Science & Technology Environment: TSPSC Group 1

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TSPSC Group 1

Prelims & Mains

Science & Technology


Environment

Simplify Success
P u b l i c a t i o n s
Science & Technology
Environment
For TSPSC Group 1 Prelims & Mains
Also useful for:
• APPSC Group 1
• UPSC CSE

Ravi Garlapati

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Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page i


Science & Technology, Environment
Author: Ravi Garlapati

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Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page ii


Dedicated to Carl Sagan, Vikram Sarabhai, Richard
Feynman, and Isaac Asimov – Scientists, Science
communicators, dreamers, and my heroes who instilled
in me an appreciation for the beauty in the world around
seen through the eyes of science!

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page iii


Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page iv
TSPSC Group-I Services Syllabus
Prelims Syllabus
1. Current Affairs – Regional, National & International.
2. International Relations and Events.
3.General Science; India’s Achievements in Science and Technology.
4. Environmental Issues: Disaster Management- Prevention and Mitigation Strategies.
5. Economic and Social Development of India.
6. World Geography, Indian Geography and Geography of Telangana state.
7. History and Cultural Heritage of India.
8. Indian Constitution and Polity.
9. Governance and Public Policy in India.
10. Policies of Telangana State.
11. Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts and Literature of Telangana.
12. Social Exclusion: Rights issues such as Gender, Caste, Tribe, Disability etc. and
inclusive policies.
13. Logical Reasoning: Analytical Ability and Data Interpretation.

Note: The highlighted parts above i.e., point 3 and point 4 are covered in this book.

Mains Syllabus
Paper – V (I & II Sections) & Paper – IV (Section III)
PAPER- V (Section – I): The role and impact of Science and Technology
1. Classical and Emerging areas of Science & Technology : Value addition by Science
&Technology, Current Science & Technology developments in India and importance of
Science & Technology as an engine for National Development ; Industrial development &
Urbanization.
2. National Policy of Science & Technology: changes in Policy from time to time: Technology
missions ICT: Basics in Computers, Robotics, Nano technology and Communication.
3. Space program in India and its applications with special reference to industrial,agricultural
and other rural development activities, INSAT, IRS systems, EDUSAT and Chandrayaan-1 and
future programme.
4. Application of Space Technology in India with references to Education, Agriculture and
Industry. Climatic change, Floods, Cyclone, Tsunami, Natural and Manmade Disaster
Management.
5. Energy Resources: Energy demands, Indian energy scenario- hydel, thermal and nuclear.
Importance of renewable resources - Solar, Wind, small/Mini/Micro hydel, Biomass, waste
based, geothermal, tidal & fuel cells. Energy security - Role of Science & Technology, Bio-fuel
cultivation and extraction.

PAPER- V (Section – II): Modern Trends in application of knowledge of Science


1. Crop Science in India; Characteristics of Plants - Crop plants, Forest species, Medicinal
Aromatic plants, Useful and Harmful plants and utility for mankind.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page v


2. Concept of Biotechnology and application of genetic engineering and Stem Cell Research.
Biotechnology in Agriculture (bio-fertilizers, bio - pesticides, bio- fuels, tissue culture,
cloning) and Environment (Biotechnology in Environmental cleanup process)
3. Food bio-technology, Food safety and Food quality standards, Food Laws and Regulations.
Recent trends in organic farming and farm mechanization. Safe Drinking Water –
Defluoridation and other Techniques.
4. Microbial infections; Introduction to bacterial, viral, protozoal and fungal infections. Basic
knowledge of infections caused by different groups of micro organisms- diarrhoea,
dysentery, cholera, tuberculosis, malaria, viral infections like HIV, encephalitis, chikungunya,
bird flu- preventive measures during out breaks.
5. Vaccines: Introduction to immunity, Fundamental concepts in vaccination and traditional
methods of vaccine production ( production of DPT and Rabies vaccine), Production of
modern vaccines (production of Hepatitis Vaccine).

Paper – IV (Section – III): Development and Environmental Problems


1. Environment vs Development: Definition of Environment, Environmentalism; Environmental
Protection Policy, Environmental Policy Instruments.
2. Natural resources: Forest resources- Commercialization of forests - Forest Acts vs Forest
dwellers/ users; Water: surface water and groundwater, competing demand for water -
drinking, industrial and agriculture; Land resources: competing uses of landfood, feed, fuel,
and fibre; Mining and Environment; Sustainability of natural resources.
3. Eco systems and Bio-diversity: Ecology and Eco-system; Food chains in Eco systems,
Typology of eco system; Bio diversity and its conservation, Types of Biodiversity, threat to
Bio diversity.
4. Environment pollution and solid waste management, types of solid waste, factors affecting
solid waste generation, impact of solid waste, recycling and reuse.
5. Global Environment Issues: Climate Change, Global Warming and its impact, Sustainable
Development.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page vi


Preface
Dear Student,
I understand your pain! The pain of having to go through hundreds of pages of seemingly
unending syllabus. I sincerely hope this book helps in relieving some of that pain as this single
book covers 150 marks worth of Mains syllabus and 30 questions from Prelims (as per Oct, 2022
test).

The guiding principle in writing this book had been to make it as easy as possible for you to
complete the syllabus in a reasonable period of time and ensure that whatever studied is
retainable so that you can score the maximum in the exam.

The language used is simple, concise, and logical to facilitate better retention. In the interest of
gaining maximum marks possible – precise technical words are used but only when/where it is
absolutely needed.

For Group 1 Prelims:


• Refer to Part – III of the book. Cover the concepts of General Science and Solve the MCQs.
• As each MCQ has a detailed explanation of the concept you can become aware of the
concept this way even if you just solve the MCQ directly.
• For MCQs based on latest current affairs download ‘Simplify Success App’ from Google
Playstore or visit www.simplify-success.com

For Group1 Mains:


• Skip Part – III and focus preparation exclusively on Part – I & Part – II.
• Book is written by referring to the official syllabus from notification and Previous Year
Questions of various State Public Service Commissions. Even if the questions at the
beginning of the chapter seem basic – they will help you write answers to advanced,
application oriented answers.
• To help you develop the skill to write better answers – the book is given in question and
answer format. Each answer has an introduction, body, and a conclusion.
• All the subheadings are highlighted for quick overview and easy revision.
• For advanced, current affairs based Mains questions and answers download ‘Simplify
Success App’ from Google Playstore or visit www.simplify-success.com

Wishing you all the best.


Ravi Garlapati

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page vii


Organization of Book

This Book is organized into three parts.

Part Chapters TSPSC Group 1 Syllabus

Part – I: Chapter 1 to 10 Paper – V: Section I & Section


Science & II (Mains)
Technology

Part – II: Chapter 1 to 5 Paper – IV: Section III (Mains)


Environment
Part – III: Chapter 1 to 3 (Physics, Preliminary Test Syllabus:
General Chemistry, and • General Science and
Science Biology); India’s Achievements in
MCQs on General Science and Technology
Science; • Environmental Issues &
MCQs on Science and Disaster Management
Technology;
MCQs on Environment
& Disaster
Management

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page viii


Download

Simplify Success App

Visit

www.simplify-success.com
To get
• latest Current Affairs based MCQs for Prelims
• latest Current Affairs based questions and answers for Mains

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page ix


Table of Contents
TSPSC Group 1 Services Syllabus………….…….v Chapter 5: Energy Resources……………………69
Preface…………………………………………..……..….vii 5.1 Important Notes about Energy………..69
Organization of the Book………………………..viii 5.2 Energy Demands……………………………70
TSPSC Group 1 Preliminary Test 2022 ………1 5.3 Thermal Power …………………………..…74
5.4 Hydro Electricity ……………………..……77
Part – I: Science & Technology ………………6 5.5 Nuclear Power ………………………………79
5.6 Renewable Energy Sources…………….80
Chapter 1: Classical & Emerging areas of 5.6.1 Solar…………………………………….82
Science & Technology………………………………...7 5.6.2 Wind Energy………………………...84
1.1 Classical Sciences……………………………..8 5.6.3 Other Renewable Energy
1.2 Emerging Technologies ……………….…12 Sources………………………………………...85
1.3 Importance of science and technology 5.7 Energy Security……………………………...89
in national development………………………15 5.8 Biofuel cultivation and extraction…...92
1.4 Industrial Development &
Urbanization ………………………………………16 Chapter 6: Crop Science……………………………94
6.1 Crop Science in India……………………...94
Chapter 2: Policy on Science & ICT……………21 6.2 Characteristics of Plants…………………98
2.1 National Policy of Science and 6.3 Crop plants, Forest species, Medicinal
Technology …………………………………………21 Aromatic plants…………………………………101
2.2 Changes in Policy from time to time..22 6.4 Useful and Harmful plants and utility
2.3 Technology Missions ……………………..23 to mankind………………………………………..104
2.4 ICT: Basics in Computers &
Communication ………………………………….24 Chapter 7: Biotechnology………………………..109
2.5 Robotics………………………………………...32 7.1 Concept of Biotechnology……………..109
2.6 Nanotechnology……………………………..36 7.2 Application of Genetic Engineering
………………………………………………….112
Chapter 3: Space Program in India & 7.3 Stem Cells…………………………………….118
Applications……………………………………….……40 7.4 Biotechnology in Agriculture………...120
3.1 Space Program in India……………..……40 7.5 Bio-fertilizers……………………………….121
3.2 INSAT System……………………………...…44 7.6 Bio-pesticides………………………………122
3.3 IRS System, EduSAT, Chandrayan – 1 7.7 Tissue Culture……………………………...124
…………………………………………………………...46 7.8 Cloning………………………………………..124
3.4 Future Missions ……………….……………48 7.9 Bio-Fuels……………………………………..126
3.5 Applications in Rural development, 7.10 Environmental clean-up process…127
Education, Agriculture and Industry……..50 7.11 Miscellaneous…………………………….128

Chapter 4: Disaster Management .…………….57 Chapter 8: Food Biotechnology……………….129


4.1 Disaster Management………………….…57 8.1 Food bio-technology…………………….129
4.2 Natural & Manmade Disasters…...……60 8.2 Food safety…………………………………..133
4.3 Climate Change ……………………………..61 8.3 Food Laws and Regulations…………..134
4.4 Floods …………………………………………..63 8.4 Organic farming …………………………...135
4.5 Cyclones ……………………………………….64 8.5 Farm mechanization…………………….137
4.6 Tsunami ………………………………………..66
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page x
8.6 Safe Drinking Water – Defluoridation... Chapter 3: Eco-systems and
…………………………………………………………139 Biodiversity………………………………………...…211
3.1 Ecology and Eco-system…………….…211
Chapter 9: Microbial Infections……………….141 3.2 Food chains in Eco systems…………..213
9.1 Microbial Infectious Agents at a 3.3 Typology of Ecosystem…………………217
Glance……………………………………………….141 3.4 Biodiversity…………………………………220
9.2 Some Common Infectious
Diseases…………………………………………….142 Chapter 4: Pollution and Solid waste
9.3 Viral Infections…………………………….143 Management.…………………………………………231
9.4 Bacterial Infections………………………152 4.1 Environmental Pollution………………231
9.5 Protozoal Infections…………………… .155 4.2 Air Pollution………………………………...232
9.6 Fungal Infections………………………….157 4.3 Water Pollution……………………………239
9.7 General Diseases…………………….…….159 4.4 Soil Pollution……………………………….242
9.8 Preventive measures during 4.5 Other Pollutions…………………………..244
Outbreaks………………………………………… 162 4.6 Solid Waste Management……………..250
4.7 Recycling & Reuse………………………..255
Chapter 10: Vaccines: …………………………….163
10.1 Introduction to Chapter 5: Global Environment Issues…….258
immunity…………………………………………..163 5.1 Global Environment Issues…………...258
10.2 Fundamental concepts in 5.2 Climate Change…………………………….261
vaccination… …………………………………….165 5.3 Global Warming and its impact……..266
10.3 Types of vaccines……………………….167 5.4 Sustainable Development……………..269
10.4 Traditional Methods of Vaccine
Production ……………………………………..…170 Part – III: General Science……………...……273
10.5 Production of Modern Vaccines…..172
Biology …………………………………………………..274
Part – II: Environment………………………...176 1. Introduction…………………………………..274
2. Classification of organisms………..……280
Chapter 1: Environment vs. 3. Anatomy of Plants and
Development………………………………………….177 Animals……………………………………………..282
1.1 Environment vs. Development: 4. Human Physiology…………………………286
Definition of Environment …………………177 5. Nutrition in Plants & Animals…………296
1.2 Environmentalism………………………..178 6. Plant Physiology…………………………….298
1.3 Environmental Protection Policy & 7. Reproduction in Plants and Animals
Instruments………………………………………179 …………………………………………………..……..300
1.4 EIA………………………………………………181 8.Genetics………………………………………….302
Chapter 2: Natural Resources ……………….188 Biology MCQs………………………………….…307
2.1 Forests………………………………………...188
2.2 Water……………….………………………….193 Physics ………………………………………………..…331
2.3 Land Resources……………………………201 1. Mechanics…………………………………...…331
2.4 Mining & Environment…………………206 2. Electricity and Magnetism………………341
2.5 Sustainability of Natural 3. Atomic & Nuclear Physics…………….…349
Resources…………………………………….……208 4. Universe & Solar System…………………354
5. Optics……………………………………….……357
6. Waves……………………………………………364

