zinc
oxide and aluminum oxide are amphoteric, which means they can act as both acidic and
basic depending on the conditions.
Lead
• Lead (Pb) is primarily found in the form of sulphide ore known as galena (PbS).
• Lead is used in various applications such as in the production of chambers for the
chamber process of sulphuric acid (H2SO4), lead pigments, bullets, lead accumulators,
and more.
• Lead blocks are also used for shielding against harmful emissions from radioactive
minerals.
• Red lead (also known as minium or sindhur) is Pb3O4, and it is used for making
protective paint for iron and in the match industry.
Alloys
• An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal that is formed by
melting the constituents together and then solidifying the mixture to obtain desired
properties such as improved strength, durability, corrosion resistance, and other
characteristics not found in pure metals.
Non-Metals
• Non-metals can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous states (with bromine being the only
liquid non-metal). Other important characteristics of non-metals include the following:
• They are generally soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non-sonorous, and poor conductors of heat
and electricity.
• They have low melting and boiling points compared to metals.
• Non-metals form oxides with oxygen that are typically acidic in nature.
• Examples of non-metals include noble gases such as helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), as well as some other p-block elements such as chlorine (Cl2),
bromine (Br2), and phosphorus (P), among others.
Heavy Water
• Heavy water (D2O) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid that is found in about
6000 parts of ordinary water per part.
• Due to the higher nuclear mass of deuterium compared to hydrogen, and the stronger H-
bonding in heavy water, nearly all physical constants of D2O are higher than those of
ordinary water (H2O).
• Chemically, heavy water reacts more slowly than water due to the isotopic effect.
• The effects of heavy water are significant in biochemical reactions, as it impacts various
biological processes. Seeds do not germinate in heavy water, the rate of fermentation
decreases, the growth of bio-organisms is retarded, and aquatic animals such as tadpoles
and fish die in heavy water.
Carbon
• Carbon, symbolized by C, is a member of group 14 or IV A in the periodic table.
• Carbon can be found in both free state, such as in coal, diamond, and graphite, as well as
in combined state, such as in carbonates, carbon dioxide, petroleum, and other
compounds.
• Carbon exhibits two crystalline allotropes, diamond and graphite, which have distinct
structures and properties.
Compounds of Carbon:
1. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, neutral, and highly poisonous gas. It
combines with hemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin, which is cherry-
colored and unable to absorb oxygen, resulting in suffocation (asphyxia).
o Low-level poisoning can cause headaches and drowsiness, while high-level
poisoning may be fatal.
o Deaths in closed rooms with wood, coal, or coke fires, or in closed bathrooms
with gas geysers, are often caused by carbon monoxide formation.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) occurs in the air at concentrations of 0.03-0.05%. It is found in
caves, mines, and volcanic emissions, and is produced from the burning of carbon and
carbonaceous matter, decay of vegetable matter, and animal respiration.
o Solid CO2, also known as dry ice, is a soft, white, snow-like substance. It is used
in refrigeration under the name "drikold" and in the transport of perishable food
items as it provides both cold temperature and an inert atmosphere that helps
kill bacteria, fungi, and molds.
o Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere through processes such as
respiration, combustion, fermentation, and decay of plants and animals.
o In the presence of sunlight, green plants take in CO2 from the atmosphere and
water from the soil, and with the help of chlorophyll, convert it into glucose,
starch, and cellulose through photosynthesis, releasing oxygen into the
atmosphere.
Oxygen
• Oxygen (O2) is a crucial component of the Earth's atmosphere, constituting
approximately 21% of the volume, as well as being present in the oceans and Earth's
crust. The majority of atmospheric oxygen is generated through the process of
photosynthesis by green plants.
• Oxygen exists in two molecular allotropic forms: the most stable form is the diatomic
molecule (O2), while the less stable form is the triatomic molecule O3, known as ozone.
o The upper layer of the atmosphere is where Ozone (O3) is produced through the
interaction of oxygen and UV rays emitted by the sun. Ozone plays a crucial role
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 425
in safeguarding life on Earth by preventing harmful UV rays from penetrating the
planet. Unfortunately, the use of common refrigerants such as
chlorofluorocarbons has contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer.
• Dioxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and non-inflammable gas, but it acts as a
supporter of combustion. Oxygen readily forms compounds by combining with various
elements.
• All living beings obtain oxygen from the air. Inhaled oxygen dissolves in the blood as
oxyhemoglobin and is transported to every cell in the body, where it plays a crucial role
in carrying out metabolic activities.
• Oxygen is used in life-support systems in hospitals and for underwater diving by divers,
miners, and mountaineers to provide necessary oxygen for breathing. Additionally, liquid
oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon is used as a substitute for dynamite in coal
mining.
Nitrogen
• Nitrogen (N2) is a significant component of air, constituting approximately 79% of the
volume. It is also an essential element in plants and animal proteins. Nitrogen is a
colorless, odorless, and non-poisonous gas.
• In its combined state, nitrogen is found in the form of nitrates, such as sodium nitrate
(NaNO3) known as Chile saltpetre, potassium nitrate (KNO3) known as Indian saltpetre,
and ammonium salts.
• Nitrogen is chemically inert and neutral towards litmus. It reacts with other elements
only at high temperatures.
Compounds of Nitrogen:
• Ammonia, an important nitrogen compound, is commercially prepared from nitrogen
and hydrogen using Haber's process. It is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent
odor and high solubility in water. Its aqueous solution is alkaline in nature.
o Ammonia is used in various applications, including refrigeration, manufacturing
of fertilizers and explosives, and in nitrogen fixation, which involves the
conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates by lightning and nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.
• Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are formed by the reaction between nitrogen and
oxygen during lightning. These oxides are carried to the soil by rainwater, where they are
neutralized by lime in the soil to form calcium nitrate, which is used by plants.
Nitrogen Cycle:
• Symbiotic bacteria present in the root nodules of leguminous plants convert atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrogen compounds. Some bacteria, such as azobacter found in the soil,
convert nitrates back into nitrogen, which returns to the atmosphere.
Metalloids
• Metalloids exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals. There is no universally
accepted definition of metalloids, and there is ongoing debate about which elements
should be classified as such.
• Their physical and chemical properties are often intermediate in nature.
• The six commonly recognized metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium.
• Other elements such as carbon, aluminum, polonium, and astatine are sometimes also
considered as metalloids.
• On a standard periodic table, these elements can be found in a diagonal region of the p-
block, extending from boron to astatine.
• Metalloids generally have a metallic appearance, but they are brittle and exhibit only fair
conductivity of electricity.
• Chemically, they mostly behave as weak non-metals. They can also form alloys with
metals.
• Metalloids and their compounds find applications in various fields such as alloys,
biological agents, flame retardants, glasses, optical storage, pyrotechnics,
semiconductors, and electronics.
Indicators
• Indicators are special substances used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic, as
we cannot taste every substance to determine its properties. When added to a solution
containing an acidic or basic substance, indicators undergo a color change.
• Naturally occurring indicators such as turmeric, litmus (extracted from lichens), and
China rose petals (gudhal) can be used for this purpose.
• Common examples of acid-base indicators include methyl orange, methyl red,
phenolphthalein, litmus, and bromocresol green.
• Not all indicators are suitable for all situations. For instance, phenolphthalein may not be
suitable if the base is weak, such as in the case of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), while
methyl orange may not be suitable for weak acids like acetic acid (CH3COOH).
pH Scale
• The pH scale is a measurement of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Acid and
base indicators are helpful in distinguishing between acids and bases, but the strength of
an acidic or basic solution is expressed using the pH scale.
• Solutions with a pH value less than 7 are considered acidic, while solutions with a pH
value greater than 7 are considered basic or alkaline.
• A pH value of 7 is considered neutral, and pure water typically has a pH very close to 7.
Synthetic Materials
• Synthetic materials refer to materials that are human-made using natural resources.
• Examples of synthetic materials include cement, glass, fertilizers, pesticides, polymers,
cosmetics, medicines, dyes, soaps, detergents, and various chemicals used in food and
beverages.
Cement
• Cement is a weighty, greyish powder composed of calcium aluminates and silicates, first
discovered in 1824 by an English mason, Joseph Aspdin, who named it Portland cement
because of its similarity to Portland limestone.
Composition of Portland
Component Percentage
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60-70%
Silica (SiO2) 20-25%
Alumina (Al2O3) 5-10%
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2-3%
• The manufacturing process of cement involves raw materials such as limestone, clay, and
gypsum. Limestone provides lime, clay offers alumina and silica, and gypsum reduces the
setting time of cement.
• When water is mixed with cement, it becomes a hard mass after setting, an exothermic
process that requires cooling for up to seven days by sprinkling water.
• Mortar, which is a blend of cement, sand, and water, is used for plastering walls and
binding bricks and stones. On the other hand, concrete is a mixture of cement, sand,
gravel, or small stones, and water, used for constructing floors.
• Reinforced concrete is a structure comprising wet concrete embedded with iron rods,
which provides great strength and is commonly used in the construction of roofs,
bridges, gutters, among others, sometimes with the addition of asbestos, wire mesh,
bamboo, etc., for reinforcement.
Glass
• Glass is a brittle and hard material with a typically transparent and amorphous structure
(lacking definite crystalline structure), classified as a super-cooled liquid of silicates.
• Ordinary glass, also known as soda glass, has an average composition represented by the
formula Na2O-CaO-6SiO2.
• The raw materials used in making glass include sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate,
and sand.
Chemicals in Agriculture
Fertilisers
• Fertilisers are chemical substances that are rich in a particular nutrient. They supply
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
• Continuous use of fertilisers in an area can deplete the soil fertility.
• A chemical fertiliser should be completely soluble in water, easily assimilated by plants,
and stable so that the elements are retained in the soil for a longer duration. It should not
disturb the pH of the soil. —
• Major nitrogenous fertilisers are ammonium sulphate, calcium cyanamide, basic calcium
nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate, and urea. —
• Urea is the best fertiliser as it leaves only carbon dioxide after the ammonia has been
assimilated by plants. It has 46.6% nitrogen and does not alter the pH of the soil. —
• The mixture of Ca(CN)2 and C is known as nitrolim.
• Commercially, calcium nitrate is known as Norwegian saltpetre.
• Calcium superphosphate, nitro phosphate, triple phosphate, and phosphatic slag
(Thomas slag) are some important phosphatic fertilisers.
• NPK fertilizers refer to a combination of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potash fertilizers
in appropriate proportions.
• NP fertilizers, on the other hand, are created by blending nitrogenous and phosphatic
fertilizers in specific proportions.
• Calcium superphosphate and dihydrogen ammoniated phosphate are some of the
examples of NP fertilizers.—
Pesticides
• Pesticides are chemical substances used to kill, repel or control pests such as insects,
weeds, rodents, and fungi. They can be synthetic or derived from natural sources.
Explosives
• Explosives are chemical compounds or mixtures designed to undergo rapid exothermic
reactions, resulting in a large amount of gas, heat, and pressure, and often accompanied
by a loud noise.
• Explosives are classified as primary, secondary, and teritiary explosives based on their
sensitivity to initiation.
• Primary explosives require the least amount of energy for initiation. Hence they are used
in detonators.
• Some examples of explosives include TNT (trinitrotoluene), RDX (cyclotrimethylene-
trinitramine) and nitroglycerin.
• Explosives have various applications in mining, construction, military, and demolition
industries.
FireCrackers
• A fire cracker is an explosive device that is intended to produce a loud bang noise, while
any visual effects are secondary.
• Typically, they are composed of cardboards or plastics and black powder acts as the
propellant, which comprises potassium nitrate (KNO3), charcoal, and sulfur. The
effectiveness of the firecracker depends on its tight packing.
Polymers
• Polymers are substances that are composed of multiple repeating units of monomers (a
building block molecule that combines with other molecules).
• The term "polymer" is derived from the Greek words "poly" which means many and
"mer" which means unit or part.
• They have a wide range of applications including the production of plastic toys, cups,
buckets, synthetic clothing materials, machine parts, automobile tires, gears, seals, and
electrical insulating materials.
• Polymers play a significant role in various industries such as plastics, fibers, elastomers,
paints, and varnishes.
• Polymerization is the process by which a polymer is formed, involving the union of a
large number of molecules of one or two types of low molecular weight monomers. The
resulting compound has a high molecular weight.
Types of Polymers
• Polymers can be classified into two main types: natural and synthetic polymers.
• Natural polymers are present in nature, and examples include cellulose, starch, rubber,
wool, and silk.
• Synthetic polymers are chemically synthesized by humans, and examples include
polythene, nylon, orlon, dacron, and melamine.
• Synthetic polymers can be further categorized into two types: thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastics.
Chemistry MCQs
Exercise – I Key
1. c 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. c
11. b 12. a 13. c 14. a 15. c 16. c 17. b 18. a 19. b 20. c
Explanations
1. The scientists, Carolyn R Bertozzi, Morten Meldal and K Barry Sharpless, have been awarded
the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, 2022 for their work in click chemistry.
Statement 1 is incorrect: Click chemistry cannot provide exact copies of natural molecules.
However, by using click chemistry it is possible to produce molecules that fulfil the same
functions.
Statement 2 and 3 are correct: Click chemistry reactions are now used to create plastics that
can conduct electricity by adding a chemical azide. Manufacturers can also make them water
proof by adding a chemical alkyne.
It can now be used to treat cancer. Bertozzi used click chemistry to make a product that can
be used to study glycans attached to the lymph nodes in the human body. The product
developed by her using click chemistry are now used by researchers across the world to
treat cancers.
4. Allotropes are distinct forms of a chemical element that can exist in the same physical state,
resulting from varying arrangements of atoms and their bonding. Allotropes can exhibit
stark differences in their chemical and physical properties. For instance, graphite and
diamond are allotropes of carbon that both exist in the solid state, with graphite being soft
and diamond being extremely hard. Another class of carbon allotropes includes fullerene.
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons (atomic mass) but differing numbers of
neutrons. Isobars are atoms of different chemical elements having equal values for atomic
mass. Isotopes have the same atomic number. Isobars have different atomic numbers.