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page xi


7. Properties of Matter……………….………367
Physics MCQs……………………………….……372

Chemistry………………………………………………399
1. Chemistry, Matter & its Composition
…………………………………………………………399
2. Atomic Structure……………………………404
3. Chemical Bonding…………………………..409
4. Periodic Table……………… ……………….412
5. Chemical Reactions & Equations……..416
6. Elements & Compounds……………….…420
7. Chemistry in Everyday life…………...…429
Chemistry MCQs …………………………….…432

Science and Technology MCQs ………………449

Environment & Disaster Management MCQs


...……………………………………………………………495

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page xii


TSPSC Group 1 Preliminary Test 2022
Note: Questions from Science & Technology and Environment
Science & Technology 4. What would happen to earth if the sun
1. ‘eVTOL Technology’ is related to which suddenly disappears?
field ? A. The earth immediately experiences the
(1) Biofuel Production lack of sun light.
(2) Semi-conductor manufacturing B. The earth experiences the lack of sun
(3) Microbiology light after about eight minutes.
(4) Aviation C. The earth immediately experiences the
lack of gravitation.
2. Consider the following in view of PSLV- D. The earth experiences the lack of
C53: gravitation after about eight minutes.
A. It was launched from the second launch Choose the correct answer:
pad of Satish Dhawan Space Centre on (1) A & C only (2) A & D only
June 30, 2022. (3) B & C only (4) B & D only
B. It is the dedicated commercial mission
of Antrix Corporation. 5. The correct order of velocity of sound in
C. The launch vehicle carried three the media – water, iron, vapour and air is :
satellites from Singapore, namely DS-EO, (1) water > iron > vapour > air
NeuSAR, Scoob-1. (2) iron > water > vapour > air
Choose the correct answer: (3) water > vapour > air > iron
(1) A & B only (2) B & C only (4) iron > air > vapour > water
(3) A & C only (4) A, B & C
6. Match List-1 with List-2 and select the
3. On a cold day, during an early breakfast of correct answer using the codes given
bread with Ketchup, one would have below:
noticed that the ketchup barely moves out List-1 List-2
of the bottle. A little warming of the (Defect of vision) (Corrective lens)
Ketchup would solve the problem. Which A. Myopia 1. Bi-convex lens
of the following statement makes sense in B. Hypermetropia 2. Bi-concave lens
the above context?
C. Presbyopia 3. Cylindrical lens
A. Liquids become less viscous during
high temperature. D. Astigmatism 4. Concaveconvex
B. Kinetic energy of the molecules Lens
increases with temperature. (1) A-1; B-2; C-3; D-4
C. Liquid resistance to flow increases with (2) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1
increasing temperature. (3) A-2; B-1; C-4; D-3
D. Kinetic energy counteracts the (4) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-4
intermolecular forces.
Choose the correct answer : 7. Match the key-boards with their layouts :
(1) A & B only (2) A, C & D only Type of Layout
(3) A, B & D only (4) A, B, C & D Key-Board

A. QWERTY 1. Vowels on left hand


side and most used
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 1
consonants on right hand Choose the correct answer:
side (1) A-5, B-3, C-2, D-4
B. Dvorak 2. Letters arranged in (2) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
square patterns (3) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
C. Dextr 3. Letters start with Q,W, (4) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
E, R, T, and so on
D. KALQ 4. Optimized for thumb 10. IIT Kharagpur researchers developed eco-
Typing friendly food packaging material with
5. Keys in alphabetical which one of the following ?
Order (1) Banana Peels (2) Banana Stem
Choose the correct answer : (3) Cucumber Peels (4) Cow Dung
(1) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-5
(2) A-3, B-2, C-5, D-1 11. Examples of Voluntary Standards (Indian
(3) A-3, B-1, C-5, D-4 Standards) adopted based on
(4) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 International Codex Alimentarius with
suitable modifications.
8. Which of the following organizations set (1) Bureau of Indian Standards &
the standards and naming rules to be AGMARK
adopted on the internet ? (2) Fruit Product Order
A. The Internet Society (3) Milk & Milk Product Order
B. International Organization for Internet (4) Standards Weights& Measures Act
Standards (IOIS)
C. American Association for Internet 12. Match the following bases as per their
Protocols usage:
D. The Internet Corporation for Assigned A. Ammonium 1. Fire extinguisher
Names & Numbers (ICANN) Hydroxide
Choose the correct answer: B. Sodium 2.Bleaching powder
(1) A, C & D only (2) A, B & C only Hydroxide
(3) B & D only (4) A & D only C. Calcium 3. Soap preparation
Hydroxide
9. Match the below products of D. Aluminium 4. Removing grease
biotechnology with their application for Hydroxide Stains
treatment of various diseases/disorders. Choose the correct answer :
(1) A-4 B-1 C-2 D-3
A. 1. Treating Haemophilia
Interleukins (2) A-4 B-3 C-1 D-2
B. Insulin 2. Treating cancer (3) A-4 B-3 C-2 D-1
(4) A-4 B-1 C-3 D-2
C. Tissue 3. Treating diabetes
plasminogen 13. Consider the following statements in view
activator of rusting of Iron:
A. It is chemically named as Iron Oxide.
D. Blood 4. Treating heart attacks B. Rusting is considered as a chemical
factor VIII and stroke change.
C. Zinc is coated on iron articles to
5. Treating leprosy
prevent them from rusting.
Choose the correct answer :
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 2
(1) A & B only (2) B & C only C. The cultivation of monk fruit is taken
(3) A & C only (4) A, B and C up for the first time in India in the state of
Himachal Pradesh.
14. With reference to the isotopes of D. The cultivation of the monk fruit in
elements, consider the following India is supervised by the Institute of
statements: Himalayan Bioresource Technology.
A. The isotopes of cobalt are used in the Choose the correct answer :
treatment of cancer. (1) A, B & C only (2) A, C & D only
B. The isotopes of iron are used in the (3) B, C & D only (4) A, B, C & D
diagnosis of anemia.
C. The isotopes of uranium are used as 19. Match the following:
fuel in nuclear reactors. Tree Usage
D. The isotopes of iodine are used in the A. Ashwagandha 1. Medicine for Blood
treatment of Hepatitis A. Pressure
Choose the correct answer: B. Sarpagandha 2. Medicine for
(1) A & B only (2) B & C only Jaundice
(3) A, B & C only (4) A, B, C & D C. Nela usiri 3. Medicine for
Nervous weakness
15. Before transfusion of blood, every unit of D. Brahmi 4. Medicine for
donor blood is NOT tested for one of the Abdominal Pain
following diseases : 5. Improves memory
(1) Hepatitis B & C (2) HIV Choose the correct answer :
(3) Cancer (4) Syphilis (1) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
(2) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-5
16. ‘Graves disease’ is caused due to excess (3) A-5, B-4, C-2, D-3
production of which of the following (4) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
hormone?
(1) Parathormone 20. Match the following Covid-19 vaccines
(2) Insulin according to their nature :
(3) Thyroxin List-1 List-2
(4) Growth hormone A. Pfizer 1. Plasmid DNA
B. Covaxin 2. Inactive Vaccine
17. Mother’s breast milk provides immunity
C. Sputnik-V 3. RNA Vaccine
to newborn babies because it contains :
D. Zykov-D 4. Adenovirus based
(1) Immunoglobulin E
Vaccine
(2) Immunoglobulin M
Choose the correct answer :
(3) Immunoglobulin A
(1) A-4 B-3 C-2 D-1
(4) Immunoglobulin G
(2) A-4 B-2 C-1 D-3
(3) A-3 B-2 C-4 D-1
18. Consider the following in relation to the
(4) A-3 B-4 C-1 D-2
‘Monk Fruit:
A. The monk fruit is known for its
21. What is “Happy Hypoxia”?
properties as noncaloric natural
sweetener. (1) Is a Hormone released by brain when
you feel utmost happiness.
B. Originally the monk fruit is cultivated
in China. (2) The feeling of mind when you have

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 3


accidentally survived from the death. (1) A & B only (2) A & C only
(3) The condition where you may not (3) A, B & C only (4) A, B, C & D
realise your oxygen levels are crashing. 25. Which of the following are considered as
(4) The condition where you may not the major coral reef areas of India?
realise your blood sugar levels are falling. A. Gulf of Mannar
B. Gulf of Trombe
22. Consider the following statements in C. Lakshadweep
relation to the newly developed solar D. Gulf of Kachchh
powered survey craft for ports and inland Choose the correct answer :
waterways : (1) A, B & C only (2) A, B & D only
A. This is developed by the National (3) A, C & D only (4) B, C & D only
Technology Centre for Ports, Waterways
and Coasts in IIT Madras.
26. “Talanoa Dialogue” is related to:
B. This is developed by the National
Institute of Ports, Waterways and Vessels, (1) The UN talks on debt relief to the
Least Developed Countries
Cochin.
C. This is an unmanned autonomous (2) The UN Climate Change Talks
survey craft and can be used to ease (3) The G-20 countries talks on
maritime traffic even in shallow water. technology transfer
D. The Craft does the hydrographic and (4) The WHO talks on finding origins
oceanographic surveys and provide real- ofCovid-19 pandemic
time data transmission over long
distance. 27. Arrange the following States based on
Choose the correct answer : highest to lowest death toll recorded on
(1) A, C & D only (2) B, C & D only account of Thunderstorms and Lightening
events in 2021:
(3) A & D only (4) B & D only
A. Bihar
23. The dry aromatic roots of which of the B. Madhya Pradesh
following crops are used to make mats, C. Odisha
curtains and fadsetc. ? D. West Bengal
(1) Mint (2) Vetiver E. Rajasthan
(3) Palmarosa grass (4) Patchouli Choose the correct answer :
(1) B, A, D, E, C (2) C, B, A, D, E
Environment& Disaster Management (3) D, B, C, E, A (4) A, E, C, B, D

24. Consider the following statements: 28. India recorded the highest number of
A. One of the causes of Global warming is Tiger deaths in 2021. Consider the
greenhouse effect. following in relation to this :
B. The atmosphere absorbs part of the A. A total of 127 Tigers died.
long wave infra-red radiation emitted by B. Gujarat ranks first in this fatality.
the earth. C. Madhya Pradesh ranks first in this
C. The gases that absorbs long wave fatality.
terrestrial radiation are called as D. Maharashtra and Karnataka occupy
greenhouse gases. second and third position respectively.
D. Carbon dioxide and Nitrous oxide are Choose the correct answer :
greenhouse producing gases. (1) A, B & D only (2) A, C & D only
Choose the correct statements: (3) A & B only (4) B & D only
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 4
29. Match the following Cyclones of 2021
with their intensity : 30. Match the following Corona Virus variants
with their originating country:
Cyclone Intensity Variant Country of Origin
A. GULAB 1. Very Severe Cyclonic A. Alpha 1. Brazil
Storm B. Beta 2. United States
B. YAAS 2. Severe Cyclonic Storm C. Delta 3. United Kingdom
C. TAUKTAE 3. Cyclonic Storm D. Gamma 4. India
D. SHAHEEN 4. Lowest Cyclonic 5. South Africa
Storm Choose the correct answer :
5. Extremely Severe (1) A-3; B-5; C-4, D-1
Cyclonic Storm (2) A-2; B-3; C-4, D-5
Choose the correct answer : (3) A-5; B-4; C-1, D-2
(1) A-5; B-2; C-4; D-3 (4)A-5; B-4; C-2, D-3
(2) A-2; B-5; C-4; D-1
(3) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
(4) A-3; B-1; C-5; D-2

Key (as per TSPSC)


1) 4 2) 3 3) 3 4) 4 5) 2 6) 3 7) 3 8) 4 9) 3 10) 3
11) 1 12) 3 13) 4 14) 3 15) 3 16) 3 17) * 18) 4 19) 2 20) 3
21) 3 22) 1 23) 2 24) 4 25) 3 26) 2 27) 2 28) 2 29) 4 30) 1

*17) 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 (All options are correct)

Classification of Questions
Area No. Of Static No. Of dynamic Total No. Of
questions questions* Questions
General Science & Science and 15 08 23
Technology
Environment 02 02 04
Disaster Management 0 03 03
Total 17 13 30
* Dynamic questions means questions from current affairs

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 5


Part – I: Science & Technology

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 6


Chapter 1: Classical & Emerging areas of Science & Technology
Syllabus: Classical and Emerging areas of Science & Technology: Value addition by Science &
Technology, Current Science & Technology developments in India and importance of Science &
Technology as an engine for National Development; Industrial development & Urbanization.

1. What is the difference between Science and Technology? How are they interdependent?
Science and technology are closely related but they are not the same thing. Science is the study of
the natural world through observation and experimentation. It is the pursuit of knowledge about
the world around us and how it works. Technology, on the other hand, is the application of
scientific knowledge to practical purposes. It involves the design, development, and use of tools,
machines, materials, and processes to solve problems and meet human needs.
Science and technology are interdependent because scientific knowledge is often the
foundation for the development of new technologies. Advances in science, such as the discovery
of the principles of electricity, have led to the creation of technologies such as the electric motor,
which has revolutionized industry and transportation. Similarly, advances in computer science
have led to the development of new technologies such as the internet and smartphones, which
have transformed the way we communicate and access information.
In turn, technology can drive scientific discovery by providing new tools and methods for
scientific research. For example, the development of powerful microscopes and telescopes has
allowed scientists to observe and study the natural world in new ways, leading to new
discoveries and insights.
Overall, science and technology are intertwined and dependent on each other. Scientific
knowledge provides the foundation for the development of new technologies, while technology
can drive scientific discovery by providing new tools and methods for research.

2. Explain the relevance of Science and Technology to the contemporary world.


Science and technology play a vital role in the contemporary world. They have transformed the
way we live, work, and communicate, and have contributed to the development of many
industries and sectors as given below:
1. Healthcare and Medicine - with advancements in medical technology and treatments
including vaccines, new drugs, treatments, and medical devices.
2. Transportation - with the development of modern means of transport starting from
steam engine to the latest electric and autonomous vehicles
3. Communication - with the emergence of the internet and social media.
4. Education - with the integration of technology in classrooms and e-learning
5. Agriculture - technology has improved crop yields, reduced waste, and increased
efficiency in farming
6. Energy - with the rapid raise in energy production and the development of renewable
energy sources and energy-efficient technologies
7. Manufacturing - automation and robotics have increased productivity and efficiency in
manufacturing processes.
8. Entertainment - with advancements in special effects, animation, and virtual reality in
the film and gaming industries
9. Finance - technology has improved the speed and efficiency of financial transactions,
from online banking to cryptocurrencies.
10. Space exploration - with the development of new technologies for exploring the
universe.
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11. Environment - technology has enabled monitoring and analysis of environmental data,
leading to increased awareness and solutions to environmental issues.
Overall, science and technology are essential to the contemporary world, driving innovation,
economic growth, and social development. They have transformed the way we live, work,
consume, and communicate, and will continue to shape our world for years to come.

3. Write about the Scientific Revolution briefly.


The scientific revolution was a period of time in the 16th and 17thcenturies during which
significant advancements were made in the natural sciences, including physics, astronomy,
biology, and chemistry. It is considered to be a major turning point in human history and marked
the beginning of the modern era.
The scientific revolution was sparked by the work of figures such as Copernicus, Galileo,
and Kepler, who challenged traditional beliefs and ideas about the natural world. They used
observation and experimentation to develop new theories
and models that were more accurate and better explained the
workings of the universe.
One of the most important contributions of the
scientific revolution was the development of the scientific
method, which is a systematic approach to gathering and
analyzing data in order to test hypotheses and develop
theories. This method is still used today in scientific research
and experimentation.
The scientific revolution also led to the development
of new technologies, such as the telescope and microscope,
which allowed scientists to observe and study the natural
world in greater detail. This increased understanding of the Galileo Galilei is considered one of
natural world led to many important advancements, including the most important figures of the
the development of new forms of energy, such as steam Scientific Revolution
power, and the discovery of new forms of matter, such as gases.
The scientific revolution also had a profound impact on society and culture. It challenged
traditional beliefs and ideas and led to a greater emphasis on rationality and critical thinking. It
also paved the way for the industrial revolution and the modern era of technology and
innovation.
Overall, the scientific revolution was a crucial period in human history that marked the
beginning of the modern era, and it was a significant turning pointin human understanding of the
natural world.

1.1 Classical Sciences


4. What are classical Sciences? Briefly discuss the evolution of classical sciences.
Classical sciences refer to the natural sciences that have been studied since ancient times,
including mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, and biology.
The evolution of classical sciences can be divided into several phases, starting from the Stone
Age to the 19thcentury:
1. Stone Age: During this period, humans developed basic tools and techniques to hunt and
gather food. This led to the development of rudimentary knowledge about physics,
chemistry, and biology, such as using fire for cooking and warmth, and using plants for
medicine.
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2. Ancient civilizations: The ancient civilizations of India, China, Greece, Rome, and Egypt
made significant contributions to the classical sciences. Greek philosophers such as
Pythagoras and Euclid developed the principles of mathematics, while Roman engineers
built aqueducts and roads using physics and mathematics. Indian mathematician
Aryabhatta used ‘Zero’ for the first time which later became the basis of modern
mathematics.
3. Middle Ages: During the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars made significant advances in
mathematics and astronomy. They translated and preserved many ancient Greek texts,
which were later translated into Latin and became the basis of European scientific
thought.
4. Renaissance: The Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in classical sciences,
with many advancements in physics, astronomy, and mathematics. Galileo Galilei made
groundbreaking observations with the telescope, while Johannes Kepler developed his
laws of planetary motion.
5. Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution of the 17thcentury marked a major shift
in scientific thinking, with figures such as Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, and Antoine
Lavoisier making major contributions to physics, chemistry, and biology.
6. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution of the 18h and 19thcenturies brought
about significant technological advances in classical sciences, such as steam power and
electricity. This led to new branches of science, such as thermodynamics and
electromagnetism.
Overall, the evolution of classical sciences has been a gradual process, with each phase building
on the knowledge and discoveries of the previous one. The classical sciences continue to evolve
to this day, with ongoing research and advancements in areas such as genetics, neuroscience,
and cosmology.

5. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 17th century with examples.
The 17thcentury, also known as the Age of Enlightenment, was a time of significant scientific
and technological advances. This period saw the development of new scientific methods and the
rise of important figures in the scientific community.
Some of the major advances of this time include the development of the scientific
method, the invention of the telescope and microscope, and the advancement of knowledge in
the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy.
One of the most significant scientific advances of the 17thcentury was the development of
the scientific method. This method, which is still used today, involves making observations,
forming hypotheses, and testing those hypotheses through experimentation. One of the most
famous proponents of the scientific method was Sir Francis Bacon. His ideas laid the foundation
for the modern scientific method, and his work had a significant impact on the scientific
community.
Another major technological advance of the 17thcentury was the invention of the
telescope. This invention allowed scientists to observe the heavens in greater detail than ever
before. Galileo Galilei, an Italian astronomer, who is considered to be the father of modern
observational astronomy, was one of the first to use the telescope to observe the heavens and
made many important discoveries, including the existence of mountains on the moon, the phases
of Venus, and the four largest moons of Jupiter.
The microscope also revolutionized the field of biology during the 17th century. This
powerful tool, which was invented by Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, allowed

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scientists to study the structure and function of living organisms in great detail. This invention
led to the discovery of many new forms of life, including bacteria, protozoa, and other
microorganisms.
In the field of physics, the 17th century saw the development of the laws of motion by
Sir Isaac Newton. Newton's "Principia Mathematica" published in 1687, laid the foundation for
the study of motion and gravity. His laws of motion, which describe how objects move and
interact with one another, are still used today in fields such as engineering and astronautics.
In the field of chemistry, the 17thcentury saw the development of the concept of elements
by Robert Boyle. He proposed that all matter is made up of a limited number of elements. This
idea laid the foundation for the modern understanding of chemistry and the periodic table of
elements.
In conclusion, the 17thcentury was a time of great scientific and technological advances.
The development of the scientific method, the invention of the telescope and microscope,
and the advancement of knowledge in the fields of physics, biology, and astronomy, were
some of the most significant advances of this period. These advances laid the foundation for the
further scientific and technological progress in the centuries that followed.
Age of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment period, also known as the Age of Enlightenment, refers to an
intellectual and philosophical movement that took place during the 17th and 18th
centuries in Europe. This period is characterized by the emergence of reason and
science as primary sources of knowledge, a focus on individualism and human
rights, and a rejection of absolute monarchy and religious authority.

6. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 18th century with examples.
The 18th century was a period of great scientific and technological advancement, known as the
Age of Enlightenment. Some of the major scientific and technological advances during this period
include:
1. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution began in the late 18thcentury, and it
transformed the way goods were manufactured. New machines, such as the spinning
jenny and power loom, revolutionized textile production, and steam power was
harnessed to power factories and transportation. The development of the steam engine
by James Watt was a major breakthrough in this period.
2. Chemistry: The 18th century saw many advances in chemistry, including the discovery of
oxygen by Joseph Priestley, the invention of the first periodic table by Dmitri
Mendeleev, and the identification of many new chemical elements, including hydrogen,
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.
3. Astronomy: The 18th century was a time of great progress in astronomy. Astronomers
developed new telescopes and techniques for observing the stars and planets, leading to
the discovery of many new celestial objects. One notable example is the discovery of the
planet Uranus by William Herschel in 1781.
4. Medicine: The 18th century saw significant advances in medicine, including the
development of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner, which helped to eradicate the
disease, and the discovery of nitrous oxide (laughing gas) by Joseph Priestley, which led
to the development of anesthesia.
5. Physics: The 18thcentury was a time of great progress in physics. Isaac Newton's laws of
motion and gravity had a profound impact on the field, and new discoveries were made

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in electricity and magnetism. Benjamin Franklin conducted ground-breaking
experiments on electricity and discovered that lightning was a form of electrical
discharge.
6. Navigation: In the 18thcentury, navigators developed new tools and techniques for
navigating the seas. John Harrison invented the marine chronometer, a device that
allowed sailors to determine longitude at sea, and James Cook made several voyages of
exploration, mapping previously uncharted areas of the world.
Overall, the 18thcentury was a time of great progress in science and technology, laying the
foundation for many of the advances that would follow in the centuries to come.

7. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 19th century with examples.
The 19th century was a period of rapid scientific and technological advancement, characterized
by the Industrial Revolution and a wave of new discoveries and inventions. Some of the major
scientific and technological advances of the 19thcentury include:
1. Electricity: The discovery and harnessing of electricity was one of the most significant
technological advancements of the 19thcentury. Innovations such as the telegraph and the
electric motor transformed communication and transportation, while Thomas Edison's
invention of the light bulb revolutionized everyday life.
2. Steam power: The development of the steam engine in the late 18thcentury paved the
way for the Industrial Revolution, and steam power continued to play a major role in
transportation and manufacturing throughout the 19thcentury. The steam locomotive,
invented by George Stephenson, enabled faster and more efficient transportation, while
steam-powered factories increased productivity and efficiency.
3. Chemistry: The 19th century saw many advances in chemistry, including the discovery of
many new chemical elements, such as helium, neon, and argon. The development of
synthetic dyes, such as mauveine, had a profound impact on the textile industry.
4. Medicine: The 19th century saw significant advances in medicine, including the
development of anesthesia, antiseptics, and germ theory. The discovery of X-rays by
Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 revolutionized medical imaging.
5. Transportation: The 19th century saw many innovations in transportation, including the
development of steamships, the expansion of railroads, and the invention of the bicycle.
6. Mathematics: The 19th century saw many advancements in mathematics, including the
development of non-Euclidean geometry, which challenged the long-held beliefs of
Euclidean geometry.
7. Geology: The 19th century was a time of great progress in geology, with the discovery of
many new geological phenomena and the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
8. Biology: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, published in 1859, had a profound impact
on the scientific understanding of the natural world as well as biology.
Overall, the 19thcentury was a time of great progress in science and technology, laying the
foundation for many of the technological advancements that would shape the 20thand 21st
centuries.