Isotonesare atomic species that share the same number of neutrons, and differ in the number
of protons.
5. Statement 1 is correct as the Environment Protection Act of 1986 authorizes the central
government to take measures for preserving the environment, setting standards and
inspecting industrial units. Additionally, two rules - the Manufacture, Storage and Import of
Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 (MSIHC) and the Chemical Accidents (Emergency,
Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules, 1996 (EPPR) have been established under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to ensure chemical safety.
Statement 2 is also correct as the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 mandates that
hazardous units must have an insurance policy and deposit an equal amount in the
Environment Relief Fund to provide immediate relief to victims of chemical accidents.
Statement 3 is correct as the National Environment Appellate Authority Act of 1997 creates
the National Environment Appellate Authority, which can hear appeals regarding the
restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes shall or shall not be
carried out subject to certain safeguards under EPA, 1986.
7. Aerosols are particles suspended in the air, including fine dust, mist, or smoke. In terms of
virus transmission, aerosols refer to micro droplets, which are much smaller (5 microns or
less) than respiratory droplets. Hence, statement 1 is correct. They are expelled when people
breathe, laugh or sing, while respiratory droplets are expelled through forceful acts like
sneezing or coughing. Compared to respiratory droplets, aerosols take a longer time to fall to
the floor and can remain suspended in the air for longer periods. Hence, statement 2 is
correct.
8. Hallmarking in India involves accurately determining and officially recording the proportion
of precious metal in articles made of precious metals. The official marks used in India
guarantee the purity or fineness of precious metal articles. Currently, only two precious
metals, gold and silver, are brought under the purview of hallmarking in India. Gold
Hallmarked Jewellery consists of four marks, which are: the BIS mark, purity in carat and
fineness for gold (such as 22K916, 18K750, 14K585), the assay centre's identification
mark/number, and the jeweller's identification mark/number.
10. The Visakhapatnam gas leak, which occurred at the LG Polymers chemical plant, was caused
by styrene gas. Statement 1 is correct, as inhaling styrene can cause various health problems
like eye irritation, respiratory issues, nausea, and even cancer in rodents. Statement 2 is
correct - styrene is a key raw material for polystyrene synthesis and is also used in the
production of fiberglass, rubber, and latex. It is found in natural foods and cigarette smoke,
as well as vehicle exhaust. Styrene is a flammable gas stored in factories as a liquid, which
easily evaporates and requires storage under 20°C.
11. Vanadium has various applications. Statement 1 is correct because vanadium alloys are used
in nuclear reactors due to their low neutron-absorbing properties, and vanadium pentoxide
is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.
Statement 2 is correct because vanadium is mainly used to produce specialty steel alloys.
However, statement 3 is incorrect as China is the largest producer and consumer of
vanadium, followed by Russia and South Africa. While India is a significant consumer of
vanadium, it is not a primary producer of the metal.
13. Aqua regia is a solution composed of a 3:1 mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCL) and nitric acid
(HNO3). Therefore, Statement 1 is not correct.
Aqua regia is commonly known as royal water in Latin. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
Aqua regia is capable of dissolving noble metals such as gold, platinum, and palladium from
substrates, and is used in microfabrications and microelectronics labs for this purpose. It is
one of the few reagents that can dissolve gold and platinum. However, it should be handled
with extreme caution as it is highly corrosive and may cause explosions or skin burns. Hence,
Statement 3 is correct.
14. Quarks are the smallest known building blocks of the Universe and are elementary particles.
The standard model currently recognizes six flavors of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top,
and bottom. Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.
The Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) experiment focuses on investigating the slight
differences between matter and antimatter by studying a type of quark called the "beauty
quark" or "b quark,". Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
Leptons, such as electrons, muons, and taus, are elementary particles that carry one unit of
electric charge or are neutral. Protons and neutrons, on the other hand, are composed of 3
quarks each (of two kinds of quarks, up and down quarks). Protons consist of two up quarks
and a down quark, while neutrons consist of two down quarks and an up quark. Therefore,
Statement 3 is not correct, as electrons are not made up of quarks.
15. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei disintegrate spontaneously to form more
stable atomic nuclei with the emission of radiation. Hassium, Promethium, Technetium, and
Nobelium are radioactive elements. It is to be noted that
Technetium is the least atomic numbered radioactive element with
an atomic number of 43.
Zirconium, on the other hand, is a non-radioactive, hard, silvery
metal used in making ceramics and as a semi-precious gemstone.
Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer.
17. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical compound that is commonly utilized for producing different
types of plastics. It is a colorless solid that can dissolve in most organic solvents but has
limited solubility in water. Thus, Statement 1 is incorrect.
The major use of BPA is in the production of polycarbonate plastics, which are used in a wide
range of products such as shatterproof windows, eyewear, water bottles, and epoxy resins
that coat metal food cans, bottle tops, and water supply pipes. Therefore, Statement 2 is
correct..
18. Option a is correct: Curd is obtained from milk by coagulating milk through a process called
curdling.
Curd contains Lactic acid. When lactic acid in the curd reacts with the metals like Brass and
Copper, it causes corrosion and the creation of products that cannot be digested by the
human body.
Option b, c, and d are incorrect:
Tartaric Acid is an organic acid found in Tamarind and grapes.
Ascorbic acid is an antioxidant agent that functions in fighting bacterial infections, in
detoxifying reactions, and in the formation of collagen in fibrous tissues. It is found in citrus
fruits.
Acetic acid is also known as ethanoic acid. Acetic acid is a by-product of fermentation and
gives vinegar its characteristic odour.
19. Statement 1 is correct: Litmus paper is a simple and easy-to-use pH indicator that has been
used for centuries to test the acidity or basicity of a solution. When litmus paper is dipped
into an acidic solution, the dye in the paper changes color from blue to red. Conversely, when
litmus paper is dipped into a basic solution, the dye changes color from red to blue. The
paper can also be used to test the pH of a neutral solution, which will not change the color of
the paper.
Statement 2 is correct: Litmus paper is made from natural dyes extracted from lichens,
specifically Roccella tinctoria and Roccella pygmaea.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Litmus paper has a limitation of not showing the accurate pH value
of given solution. Litmus paper only shows whether a material is acidic or basic, while pH
strips specify the pH value (alkaline).
20. The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
To extinguish fire, the ignition temperature of the burning objects must be brought down
using certain materials. The most common materials used to extinguish fire are water, heavy
clothes, gases etc.,
Option a is incorrect: CO2 is a toxic gas and highly suffocating gas, whose concentration of
even 9% in the breathing air would make a person unconscious within minutes
Option b is incorrect: Co2 fire extinguishers can extinguish flammable liquid fires but are not
suitable for use on flammable solids, and flammable gases.
1. b 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. a 8. a 9. c 10. b
11. d 12. b 13. b 14. c 15. c 16. c 17. b 18. d 19. b 20. d
21. c
Explanations:
1. Option 3 is correct. Souring of milk is a chemical change as acidification takes place and
soured milk is produced. This sour milk has different chemical properties from fresh milk.
Option 1 and 2 are incorrect. Crystallisation of sodium chloride and melting of ice are
physical changes.
2. Non-metals are a group of elements that are located on the right side of the periodic table,
typically to the right of the metalloids. They have properties that are different from those of
metals, and they typically do not conduct heat or electricity as well as metals do. They are
characterized by having relatively low melting and boiling points, and they are typically
gases or brittle solids at room temperature.
Statement 1 is incorrect: Some non-metals, such as sulfur and phosphorus, can react with
oxygen to form acidic oxides, which means that these oxides will have acidic properties when
dissolved in water. However, not all non-metals that react with oxygen form acidic oxides.
Some non-metals such as carbon and nitrogen, when they react with oxygen, form neutral
oxides such as CO2 and NO2 respectively, which do not have acidic properties when
dissolved in water.
Statement 2 is correct: Most non-metals do not react with water under normal conditions,
and when they do, they typically form acidic oxides.
An example of this is the reaction of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and water, which forms sulfuric
acid (H2SO4), an acidic oxide.
Statement 4 is correct: Non-metals react with base to form Salt and the water. It does not
form hydrogen after reaction. This is known as neutralization reaction, in which an acid and
a base react to form water and a salt.
For example, carbon dioxide (CO2) can react with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) and water (H2O), sulfur dioxide (SO2) can react with calcium
hydroxide (Ca (OH)2) to form calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and water (H2O).
3. Acids present in various food items are the acids that can be eaten. These acids are
responsible for the sharpness of the taste of any food.
Pair 1 is correctly matched: Milk contains lactic acid. Lactic acid is an organic acid that is
naturally produced in the body during the fermentation of carbohydrates by lactic acid
bacteria. It is also found in a variety of fermented foods, including milk and other dairy
products.
Pair 2 is incorrectly matched: Oxalic acid is a naturally occurring organic acid found in many
plants, including fruits and vegetables such as rhubarb, spinach, beet greens, and chard. It is
also found in some nuts, such as almonds and peanuts, and in some seeds, such as sesame
and poppy seeds. Oxalic acid is a colourless crystal or white powder that is soluble in water
and has a sharp, acidic taste. Amla is rich in citric acid.
Pair 3 is correctly matched: Tartaric acid is present in the juices of various fruits, particularly
in tamarinds, unripe grapes, Pineapples, Potatoes, Carrots and is one of the main acids in
wine. Tartaric acid is an extremely versatile acid and it is utilized in a wide range of
industries. Malic acid is also found in the Grapes.
Pair 4 is correctly matched: Spinach contains several acids, including oxalic acid and ascorbic
acid (vitamin C), which can be harmful in large amounts. However, it does not contain other
acids like citric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, or malic acid.
4. Statement 1 is incorrect: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number
of protons in their nucleus, but a different number of neutrons. This means they have the
same atomic number, but a different atomic mass. For example, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are
isotopes of carbon because they have the same number of protons (6) but different numbers
of neutrons (6 and 7, respectively).
Statement 2 is incorrect: Isobars are atoms of different elements that have the same atomic
mass. This means they have different numbers of protons and neutrons, but their total mass
is the same. For example, chlorine-35 and sulfur-35 are isobars because they have different
numbers of protons (17 and 16 respectively) and neutrons (18 and 19, respectively), but
their atomic masses are 35.
5. Statement 1 is incorrect: Thermoplastics are plastics that can be melted and reshaped
multiple times without losing their properties. Thermoplastic materials typically have low
melting points due to which they can further be remoulded or recycled easily.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Thermosetting plastics have high melting points and tensile
strength. Thermosetting plastics are plastics that can only be moulded once and cannot be
remelted.
Statement 3 is correct: Vulcanized rubber, Bakelite, Polyurethane, Epoxy resin, Vinyl ester
resin are the examples of thermosetting polymers whereas, Polystyrene, Teflon, Acrylic,
Nylon, polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) are examples of thermoplastics.
6. Being exposed to high levels of lead can lead to anemia, weakness, kidney damage, and brain
damage. Recently, there has been a debate regarding the acceptable amount of lead in
noodles, making Pair (1) correct.
Air fresheners contain harmful substances such as formaldehyde, petrochemicals, p-
dichlorobenzene, and aerosol pollutants, which can cause cancer, throat and nose irritation,
and are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Therefore, Pair (2) is correct.
Phenoxyethanol, a preservative in many personal care products, has been linked to skin
irritation and nervous system interaction in infants. This makes Pair (3) correct.
Bisphenol-A is commonly used in single-use plastic that is used in the packaging for whey
proteins. When stored at room temperature, Bisphenol-A can seep into the protein powder
and have health implications, making Pair (4) correct.
7. Colloidal solutions are mixtures in which microscopically dispersed insoluble particles of one
substance are suspended in another substance.
Properties of colloid:
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture. The size of the particles of a colloid is too small to
be individually seen by the naked eye.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable.
Cow Milk, milk of magnesia, blood, and shaving cream are examples of colloidal
solutions.Tincture of iodine is an example of a homogeneous solution with iodine (solid) as
the solute and alcohol (liquid) as the solvent. Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
8. Formic acid or Methanoic Acid is present in a natural state in stinging nettles and is
responsible for the burning pain in contact with them. It is also found in the stings and bites
of many insects, including bees and ants, which use it as a chemical defence mechanism.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Natural Source Acid Natural Source Acid
Vinegar Acetic Acid Sour milk/Curd Lactic Acid
Orange Citric Acid Lemon Citric Acid
Tamarind Tartaric Acid Ant Sting Methanoic Acid
Tomato Oxalic Acid Nettle sting Methanoic Acid
10. The combining capacity of the atoms of elements, that is, their tendency to react and form
molecules with atoms of the same or different elements, is explained as an attempt to attain a
fully-filled outermost shell.
In general, noble gases like Helium, Argon, Krypton, Neon, Xenon, Radon, etc. are not very
reactive, their chemical inertness is due to the fact that they have completely filled ns2np6
electronic configuration of their valence shells. The other reasons are very high ionization
enthalpy and almost zero electron affinity.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
11. Recently, the biggest Rare Earth Elements (REE) deposit in Europe has been discovered in
Arctic region of Kiruna, Sweden (home to world's largest underground iron-ore mine).
Rare earth elements are a group of seventeen chemical elements that occur together in the
periodic table. The group consists of yttrium, scandium and the 15 lanthanide elements.
The rare earth elements are all metals, and the group is often referred to as the "rare earth
metals." Hence options 1, 2 and 3 are correct.
12. The chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with gas such as nitrogen to prevent the
chips from getting oxidised.
When fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell and taste change. Usually
substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to foods containing fats and oil.
Keeping food in air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation. Hence option (b) is the
correct answer.
13. Diamond and Graphite, both are allotropes of carbon. These minerals chemically consist of
carbon atoms with different physical properties. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Graphite is soft with a greasy touch and is utilized as a lubricant in the form of dispersion
material or powder. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance and is used in
making tools that are utilized for grinding, cutting, drilling, etc. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
Graphite is used in the manufacture of electrodes of carbon employed in electrolytic cells, as
it is an excellent conductor of electricity. In a Diamond, each carbon atom is attached to the
other four carbon atoms through strong covalent bonds. Due to the absence of free electrons,
a diamond is a poor electrical conductor. Hence, statement 3 is not correct.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 446
14. Syngas, a gas mixture composed mainly of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), and
sometimes carbon dioxide (CO2), is a crucial component in the chemical industry and
accounts for 2% of total primary energy consumption. It is typically produced through
gasification, using sources such as natural gas, coal, and biomass, through reactions with
steam or oxygen. Syngas has a wide range of applications, including electricity production
and chemical production like fertilizers. The hydrogen derived from coal gasification can be
used for various purposes, such as ammonia production, fueling a hydrogen economy, or
upgrading fossil fuels. Additionally, methane or natural gas obtained from coal gasification
can be converted into LNG for direct use as transportation fuel.
15. When rubber bands are twisted and untwisted, they exhibit a cooling effect known as the
"elastocaloric" effect. Recent research conducted by multiple universities, including Nankai
University in China, suggests that harnessing this effect could eliminate the need for fluid
refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners. Similar to the process of compressing and
expanding fluid refrigerants, heat transfer occurs during the elastocaloric effect. When a
rubber band is stretched, it absorbs heat from its surroundings, and upon release, it
gradually cools down.
16. Green chemistry involves designing chemical products and processes that minimize or
eliminate the use of hazardous substances, reducing pollution at its source.
Bioremediation is a type of biotechnology that uses living organisms like bacteria and
microbes to remove contaminants and pollutants from the environment. Pseudomonas
putida is a type of bacteria that can convert styrene oil into biodegradable plastic, making it
useful in the bioremediation of oil spills. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound that is safer than chlorine and has antimicrobial
properties, making it useful as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Additionally, it can decompose
into water and oxygen, making it suitable for use in more environmentally friendly
propulsion systems.
17. Statement 1 is Correct. Solar panels, specifically photovoltaic (PV) panels, consist of multiple
solar cells made of silicon, similar to semiconductors. These cells are designed with positive
and negative layers that generate an electric field, akin to a battery.
Statement 2 is correct. Solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert sunlight (solar radiation) into
electricity, which can be used to power various devices or recharge batteries.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Photovoltaic cells produce environmentally friendly energy as they
do not emit greenhouse gases. Furthermore, the operation and maintenance costs of solar
cells are typically low. The expense associated with solar panels is primarily limited to the
initial purchase and installation, with minimal ongoing costs.
18. Cloud seeding is a technique used to artificially manipulate precipitation/rainfall, also known
by several other terms like man-made precipitation enhancement, and rainmaking. This
method involves spraying particles of salts like silver iodide and chloride onto clouds using
specialized aircraft, rockets, or ground-based dispersion devices. These salt particles act as a
core or cloud condensation nuclei, which attract water vapor within the cloud towards them,
resulting in the formation of raindrops.
19. Deposition, a term used in chemistry, describes the direct conversion of a gas into a solid
without passing through a liquid state. Natural instances of deposition include the formation
of frost on the ground and cirrus clouds in the upper atmosphere.
Option A describes sublimation, which is the process by which a solid directly transforms
into a gas without first becoming a liquid. Examples of sublimation include the evaporation
of camphor and dry ice into gas.
Both sublimation and deposition are instances of phase changes in chemistry. Option C refers
to crystallization, which is the formation of a solid structure with well-organized atoms or
molecules known as a crystal. Option D refers to calcification in soil, which is the formation
of calcium deposits in soil.
20. All three statements provided are correct. Chlorine gas is utilized in the manufacturing of
bleaching powder, which occurs through the reaction between chlorine and dry slaked lime
[Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder has a complex composition, but its chemical formula is
represented as CaOCl2.
Bleaching powder is employed in numerous industries: (i) to bleach cotton and linen in the
textile industry, to whiten wood pulp in paper factories, and to bleach laundry; (ii) as an
oxidizing agent in many chemical industries; and (iii) to disinfect drinking water and remove
any harmful bacteria.
21. Thorium is a metallic element that is weakly radioactive with high thermal conductivity and
melting point. India has about 25% of the world's thorium reserves, which is three times
larger than its uranium reserves. Thorium is not a fissile material that can split and release
energy. It is fertile and requires a fissile material like recycled plutonium to be used as a fuel.
Additionally, it needs to undergo transmutation to U-233 in a reactor fuelled by other fissile
materials. The three-stage nuclear power program in India aims to utilize thorium for
sustainable production of nuclear energy and make India energy independent.
Exercise – I Key
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. d 10. c
11. c 12. c 13. a 14. c 15. d 16. c 17. c 18. c 19. b 20. d
Explanations
1. The Ethereum blockchain platform has completely shifted from a 'proof of work' consensus
mechanism to a 'proof-of-stake' mechanism. Option a is incorrect as it refers to the proof-of-
work mechanism. Under proof of work, miners compete to solve complex mathematical
puzzles using specialized computer hardware, and the first to solve the puzzle becomes the
validator. Option b is correct as it accurately describes the Proof-of-Stake consensus
mechanism, which randomly assigns a validator using an algorithm from a pool of people
who 'stake' their coins. Option c is incorrect as sharding in crypto refers to the process of
dividing transactions across several different chains to decrease fees and increase
transaction speed. Option d is incorrect as it pertains to The Verge, a cryptocurrency that
allows users to become validators on the network without storing extensive data on their
computers.
2. Non-fungible tokens are digital assets that are unique and stored on a blockchain, the same
network used for cryptocurrencies. They can include anything digital, such as images, videos,
music, and online articles, and can be converted into NFTs and monetized. NFTs are not
digital art themselves but instead serve as certificates of authenticity, and most use the
Ethereum blockchain, the second-largest cryptocurrency.
3. Option 1 is correct: The Government of India has launched the 'Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme' to
boost the number of PhDs in Electronics System Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) and IT/IT
Enabled Services (IT/ITES) sectors, with a focus on research areas such as Artificial
Intelligence and Machine Learning.
Option 2 is correct: The Ministry of Electronics and IT, in collaboration with NASSCOM, has
launched a programme called FutureSkills PRIME to re-skill/ up-skill IT professionals in ten
emerging areas, including Artificial Intelligence.
Option 3 is correct: The Department of Science & Technology is executing the National
Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS), which includes the
establishment of 25 Technology Innovation Hubs in prominent institutions across the
country, with a focus on advanced technologies such as Machine Learning and Artificial
Intelligence.
Option 4 is incorrect: Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) was launched by Prime
Minister Modi at COP26 in November 2021. It is a global mass movement led by India aimed
at encouraging individual and collective behaviors that promote the protection and
preservation of the environment. As part of Mission LiFE, the Indian Government published a
list of 75 lifestyle practices that promote climate-friendly behaviors.
Option 5 is correct: In 2020, the Government of India held Responsible AI for Social
Empowerment (RAISE), the first-ever global conference on Artificial Intelligence, to drive
India's vision and roadmap for social transformation, inclusion, and empowerment through
responsible AI.
4. The Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology has released a “National Strategy on
Additive Manufacturing”. It aims to position India as a global hub for Additive Manufacturing
development and deployment.
Statement 1 is correct: Under additive manufacturing technology, a virtual design of the
object is created using a 3D modeling program based on Computer Aided Design (CAD). The
CAD software is used to create a digital 3D model of the object, which can then be converted
into a physical object using an additive manufacturing process.
3D printer is controlled by a computer, which receives the instructions from the CAD
software and controls the build process..
Statement 2 is incorrect: Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is a process of
creating a physical object by laying down successive layers of material. The object is built up
layer by layer, rather than being cut away from a piece of solid material as in traditional
manufacturing methods.
7. Fiberisation refers to the process of connecting radio or cell towers to each other using
optical fiber cables. This is crucial for achieving high-speed data transfer rates and low-
latency connectivity required by 5G technology. Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer.
Currently, only 33% of the towers in India are connected through fiber optic cables, which is
significantly lower than the 80-90% fiberisation rate in the United States, Japan, and China.
To transition to 5G, India needs to increase its fiberisation by at least 16 times.
8. Horizon scanning is a methodical technique that aims to identify significant upcoming
developments and their potential implications over the next ten years, particularly in the
context of emerging technology and its impact. The primary objective is to determine
whether individuals or organizations are adequately equipped to deal with future changes or
risks.
When executed consistently and efficiently, horizon scanning can be merged with other
forecasting tools to assist policymakers in recognizing crucial necessities or inadequacies. It
is also a valuable approach for bringing together experts from diverse domains to cooperate
on a shared problem and create practical solutions. Therefore, option (b) is correct.
10. The Indian Army recently proposed the use of vehicle-based drone jammers, which can be
achieved through various methods such as radio frequency jamming, satellite link disruption,
spoofing, and dazzling.
Spoofing is an attack on a computer system where the attacker tries to steal the identity of a
legitimate user and impersonate another person. Such an attack can breach the system's
security or steal users' information. Therefore, statement 1 is true.
Phishing is a type of computer attack where the attacker tries to fraudulently obtain users'
sensitive information through electronic communication by impersonating a trusted
organization. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Spoofing can be part of phishing, but phishing cannot be part of spoofing. Spoofing does not
necessarily require fraud, but phishing is always operated in a fraudulent manner.
11. DoS, or Denial-of-Service, is a type of attack that aims to make a website or network
unavailable to legitimate users by flooding it with traffic. A Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attack is a type of DoS attack that uses multiple sources to overwhelm an online
service.
Smishing is similar to vishing, but instead of phone calls, it uses SMS text messages to deceive
the recipient into divulging sensitive information.
Vishing is a type of cyber attack that involves using a phone call or voicemail message to trick
the recipient into disclosing sensitive information, such as passwords, credit card numbers,
or OTPs.
Cryptojacking is a type of attack where a hacker uses a victim's computer or mobile device to
mine cryptocurrency without their knowledge or consent.
13. The Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative (IFFCO) has developed the world’s first Liquid
Nano Urea, which is essentially urea in the form of a nanoparticle. It aims to reduce the
14. Net neutrality is the principle that internet traffic should be treated equally, without
discrimination or preference given to certain types of traffic or websites, and ISPs should not
block or slow down access to specific websites or services, or charge higher fees for faster
access to certain websites or services. This is based on the idea that the internet is a public
utility that should be accessible to everyone without discrimination.
Statement 1 is correct: Net neutrality protects consumers' freedom to choose what they want
to access and use on the internet.
Statement 2 is correct: Net neutrality ensures access to information regardless of location,
allowing all internet users to have access to the same information, regardless of their
location or ISP resources.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Reduced cost of internet to consumers is not necessarily an
advantage of net neutrality. ISPs may charge higher fees for data connection, and the cost of
data transfer is passed on to the consumer. For instance, streaming services accounted for
57% of global bandwidth consumption in 2018, and this additional cost is borne by the
consumer in the form of higher subscription fees.
Statement 4 is correct: Net neutrality promotes social inclusion by ensuring that all users
have equal access to the internet, irrespective of their ability to pay.
15. The Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology creates a secure, encrypted connection over a
public network, allowing users to access a private network remotely. However, there are a
few potential issues associated with using VPNs:
1. Slower internet connection speeds due to the encryption and decryption of data,
especially on lower-end devices or when the VPN server is located far away. Hence
statement 1 is correct.
2. VPNs do not provide protection against all online threats, such as malware and phishing.
Hence statement 2 is correct.
3. Some VPNs can be expensive, which may not be feasible for some users, especially for
businesses. Hence statement 3 is correct.
4. VPN connections can be unstable and may drop unexpectedly, leading to the loss of data
or connection. Hence statement 4 is correct.
16. Edge data centers are decentralized facilities that are located closer to end-users or devices,
providing faster processing, storage, and analysis of data, while reducing latency and
bandwidth requirements. They are particularly suited to support internet of things (IoT)
devices, real-time applications, and other applications requiring low-latency and high-
bandwidth connections. The growth potential of edge data centers in India is significant.
Option a is incorrect because cloud data centers are data centers operated by cloud service
providers to deliver cloud-based services such as storage, computing, and software to
customers over the internet.
Option b is incorrect because colocation data centers provide space, power, and cooling for
multiple organizations to house their own server and networking equipment.
Option d is incorrect because enterprise data centers are data centers owned and operated
by a single organization and used to support the organization's internal operations and
services.
17. Statement 1 is correct, but Statement 2 is incorrect. NFC, or Near Field Communication, is a
set of communication protocols that allow electronic devices to establish radio
communication with each other by bringing them into close proximity, usually within 10 cm
or less. An antenna can extend the range to 20 cm. NFC uses electromagnetic radio fields to
transmit data between two devices that have NFC chips, and transactions occur within a
short distance.
Statement 3 is correct: NFC often establishes a secure channel and employs encryption when
transmitting sensitive information.
18. The first statement is correct, as Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) utilizes the frequencies produced by
LED bulbs to transmit information wirelessly by flickering on and off. In essence, Li-Fi is a
technology for wireless communication that transmits data at an incredibly high speed using
visible light.
The second statement is also correct, as Li-Fi is known to offer data transmission rates that
are approximately 100 times faster than those provided by Wi-Fi, which relies on radio
waves to transfer data.
20. IBM Watson Studio is a cloud-based platform that provides tools and services for building,
training, and deploying AI models. It offers a collaborative environment for data scientists,
developers, and subject matter experts to work together on projects.
DeepMind Technologies, an AI research company owned by Alphabet, has developed
AlphaFold, an AI tool that has collaborated with the European Bioinformatics Institute to
Exercise – II Key
1. c 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. a 9. c 10. c
11. d 12. c 13. a 14. c 15. d 16. d 17. d 18. b 19. a 20. d
21. b 22. b 23. d 24. b
Explanations
1. The International Liquid Mirror Telescope (ILMT) is located at the Devasthal Observatory
campus of the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) in Nainital,
Uttarakhand, India, and it is not situated at the Lagrangian Point. Therefore, Statement 1 is
incorrect.