8. Discuss the major scientific and technological advances of 20th century with examples.
The 20thcentury saw a tremendous acceleration in scientific and technological advancement,
with numerous breakthroughs that transformed virtually every aspect of human life. Here are
some of the major scientific and technological advances of the 20th century:

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1. Computers and the Internet: The invention of the computer and the development of the
internet were two of the most significant technological advances of the 20thcentury.
Computers have revolutionized communication, commerce, entertainment, and countless
other areas of human activity. The internet has enabled rapid information sharing and
global connectivity, fundamentally transforming how people interact with one another.
2. Space exploration: The 20thcentury saw the first human spaceflight, with Yuri Gagarin
becoming the first person to orbit the Earth in 1961. The United States' Apollo program
put humans on the moon in 1969, and robotic missions have explored every planet in the
solar system. Space exploration has yielded numerous technological advances, from
satellite communication to medical breakthroughs.
3. Medical breakthroughs: The 20thcentury saw numerous medical breakthroughs that
transformed human health and longevity, including the development of antibiotics,
vaccines, and organ transplants. The discovery of DNA's double helix structure in 1953
set the stage for the development of genetic engineering and personalized medicine.
4. Nuclear power: The 20thcentury saw the development of nuclear power, which provides
a significant portion of the world's electricity. Nuclear weapons also had a profound
impact on international relations and global security.
5. Environmental awareness: The 20thcentury saw a growing awareness of the impact of
human activities on the environment. This led to the development of new technologies,
such as renewable energy sources and more efficient transportation, as well as increased
international cooperation to address environmental challenges.
6. Biotechnology: The 20thcentury saw the emergence of biotechnology, which involves the
application of biological processes and organisms to develop new products and
technologies. Biotechnology has yielded many breakthroughs in areas such as medicine,
agriculture, and environmental science.
Overall, the 20th century saw unprecedented scientific and technological progress, laying the
foundation for continued advancements in the 21st century.

1.2 Emerging Technologies


9. What are emerging technologies? What are the common features of emerging
technologies?
Emerging technologies are technologies that are in the process of development, experimentation,
and adoption, and are expected to have a significant impact on various industries, society, and
the economy in the near future.
These technologies often represent cutting-edge innovations that are still evolving, and
their potential applications and implications are not fully understood.
Common features of emerging technologies include:
1. Novelty: Emerging technologies are innovative approaches to solving problems or
addressing needs, often involving breakthroughs in scientific research, engineering, or
other areas, and representing a departure from traditional technologies.
2. Rapid Evolution: Emerging technologies undergo rapid and dynamic changes through
ongoing research, development, and refinement, with capabilities, limitations, and
applications evolving rapidly over time.
3. Disruptive Potential: Emerging technologies can disrupt existing industries, business
models, and societal norms, creating new opportunities, challenging established
practices, and reshaping the way we live and work.

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4. Uncertainty and Risks: Emerging technologies are accompanied by uncertainties and
risks, including technical challenges, ethical concerns, regulatory issues, and potential
negative impacts, which require addressing due to limited standards, guidelines, or
regulations.
5. Interdisciplinary Nature: Emerging technologies often involve interdisciplinary
approaches, drawing from multiple fields such as science, engineering, computing, social
sciences, and ethics, and may require collaboration among diverse stakeholders for
development.
6. Wide-ranging Applications: Emerging technologies have diverse applications across
industries and sectors, including healthcare, transportation, energy, agriculture,
manufacturing, finance, and communications, with far-reaching impact.
7. Societal Impact: Emerging technologies can significantly impact society in areas such as
employment, privacy, security, ethics, equity, and sustainability, raising social and ethical
concerns that require careful consideration and address.
8. Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Emerging technologies drive innovation and
entrepreneurship, creating opportunities for start-ups, businesses, and research
institutions to develop and commercialize new products, services, and solutions.
Emerging technologies are dynamic and rapidly evolving, and they have the potential to
shape the future in significant ways. Keeping abreast of emerging technologies and their
implications is important for understanding their potential impact and making informed
decisions about their development and adoption.

10. Discuss in detail different emerging technologies with examples.


There are several emerging technologies that have the potential to significantly impact various
fields in the near future. Here are some examples:
1. Artificial intelligence (AI): AI involves the development of machines and algorithms
that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as decision making
and problem solving. Examples include autonomous vehicles, chatbots, and personalized
healthcare.
2. Quantum computing: Quantum computers are designed to perform certain calculations
much faster than classical computers, potentially revolutionizing fields such as
cryptography, drug discovery, and weather forecasting.
3. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology and genetic engineering
involve the use of living organisms or their parts to develop products or processes. This
includes applications such as genetic modification of crops, gene editing technologies like
CRISPR-Cas9, and advances in biopharmaceuticals and gene therapies.
4. Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technologies: As concerns about climate change
and environmental sustainability grow, there has been a significant focus on renewable
energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, as well as sustainable
technologies for transportation, buildings, and agriculture.
5. Robotics: Robotics involves the development of machines that can perform tasks
autonomously, either in industrial or consumer settings. Examples include drones,
autonomous farming equipment, and surgical robots.
6. 3D printing: 3D printing is a process of creating three-dimensional objects from a digital
file, potentially revolutionizing fields such as manufacturing, construction, and
healthcare.

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7. Blockchain: A blockchain is a decentralized and transparent digital ledger that can
record transactions across a network of computers, potentially transforming industries
such as finance, supply chain management, and voting systems.
8. Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology involves the design and manipulation of materials
and devices at the nanoscale, with applications in areas such as medicine, electronics,
and energy.
9. Augmented and virtual reality (AR&VR): Augmented and virtual reality technologies
allow users to experience digital content in real-world settings, with applications in areas
such as gaming, education, and architecture.
These are just some of the major areas of technology in the 21st century, and
advancements in technology continue to shape and transform various aspects of society,
influencing how we live, work, and interact with the world around us.

11. What is artificial intelligence? Discuss the importance of artificial intelligence to India.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that involves creating intelligent
machines that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as speech
recognition, problem-solving, and decision-making.
The importance of AI to India cannot be overstated. Here are some of the reasons why AI is
important to India:
1. Economic Growth: AI is expected to drive economic growth and create new job
opportunities in India. According to a report by NASSCOM, the Indian AI market is
expected to reach $5.1 billion by 2025, creating over 2.5 lakh new jobs.
2. Healthcare: AI has the potential to transform healthcare in India by improving diagnosis,
treatment, and patient outcomes. AI-powered healthcare systems can analyze vast
amounts of patient data and identify patterns and trends that can help doctors make
more informed decisions.
3. Agriculture: AI can help improve crop yields and reduce waste in the agriculture sector.
AI-powered sensors and drones can be used to monitor soil moisture levels, crop health,
and weather patterns, allowing farmers to make more informed decisions about
irrigation, fertilization, and crop management.
4. Education: AI can be used to personalize learning and improve student outcomes in
India. AI-powered educational tools can adapt to the learning styles and needs of
individual students, providing personalized feedback and support.
5. Smart Cities: AI can be used to create more efficient and sustainable cities in India. AI-
powered systems can be used to manage traffic flow, optimize energy consumption, and
improve public safety.
In conclusion, AI has the potential to transform India in numerous ways, from driving
economic growth to improving healthcare, agriculture, education, and urban planning. As such,
investing in AI research and development is crucial for India's future success.

12. What is meant by GPT in Chat GPT? How does the GPT Technology work?
In Chat GPT, GPT stands for "Generative Pre-trained Transformer." It refers to a type of machine
learning model that is trained on large amounts of text data to generate human-like language
responses to user inputs.
GPT models are based on the Transformer architecture, which uses self-attention
mechanisms to allow the model to focus on different parts of the input sequence. This allows the

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model to learn the relationships between different words and phrases and generate coherent
and contextually appropriate responses.
To create the Chat GPT model, OpenAI trained the model on a large corpus of text data
from the internet using a technique called unsupervised learning. This means that the model was
not explicitly told what the correct responses to user inputs should be. Instead, it learned to
generate responses by analyzing patterns in the input data.
When a user inputs a question or prompt, the Chat GPT model analyzes the input and
generates a response based on the patterns it has learned from the training data. The model is
constantly being updated and improved based on new data, so it is able to generate increasingly
sophisticated and nuanced responses over time.
Overall, the GPT technology used in Chat GPT allows the model to generate human-like
language responses to user inputs, making it a powerful tool for natural language processing and
conversational AI.

1.3 Importance of science and technology in national development


13. Discuss the Role of science and technology in India's national development.
Science and technology have played a crucial role in propelling India towards progress and
prosperity, making it a global leader in cutting-edge research and development.Here are some
key points on the role of science and technology in India's national development:
1. Economic Growth: Science and technology are crucial drivers of India's economic
growth, as advancements in information technology, biotechnology, agriculture,
healthcare, manufacturing, and infrastructure have created new industries, generated
employment opportunities, and increased productivity and efficiency in various sectors,
contributing to the country's economic development.
2. Improving Standard of Living: Science and technology have improved the standard of
living for people in India by innovating in healthcare, agriculture, education, and
communication. This has resulted in better access to healthcare services, improved
agricultural practices, enhanced educational opportunities, and bridging the digital
divide, ultimately improving the quality of life for people across the country.
3. National Security: Science and technology play a critical role in strengthening India's
national security. Advancements in defence technologies, space research, cyber-security,
and critical infrastructure protection have bolstered the country's defence capabilities,
surveillance, and strategic capabilities, ensuring national security and sovereignty.
4. Addressing Societal Challenges: Science and technology are instrumental in addressing
societal challenges in India, including clean energy, water management, waste
management, and environmental conservation, contributing to sustainable development
and environmental solutions. Additionally, healthcare technologies such as telemedicine
are helping to address healthcare challenges in remote and underserved areas.
5. Promoting Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Science and technology foster
innovation and entrepreneurship in India through collaborations among the government,
academia, and industry in research and development, technology transfer, and start-up
incubation programs. This promotes entrepreneurship, creates job opportunities, and
enhances India's competitiveness in the global market.
6. Global Collaboration: Science and technology facilitate global collaborations and
partnerships, allowing India to collaborate with other nations in cutting-edge research
and development initiatives. This helps leverage global knowledge, expertise, and

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resources for India's national development, fostering international cooperation and the
exchange of ideas.
In conclusion, science and technology play a pivotal role in India's national development by
driving economic growth, improving the standard of living, enhancing national security,
addressing societal challenges, promoting innovation and entrepreneurship, and fostering global
collaborations. Continued investment in science and technology, coupled with effective policies
and strategies, is essential for India's sustained progress and development.

14. Discuss how science and technology have contributed to India's national development
in different fields.
Science and technology have played a crucial role in India's national development over the years.
The government has made significant investments in research and development, which has led
to advancements in various fields such as agriculture, healthcare, energy, IT, and space.
1. Agriculture: The use of technology has led to an increase in crop productivity and
efficiency. The Green Revolution, which was implemented in the 1960s and 1970s,
made use of high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation systems. This
increased crop productivity and helped India become self-sufficient in food
production.
2. Healthcare: The use of technology has led to the development of new drugs, medical
equipment, and vaccines. India has a robust pharmaceutical industry, which produces a
wide range of drugs at affordable prices.
3. Energy: Besides achieving universal household electricity connection, India has made
significant progress in the field of renewable energy. India had set an ambitious target of
generating 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022 which it further increased to 450 GW
by 2030.
4. ICT Developments: India has a strong IT industry that has made significant
contributions to the country's economy by enabling world class IT exports. The
government's 'Digital India' initiative aims to provide digital infrastructure and services
to citizens.
5. Space Exploration: The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has developed a
range of satellites and launch vehicles, and has also successfully sent a spacecraft to
Mars.
In conclusion, science and technology have played a vital role in India's national
development. The country has made significant progress in various fields, such as
agriculture, healthcare, energy, space, and IT, and has set ambitious targets for the future.
The government's continued investment in research and development will undoubtedly lead
to further advancements and contribute to the country's overall development.