The ILMT consists of three main components: a rotating container with a highly reflective
liquid (mercury) that forms the primary mirror and is protected from wind by a thin
transparent film of mylar, an air compressor that operates an air bearing on which the liquid
mirror rests, and a drive system. Thus, Statement 2 is correct.
As liquid mirror telescopes cannot be tilted and track like conventional telescopes, Statement
3 is also correct.
2. NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), also known as IRNSS (Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System), is a regional satellite navigation system developed indigenously
by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) for national applications. Therefore,
Statement 1 is correct.
GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation) is a Satellite-Based Augmentation System
(SBAS) launched by ISRO and the Airport Authority of India (AAI) to ensure the safety of
civilian aviation by augmenting the Global Positioning System (GPS) signal quality. It does
3. Satellite internet is offered by companies such as SpaceX through constellations like Starlink,
which provide internet access to nearly 40 countries. However, the latency offered by
satellite internet is typically higher than that of cable and fiber internet due to the satellites
being positioned at a distance of 35,000 kms above the Earth (although Starlink's satellites
are placed in LEO at a distance of 300 miles). Cable and fiber internet generally offer latency
in the range of 20 to 50 milliseconds (ms), while satellite internet latency can range as high
as 600 ms, making Statement 1 incorrect.
Moisture and precipitation can interfere with internet services provided by satellite
constellations. Heavy snowfall, for example, can disrupt communication and the
accumulation of snow around the satellite dish may need to be removed to restore service, so
Statement 2 is correct.
'Responsible Space' is actually an initiative by OneWeb to promote sustainability and safe
operation of satellite systems in space. The goal is to prevent harm to the environment of
lower Earth orbit while developing connectivity and mobility. Therefore, Statement 3 is
incorrect.
4. The LVM-III (earlier known as GSLV Mk. III), an evolved version of India's Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle, is a 3-stage launch vehicle capable of carrying 4-ton class satellites
into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). The
vehicle comprises two solid strap-on motors (S200), the largest solid boosters in the world,
one liquid core stage (L110) with twin liquid engines, and a high-thrust cryogenic upper
stage (C25) with a fully indigenous cryogenic engine. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The SSLV is a 3-stage launch vehicle that is specifically designed to launch satellites to serve
the emerging global market for launching small satellites. It comprises three solid-fuel-based
stages and a liquid fuel-based velocity trimming module (VTM) that is used to place satellites
in orbit. The SSLV uses solid and liquid propellants, but not cryogenic propellants. Therefore,
statement 2 is correct.
The PSLV is a medium-lift launcher with a range up to various orbits, including the GTO, LEO,
and Polar Sun Synchronous Orbit. The PSLV is a 4-stage system that comprises a
combination of solid and liquid-fuelled rocket stages. GSLV Mk. III is the first launch vehicle
that uses the cryogenic engine, whereas the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle doesn't use
cryogenic engines. Therefore, statement 3 is not correct.
6. Pair 1 is incorrect: Psyche is a NASA mission that will explore the metallic asteroid 16
Psyche, which is located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. This asteroid is
thought to be the exposed core of a planet that was destroyed in the early solar system. No
spacecraft has ever visited a metallic asteroid like Psyche. The mission is set to launch in
August 2022.
Pair 2 is correct: The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) is an interplanetary spacecraft
developed by the European Space Agency. Its primary mission is to study the giant gas planet
Jupiter and its three largest icy moons, Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa. The mission is a
collaboration between European countries, Japan, and the United States.
Pair 3 is correct: The Luna-25 spacecraft, also known as Luna-Glob, is a Russian lunar lander
set to launch in October 2021. It is the first Russian lunar mission since the Luna-24 mission
in 1976. The primary goal of the mission is to study the Moon's south pole and its
environment, including its soil and atmosphere.
Pair 4 is correct: The Lucy mission is a NASA mission launched in October 2021. Its goal is to
study the Trojan asteroids, which are small bodies that orbit the Sun in two loose groups
ahead of and behind Jupiter. These asteroids are thought to be remnants of the early solar
system, and studying them could provide insights into the formation and evolution of the
solar system.
7. DRDO has recently conducted a successful test of the Solid Fuelled Ducted Ramjet (SFDR)
technology at the Integrated Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur.
Statement 1 is incorrect: SFDR based propulsion enables the missile to intercept aerial
threats at very long ranges at supersonic speeds, unlike subsonic speeds. The development of
SFDR technology will enable India to make its own long-range air-to-air missile and surface
to air missile.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) has been developed under a
joint Indo-Russian R&D project, not with France.
Statement 3 is correct: The SFDR system uses a solid fuelled air-breathing propulsion ramjet
engine, which takes up oxygen from the atmosphere during flight. This makes it lighter than
solid-propellant rockets, which carry fuel and oxidiser in the rocket itself and limits their
range.
8. The first statement is incorrect: Thermobaric weapons are also referred to as fuel-air bombs,
aerosol bombs, or vacuum bombs, and they are regarded as the most destructive non-
nuclear weapons created to date.
The second statement is correct: Oxygen from the surrounding air is employed to create a
powerful and high-temperature blast in thermobaric weapons.
The third statement is incorrect: While no international regulations prohibit the production,
use, and transfer of all types of thermobaric bombs, if a nation employs them to target
civilians, it may be found guilty of a war crime under the Hague Conventions.
9. The correct option is C, which states that the Iron Dome system is an air defense system
designed by Israel, which uses Tamir interceptor missiles and radar to detect and eliminate
10. Statement 1 is incorrect: The Integrated Cryogenic Engine Manufacturing Facility (ICMF) has
been established by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in Bengaluru, and it will cater to
the entire rocket engine production under one roof for ISRO.
Statement 2 is incorrect: In 2014, India successfully flew GSLV-D5 with a cryogenic engine
and became the 6th country to develop cryogenic engines after the USA, France, Japan, China,
and Russia. Cryogenic engines are widely used in launch vehicles around the world. India is
not the only country in Asia to have successfully conducted a test flight with a cryogenic
engine.
Statement 3 is correct: Cryogenics is a scientific field that studies the production and effects
of very low temperatures. The term cryogenics generally refers to temperatures below
approximately -150 C.
11. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a technique that uses the principles of quantum
mechanics to securely distribute cryptographic keys. The keys are transmitted between two
parties using a shared quantum channel, such as a fiber optic cable, with the states of
individual photons encoding the keys.
Statement 1 is correct: QKD uses the principles of quantum mechanics to provide a secure
communication technique.
Statement 2 is correct: QKD offers a high level of security and has the potential to detect any
intrusion or eavesdropping on the transmission. Because of the unique properties of
photons, any third party who tries to read or copy the photons in any way will change the
photons' state.
Statement 3 is correct: One of the limitations of QKD is the distance over which the photons
can travel, which is typically around 100km due to signal loss over long distances.
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: This principle states that it is impossible to know the
exact velocity and position of a particle at the same time, and one can calculate velocity or
position to precision but not both at the same time
12. Geo-spatial technology is the use of technology to collect, analyze, and visualize data related
to a specific location. This can include maps, satellite imagery, and geographic information
systems (GIS) data, and is utilized in various fields, such as urban planning, environmental
management, military operations, and natural resource management. Examples of geo-
spatial technologies are:
• Option 1: Geo-spatial technology can be utilized to track the location and movement of
goods and to analyze data related to the quality of goods, such as temperature or
humidity data.
• Option 2: GIS and remote sensing are examples of geo-spatial technology that can be
used to map and analyze the distribution of mineral resources.
• Option 3: Geo-spatial technology can be used to visualize and analyze weather data, such
as through the use of GIS or by overlaying weather forecasts onto maps.
• Option 4: Remote sensing or GIS can be utilized by geo-spatial technology to assess the
state of vegetation on a selected terrain.
13. Statement 1 and 2 are correct. Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 and it
will be launched by LVM – III (earlier called GSLV Mk-III) from Sriharikota.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Unlike Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3 will only be carrying a lunar
lander and rover, not an orbiter, lander, and rover. It will communicate with Earth with the
help of the orbiter from Chandrayaan-2.
Statement 4 is also incorrect. Chandrayaan-3 is an indigenous mission by India, while India
and Japan are collaborating for a joint Lunar Polar Exploration Mission set to launch around
2024-2025.
14. Statement 1 is correct: On November 18, 2022, Vikram-S, a suborbital launch vehicle
developed by Skyroot Aerospace Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, was successfully launched under
Mission Prarambh, making it the first privately developed space launch vehicle in India.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The mission was authorized by the Indian National Space
Promotion and Authorization Center (IN-SPACe) and not Antrix, which is the commercial
arm of the Indian Space Research Organization.
Statement 3 is correct: Vikram-S is a suborbital launch vehicle that carried three customer
payloads and validated the majority of the technologies in the Vikram series of space launch
vehicles.
15. In 2013, ISRO launched the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or Mangalyaan, which has been
orbiting Mars since 2014, using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket C25. After
successfully operating for 8 years, the spacecraft lost communication with the ground station
in October 2022. Despite this setback, the mission is widely regarded as a major
accomplishment in planetary exploration.
Statement 1 is correct: Using machine learning models, the mission provided an opportunity
to classify extra-terrestrial landslides.
Statement 2 is correct: The spacecraft captured, for the first time, the far side of Deimos, one
of the natural satellites of Mars.
Statement 3 is correct: The mission is credited with the discovery of ‘supra-thermal’ Argon-
40 atoms in the Martian exosphere, which gave some clues on one of the potential
mechanisms for the escape of atmosphere from Mars.
Statement 4 is correct: The mission also observed the seasonal changes in thickness of the
Martian polar ice caps, i.e., the polar ice caps spread during Martian winter and shrink during
Martian summer.
16. Remote sensing is a technique that enables the collection of information about the earth's
surface and atmosphere from a distance, typically by using sensors on satellites. The data
obtained through remote sensing can be utilized for studying and monitoring various
environmental changes, including alterations in land use and land cover, natural disasters,
weather patterns, and climate change. All of the applications mentioned in statements 1 to 3
can be accomplished using remote sensing data.
17. Statement 1, 2, and 3 are correct. An Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (IAD) was
developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center and was successfully test flown in a Rohini
sounding rocket from TERLS, Thumba. This marks the first time that an IAD was designed
specifically for spent stage recovery, and all objectives of the mission were successfully
demonstrated. The IAD has potential in a variety of space applications, including the
recovery of spent rocket stages, landing payloads on Mars or Venus, and creating space
habitats for human spaceflight missions.
18. NASA's James Webb telescope has recently discovered a star formation, called NGC 346, in a
dynamic cluster within the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). The Magellanic clouds are visible
to the naked eye from the southern hemisphere, but cannot be observed from most northern
latitudes, making statement 1 correct.
The Milky Way galaxy has several satellite galaxies, with the largest being the Large
Magellanic Cloud, and these companion galaxies were named after Portuguese navigator
Ferdinand Magellan, whose crew discovered them during the first voyage around the world
in the 16th century. However, the Magellanic Clouds were recognized early in the 20th
century as companion objects to the Milky Way, but they are not part of the Milky Way
galaxy, making statement 2 incorrect.
The Magellanic Clouds serve as laboratories for the study of active stellar formation and
evolution, making statement 3 correct.
19. Lagrangian points refer to the points in space where the gravitational forces of two larger
bodies balance the centrifugal force of a
smaller body. Therefore, statement (a) is
correct.
In 1772, the French mathematician Joseph-
Louis Lagrange was the first to discover the
existence of five Lagrangian points in the
Earth-Sun system.
Objects located at Lagrangian points remain
relatively stable because the gravitational
forces of the two larger bodies balance the
centrifugal force of the smaller body. As a
result, objects can maintain their position
without expending energy. Because of their
stability, these points are useful in space exploration and satellite missions.
In the Earth-Sun system, the five Lagrangian points are designated as L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5.
20. Danuri is the first lunar orbiter mission of South Korea, which is conducted in collaboration
with NASA. The primary goal of this mission is to explore the Moon's surface and to identify
potential landing sites for future missions.
21. Kepler's Law of planetary motion states that a planet sweeps equal areas in equal times,
which means that planets move faster when they are closer to the Sun and slower when they
are farther away. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) is ISRO's first interplanetary mission to Mars, and it is
designed to orbit Mars in an elliptical orbit with an apogee of 80,000 km and a perigee of 372
km, which makes statement 2 correct.
Statement 3 is incorrect, as the Martian atmosphere has a much lower density than Earth's
atmosphere, although it exhibits weather phenomena due to various chemical,
thermodynamic, and fluid dynamic effects.
22. Statement 1 is correct, as scramjet engines are designed to operate efficiently at hypersonic
speeds and allow supersonic combustion, while ramjet engines use the forward motion of
the vehicle to compress incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor.
Statement 2 is correct, as ISRO-developed sounding rockets are used for upper atmospheric
research and are one or two-stage solid propellant rockets.
Statement 3 is correct, as BrahMos is a ramjet supersonic cruise missile that can be launched
from land, sea, and air.
23. Amazonia-1, an earth observation satellite of Brazil, was launched by India's PSLV C51 in
February 2021, marking the first dedicated commercial launch for NSIL. NSIL is a wholly
owned Government of India undertaking and commercial arm of ISRO, under the
administrative control of the Department of Space (DoS). Antrix Corporation, also under the
DoS, shares similar responsibilities of promoting and commercializing ISRO's products and
services. Hence, statements 1 and 2 are correct.
ISRO launched its first satellite, Rohini Technology Payload (RTP), using an Indian-made
Satellite launch vehicle (SLV-3 E1) in 1979. Since then, ISRO has launched 130 satellites of
Indian origin and 422 foreign satellites belonging to 36 countries until March 2023.
Therefore, statement 3 is also correct.
24. High Altitude Gamma Ray experiment (HAGAR) and Major Atmospheric Cherenkov
Experiment Telescope (MACE) are ground-based telescopes that observe high-energy
gamma rays from celestial objects.
Astrosat is a space-based observatory that can observe the universe in various
electromagnetic spectrum regions, and recently detected UV light from a galaxy 9.3 billion
light-years away. None of these observatories are designed to study dark matter or dark
energy.