1.4 Industrial Development & Urbanization


Note: Urbanization is also mentioned in the Syllabus of Paper-II (under Indian Geography) and
Paper-III (under Society). Hence mainly the application aspects of urbanization related to Science
and Technology are discussed here.
15. What is urbanization? Discuss the factors that are leading to urbanization in India.
Urbanization refers to the process of a population shift from rural to urban areas, resulting in the
growth of urban settlements. It involves the increase in the proportion of people living in urban
areas, accompanied by the expansion of cities, and the development of urban infrastructure.
Some of the factors leading to urbanization in India are:

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1. Economic opportunities: Urban areas offer better job opportunities, especially in the
manufacturing, service, and information technology sectors. The growth of the service
sector, in particular, has led to the expansion of cities and the migration of people from
rural areas.
2. Infrastructure development: Urban areas have better infrastructure, including roads,
public transportation, electricity, and water supply. This attracts people who are looking
for a better quality of life and access to basic amenities.
3. Education and healthcare: Urban areas have better access to education and healthcare
facilities, including schools, colleges, universities, hospitals, and clinics. This attracts
people who are looking for better education and healthcare opportunities.
4. Modern lifestyle: Urban areas offer a modern lifestyle with access to shopping malls,
cinemas, restaurants, and other entertainment options. This attracts people who are
looking for a better quality of life and a modern lifestyle.
5. Environmental factors: Climate change, natural disasters, and environmental
degradation have also contributed to urbanization in India. People who are affected by
these factors often migrate to urban areas in search of a better life.
6. Government policies: The Indian government has launched various schemes and
programs to promote urbanization, including the Smart Cities Mission, Atal Mission for
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
(PMAY).
Overall, the push and pull factors driving urbanization in India are complex and interlinked.
While urbanization offers many benefits, it also poses challenges such as overcrowding, traffic
congestion, and environmental degradation. It is therefore important for the government to
adopt a sustainable approach to urban development that balances economic growth with social
and environmental considerations.

Push & Pull Factors of urbanization


The factors for the rapid urbanization can be explained or memorized for examination
purpose in terms of push and pull factors.
• Push factors are those that drive people away from rural areas, such as poverty, lack
of job opportunities, poor infrastructure, and limited access to basic services.
• Pull factors are those that attract people to urban areas, such as better job
opportunities, access to education and healthcare, and a better quality of life.

16. Explain the role of Science and Technology in modern urbanization. Or


Science, technology, and innovation are key elements of sustainable urbanization. Justify
with examples.
Sustainable urbanization is the process of creating and managing urban areas in a way that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. It involves designing, planning, and managing cities in a way that is
environmentally sustainable, socially inclusive, and economically viable.
Science, technology, and innovation are essential elements of sustainable urbanization as
they play a vital role in creating more efficient, liveable, and resilient cities.
Here are some examples of how these elements contribute to sustainable urbanization:
1. Sustainable energy: The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, in
urban areas is essential to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate

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change. Innovative technologies, such as smart grids, can help to improve energy
efficiency and better integrate renewable energy sources into urban energy systems.
2. Smart transportation: Sustainable urban transportation solutions can reduce traffic
congestion and air pollution while improving access to essential services. Intelligent
transportation systems, including smart traffic lights and connected vehicles, can help to
optimize traffic flow and reduce emissions.
3. Green infrastructure: Green infrastructure, such as green roofs, parks, and urban
forests, can help to mitigate the impacts of climate change, reduce air pollution, and
enhance the quality of life in cities. Scientific research and innovation can help to identify
the most effective green infrastructure solutions and optimize their performance.
4. Energy-efficient buildings: Technology can be used to create energy-efficient buildings
that reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. This includes building
materials that can insulate buildings better and reduce heat loss or gain, as well as smart
building management systems that can automatically adjust heating, cooling, and lighting
based on occupancy and weather patterns.
5. Waste management: Innovative waste management technologies, such as waste-to-
energy systems and recycling facilities, can help to reduce waste volumes and recover
valuable resources from urban waste streams. By reducing the amount of waste sent to
landfills, these technologies can also help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
improve air and water quality.
6. Resilience: Urban areas are increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters and other
disruptive events. Science and technology can help to enhance urban resilience by
improving early warning systems, developing innovative building materials, and creating
more resilient infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events.
In summary, science, technology, and innovation are critical components of sustainable
urbanization. By leveraging these elements, cities can become more efficient, liveable, and
resilient while reducing their environmental footprint and improving the quality of life for their
residents.

17. What are the impacts of unplanned urbanization on the twin cities of Telangana?
Unplanned urbanization can have a range of negative impacts on the twin cities of Telangana,
including Hyderabad and Secunderabad. Some of the impacts of unplanned urbanization in these
cities include:
1. Traffic congestion: Unplanned urbanization can result in haphazard development and
poor transportation infrastructure, leading to traffic congestion and longer commute
times. This can lead to increased air pollution, reduced productivity, and reduced quality
of life for residents.
2. Inadequate infrastructure: Unplanned urbanization can result in inadequate
infrastructure, including water and sewage systems, healthcare facilities, and schools.
This can result in poor living conditions, health hazards, and limited access to essential
services.
3. Environmental degradation: Unplanned urbanization can lead to environmental
degradation, including deforestation, loss of green spaces, and water pollution. This can
have a negative impact on the health and well-being of residents and can contribute to
climate change.
4. Informal settlements: Unplanned urbanization can result in the growth of informal
settlements, which lack basic amenities and infrastructure. These settlements can be

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 18


overcrowded, lack access to clean water and sanitation, and be prone to disasters such as
flooding and fires.
5. Social inequality: Unplanned urbanization can result in social inequality, as wealthier
residents are often able to live in more desirable neighborhoods with better amenities
and infrastructure, while poorer residents are relegated to informal settlements and
slums with limited access to essential services.
In summary, unplanned urbanization in the twin cities of Telangana can lead to a range of
negative impacts, including traffic congestion, inadequate infrastructure, environmental
degradation, informal settlements, and social inequality. To mitigate these impacts, it is
important to develop and implement sustainable urban planning and design strategies that
prioritize the needs of all residents, including those in informal settlements and low-income
areas.

18. Explain how planned technological interventions are the way forward for sustainable
urbanization in Telangana?
Planned technological interventions are essential for achieving sustainable urbanization in
Telangana. Here are some reasons why:
1. Efficiency: Technological interventions can improve the efficiency of urban systems,
such as energy, water, and transportation. For example, smart building management
systems can optimize energy consumption, while intelligent traffic management systems
can reduce traffic congestion and improve air quality.
2. Sustainability: Technological interventions can also help to promote sustainability by
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, and creating green
infrastructure. For example, solar panels and wind turbines can be integrated into
building design to provide renewable energy, while green roofs and walls can be used to
reduce the urban heat island effect and improve air quality.
3. Resilience: Technological interventions can also enhance the resilience of urban areas to
climate change, natural disasters, and other shocks. For example, flood monitoring
systems can alert residents to potential flooding, while emergency response systems can
coordinate rescue efforts and minimize the impact of disasters.
4. Inclusion: Technological interventions can also help to promote social inclusion and
reduce inequality by increasing access to essential services and improving the quality of
life for all residents. For example, smart transportation systems can improve access to
public transportation, while digital connectivity can provide access to information and
services for residents in underserved areas.
To achieve sustainable urbanization in Telangana, it is essential to adopt a holistic approach
that combines urban planning, design, and management strategies with planned technological
interventions. By leveraging technology to improve efficiency, promote sustainability, enhance
resilience, and promote inclusion, we can create cities that are livable, healthy, and prosperous
for all their residents.

19. What role does Science and Technology play in industrial development? Elaborate
with examples.
Science and technology play a crucial role in industrial development. They are the key drivers of
innovation and productivity, and they have enabled industrial processes to become more
efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 19


In this context, the role of science and technology can be broadly classified into the following
categories:
1. Research and Development: Science and technology are critical to the process of
research and development (R&D) that leads to new and improved products, processes,
and services. Research in fields such as materials science, biotechnology, and artificial
intelligence has led to the development of new materials, medicines, and technologies
that have transformed industrial processes and products.
2. Automation and Robotics: Science and technology have also enabled the automation of
many industrial processes, leading to increased efficiency, productivity, and quality.
Robotics and automation have replaced many manual tasks, leading to improved safety,
reduced costs, and increased output.
3. Information and Communication Technology (ICT): The development of ICT has led
to the creation of new industries such as e-commerce, digital media, and online services.
ICT has also enabled the integration of supply chains, improved communication between
stakeholders, and increased the speed and accuracy of decision-making.
4. Sustainable Development: Science and technology have also played a critical role in
promoting sustainable development. The development of clean technologies, such as
renewable energy sources, has reduced the dependence on fossil fuels, leading to
reduced emissions and pollution. Technologies for waste management, water treatment,
and environmental monitoring have also contributed to sustainable development.
5. Skilled Workforce: Science and technology require a highly skilled workforce, leading to
the development of new jobs and industries. The availability of skilled workers with
expertise in science, engineering, and technology has been a key factor in attracting
foreign investment and developing new industries.
In conclusion, science and technology are the driving forces behind industrial development.
They have enabled the development of new products, processes, and services, and have led to
increased efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. As such, investments in science and
technology are essential for promoting economic growth, creating new jobs, and improving the
quality of life for people around the world.

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Chapter 2: Policy on Science & ICT
Syllabus: National Policy of Science & Technology: changes in Policy from time to time: Technology
missions; ICT: Basics in Computers, Robotics, Nano technology and communication.

2.1 National Policy of Science and Technology


1. Illustrate the objective and features of the draft 5th Science, Technology, and Innovation
Policy.
The 5th Science, Technology, and Innovation policy (STIP) aims to promote a culture of
innovation, foster entrepreneurship, and enhance the country's technological capabilities.
Overall objectives:
1. To position India among the top five countries in terms of quality of research outcome by
2030
2. To promote the development of a robust STI ecosystem in India that is aligned with
national development goals and global trends.
3. To encourage scientific research and innovation that addresses national challenges,
promotes sustainable development, and improves quality of life.
4. To strengthen India's science and technology infrastructure, including research facilities,
human resources, and funding mechanisms.
5. To foster greater collaboration between academia, industry, and government, and to
promote entrepreneurship and technology transfer.
6. To promote the internationalization of India's STI ecosystem, including increased
collaboration with other countries and participation in global STI networks.
7. To improve the dissemination and communication of scientific knowledge and to
promote scientific literacy and public engagement with science.
8. To ensure the ethical, safe, and responsible development and use of science and
technology in India.
Feature of draft 5th National Policy on STIP:
1. Emphasis on multidisciplinary research: The policy highlights the importance of
multidisciplinary research in addressing complex problems and promoting innovation.
2. Focus on developing human resources: The policy aims to develop a skilled workforce
in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields and promote
diversity and gender equality in STEM education and research.
3. Promotion of industry-academia collaboration: The policy aims to encourage
collaboration between industry and academia to promote research and innovation that
can benefit the Indian economy and society.
4. Strengthening of research infrastructure: The policy emphasizes the need to
strengthen research infrastructure in India, including the establishment of research
facilities, equipment, and data repositories.
5. Promotion of entrepreneurship and innovation: The policy aims to create an enabling
ecosystem for entrepreneurship and innovation, including support for startups,
technology transfer, and intellectual property rights.
6. International collaboration: The policy emphasizes the importance of international
collaboration in science, technology, and innovation to promote global competitiveness
and address global challenges.
7. Promotion of ethical, social, and environmental considerations: The policy
emphasizes the importance of ethical, social, and environmental considerations in

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science, technology, and innovation to ensure that research and innovation are aligned
with societal needs and values.
8. Establishing a National Research Foundation (NRF) to provide a single window for
funding of all types of research in India. Proposed with Rs. 50,000 crore allocation in 5
years. Budget 23-24 allocated Rs. 2,000 crores for it.

2. Discuss the challenges for the new Science, Technology and Innovation policy? Suggest
the way forward.
Challenges for new STIP
▪ Financing: STIP faces the challenges of how to finance the R&Ds and startups and what
role do the industries and government play in it.
▪ Enhancing quality: STIP has to play a key role in enhancing the profoundness, quality
and the relevance of our basic researches.
▪ Gender parity: Geographic representation of women is not always very balanced while
active participation includes all of the people of the country.
▪ Equal Involvement: Not all great ideas come from PhD holders, a farmer knows what
challenges are faced by him and what are his needs so he could provide better solutions
for himself. The challenge is to have equal involvement from all the sectors.
▪ Implementation: The governance and proper implementation of this policy in order to
obtain maximum benefits still exists as a challenge.
▪ Collaboration: Innovation does not take place with a homogenous system of working, it
will occur when different minded people and systems are brought together.
Way Forward
▪ The advantage of this policy should be taken and bring together the knowledge
(academia) and economy (industry) to work.
▪ Areas in the country those are important from the point of view of r&d and s&t to be
selected and go the whole hog in making an impact on them.
▪ Students need to be exposed to the technology platforms at the early but correct age. The
technology platforms are information technology, biotechnology, nanotechnology,
cognitive technology and quantum technology.
▪ Innovation needs to be prioritized, all other fields will eventually go hand in hand.
▪ Academia has a bigger role to play in bringing the industries and government together.

2.2 Changes in Policy from time to time


3. Trace the evolution of science and technology policies in independent India.
India's journey towards formulating science and technology policies started with the
establishment of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1942, even before
India's independence. After independence, India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru gave
great emphasis to scientific and technological development for the country's progress.
The following are some of the significant milestones in the evolution of science and technology
policies in independent India:
• Scientific Policy Resolution 1958:
▪ SPR 1958 laid the foundation of the scientific enterprise and scientific temper in India.
▪ The SPR emphasized the importance of developing indigenous technologies and
strengthening research and development activities in the country.
▪ Technology Policy Statement 1983:

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▪ This policy statement marked a significant shift in India's approach to science and
technology. It emphasized the need for technology to be developed and deployed in a
way that would support national development goals, including poverty reduction and
social welfare.
▪ The policy also stressed the importance of international collaboration in science and
technology.
▪ Science and Technology Policy 2003:
▪ Its aim was to keep up the pace with science and technology, to stay competitive in an
increasingly globalized world and to meet the primary goal of equitable and sustainable
development.
▪ It called to invest heavily in the research and development sector with the aim of
increasing investment to 2% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
▪ Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2013:
▪ The decade of 2010 to 2020 was declared as a decade of innovation.
▪ It was acknowledged that to stay globally competitive, it was necessary to make a
transition into a knowledge-based economy.
▪ This policy document was a step in the direction towards building a robust national
innovation ecosystem.
▪ Draft 5th Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP) of 2021:
▪ This draft policy aims to position India as a global leader in science, technology, and
innovation and to leverage STI for inclusive and sustainable development. It emphasizes
the importance of developing an STI ecosystem aligned with national development goals
and global trends and fostering greater collaboration between academia, industry, and
government.
Overall, India's science and technology policies have evolved over the years to reflect the
changing priorities of the country and the global trends. These policies have played a crucial role
in shaping India's scientific and technological development and positioning the country as a
leader in various fields.

2.3 Technology Missions


4. What are technology missions? Discuss the evolution of various technology missions
adopted by India.
A Technology Mission includes projects that have well-defined objectives, scopes, and
implementation timelines to aid the technological advancements in the country.
These missions were first proposed by Rajiv Gandhi-led government in 1987 as an offshoot of
the 7th Plan (1985-90) in the fields of literacy, immunization, oilseeds, drinking water, dairy
products, and telecommunication. Since then many technology missions on pulses, oil palm,
maize, Railways, nanotechnology, technical textiles, etc have been introduced. These are funded
jointly by the Center and State along with related agencies.
The Prime Minister’s Science, Technology Innovation and Advisory Council (PM-STIAC)
formulated nine technology missions between October 2018 and January 2019.
The Nine technology missions identified are:
1. Natural Language Translation
2. Quantum Frontier
3. Artificial Intelligence
4. National Biodiversity
5. Electrical Vehicles

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6. BioScience and Human Health
7. Waste to Wealth
8. Deep Ocean Exploration
9. Accelerating Growth of New India’s Innovations (AGNIi)
Each of these missions will be led by a Ministry and will engage international and national
institutional partners, young scientists, and industry partners.
All these missions are formulated keeping in mind the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

2.4 ICT: Basics in Computers & Communication


5. Discuss the broad applications of the Information and Communication Technology.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the use of digital technologies to
access, manage, process, and transmit information. The applications of ICT are vast and diverse,
and they span across different sectors of the economy.
Here are some broad applications of ICT:
1. Communication: ICT has made communication faster, easier, and more efficient.
• We can now communicate with anyone in the world in real-time through various
digital platforms like email, social media, video conferencing, and instant
messaging.
2. Education: ICT has transformed the way we learn and teach. It has made education more
accessible, interactive, and engaging.
• Online learning platforms, e-books, and educational apps have made education
more flexible and convenient.
3. Healthcare: ICT has revolutionized healthcare by improving patient care and outcomes.
• Electronic medical records, telemedicine, and remote monitoring technologies
have made healthcare more efficient and accessible to people in remote areas.
4. Business: ICT has transformed the way businesses operate. It has made it easier to reach
customers, manage operations, and improve efficiency.
• E-commerce, digital marketing, and online payment systems have made it easier
for businesses to reach a global audience.
5. Government: ICT has made government services more accessible and transparent.
• E-government services like online tax filing, voter registration, and passport
applications have made it easier for citizens to access government services.
6. Entertainment: ICT has transformed the entertainment industry.
• Streaming services like Netflix, Hulu, and Disney+ have made it easier for people
to access their favorite movies and TV shows. Video games and virtual reality
have created new forms of entertainment.
7. Social media: Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have
revolutionized the way we connect and interact with each other. They have created new
opportunities for businesses, influencers, and individuals to connect with their audience.
8. Global Information Infrastructure (GII): with billions of mobile phones, millions of
kms of fibre cables, millions of servers & computers, thousands of satellites, and all other
supporting infrastructure – the GII made the world into an information village that is at
the fingertips of anyone with an internet connection.
In summary, the applications of ICT are diverse and far-reaching. ICT has transformed the way
we live, work, and communicate with each other, and it will continue to shape our future.

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Examples of ICT projects in the rural India
1. ITC launched E-Choupal in 2000 to improve the income of rural farmers by providing
them with access to real-time market information and weather updates. The internet-
based platform also facilitates direct sale of produce to buyers, reducing
intermediaries and improving the agricultural supply chain's efficiency.
2. Akshaya, launched in 2002, set up community information centers (CICs) in villages
in Kerala to improve digital literacy and e-governance services. These centers offer
computer training, internet access, and e-governance services, improving access to
government services and promoting digital literacy.
3. Digital Green is a non-profit organization that uses ICT to improve agricultural
practices and increase yields in rural areas. Low-cost video technology is used to
produce and share videos on best agricultural practices, resulting in increased yields
for farmers.
4. The Indian government launched M-Kisan in 2012 to improve the delivery of
agricultural information and services to farmers through mobile technology. The
project provides real-time market information, weather updates, and crop
management advice through text messages and mobile applications.
5. Gram Vaani, a social enterprise, promotes community radio in rural areas using
mobile technology. The platform enables rural communities to produce and broadcast
their own radio programs, promoting community engagement and social
development.

6. Explain the role of Information and communication technology in rural development of


India.
Information and communication technology (ICT) played and continues to play a significant role
in the rural development of India.
Here are some of the ways ICT can support rural development in India:
1. Access to information: ICT can provide farmers with access to critical information on
weather, soil health, and market prices.
• This information can help farmers make better decisions about crop
management, improve yields, and get better prices for their produce.
2. Agricultural productivity: ICT tools like precision farming technologies and remote
sensing can help farmers improve their yields by optimizing the use of resources like
water, fertilizer, and pesticides. This can help increase agricultural productivity and
income for rural communities.
3. Rural entrepreneurship: ICT can enable rural entrepreneurs to access global markets
through e-commerce platforms and digital marketing. This can create new opportunities
for rural communities to participate in the global economy and increase their income.
4. Education and healthcare: ICT can improve access to education and healthcare in rural
areas through online learning platforms and telemedicine. This can help bridge the gap in
access to quality education and healthcare between urban and rural areas.
5. Financial inclusion: ICT can support financial inclusion in rural areas by enabling digital
payments and providing access to financial services like loans and insurance. This can
help rural communities access the financial resources they need to grow their businesses
and improve their lives.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 25


In summary, ICT can play a critical role in promoting rural development in India by
improving access to information, enhancing agricultural productivity, promoting rural
entrepreneurship, improving education and healthcare, and supporting financial inclusion.
However, to realize the full potential of ICT, there is a need for investments in infrastructure,
training, and policy support to ensure that these technologies are accessible and affordable for
rural communities.

Examples for applications of ICT in agriculture in India


1. Kisan Suvidha: It is a mobile app launched by the Indian government to provide
farmers with information on weather, market prices, agricultural practices, and
government schemes. The app also has a facility for farmers to ask questions and seek
expert advice.
2. Soil Health Card Scheme: This is a scheme launched by the Indian government to
assess the soil health of farms and provide farmers with recommendations for
improving soil fertility. ICT tools like mobile apps and web-based platforms are being
used to collect and analyze data on soil health and provide customized
recommendations to farmers.
3. E-Sagu: E-Sagu is a mobile app developed by the International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) that provides farmers with information on crop
management practices, pest and disease control, and market trends. The app also has a
feature for farmers to ask questions and receive expert advice.
4. E-National Agricultural Market: It is a platform that integrates the existing APMCs in
order to provide better access to information and create efficient markets for
agricultural produce.

7. Describe the applications of ICT in the field of agriculture in India.


Information and communication technology (ICT) has the potential to transform the agricultural
sector in India by improving productivity, reducing costs, and increasing profitability.
Here are some of the key applications of ICT in agriculture in India:
1. Precision agriculture: Precision agriculture involves using ICT tools like remote sensing,
drones, and GPS to monitor crops and optimize the use of resources like water, fertilizer,
and pesticides. Precision agriculture can help reduce input costs, improve yields, and
promote sustainable farming practices.
2. Market information systems: ICT tools like mobile apps and web-based platforms can
provide farmers with access to real-time market information and help them make
informed decisions about when and where to sell their produce. This can help farmers
get better prices for their produce and reduce post-harvest losses.
3. Weather forecasting: Accurate weather forecasting is critical for agricultural planning
and management. ICT tools like weather stations, mobile apps, and SMS-based systems can
provide farmers with real-time weather information and alerts, helping them make
better decisions about planting, harvesting, and crop management.
4. Agricultural extension services: ICT tools like mobile apps, web-based platforms, and
community radio can be used to provide farmers with agricultural extension services,
including advice on crop management, pest control, and market trends. This can help
farmers adopt best practices and improve their productivity and profitability.
5. Digital payment systems: Digital payment systems like mobile wallets, e-commerce
platforms, and digital kiosks can help farmers access financial services, including loans,

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 26


insurance, and credit facilities. This can help farmers invest in their farms, improve their
productivity, and expand their businesses.
In summary, ICT has the potential to revolutionize agriculture in India by improving
productivity, reducing costs, and increasing profitability. However, to realize the full potential of
ICT in agriculture, there is a need for investments in infrastructure, training, and policy support
to ensure that these technologies are accessible and affordable for farmers.

8. Write a note on the Digital India program.


Digital India is an initiative launched by the Indian government in 2015 to transform India into a
digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. The initiative aims to provide digital
infrastructure, digital literacy, and digital services to all citizens of India, including those in rural
and remote areas.
The Digital India program is focused on three key areas:
1. Digital Infrastructure: The initiative aims to provide high-speed internet connectivity
to all citizens, including those in rural and remote areas.
• The government is investing in the creation of a robust digital infrastructure,
including the establishment of a National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN) to
provide broadband connectivity to over 250,000 gram panchayats (village
councils) in India.
2. Digital Services: The initiative aims to provide citizens with access to a range of digital
services, including e-governance services, e-health services, e-education services, and e-
commerce platforms.
• The government is working on the development of platforms like MyGov, e-
Courts, and DigiLocker to provide citizens with easy access to digital services.
3. Digital Literacy: The initiative aims to provide digital literacy to all citizens, including
those in rural and remote areas.
• The government is working on the development of a range of digital literacy
programs, including the National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM), which aims to
provide digital literacy training to one crore citizens across India.
The Digital India initiative is seen as a key driver of India's economic growth and
development. By providing citizens with access to digital infrastructure, services, and literacy,
the initiative aims to create a digitally empowered society that is better equipped to participate
in the global economy.