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. c 9. a 10. a
11. d 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. c 16. b 17. b 18. d 19. c
Explanations
1. A proposed hydroelectric project, called Etalin, is planned to be established in Arunachal
Pradesh. The project, which has a capacity of 3,097 MW, would involve clearing more than
1100 hectares of forested land and cutting down over 280,000 trees. Conservationists and
wildlife scientists from the state have written to the Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) of the
Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) expressing their
concerns regarding the potential risks to the local biodiversity posed by the project.
2. Statement 1 is correct. Hydrogen can be produced from renewable sources, and it is classified
into three types: grey, blue, and green. Grey hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels and is the
primary type currently generated. Blue hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels but with carbon
capture and storage. Green hydrogen, which comes entirely from renewable sources, offers
specific benefits. It is a clean-burning fuel that can decarbonize various sectors, including
transportation, iron and steel, and chemicals. Additionally, renewable energy that cannot be
stored or used by the grid can be channeled to produce hydrogen.
Statement 2 is correct. Hydrogen is two to three times more efficient than burning petrol. One
kilogram of hydrogen gas holds about the same amount of energy as 2.8 kilograms of petrol.
Statement 3 is correct. Hydrogen is a clean fuel that produces only water when burned in air,
releasing no carbon-based emissions. As a result, using hydrogen can lead to zero vehicular
emissions.
3. Gas hydrates are a potential energy source, but their use raises concerns. Statement 1 is
correct in that their decomposition can release methane, a greenhouse gas that contributes to
global warming. Statement 2 is also correct in that gas hydrates are ice-like crystalline
minerals that mostly form from methane and their sudden release can cause submarine
landslides and trigger tsunamis. However, statement 3 is incorrect. Recent research found
that methane hydrate deposits of biogenic origin are located in the Krishna-Godavari basin,
which is a rich source of natural gas.
4. Biogas is produced by the process of Anaerobic Digestion in Biogas Plants using organic waste
such as biomass from farms, gardens, kitchens, industry, and municipal waste. It's a mixture
of gases, mainly methane, carbon dioxide, and traces of other gases. Biogas burns cleanly and
without leaving any residue. It can be used as a fuel for cooking, lighting, generating
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 472
electricity, and in diesel engines. The calorific value of biogas is lower than diesel fuel, making
option (c) incorrect.
5. The NCI is a price index that tracks the change in the price of coal each month relative to the
fixed base year of FY 2017-18. Hence both statements 1 and 2 are incorrect.
Recent Context: The Ministry of Coal and Mines organized an Investors' conclave to discuss
commercial coal mines auctions and opportunities in the mining sector. The Ministry of Coal
has launched commercial coal mines auctions on a revenue share basis, using the National
Coal Index (NCI) to determine the revenue share based on market prices.
The Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, developed the concept, design, and Representative
Prices of the Index, which is released every month.
6. Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that India has achieved its target of blending 10%
sugarcane-extracted ethanol in petrol ahead of schedule. Originally, India aimed to increase
this ratio to 20% by 2030, but in 2021, the deadline was advanced to 2025 according to the
ethanol roadmap by NITI Aayog.
Benefits of ethanol blending include:
• Reducing India's share of oil imports (which is almost 85%) and saving precious foreign
exchange.
• Increasing farmers' incomes by boosting ethanol output. The Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas reports that ethanol blending led to the payment of over Rs 40,600 crore to
farmers in the last eight years.
• Lowering the emissions of some regulated pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbons (HC), and CO2. Therefore, the correct answer is option (c).
7. Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) certify that the bearer owns one MWh of electricity
generated from a renewable energy source, and are used to address the mismatch between
renewable energy availability and the obligation of entities to meet their Renewable Purchase
Obligations (RPO). Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The REC received can be sold on the open market as an energy commodity or as a carbon
credit to offset emissions. The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has notified
the regulation on RECs to promote renewable energy sources and develop the electricity
market.
A REC that has already been sold cannot be purchased again, and all RECs have a unique
number with location and generation information. Therefore statement 2 is correct
RECs are valid for approximately three years from the date of issuance and their price is
determined in power exchange within the forbearance and floor price set by CERC. Therefore
statement 3 is not correct.
8. The gas is not produced without the presence of oxygen; it requires a controlled amount of
oxygen to be produced. Therefore, statement 1 is also incorrect.
Producer gas is a type of fuel gas that is produced by burning coal or coke with limited oxygen
and controlled moisture. The gas comprises flammable gases such as carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, as well as non-flammable gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Methane is not
present in the gas. Hence, statement 2 is incorrect.
10. Light water reactors employ light water to generate electricity from nuclear energy, as it can
act as both a moderator and a coolant to remove the energy produced by nuclear fission.
Therefore, Statement 1 is true.
In a pressurized heavy water reactor, heavy water (D2O; D is deuterium an isotope of
Hydrogen) is employed as a coolant and moderator. Graphite serves as a moderator because
it reflects fast-moving neutrons, but it is not employed as a coolant in the Pressurized Heavy
water reactor. Therefore, Statement 2 is incorrect.
In nuclear reactors, moderators are used to reduce the velocity of the neutrons. Fast neutrons
produced during fission have high energy and travel quickly. These neutrons are not as
effective at causing fission as slower-moving ones. However, unlike most conventional
nuclear reactors, fast reactors do not need an effective moderator, so their neutrons remain
high-energetic. Although these fast neutrons are not as efficient at causing fission, they are
readily absorbed by a uranium isotope (U238), which then transforms into plutonium
(Pu239). This plutonium isotope can be reprocessed and utilized as more reactor fuel or in
the production of nuclear weapons. As a result, the Fast Breeder Reactor can function without
moderators. Hence, Statement 3 is correct.
11. Nuclear applications in agriculture rely on the use of isotopes and radiation techniques to
combat pests and diseases, increase crop production, protect land and water resources. Hence
option 1 is correct.
Common uses of nuclear medicine for diagnosis include, scans of the heart, lungs, kidneys,
gallbladder, and thyroid Hence option 2 is correct.
The use of radioactive materials in oil drilling can provide valuable information about the
subsurface properties of oil reservoirs and help to improve production efficiency and safety.
Hence option 3 is correct.
Nuclear medicine therapy uses a small amount of radioactive material combined with a
carrier molecule. Nuclear medicine therapies treat cancer and other conditions. Hence option
4 is correct.
Radioactive isotopes can greatly be utilized for the accurate measurement of pollutants in
the environment including groundwater and river. Hence option 5 is correct.
13. A tokamak is a machine that uses a strong magnetic field to contain plasma in the form of a
torus. This is an important technology being developed for producing controlled
thermonuclear fusion power. Statement 1 is correct.
Statement 2 is also true, as plasma confinement is the process of keeping a plasma under
control by different forces, which is crucial for achieving fusion reactions. These conditions
occur naturally in stars, where gravity maintains them.
Statement 3 is correct as well. India's first Tokamak reactor, called Aditya, was constructed in
1980 and completed 30 years of safe operation in January 2020.
15. Statement 1 is incorrect: Zinc-air batteries are not disposable batteries, they can be
rechargeable. They are batteries that use zinc and oxygen to create a reaction that produces
16. Statement 1 is correct: Flex engines have the capability of running on either 100% petrol or
100% bio ethanol. A flex fuel or flexible fuel can operate on more than one fuel type or even a
blend of fuels, with the most common versions using a mix of petrol and ethanol or methanol.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Flex fuel vehicles operating on a 20% ethanol blended petrol may
not completely eliminate carbon monoxide emissions. However, they can reduce carbon
monoxide emissions by 50% in two-wheelers and 30% lower in four-wheelers than petrol.
Additionally, hydrocarbon emissions can be reduced by 20% compared to petrol.
Statement 3 is correct: The increased use of Flex Fuel Vehicles could lead to a wider adoption
of ethanol or methanol as a fuel source. This could result in an additional source of revenue
for farmers.
17. Option a is incorrect as Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors use heavy water (deuterium
oxide D2O) as both a coolant and moderator, and not just as a coolant. However, some SMRs
use different coolants such as sodium, lead, gas, or salt instead of water.
Option b is correct as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are designed to be cheaper and
quicker to build and commission than traditional nuclear plants, with the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defining them as nuclear power stations producing under 300
megawatts electrical (MWe) of nuclear energy.
Option c is incorrect as SMRs, like any other nuclear reactors, can be susceptible to seismic
activity, including earthquakes and tsunamis.
Option d is incorrect as SMRs are not used to enrich uranium to produce nuclear weapons,
but rather to generate electricity. However, some experts have raised concerns about the
potential misuse of SMRs for nuclear weapons or other malicious purposes if they fall into
the wrong hands.
18. The use of uranium and thorium in nuclear reactors varies due to their different
characteristics. Unlike uranium, thorium cannot be directly used as nuclear fuel because it
does not contain enough fissile material to start a nuclear chain reaction. Therefore,
statement 1 is incorrect.
India's major resource of rare earth minerals is monazite, and the Atomic Minerals
Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) has found 12.73 million tonnes of monazite
reserves in India. However, contrary to statement 2, Kerala does not have the highest
monazite resources in India. The largest monazite resource in India, with 3.78 million tonnes
of monazite, is found in Andhra Pradesh.
Exercise – IV Key
1. b 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. a 8. a 9. a 10. b
11. c 12. d 13. a 14. c 15. a 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. d 20. a
21. a 22. d 23. a 24. c
Explanations
1. The new wheat variety called HD-3385 has been developed by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) to address the challenges posed by climate change and rising
heat levels. It can be sown early and harvested before the end of March.
3. Plant growth and development are largely determined by nutrient availability. Plants require
two types of nutrients- macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are the nutrients required by plants in large amounts. These include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, and potassium. Micronutrients are
the ones required in very small amounts by plants. These include iron, zinc, boron, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, etc. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
Zinc is also involved in the activation of certain enzymes and is essential for growth hormone
production and internode elongation in plants. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
4. Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophs (those that can produce their own food)
take in substances from the outside and convert them into stored forms of energy. This
material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water which is converted into
carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilised for
providing energy to the plant.
The following events occur during this process of photosynthesis:
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. Hence option (d) is the correct answer.
5. There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are categorised into
two types: (i) asexual, and (ii) sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction plants can give
rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained
from seeds.
Vegetative propagation
• It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from roots,
stems, leaves and buds.
• Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as
vegetative propagation.
• For example- potato, Ginger, Sweet potato. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
Pollination
• Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance made up of microspores in seed plants.
It is produced by the male reproductive organs of a flower, called the anther, and
contains the male gametes (sperm cells) of the plant.
• The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 481
• If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same
plant, it is called self-pollination. When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of a
flower of a different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
• Tomatoes are self-pollinating, meaning they have flowers that contain both the male
and female parts, so more than one plant is not needed for reproduction. Hence pair
2 is correctly matched.
6. Fragmentation
• It is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning, where an organism is split into
fragments.
• Each of these fragments develops into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones
of the original organism.
• When water and nutrients are available algae grow and multiply rapidly by
fragmentation.
• An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces grow into
new individuals. This process continues and they cover a large area in a short period
of time.
Yeast reproduces through Budding. Hence pair 1 is not correctly matched.
Budding
• It is an asexual reproduction method in which a new organism develops from a bud
of an existing organism.
• Until the new organism matures, it remains attached to the parent organism. It is
separated from the parent organism when it gets matured by leaving scar tissues
behind.
• Bacteria, yeast, corals, flatworms, Jellyfish and sea anemones are some animal
species which reproduce through budding.
7. Plants do not move, and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues. As
a result, plants have low energy needs, and can use relatively slow transport systems. Plant
transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from roots. These
two pathways are constructed as independently organised conducting tubes, xylem and
phloem.
The xylem and the phloem transport water, sugars, and other important substances around a
plant. What is commonly referred to as ‘sap’ is indeed the substances that are being
transported around a plant by its xylem and phloem.
One, the xylem moves water and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem
transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they are synthesised to other
parts of the plant. Hence, statement 1 and statement 2 are not correct.
Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour through the stomata of plants.
The loss of water vapour from the plant cools the plant down when the weather is very hot,
and water from the stem and roots moves upwards or is 'pulled' into the leaves. Hence,
statement 3 is correct.
8. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
The PGRs can be broadly divided into two groups based on their functions in a living plant
body.
9. Statement 1 is correct as stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide and produce
more stem cells while also transforming into specialized cell types. Stem cells can be
obtained from various sources in adults, including embryos, bone marrow, and umbilical
cords.
Statement 2 is also correct as a woman with HIV who received a blood stem cell transplant to
treat her acute myeloid leukemia has reportedly been cured of HIV. The stem cells in the
umbilical cord blood had a gene variant that made them resistant to HIV infection.
10. PCR is a technique used to "amplify" small segments of DNA, making it valuable in many
laboratory and clinical techniques. Statement 1 is correct.
In PCR, the DNA is first heated to separate it into two strands, and then primers are added to
bind to the DNA. However, in Statement 2, it is incorrectly stated that the DNA is cooled for
separation. The correct order is to heat the DNA before adding the primers and then cool it.
Statement 2 is incorrect.
The RT-PCR test used for COVID-19 employs the NAAT method to amplify the virus's genetic
material for detection. Statement 3 is correct. The NAAT procedure amplifies the nucleic
acids and detects the virus using various methods such as RT-PCR, NEAR, TMA, LAMP, HDA,
CRISPR, and SDA. Therefore, the answer is (b) 2 only as it is the only incorrect option.
11. Statement 1 is incorrect. Proton therapy uses protons, not x-rays, which can cause damage to
healthy tissues surrounding the tumor.
Statement 2 is correct. Cyclotron is used to speed up protons to create high energy and give
the targeted radiation dose to the tumor.
Statement 3 is correct. Proton therapy delivers less radiation to healthy tissues surrounding
the malignant tumor, lowering the risk of radiation damage to these tissues. Additionally, it is
useful for treating children as it reduces the chance of harming healthy, growing tissue.