9. Briefly write about the objectives and significance of e-National Agriculture Market.
e-National Agriculture Market (eNAM) is an online trading platform for agricultural commodities
in India. It was launched in 2016 as part of the government's Digital India initiative to provide
farmers with a transparent and efficient system for selling their produce.
The primary objectives of eNAM are:
1. To create a single national market for agricultural commodities: eNAM aims to provide
farmers with access to a nationwide market for their produce, thereby increasing their
bargaining power and reducing transaction costs.
2. To promote transparency and efficiency in agricultural trade: eNAM aims to eliminate
intermediaries in the agricultural supply chain and provide farmers with direct access to
buyers. This helps to reduce transaction costs and ensure fair prices for farmers.
3. To promote the use of technology in agricultural trade: eNAM uses technology to
provide real-time information on market prices, quantity, and quality of agricultural

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commodities. This helps farmers to make informed decisions on when and where to sell
their produce.
The significance of eNAM is:
1. Better price realization: eNAM provides farmers with access to a larger pool of buyers,
which increases competition and helps farmers to get better prices for their produce.
2. Transparency in pricing: The online platform provides real-time information on
market prices, which helps to ensure transparency in pricing and reduce the scope for
price manipulation.
3. Reduction in transaction costs: eNAM eliminates intermediaries in the agricultural
supply chain, which helps to reduce transaction costs and increase farmers' incomes.
4. Improved market access: eNAM provides farmers with access to a nationwide market for
their produce, which helps to overcome the limitations of local markets and improve
market access for farmers.
Overall, eNAM has the potential to transform the agricultural marketing system in India by
providing farmers with access to a transparent and efficient market for their produce.

10. Discuss the challenges India faces in expansion of ICT applications. Also mention the
solutions to these challenges.
India has made significant progress in expanding the use of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) applications in recent years. However, there are several challenges that India
faces in the expansion of ICT applications.
Some of these challenges include:
1. Digital Divide: India has a significant digital divide between urban and rural areas, with
rural areas having limited access to digital infrastructure and services. This limits the
adoption of ICT applications in rural areas.
Solution: The government needs to focus on providing digital infrastructure and services
to rural areas through initiatives like BharatNet and Common Service Centers (CSCs).
2. Limited Digital Literacy: A significant proportion of the Indian population has limited
digital literacy, which limits the adoption of ICT applications.
Solution: The government needs to focus on increasing digital literacy through initiatives
like the National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) and Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (DISHA).
3. Cybersecurity Risks: The adoption of ICT applications has also led to an increase in
cybersecurity risks, including cyber-attacks, data breaches, and identity theft.
Solution: The government needs to focus on developing robust cybersecurity measures
and promoting cybersecurity awareness among citizens and businesses.
4. Lack of Local Language Support: Many ICT applications are only available in English,
which limits their adoption in non-English speaking regions of the country.
Solution: The government needs to focus on promoting the development of ICT
applications in local languages to increase their adoption in non-English speaking
regions.
5. Infrastructure Challenges: India faces several infrastructure challenges, including
power outages and poor network connectivity, which limit the adoption of ICT
applications.
Solution: The government needs to focus on improving infrastructure, including power
and network connectivity, to support the expansion of ICT applications.
In conclusion, the expansion of ICT applications in India faces several challenges, including the
digital divide, limited digital literacy, cybersecurity risks, lack of local language support, and

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 28


infrastructure challenges. However, the government can address these challenges through
initiatives like BharatNet, CSCs, NDLM, DISHA, cybersecurity measures, local language support,
and infrastructure development.

11. What is cyber threat? Write about different types of cyber threats?
A cyber threat is any malicious activity that seeks to damage, disrupt, steal, or gain unauthorized
access to computer systems, networks, and electronic devices. Cyber threats can come from a
variety of sources, including criminals, hackers, nation-states, and insiders. There are several
types of cyber threats, including:
1. Malware: Malware refers to any software that is designed to harm computer systems,
networks, and electronic devices. Malware can take many forms, including viruses,
worms, Trojans, ransomware, and spyware.
2. Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack that uses fraudulent emails, text
messages, or websites to trick users into revealing sensitive information, such as login
credentials, financial information, or personal data.
3. Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks: DoS and
DDoS attacks involve overwhelming computer systems and networks with a flood of
traffic or requests, causing them to crash or become unavailable.
4. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks: MitM attacks involve intercepting and altering
communications between two parties, allowing attackers to steal sensitive information
or manipulate data.
5. Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs): APTs are long-term targeted attacks that are
typically carried out by nation-states or advanced cybercriminal groups. APTs involve a
series of sophisticated and coordinated attacks aimed at stealing sensitive information or
disrupting critical systems.
6. Insider Threats: Insider threats involve individuals within an organization who abuse
their access to systems, data, or networks for malicious purposes, such as stealing
confidential information or causing damage to systems.
7. Password attacks: Password attacks involve using software tools to guess or crack user
passwords, allowing attackers to gain unauthorized access to systems or data.
In conclusion, cyber threats are a significant and growing concern for individuals, businesses,
and governments worldwide. It is essential to understand the different types of cyber threats
and take appropriate measures to protect against them, including implementing robust
cybersecurity measures, educating employees and users, and maintaining regular backups of
critical data.

12. What is Digital Divide? Discuss the causes and impacts of digital divide. Suggest some
measures to bridge digital divide.
Digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to information and
communication technologies (ICTs) and those who do not. This gap is typically based on
differences in socioeconomic status, geographic location, age, gender, and other factors. The term
digital divide can also refer to disparities in digital literacy and the ability to use digital
technologies effectively.
Causes of digital divide:
1. Socioeconomic factors: Income and education are the primary determinants of access
to technology. People with lower incomes and less education are less likely to have
access to computers and the internet.

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2. Geographic location: People who live in rural areas or remote regions may have limited
access to broadband internet and other digital technologies.
3. Age and gender: Older adults and women are less likely to have access to digital
technologies than younger people and men.
4. Infrastructure and regulation: In some cases, limited infrastructure or regulatory
barriers may limit access to digital technologies.
Impacts of digital divide:
1. Economic inequality: People who lack access to digital technologies are often unable to
take advantage of online job opportunities, online learning, or online entrepreneurship.
2. Educational disparities: Students without access to digital technologies may have
limited access to educational resources, online learning, and digital literacy programs.
3. Health disparities: Digital technologies can be used to access health information,
telemedicine services, and other health-related resources. People without access to these
technologies may experience poorer health outcomes.
4. Political inequality: People without access to digital technologies may be less able to
engage in political discourse, access government services, or participate in elections.
Measures to bridge digital divide:
1. Government initiatives: Governments can invest in broadband infrastructure and
provide subsidies or tax breaks to encourage companies to expand access to digital
technologies. Example – Bharat Net project, Digital India Mission…etc.
2. Non-profit organizations: Non-profit organizations can provide digital literacy training,
technology access, and other resources to underserved communities.
3. Public-private partnerships: Governments and private companies can work together to
provide access to digital technologies in underserved areas.
4. Community-led initiatives: Community-led initiatives can provide low-cost or free
access to digital technologies, including community centers or libraries that provide
public access to computers and the internet.
Overall, bridging the digital divide requires a multi-faceted approach that addresses the
various factors contributing to unequal access to digital technologies. By investing in
infrastructure, education, and community resources, we can work towards a more equitable and
connected society.

13. Write about the new ICT policy of the Telangana government, 2021.
The government of Telangana, India, recently announced its new Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) policy for the period of 2021-2026. The policy is designed to
establish Telangana as a leading hub for emerging technologies and digital innovation.
Some of the key objectives of the policy are:
1. To create a conducive environment for the growth of the ICT sector in Telangana.
2. To promote the use of emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain,
Cybersecurity, and Data Analytics.
3. To strengthen the startup ecosystem and create new job opportunities in the ICT sector.
4. To promote digital literacy and skills development among the youth and women in the
state.
To achieve these objectives, the Telangana government has outlined a series of initiatives
and strategies. Some of the key initiatives include:

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1. Establishment of Centers of Excellence in emerging technologies such as AI, Blockchain,
and Cybersecurity.
2. Development of a startup ecosystem with incubators and accelerators to support early-
stage startups in the ICT sector.
3. Creation of a dedicated ICT fund to provide funding and support to startups and
innovation centers.
4. Implementation of a Telangana Digital Skills Mission to provide digital literacy and skills
development training to the youth and women in the state.
5. Promotion of Telangana as an attractive destination for digital investments and
innovation.
Overall, the new ICT policy of the Telangana government aims to create a supportive
environment for the growth of the ICT sector and the adoption of emerging technologies. It is
expected to boost the state's economy, create new job opportunities, and position Telangana as a
leading hub for digital innovation in India.

14. Discuss various ICT initiatives or projects by Telangana government.


The government of Telangana has launched several ICT initiatives and projects to promote the
use of technology and digital innovation in the state. Some of the major initiatives include:
1. T-Fiber: The Telangana Fiber Grid (T-Fiber) project aims to provide high-speed internet
connectivity to every household and business in the state. The project is being
implemented in partnership with private sector companies and is expected to provide a
major boost to the state's digital infrastructure.
2. T-Wallet: The Telangana government has launched a mobile wallet app called T-Wallet
to enable cashless transactions and digital payments. The app supports multiple payment
options, including debit cards, credit cards, and net banking, and is available in multiple
languages.
3. Digital Telangana: The Digital Telangana initiative is aimed at promoting the use of
technology in government services and improving the delivery of public services to
citizens. The initiative includes several e-governance projects such as the online issuance
of certificates, digital land records, and e-seva centers.
4. T-Hub: T-Hub is a startup incubator and accelerator program launched by the Telangana
government in partnership with the private sector. The program provides mentoring,
funding, and support to early-stage startups in the state and aims to promote
entrepreneurship and innovation.
5. Telangana Academy for Skill and Knowledge (TASK): The Telangana Academy for
Skill and Knowledge is a government initiative aimed at providing skill development
training to the youth in the state. The academy offers training in various IT and technical
skills and aims to bridge the skill gap in the job market.
Overall, the Telangana government's ICT initiatives and projects are aimed at promoting the
use of technology, improving digital infrastructure, and fostering innovation and
entrepreneurship in the state.

15. Write a note on the Digital Telangana initiative.


The Digital Telangana initiative is a flagship program launched by the Telangana government to
promote the use of technology and digital innovation in government services and public
administration. The program aims to transform Telangana into a digitally empowered state by
providing citizens with access to online services and improving the delivery of public services.

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The initiative includes several e-governance projects such as:
1. Online issuance of certificates: The government has digitized the process of issuing
certificates such as birth certificates, death certificates, and property documents. Citizens
can now apply for these certificates online and receive them digitally, without having to
visit government offices.
2. Digital land records (Dharani portal): The state government has digitized land records
and made them available online for citizens to access. This has improved transparency
and reduced the possibility of fraud and corruption in land transactions.
3. E-seva centers: The government has set up e-seva centers in various parts of the state to
provide citizens with access to online services such as bill payments, online applications,
and other government services.
4. T-App Folio: The government has launched a mobile app called T-App Folio, which
provides citizens with access to various government services and information. The app
allows citizens to access government services, check the status of applications, and
receive notifications about government programs and schemes.
Overall, the Digital Telangana initiative is aimed at improving the delivery of public services,
promoting transparency and accountability in government, and enabling citizens to access
government services online. The program is a key component of the Telangana government's
efforts to promote digital innovation and transform the state into a digitally empowered society.

2.5 Robotics
16. Define robot and robotics? What are the laws of robotics?
A robot is a machine or device that can perform tasks autonomously or with minimal human
input. Robotics is the field of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and
use of robots. Robots can be used in various applications, including manufacturing, healthcare,
space exploration, and entertainment.
The Laws of Robotics are a set of principles devised by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov in
his 1942 story "Runaround" and later expanded in his other works. The laws are as follows:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come
to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the first law.
3. A robot must protect its existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
first or second law.
These laws were meant to be a moral framework for robots to prevent them from harming
humans and to ensure they behave in an ethical manner. However, in reality, the development
and use of robots are governed by various laws and regulations, including safety standards, data
privacy laws, intellectual property laws, and liability laws. These laws aim to ensure that robots
are safe, reliable, and operate within ethical and legal boundaries.

17. What are the basic concepts of robotics?


The basic concepts of robotics include:
1. Robot Anatomy: This refers to the physical structure of a robot, including its sensors,
actuators, manipulators, and power source. The anatomy of a robot depends on its
application and can range from a simple mobile robot with wheels to a complex
humanoid robot.