12. DNA is the genetic material present in most living organisms and is found in the cell nucleus
and mitochondria. RNA is also present in the majority of living organisms and viruses.
However RNA is not present in mitochondria. Thus, statement 1 is incorrect .
The types of RNA involved in protein synthesis are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries genetic information from DNA and tRNA
carries amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. Thus, statement 2 is incorrect
because tRNA carries amino acids, not information codes.
14. Green manure is un-decomposed material used as manure and is made up of plants from the
leguminous family that are grown specifically to maintain soil fertility and structure. Hence
statement 1 is correct.
Green leaf manure, on the other hand, involves the application of green leaves and twigs of
trees, shrubs, and herbs collected from elsewhere. The source of green leaf manure is forest
trees and plants growing in wastelands, field bunds, and specific plant species such as neem,
mahua, wild indigo, Glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamia glabra), Calotropis, Avise (Sesbania
grandiflora), Subabul, and other shrubs. As given plant/trees are green leaf manures, not
green manure, statement 2 is incorrect.
Dhaincha, Cowpea, Sunhemp, summer moong, marsh pulses, and guar are crops grown as
green manure crops to improve soil health and enhance crop productivity.
High-intensity agricultural practices lead to deficiencies of micronutrients such as iron and
zinc, affecting soil productivity, which is why green manuring helps improve soil health and
crop productivity. Hence statement 3 is correct.
15. Recent context: Researchers reported fourth patient of HIV cured after stem cell transplant
(SCT). SCT, also called bone marrow transplant, is a procedure in which a patient receives
healthy stem cells to replace damaged stem cells. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Two main types:
Autologous transplantation: Uses patient’s own stem cells. These cells are removed, treated
and returned to his body after a conditioning regimen.
Allogeneic transplantation: Uses stem cells from a donor. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
16. RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process that occurs within cells, in which small RNA
molecules are used to silence or "turn off" specific genes. This is accomplished by the RNA
molecules binding to and targeting messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, which are
responsible for carrying genetic information from the DNA in the cell's nucleus to the
ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
When RNAi occurs, the targeted mRNA is destroyed or prevented from being translated into
protein, effectively shutting down the gene's expression.
Statement 1 and 4 are correct: RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene
Silencing (PTGS) may have important practical applications in agriculture (to produce crop
plants that are resistant to viral pathogens) and other areas.
17. Pair 1 is incorrect: Gene cloning produces copies of genes or segments of DNA. Hence, it is
also known as DNA cloning, where a fragment of DNA is cloned. It has several applications:
Medical application including synthesis of vitamins, hormones, and antibiotics;
Agricultural applications including production of nitrogen fixing bacteria;
Pair 2 is correct: Reproductive cloning produces copies of whole animal. It involves transfer
of DNA from the donor animal’s somatic cell to an oocyte. Dolly, the sheep was the first
successful reproductive cloning experiment. Samrupa, the world's first cloned buffalo calf
that was cloned at Karnal’s National Dairy Research Institute.
Pair 3 is correct: In some of the recent researches held on various animals, it is found that the
neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer's can be treated with the
use of therapeutic cloning.
18. Genomic surveillance is the process of constantly monitoring pathogens and analysing their
genetic similarities and differences. Genomic surveillance works on the basis that everything
with a genome (humans, animals, plants, bacteria, viruses etc.) needs to replicate their
genetic material in order to reproduce, and this results in changes known as mutations.
Genomic surveillance is critical for stronger pandemic and epidemic preparedness and
response.
19. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) had issued Guidelines for Safety Assessment of
Genome Edited Plants in 2022 to ease norms for developing GM crops.
Statement 1 is incorrect: The genome edited plants derived from the use of genome editing
techniques are generally classified under three categories:
Site-Directed Nuclease (SDN)-1, a site-directed mutagenesis (the process of intentionally
introducing mutations or changes in the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism)
without using a DNA sequence template. It doesn’t involve insertion of a DNA fragment from
foreign genome.
SDN-2, a site-directed mutagenesis using a DNA sequence template. It also doesn’t involve
insertion of foreign genetic material.
SDN-3, site-directed insertion of gene/large DNA sequence using a DNA sequence template,
which involves insertion of DNA fragment of a foreign origin.
Site-Directed Nuclease (SDN)- Site-directed nucleases (SDNs) are a class of engineered
nucleases that can cleave DNA at specific sites within the genome. SDNs are commonly used
in genome editing techniques to introduce precise modifications to the DNA sequence of an
organism.
Statement 2 is Incorrect: The ‘Guidelines for Safety Assessment of Genome Edited Plants,
2022’ exempt researchers who use gene-editing technology to modify the genome of the
plant from seeking approvals from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (SDN 1 and
SDN 2 are exempted from rule 7-11 of the Environment Protection Act).
21. Bioplastic refers to plastic made from plants like maize, wheat or sugarcane or other
biological material instead of petroleum. Bio-plastics are biodegradable and compostable
plastic materials.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are polyesters produced in nature by numerous
microorganisms. Hence option 1 is correct.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a thermoplastic polyester that has become a popular material due to
it being economically produced from renewable resources and in 2021, had the highest
consumption volume of any bioplastic of the world. Hence option 2 is correct.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) is a strong, stiff synthetic fibre and resin and a
member of the polyester family of polymers. Hence option 3 is not correct.
22. Microbial-based pesticides are biological pesticides (bio-pesticides) that are derived from
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. These pesticides are used to
control pests, weeds, and diseases in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.
One example of a microbial-based pesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a naturally
occurring soil bacterium that produces a protein that is toxic to certain insects. Bt is
commonly used to control pests such as caterpillars, beetles, and moths in crops like corn,
cotton, and vegetables.
Another example is Trichoderma, a fungi that can be used as a biocontrol agent against plant
pathogens, and can also promote plant growth.
23. Fortification involves adding essential micronutrients to food to improve its nutritional
quality. The FSSAI provides regulations and guidelines for packaging and labelling of food
products, food standards, and food additives. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
According to FSSAI standards, packaged milk must be fortified with Vitamin A and D, and the
notification to make this mandatory was issued in December 2020. Hence, statement 2 is also
correct.
Golden Rice is biofortified with provitamin A and does not require any significant changes in
cultivation practices. Thus, statement 3 is incorrect.
24. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under Food
Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which consolidates various acts & orders that have hitherto
handled food related issues in various Ministries and Departments.
13. What are the defense mechanisms found 16. Which of the following statements is/are
in the human body? Which of the options correct?
below is/are included? 1. BCG vaccine provides protection
1. Immune system for protection against against meningitis and disseminated
infections. TB in children.
2. Hormonal release as a means of stress 2. BCG vaccine is not a part of India's
resistance. universal immunization program.
3. Haemostasis to halt bleeding and 3. XDR-TB in HIV patients leads to high
prevent blood loss. mortality.
Choose the appropriate response code: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
17. The term 90-90-90 strategy recently seen
14. Consider the following statements: in news is related to which one of the
1. DNA vaccines are stable at higher following diseases?
temperatures and thus easier to (a) AIDS (b) Monkeypox virus
store unlike RNA vaccines. (c) Nipah virus (d) SARS
2. DNA vaccines, once injected,
cannot alter natural genetic 18. Which of the following diseases recently
material of a cell unlike RNA in the news is associated with the 'G4'
vaccines. virus?
Which of the statements given above (a) Yellow fever
is/are correct? (b) Japanese encephalitis
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Swine flu
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Bird flu
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. c 8. c 9. b 10. c
11. d 12. b 13. d 14. a 15. c 16. d 17. a 18. c
Explanations
1. HPV is a group of more than 200 related viruses that can be transmitted through sexual and
non-sexual modes, including direct skin-to-skin contact. HPV is a double-stranded DNA virus,
hence statement 1 is correct.
Prevention of cervical cancer through vaccination is an effective option, and there are several
vaccines available in the market. Gardasil 9 is a gender-neutral HPV vaccine manufactured by
Merck & Co, which is available in India. Cervavac is the first indigenously developed
quadrivalent HPV vaccine for the prevention of cervical cancer, manufactured by the Serum
Institute of India. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Cervical cancer is the most common cancer caused by HPV infection. Persistent infection
with high-risk HPV types, particularly HPV 16 and 18, can lead to the development of
cervical, vulvar, vaginal, anal, penile, and oropharyngeal cancers. Therefore, statement 3 is
correct.
2. Antibiotic or antimicrobial resistance occurs when bacteria and fungi acquire the ability to
survive exposure to drugs that are meant to kill them. As a result, the germs can continue to
grow and cause infections that are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to treat. Although
resistance is a natural phenomenon, the misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals
accelerates the process, making it a major cause of antibiotic resistance. Therefore,
Statement 1 is incorrect.
In 2019, India's Ministry of Health banned the manufacture, sale, and distribution of colistin,
an antibiotic often misused in poultry industry, for food-producing animals, poultry, aqua
farming, and animal feed supplements. Therefore, Statement 2 is correct.
Antibiotic resistance develops in bacteria when they acquire the ability to survive exposure
to drugs designed to kill them. This ability typically occurs through genetic mutations. Hence,
Statement 3 is correct.
3. Lumpy Skin Disease has recently spread in India, and it has severe implications on the
economy of India.
Statement 1 is incorrect: LSD is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) which belongs to
the genus capri poxvirus. All Capri poxviruses have a double-stranded DNA genome.
Statement 2 is correct: LSD is a non-zoonotic disease i.e.; the disease is non transmissible
from animals to humans. It cannot be transmitted either by direct contact or by consumption
of milk. Therefore, it is safe to drink milk from the infected cattle.
Statement 3 is correct: Incubation period of LSD disease is around 28 days, but
experimentally infected cattle may develop clinical signs as early as 6-9 days. It is
characterized by a mild fever, followed by the sudden appearance of skin nodules.
Statement 4 is incorrect: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is aiming to
commercially launch the “Lumpi-ProVacInd” Vaccine. This vaccine provides 100% protection
against LSD in cattle.
4. Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.
In its more severe forms, vitamin A deficiency contributes to blindness by making the cornea
very dry, thus damaging the retina and cornea. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
Scurvy is the most prominent disease linked to Vitamin C deficiency. It denotes a heavy lack
of vitamin C in the diet. Hence pair 2 is not correctly matched.
Vitamin D deficiency can lead to a loss of bone density, which can contribute to osteoporosis
and fractures (broken bones). In children, it can cause rickets- a rare disease that causes the
bones to become soft and bend.
Anaemia is a condition in which blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells. Red blood cells
carry oxygen to the body's tissues. Anaemia typically happens due to insufficient iron. Hence
pair 3 is correctly matched.
Goiter is a condition where the thyroid gland grows larger. Iodine deficiency is the most
common cause of goiter in the world. Hence pair 4 is correctly matched.
6. In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or
DNA. Leuko virus contains both DNA and RNA. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals
have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA. Bacterial viruses or
bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA viruses.
Hence statement 2 is not correct.
Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is also
caused by a virus.
8. The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare's Directorate General of Health Services is responsib
le for CDSCO. As a result, statement 2 is true.
In accordance with the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, CDSCO is in charge of: Drug
approval; Clinical trial administration; Drug standard setting; and Regulation of the quality of
imported drugs in the nation. Thus, statement 1 is true.
10. Swine flu (H1N1) is a respiratory disease caused by type A influenza viruses that are
transmitted from pigs to humans. It can cause serious illnesses like pneumonia and lung
infection, and make other illnesses like asthma or diabetes worse. Swine flu is recognized as
a global health problem. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
11. The World Health Organisation (WHO) identifies 20 different diseases that are common in
tropical regions as Neglected Tropical Diseases.
These diseases primarily impact poor communities, and women and children in tropical
regions are disproportionately affected by them.
Environmental factors often contribute to these diseases, and many of them are spread by
vectors or have complex life cycles, making their control difficult for public health officials.
Neglected Tropical Diseases:
Buruli ulcer, Chagas disease, dengue and chikungunya, dracunculiasis (Guineaworm disease),
echinococcosis, foodborne trematodiases, human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping
sickness), leishmaniasis, leprosy (Hansen's disease), lymphatic filariasis, mycetoma,
chromoblastomycosis, and other deep mycoses, onchocerciasis (river blindness), rabies,
scabies, and other ectoparasitoses, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiases,
snakebite envenoming, taeniasis/cysticercosis, trachoma, and yaws and other endemic
treponematoses.
12. The immune system produces antibodies, which are proteins that attach to specific antigens
(foreign substances) in the body. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs or MoAbs) are artificially
created proteins that mimic human antibodies and can be designed to target specific
antigens. So, statement 1 is correct.
Contrary to statement 2, monoclonal antibodies are highly specific and typically bind to a
single protein or antigen. They do not bind to more than one protein simultaneously.
CAR-T cell therapy is a type of cancer immunotherapy in which White Blood cells (T cells)
are genetically engineered in a laboratory to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) on
their surface. These CARs allow the modified T cells to target and destroy cancer cells. So,
statement 3 is correct.
13. The body's initial defense mechanisms that provide protective responses against various
threats are referred to as "innate," "inborn," or "nonspecific" immunity. These primary forms
of host defense mechanisms in our body include:
• Immunity to protect against infections
• Metabolic defense to detoxify and metabolize foreign chemicals
• Hemostasis to stop bleeding and prevent blood loss
• Release of hormones as a means of stress resistance.
14. (For a detailed differences between DNA & RNA Vaccines refer to the descriptive question in
earlier section)
Comparatively, DNA vaccines are safe, easy, affordable to produce, and, unlike RNA vaccines,
are stable at room temperature. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
15. The primary immune response happens when the immune system encounters a new
pathogen for the first time. The anamnestic immune response happens when the immune
system has already encountered the same pathogen before.
B-cells are responsible for starting the antibody-mediated immune response. They mature in
the bone marrow and then travel in the blood to other parts of the body. When activated, B-
cells turn into plasma cells that release antibodies. T-cells help regulate the immune
response and activate B-cells to produce antibodies. They also play a role in the cell-
mediated immune response. Therefore, statements 1 and 2 are both incorrect.
The hydrochloric acid (HCL) by the stomach plays an important role in protecting the body
against pathogens ingested with food or water. It is an example of Innate immune response
(natural, immediate, non-specific immune response). So, Statement 3 is correct.
16. Statement 1 is correct, as the BCG vaccine provides protection against meningitis and
disseminated TB in children with an efficacy of 75-87%. However, it does not prevent
primary infection and the reactivation of latent pulmonary infection (which causes TB).
Statement 2 is incorrect, as the BCG vaccine is a part of India's universal immunization
program.
Statement 3 is correct, as Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a form of TB
that is resistant to many anti-TB drugs, making it difficult to treat. HIV patients are
particularly susceptible to XDR-TB, which increases the mortality rate.
17. United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) created a plan called the 90-90-90
Strategy to stop the spread of AIDS. The plan had three goals to reach by 2020:
1. Make sure 90% of people with HIV know they have it.
2. Make sure 90% of people with HIV are getting treatment.
3. Make sure 90% of people receiving treatment have low levels of the virus.
At the end of 2020, the progress towards these goals was:
1. 78% of people with HIV knew they had it.
2. 83% of people with HIV who knew they had it were receiving treatment.
3. 85% of people with HIV who were receiving treatment had low levels of the virus.
18. A new strain of swine flu virus (H1N1) has been recently discovered in pigs in China by
scientists, which has been given the name G4. This new strain, also known as G4 EA H1N1, is
believed to have descended genetically from the H1N1 strain that caused a pandemic in
2009. Researchers identified the new strain through surveillance of influenza viruses in pigs
during a study that was conducted between 2011 and 2018 in ten provinces of China. They
found that this strain of influenza virus is infecting Chinese pigs and has the potential to
cause a pandemic. Experiments have shown that the G4 virus can be transmitted from
animals to humans, but there is no evidence yet that it can be transmitted from human to
human.
8. Consider the following statements about 11. Consider the following statements about
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) the Waste to Wealth Mission:
in India: 1. It is led by the Ministry of Housing
1. The Environment Impact Assessment and Urban Affairs.
Notification, 2006, is issued under the 2. The mission has launched the
Environment Protection Act 1986. Swachhta Saarthi Fellowship.
2. Highway Projects of defense Which of the statements given above
significance that are within 100 km of is/are correct?
the Line of Control are exempted from a) 1 only b) 2 only
EIA. c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? 12. Which of the following statements about
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only Black Carbon is/are incorrect?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 1. Black Carbon has a cooling effect on
the atmosphere when it stays above
the clouds.
9. Which of the following statements 2. Black Carbon increases the reflectivity
regarding Wetlands are incorrect? (albedo) of ice when it accumulates
1. Pantanal is the world’s largest wetland on it.
located in South Africa. 3. Black Carbon remains in the
2. In India, the Wetlands (Conservation atmosphere for only a few weeks.
and Management) Rules exclude river Which of the above statements is/are
channels and paddy fields from the correct?
definition of wetlands. (a) 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
3. Wetlands in India are declared by the (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
Ministry of Jal Shakti.
(a) 1 and 2 only 13. Which of the following statements about
(b) 2 only Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts)
(c) 1 and 3 only is/are true?
(d) 2 and 3 only
Exercise – I Key
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. a 5. c 6. b 7. c 8. c 9. c 10. b
11. b 12. b 13. d 14. d 15. d 16. a 17. c 18. d 19. c 20. c
Explanations
1. The statements are interchanged with respect to each other and are both wrong.
Madhav National Park, which is one of the oldest national parks in Madhya Pradesh, serves
as a crucial link between the Panna Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh and the Ranthambore
Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan. The Madhya Pradesh Forest Department has constructed three
enclosures to accommodate five tigers from other reserves in an effort to restore the tiger
population. Recently, a male and female tiger were released into the enclosures by
government officials.
Madhya Pradesh Wildlife Board has approved the creation of a new tiger reserve called
Durgavati Tiger Reserve, which will be located within the Panna Tiger Reserve (PTR). Due to
the linking of the Ken-Betwa Rivers, approximately one-fourth of the new reserve's 2,339
square kilometres will be submerged. A green corridor will be developed to facilitate the
movement of tigers from PTR to Durgavati.
2. Kaziranga National Park, a protected area in Assam, is known for its population of one-
horned rhinoceroses. The government has requested a factual report on the rhino population
following concerns about the accuracy of the March 2022 survey results, which counted
2,613 rhinos.
3. Statement 1 is incorrect. Tamil Nadu has launched the 'Tamil Nadu Elephant Death Audit
Framework' to enhance accountability by documenting the reasons for elephant deaths. Only
13 of the 131 recorded elephant deaths in Tamil Nadu's forest divisions from January 2021
to March 2022 were human-induced, as per media reports.
Statement 2 is correct. A new genus of wasp has been named Soliga ecarinata by
entomologists in recognition of the Soliga community's conservation of forests and
biodiversity in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of Karnataka. The Soliga lifestyle was also
acknowledged in the naming of the new genus.
4. Statement 1 is correct. The 'In Our LiFEtime' campaign was launched by India's Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) during a COP 27 side event in Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The campaign is intended to motivate young people to promote
sustainable living practices. The LiFE concept was first introduced by Prime Minister
Narendra Modi during COP 26 in Glasgow in November 2021.
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is a global alliance of over 120 countries initiated by
India with the aim to promote the adoption of solar energy to achieve sustainable
development goals.
5. The Pilibhit Tiger Reserve (PTR) in Uttar Pradesh currently has around 27 tigers residing in
the sugarcane fields, but they will soon be relocated to the newly-established Ranipur Tiger
Reserve (RTR). It is to note that the Ranipur Tiger Reserve (RTR), which is the fourth reserve
of its kind in Uttar Pradesh, currently does not have any tigers living there. Hence statement
1 is correct.
The launch of the ‘Trees Outside Forests in India (TOFI)’ program was announced by the
Forest Department of the Haryana State Government and the US Agency for International
Development (USAID). The program will provide funding of up to USD 25 million over a
period of five years to seven states, which include Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Odisha,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh. The Center for International Forestry Research
and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) will be providing assistance to the program. Hence
statement 2 is correct.
6. Statement 1 is incorrect. The Draft Construction of Electric Lines in Great Indian Bustard
Area Regulations, 2023 were issued by Central Electricity Authority (not Ministry of
7. A new type of bat residing in bamboo forests in Meghalaya has been discovered by a group of
scientists. The newly discovered species has been named "Glischropus meghalayanus" in
honor of Meghalaya state which has completed 50 years of statehood. Hence statement 1 is
correct.
This discovery brings the total number of bat species found in India to 131 with Meghalaya
having the highest diversity of bats, comprising of 67 species.
A group of researchers recently found a new species of jumping spider in Rajasthan's Desert
National Park, which they named Pseudomogrus sudhii after arachnologist Sudhikumar. This
4-millimetre-long spider is exclusively found in India and the United Arab Emirates. Hence
statement 2 is also correct.
8. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) identifies and predicts the impact of an action on
human health and the ecosystem. In India, EIA is notified under the Environment Protection
Act 1986. The public is involved in the process, and the clearance process involves four
stages: screening, scoping, public consultation, and appraisal.
The recent amendment to the EIA Rules exempts certain highway projects of strategic and
defence importance, which are 100 km from the Line of Control, from environmental
clearance. Therefore, both statements are correct.
9. Statement 1 is incorrect as Pantanal, the world's largest tropical wetland, is situated across
Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay is located in South America and not South Africa. Statement 2 is
correct as the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules exclude river channels and
paddy fields from the definition of wetlands in India. Statement 3 is incorrect as wetlands in
India are declared by the Union Environment Ministry and not the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
10. Statement 1 is incorrect. Background radiation is the amount of radiation emitted by natural
sources such as sand, rocks, or mountains.
Statement 2 is correct. A recent study conducted by scientists at BARC revealed that certain
areas in Kerala are exposed to background radiation levels almost three times higher than
previously estimated. The study found that the radiation level in these areas is around 70
milliGray per year, slightly higher than the radiation exposure for nuclear plant workers.
11. The Waste to Wealth Mission is one of the nine scientific missions initiated by the Prime
Minister's Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC) and is managed
by the office of the Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) of the Indian government. The goal of
12. Black carbon (BC) is a type of fine particulate matter made up of pure carbon in various
forms, resulting from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass.
Although BC can stay in the atmosphere for only a few days to weeks, it contributes to global
warming in two ways: it absorbs sunlight and generates heat in the atmosphere and settles
on snow and ice, making it darker and hence absorbs more sunlight, (thus reducing the
albedo, which refers to the amount of energy reflected by a surface) leading to more melting.
This is a significant concern in regions like the Arctic and Himalayas. Hence statements 2 is
incorrect and 3 is correct.
However, when it hangs above low-lying clouds, it stabilizes the air layer above the clouds,
promoting their growth and cooling the planet. Hence statement 1 is correct.
13. The National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) has launched the Perform,
Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme, which is aimed at reducing specific energy consumption
(SEC) in large, energy-intensive industries. The Energy Saving Certificate (ESCert) is a
market-based regulatory mechanism under the PAT scheme that helps to achieve this goal.
Hence, statements 1 and 2 are correct.
Under this scheme, ESCerts are issued to those plants that have achieved their targets, and
plants that have failed to reach their targets can purchase ESCerts. The designated
consumers who are covered by this scheme include 13 sectors such as Aluminium, DISCOMs,
Hotels (under commercial buildings), Cement, fertilizers, Pulp & Paper, Thermal Power
Plant, Iron & Steel, etc. When a designated consumer overachieves the notified SEC targets in
the compliance year, the ESCerts are issued by the Central Government for the difference
between the notified target and the achieved SEC, according to the PAT rules.
The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) under the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) regulates the trading of ESCerts. Therefore, statement 3 is also correct.
14. The release of radioactive materials into the environment can contaminate air, water, soil,
plants, buildings, animals, and people, leading to hazards from ionizing radiation. Remedial
measures for treating radioactively contaminated water include aeration, reverse osmosis,
ion exchange, and granule carbon adsorption.
Aeration can remove high levels of radon (222Rn) from drinking water by promoting
volatilization and biological degradation. Reverse osmosis is used to remove various
radioactive elements, including alpha and beta particles, uranium, radium, and photon
emitters. Ion exchange involves passing water through a resin containing exchangeable ions,
and it is used for the removal of radium, uranium, alpha and beta particles, and photon
emitters. Granule carbon adsorption uses Granular activated carbon (GAC), a highly porous
adsorption media, to remove radioactive contamination from water.
16. Statement 1 is correct because the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the
nodal Ministry to deal with the transboundary movement of hazardous and other wastes.
Statement 2 is incorrect because the import of hazardous and other wastes from any country
is permitted only for recycling, recovery, reuse, and utilization, including co-processing.
Disposal of hazardous and other wastes imported from any country is not permitted in India.
17. The BS VI emission standards apply to all major on-road vehicle categories, including light
and heavy-duty vehicles, as well as two and three-wheeled vehicles, as of April 1, 2020.
Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
According to the BS-VI emission norms, petrol vehicles will need to reduce their nitrogen
oxide emissions by 25%, while diesel engines will need to reduce their HC+NOx, NOx, and
particulate matter emissions by varying amounts. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
The BS VI regulation also mandates onboard diagnostics (OBD) for all vehicles to provide
information about system efficiency. Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
The Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate
Change is responsible for setting the standards and timelines for their implementation, not
the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. Therefore, statement 4 is incorrect.
18. A catalytic converter is a device located in the exhaust system of a vehicle near the engine. Its
purpose is to reduce the emission of gaseous pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and hydrocarbons (HCs). It utilizes a catalyst chamber to convert the
harmful compounds (toxic gases) emitted from the engine into safe gases, such as steam.
Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.
19. The term "Dead zone" is commonly used to refer to a condition called hypoxia, which is
characterized by reduced levels of oxygen in water bodies. Hypoxia creates areas in oceans
and lakes where marine life cannot survive, and most organisms either die or move away
from these regions. While hypoxic zones can occur naturally, human activities such as
eutrophication can enhance or create dead zones. Thus, option (c) is the best explanation for
the term "Dead zone."
20. Petrol vehicles following BS-VI norms emit 25% less nitrogen oxides and diesel vehicles emit
around 70% less than the BS-IV norms. In general, petrol vehicles emit less nitrous oxide
compared to diesel vehicles, making Statement 1 incorrect.
Exercise – II Key
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. d 8. c 9. b 10. b
11. d 12. b 13. b 14. c 15. d
Explanations
1. Green crackers are dubbed as ‘eco-friendly’ crackers and are known to cause less air and
noise pollution as compared to traditional firecrackers. They are not completely pollution-
free but are relatively cleaner and safer than regular crackers. The regular crackers produce
160-200 decibels of sound, while the green crackers are limited to about 100-130 decibels.
Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Green crackers use alternative chemicals such as potassium nitrate and aluminum instead of
magnesium and barium as well as carbon instead of arsenic and other harmful pollutants.
Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
2. Option b is correct: According to a recent study, scientists have found that rainwater from
many places across the globe is contaminated with Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
(PFAs).
They are called Forever chemicals because of their tendency to stick around in the
atmosphere, rainwater, and soil for long periods of time. PFAs are also listed in the
Stockholm Convention.
What are PFAs?
3. Recently, the international trade of two new hazardous pesticides — Iprodione and Terbufos
— has been recommended for “prior informed consent” (PIC) procedure under the
Rotterdam Convention.
Iprodione and Terbufos are hazardous pesticides that are dangerous for humans and aquatic
animals.
The PIC procedure is a mechanism for formally obtaining and spreading the decisions of
importing parties on their willingness to receive future shipments of hazardous chemicals.
Rotterdam Convention- The Convention covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that
have been banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons by parties and
which have been notified by parties for inclusion in Annex III for the purpose of PIC
procedure.
4. Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically
the disproportionate levels of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted by vehicles and
manufacturing processes. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
The pH scale measures how acidic an object is. The scale has values ranging from zero (the
most acidic) to 14 (the most basic). Pure water has a pH value of 7, this value is considered
neutral—neither acidic nor basic. However, when rain combines with sulfur dioxide or
nitrogen oxides the rain becomes much more acidic. Typical acid rain has a pH value of 4.
Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
5. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has notified the latest
amendments under the
Environment (Protection) Act
1986 for utilization of fly ash by
coal-based thermal power
plants (TPPs) in the country.
About Fly ash:
• Ash is the mineral matter left
after burning coal. In a power
plant, a major portion of the ash
is carried off with flue gases
(hence, the term fly ash), and
can be filtered using
electrostatic precipitators. Due
to improper handling, it ends
up in neglected ash ponds in
dangerous quantities, polluting the surface and groundwater.
• Composition: substantial amounts of oxides of silicon, aluminum, calcium; arsenic, boron,
chromium, lead, etc. in trace concentrations.
6. Particle pollution, also known as particulate matter, refers to a mixture of solid particles and
liquid droplets present in the air. Undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air lead to
tropospheric pollution.
The major pollutants found in the troposphere include gaseous pollutants like sulphur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone, and other
oxidants, as well as particulate pollutants like dust, mist, fumes, smoke, and smog. Therefore,
option (b) is correct.
7. Soluble fluoride is added to drinking water to bring its concentration up to 1 ppm to benefit
dental health. Fluoride toothpaste with 1000-1500 ppm fluoride is recommended by the
WHO to prevent cavities. Therefore, statements 1 and 2 are correct.
Excess fluoride in drinking water can cause health problems such as dental fluorosis and
skeletal fluorosis. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
8. Green manure is green, un-decomposed material used as manure, which is made up of field
plants, usually belonging to the leguminous family, and incorporated into the soil after
sufficient growth. The plants grown for green manure are called green manure crops.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
Green leaf manuring is different from green manuring, which involves applying green leaves
and twigs of trees, shrubs, and herbs collected from elsewhere. Forest trees, plants growing
in wastelands, and field bunds are the source of green leaf manure. Green leaf manure plant
species are neem, mahua, wild indigo, Glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamia glabra), Calotropis, Avise
(Sesbania grandiflora), Subabul, and other shrubs. So, statement 2 is incorrect.
Green manuring can help improve soil health and enhance crop productivity. Since farmers
practice high-intensity agricultural practices, cultivating two to three crops a year, they
require lots of chemical fertilizers such as urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP), which
leads to deficiencies of micronutrients (iron and zinc) and affects soil productivity.
Therefore, green manuring can help reduce the need for chemical fertilizers in India. So,
statement 3 is correct.
9. Statement 1 is incorrect. The UN panel has recommended, not Australia, that Australia’s
Great Barrier Reef be designated as a ‘world heritage site in danger’ due to the significant
impact of climate change and ocean warming on the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem. The
reef has experienced multiple bleaching events, including four in the past seven years and
the first during a La Nina phenomenon.
Statement 2 is correct. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has launched the
Global Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure, which integrates space-based and surface-
based observing systems to improve the measurement of greenhouse gases in real-time and
inform policy decisions.
10. The United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution recognizing the right to a clean,
healthy and sustainable environment as a human right. India voted in favour of the
resolution but raised concerns about the procedure and substance of the resolution.
12. The World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS), organized by The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, is an annual initiative that has been established for
over two decades to make sustainable development a globally shared goal. Hence, statement
1 is incorrect.
As the only independently convened international Summit on sustainable development and
environment based in the Global South, it strives to provide long-term solutions for the
benefit of global communities by assembling the world's most enlightened leaders and
thinkers on a single platform, thus making statement 2 correct.
During WSDS 2022, the Act4Earth initiative was launched to create a more sustainable and
equitable world for present and future generations, making statement 3 correct.
13. The Seoul Forest Declaration was adopted at the 15th World Forestry Congress in 2022, with
a focus on how forests can help address various crises, including climate change, biodiversity
loss, and hunger. Hence Statement 1 is not correct.
Close cooperation among nations is necessary to solve these issues beyond political
boundaries, as shown by partnerships such as the AFFIRM Mechanism and the SAFE
initiative. Hence Statement 2 is correct.
The circular bio-economy is a framework that uses renewable natural capital to achieve
sustainable well-being in harmony with nature, while climate neutrality involves achieving
net zero greenhouse gas emissions. The Seoul Forest Declaration aims to move towards a
circular bio-economy and climate neutrality, making Statement 3 correct.
14. According to the Breakthrough Agenda Report, 2022 (prepared by the International Energy
Agency (IEA), the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the UN)
1) The power sector accounts for around 13 GtCO2e, or 23% of total emissions globally.
2) Agriculture and related land use accounts for around 10GtCO2e, or 17% of total emissions.
3) The road transport sector accounts for around 6 GtCO2e, or 10% of total emissions.
4) The steel sector accounts for around 3 GtCO2e of emissions, or 5% of total emissions.
15. A detailed register of biodiversity has been prepared in Kolkata, making it the first major
metropolitan city in India to do so. The register, known as the People’s Biodiversity Register
(PBR), includes 399 plant and 283 animal species. The Forest Survey of India has recently
reported that Kolkata has the least green cover among all metro cities. Chandigarh and
Indore have also created a similar document.
5. Select the correct full form of ISDR? 11. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 in Ukraine
a) International Sustainable Development was a case of
Report a) Epidemic disaster
b) International Strategy for Disaster b) Toxic gas disaster
Reduction c) Nuclear disaster
c) International Significant Disaster d) None of the above
Resources
d) Intergovernmental Strategy for 12. What is it called when a large number of
developing Recreation people in a community get a disease at the
same time?
6. The total flood prone area in India is a) Influx b) Black death
a) 30% b) 20% c) Epidemic d) Pandemic
c) 12% d) 10%
13. In India, Cyclone is tracked through which
7. The total cyclone prone area in India is satellite?
a) 15% b) 10% a) INSAT b) IRS
14. Impact of an earthquake is measured by 22. Tropical cyclones rarely develop within
a) Modified Mercalli scale 50 kms of the equator because coriolis effect
b) Richter scale is
c) Seismograph a) weakest there
d) None of the above b) moderate there
c) Strongest there
15. About 2/3rd of the cyclones that occur in d) None of the above
the Indian coastline occur in the
a) Bay of Bengal 23. Bhopal Gas Disaster is a kind of
b) Coastal area of south India a) Natural disaster
c) Coastal area of west India b) Manmade disaster
d) None of the above c) Mixed disaster
d) None of the above
16. International Tsunami information centre
is in 24. The National Disaster Management
a) Honolulu b) Goa Authority (NDMA) is headed by
c) Jakarta d) Puducherry a) Prime Minister of India
b) President of India
17. The most calm part of the tropical cyclone c) Governor of States
is d) Chief Minister of States
a) Limb b) Eye
c) Periphery d) None of the above 25. Generally the number on Richter Scale
ranges between
18. In India Tsunami Warning centre is a) 0 and 6 b) 0 and 9
located at c) 1 to 5 d) 1 to 12
a) Kolkata
b) Hyderabad 26. The level of risk of a disaster depends on
c) Ahmadabad a) Nature of the hazard
d) None of the above b) Vulnerability of the elements which are
affected
19. The word Tsunami has been derived from c) Economic value of the elements which are
A. French word B. Latin word C. Japanese affected
word D. Greek word d) All of the above
20. Which is the most landslide prone area in 27. The Richter scale expresses an
India A. Ganges valley region earthquakes
B. South Indian plateau C. Himalaya and north a) Magnitude
eastern hill D. None of the above b) Location
21. In northern hemisphere, the wind of the c) Duration
tropical cyclone blows in d) Depth
a) Anticlockwise direction
b) Clockwise direction
c) Straight
1. b 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. b
11. c 12. c 13. b 14. c 15. b 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. c 20. c
21. a 22. a 23. b 24. a 25. b 26. d 27. a 28. b 29. a 30. a
31. b 32. a 33. d
Explanations
1. New Delhi is home to the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). It was
established in 2004 to offer training and development programs for dealing with natural and
artificial catastrophes. It was established it as a deemed university and institute of teaching
under the Disaster Management Act 2005.
2. Exp. District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) under National Disaster Management
Act, 2005 is headed by a District Magistrate.
3. Tsunami is caused by earthquakes under ocean’s beds. Hence its geological disaster.
4. The Yokohama Declaration was adopted at the First World Conference on Natural Disaster
Reduction (organized by UN), held in Yokohama, Japan, in May, 1994.
The Yokohama Declaration was a landmark document in the history of disaster reduction.
The Declaration emphasized the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach to
5. ISDR stands for International Strategy for Disaster Reduction in its full form. ISDR is a
worldwide framework for disaster risk reduction developed by the United Nations in 1999.
The Yokohama Declaration of 1994 provided the basis for ISDR. The ISDR aimed to promote
a culture of disaster prevention and to reduce the impact of disasters through better risk
management, preparedness, and response.
6. India's flood prone area is up to 12% of the total land area, which is around 40 million
hectares. India's major flood-prone states are as follows:
• Haryana, Punjab, Bihar
• Assam, Manipur, Tripura
• Orissa, Jharkhand,West Bengal
7. India’s overall cyclone-prone region accounts for about 8% of the country’s total land area.
The eastern coast (the Bay of Bengal coastal area) and the western coast (Arabian Sea coastal
area) of India are both impacted by cyclones. More cyclones are generated on east coast than
on west coast. A tropical cyclone’s two primary seasons are May to June and mid-September
to mid-December.
9. Statement 1 and 2 are correct. An atmospheric river is a relatively long and narrow region in
the atmosphere that contains a large amount of water vapor and occurs outside the tropics.
Also known as moisture plumes, tropical plumes, tropical connections, water vapor surges,
or cloud bands, they can stretch over thousands of kilometers and carry water vapor
equivalent to the average flow of water at the Mississippi River's mouth.
Statement 3 is incorrect. California is currently preparing for the arrival of atmospheric
rivers, which are predicted to result in significant precipitation, floods, and heavy snow.
10. India's only active volcano situated in Andaman and Nicobar is Barren Island Volcano. It
comes under the arc of active volcanoes extended between Sumatra and Burma. This volcano
had its last volcanic eruption on December 8, 2020.
11. Exp. Chernobyl disaster is the worst nuclear disaster in the world that occurred in 1986 of
the then Soviet Union (now Ukrain) in a nuclear power plant.
13. INSAT series of satellites are used to track the cyclones in India.
15. About 2/3rd of the cyclones that occur in the Indian coastline occur in the Bay of Bengal. The
Bay of Bengal is known for being a hotbed of tropical cyclone activity, with an average of five
to six cyclones forming in the region each year. This is due to a combination of factors,
including warm sea surface temperatures, high humidity, and favorable atmospheric
conditions. The coastal areas of Arabian sea also experience cyclones, but the frequency and
intensity of these cyclones are lower compared to the Bay of Bengal.
16. The International Tsunami Information Centre (ITIC) is located in Honolulu, Hawaii. It is a
part of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO and serves as a
focal point for the exchange of tsunami-related information and data between countries and
organizations around the world.
17. The eye is the most calm part of a tropical cyclone, which is a region of relatively light winds
and clear skies at the center of the storm. The eye is surrounded by the eyewall, which
contains the most intense winds and rain of the cyclone.
18. The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) is located in Hyderabad, India. It was
established after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami to provide real-time
tsunami warnings and advisories to India's coastal states and neighboring countries.
19. c) Japanese word. The word tsunami is derived from the Japanese words "tsu" (meaning
harbor) and "nami" (meaning wave), reflecting the fact that tsunamis are often generated by
underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions that cause massive displacements of water.
20. The Himalayan and North Eastern regions of India are the most landslide-prone areas in the
country, due to their rugged terrain, high precipitation, and seismic activity.
21. In the northern hemisphere, the wind of the tropical cyclone blows in an anticlockwise
direction around the center of the storm, due to the Coriolis effect.
22. Tropical cyclones rarely develop within 50kms of the equator because the Coriolis effect,
which causes the cyclone to spin, is weakest at the equator and increases with distance from
it.
23. The Bhopal Gas Disaster was a man-made disaster that occurred on December 2-3, 1984, in
Bhopal, India. It was caused by the release of toxic gas (Methyl Isocyanate) from the Union
Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant, resulting in thousands of deaths and injuries.
25. The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale that measures the magnitude or energy released by
an earthquake. The scale typically ranges from 0 to 9, with each whole number increase
representing a tenfold increase in the energy released.
26. The level of risk of a disaster depends on multiple factors, including the nature of the hazard,
the vulnerability of the elements that are affected, and the economic value of those elements.
All of these factors can influence the level of risk.
27. The Richter scale expresses an earthquake's magnitude, which is a measure of the amount of
energy released by an earthquake.
28. The point on the earth's surface directly above the point where an earthquake occurs is
called the epicenter. The focus is the actual point underground where the earthquake
originates.
29. NDRF was established in the year 2006 and comes under Home Ministry. It’s headquarters is
in New Delhi. It currently has 16 battalions that are spread throughout the country.
30. The Cabinet Secretary heads National Crisis Management Committee. Cabinet Secretary is
the highest executive officer, and all the secretaries of the departments are members of the
committee.
31. State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) under National Disaster Management Act,
2005 is headed by a Chief Minister.
32. Several Southern European nations such as Greece, Spain and France have been experiencing
severe heatwaves and wildfires. The increasing temperatures attributed to climate change
have caused numerous fatalities. To prevent further danger, France has evacuated over
16,000 people from the south-west region, while wildfires have continued to spread in Spain,
Greece and Croatia.
33. According to a recent Lancet report, heat-related deaths increased by 68 per cent between
2000-2004 and 2017-2021. The report also highlighted that vulnerable populations were
exposed to 3.7 billion more heatwave days last year than annually in 1986-2005. The study
focused on the health effects of climate change in the midst of the Covid pandemic, global
energy crisis, and the cost of living crisis due to the Russia-Ukraine war.
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