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2. Robot Control: Robot control involves the programming of a robot to perform specific
tasks. The control system can range from simple switches and sensors to complex
algorithms and machine learning models.
3. Robot Sensors: Sensors are devices that allow a robot to perceive and interact with its
environment. Common sensors used in robotics include cameras, sonar, lidar, and tactile
sensors.
4. Robot Actuators: Actuators are devices that allow a robot to move or manipulate
objects. Common actuators used in robotics include motors, pneumatic systems, and
hydraulic systems.
5. Robot Programming: Robot programming involves writing software code that controls
the robot's behavior. Programming languages used in robotics include C++, Python, and
Java.
6. Robot Navigation: Robot navigation involves the ability of a robot to move
autonomously in its environment. Navigation systems can range from simple obstacle
avoidance to complex mapping and localization systems.
7. Robot Communication: Robot communication involves the exchange of information
between robots or between robots and humans. Communication methods can range from
simple wireless signals to complex natural language processing systems.
Understanding these basic concepts is essential for designing, building, and programming
robots for various applications, including manufacturing, healthcare, space exploration, and
entertainment.

18. Discuss the various types of robots.


There are various types of robots, classified based on their application, structure, control
mechanism, and mobility. Here are some of the common types of robots:
1. Industrial Robots: These robots are used in manufacturing processes to automate tasks
such as welding, painting, and assembly.
2. Service Robots: These robots are designed to perform tasks that are repetitive,
hazardous, or difficult for humans, such as cleaning, security, and healthcare.
3. Mobile Robots: These robots can move around autonomously, either on wheels or legs,
and are used in applications such as exploration, search and rescue, and logistics.
4. Humanoid Robots: These robots are designed to resemble humans in appearance and
behavior and are used in applications such as research, entertainment, and personal
assistance.
5. Educational Robots: These robots are used in educational settings to teach students
about robotics, programming, and engineering.
6. Military Robots: These robots are used in military applications such as reconnaissance,
bomb disposal, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
7. Entertainment Robots: These robots are designed for entertainment purposes such as
theme park attractions, live shows, and interactive toys.
8. Agricultural Robots: These robots are designed for agricultural applications such as
harvesting, planting, and crop monitoring.
The classification of robots is not exclusive, and many robots can belong to multiple types
based on their functionality and application.

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19. Discuss the applications of robots and robotics in various spheres of human life.
Robots and robotics have become increasingly important in various spheres of human life, and
they have a wide range of applications. Some of the key areas where robots and robotics are
being used include:
1. Manufacturing: Robots are widely used in the manufacturing industry to automate tasks
such as welding, painting, and assembly. They help to increase efficiency, reduce errors,
and improve safety.
2. Healthcare: Robots are used in healthcare applications such as surgery, rehabilitation,
and assistive devices for people with disabilities. They help to increase precision, reduce
recovery time, and improve patient outcomes.
3. Space exploration: Robots are used in space exploration to conduct experiments, gather
data, and perform tasks that are too dangerous or difficult for humans. They help to
reduce costs and increase safety.
4. Agriculture: Robots are used in agriculture applications such as harvesting, planting,
and crop monitoring. They help to increase efficiency, reduce labor costs, and improve
crop yields.
5. Education: Robots are used in educational settings to teach students about robotics,
programming, and engineering. They help to make learning more engaging and
interactive.
6. Entertainment: Robots are used in entertainment applications such as theme park
attractions, live shows, and interactive toys. They help to create engaging and immersive
experiences for audiences.
7. Transportation: Robots are used in transportation applications such as autonomous
cars, drones, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They help to increase safety, reduce
traffic congestion, and improve efficiency.
8. Defense: Robots are used in defense applications such as bomb disposal, reconnaissance,
and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They help to reduce risks to human life and
increase operational efficiency.
In conclusion, robots and robotics have a wide range of applications in various spheres of
human life, and they are helping to increase efficiency, reduce costs, and improve safety and
outcomes. As technology advances, it is likely that the applications of robots and robotics will
continue to expand and diversify.

20. Discuss the activities related to development of robotics in India.


India has been actively involved in the development of robotics and has undertaken several
activities to promote the growth of the robotics industry. Here are some of the key activities
related to the development of robotics in India:
1. Research and Development: Several research institutions, including the Indian
Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Defense Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO), are conducting research on robotics and developing new technologies.
2. Skill Development: The government of India has launched several initiatives to train
and upskill students and professionals in the field of robotics. For example, the Ministry
of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship has launched the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal
Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) to provide skill training to youth across the country.
3. Startup Incubation: The government of India has set up several startup incubation
centers across the country to promote entrepreneurship and innovation in the robotics

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industry. For example, the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad has set up a
Technology Business Incubator (TBI) to support startups in the field of robotics.
4. Funding: The government of India has allocated funds to support research and
development activities in the field of robotics. For example, the Department of Science
and Technology has launched the Technological Advancement for Rural Areas (TARA)
program to fund robotics projects that can benefit rural areas.
5. Industry Collaboration: The government of India is working closely with industry
stakeholders to promote the growth of the robotics industry. For example, the Ministry of
Electronics and Information Technology has signed Memorandums of Understanding
(MOUs) with several companies to develop and commercialize robotics technologies.
Overall, the development of robotics in India is a collaborative effort between the
government, academia, and industry stakeholders. With the support of these stakeholders and
the advancement of technology, India is well-positioned to become a leading player in the global
robotics industry.

Robots developed by ISRO


1. Pragyan: Pragyan is a six-wheeled robotic vehicle that was part of the Chandrayaan-2
mission to the Moon. It is designed to move on the lunar surface and perform
scientific experiments.
2. Vyommitra: Vyommitra is a humanoid robot designed to simulate human functions
in space. It can perform tasks such as controlling switches and handling tools.
3. ASTROBOT: ASTROBOT is a humanoid robot designed to perform space missions. It
has a range of sensors and cameras that enable it to detect and analyze the
environment.
4. Rover: ISRO has developed several rovers for space missions, including the Mars
Rover and the Moon Rover. These rovers are designed to move on the surface of
planets and collect data.
5. RLV TDV: The Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) Technology Demonstration Vehicle
(TDV) is a robotic spacecraft designed to demonstrate the technology for a reusable
space launch system. It is equipped with a range of sensors and systems for
navigation and control.

21. What are some of the robots designed and built in India?
India has made significant progress in the development and deployment of robots across various
industries. Here are some examples of robots designed and built in India:
1. ASIMO: Developed by the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, ASIMO is a humanoid
robot designed to perform complex tasks in real-world environments. It has a range of
sensors and actuators that enable it to interact with the environment and carry out tasks
such as object recognition and manipulation.
2. Manav: Developed by the Manipal Institute of Technology, Manav is a humanoid robot
that can walk, talk, and interact with humans. It has a range of sensors and actuators that
enable it to move around and perform tasks such as picking up objects and moving them
from one place to another.
3. Daksha: Developed by the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO),
Daksha is a remotely operated robot used for bomb disposal and surveillance. It has a
range of sensors and cameras that enable it to detect and neutralize bombs and gather
intelligence.

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4. AquaBot: Developed by students at the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad,
AquaBot is an underwater robot designed to monitor water quality and detect pollution.
It has a range of sensors that can detect changes in temperature, pH, and dissolved
oxygen levels.
5. Pragyaan Rover (Chandrayaan-2): Developed by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO), the Chandrayaan-2 rover is a robotic vehicle designed to explore
the lunar surface. It has a range of sensors and cameras that enable it to collect data and
images of the moon's surface.
These are just a few examples of the robots designed and built in India. With the
advancement of technology and the growth of the robotics industry, it is likely that we will see
more innovative and sophisticated robots being developed in India in the future.

2.6 Nanotechnology
22. What is nanotechnology? Write about the evolution of nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is the field of science and technology that deals with the manipulation of matter
at the atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. It involves the study, design, creation, and
application of materials, devices, and systems with dimensions ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers (nm).
The concept of nanotechnology was first proposed by physicist Richard Feynman in his famous
lecture "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" in 1959. However, it was not until the 1980s that
the term "nanotechnology" was coined by scientist K. Eric Drexler in his book "Engines of
Creation."
The evolution of nanotechnology can be traced back to the early work of scientists such as
Robert Boyle, who in the 17th century, observed that the properties of materials change when
their size is reduced. In the 20th century, the development of microscopy techniques such as
electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopy allowed scientists to observe and
manipulate matter at the nanoscale.
In the 1980s, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) enabled the imaging of
individual atoms and the manipulation of matter at the atomic scale. This breakthrough led to
the development of new materials such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene, which
have unique properties due to their small size and high surface area.
In the 1990s, the field of nanotechnology began to expand rapidly, with researchers exploring
the potential applications of nanomaterials in various fields, including electronics, medicine, and
energy. Today, nanotechnology is a rapidly growing field with a wide range of applications, from
the development of new materials with enhanced properties to the creation of nanoscale devices
for medical diagnosis and treatment.

23. Elaborate on the various applications of the nanotechnology that influence the human
life.
Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications that are already influencing human life in
numerous ways. Here are some of the most significant applications of nanotechnology:
1. Medicine: Nanotechnology is having a significant impact on medicine, with numerous
applications in drug delivery, imaging, and diagnostics. For example, nanoscale drug
delivery systems can target specific cells or tissues, increasing the effectiveness of
treatments and reducing side effects. Nanoparticle-based imaging agents can improve
the sensitivity and specificity of medical imaging techniques, allowing for earlier and

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more accurate disease detection. Nanosensors can detect biomolecules in the body,
leading to more personalized and effective healthcare.
2. Electronics: Nanotechnology is also revolutionizing electronics, with applications in
everything from consumer electronics to renewable energy. Nanoscale transistors and
other components can be more efficient and faster than traditional materials, leading to
faster and more powerful electronics. Nanoscale coatings can improve the durability and
performance of electronic devices. Nanoparticle-based solar cells and other renewable
energy technologies are also being developed.
3. Energy: Nanotechnology is being used to improve energy production, storage, and
efficiency. For example, nanoparticles can improve the efficiency of fuel cells, while
nanoscale coatings can improve the durability of wind turbines and other renewable
energy systems. Nanomaterials are also being developed for energy storage, such as
batteries and supercapacitors.
4. Environment: Nanotechnology has applications in environmental science and
sustainability, such as in water treatment, pollution control, and resource conservation.
Nanoparticle-based filters and membranes can remove contaminants from water and air,
while nanoscale catalysts can improve the efficiency of chemical reactions used in
pollution control. Nanoscale materials are also being developed for more efficient and
sustainable agriculture.
5. Textiles: Nanotechnology is also being used in the textile industry, with applications in
stain and wrinkle resistance, moisture management, and UV protection. Nanoscale
coatings can make fabrics more durable and resistant to stains, while nanoparticles can
provide moisture-wicking properties and protect against UV radiation.
6. Cosmetics: Nanotechnology is being used in the development of cosmetics, such as in
sunscreen and anti-aging products. Nanoparticle-based sunscreens can provide better
protection against harmful UV rays, while nanoscale delivery systems can improve the
effectiveness of anti-aging treatments.
Overall, nanotechnology has numerous applications that are already impacting human life in
significant ways, with the potential for even greater impact in the future. These applications have
the potential to improve healthcare, electronics, energy production, environmental
sustainability, and many other areas of human life.

24. Illustrate the applications of Nanotechnology in healthcare field.


Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize healthcare by enabling the development of
novel therapeutic and diagnostic tools that are more precise, efficient, and less invasive than
current technologies. Some of the applications of nanotechnology in healthcare are as follows:
1. Drug delivery: Nanoparticles can be used as carriers to deliver drugs to specific cells or
tissues in the body, increasing the effectiveness and reducing the side effects of
treatments.
2. Imaging: Nanoparticles can be used as contrast agents in medical imaging techniques
such as MRI, CT, and PET to improve the resolution and sensitivity of the images.
3. Sensors: Nanoparticles can be used to create sensors that can detect biomarkers for
various diseases, allowing for earlier and more accurate diagnoses.
4. Wound healing: Nanoparticles can be used in wound dressings to promote healing and
prevent infection by releasing drugs or growth factors.
5. Cancer therapy: Nanoparticles can be designed to target cancer cells specifically,
delivering drugs or radiation directly to the tumor while sparing healthy tissue.

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6. Antibacterial coatings: Nanoparticles can be used to create antibacterial coatings on
medical devices such as implants, catheters, and surgical instruments, reducing the risk
of infection.
7. Tissue engineering: Nanotechnology can be used to create scaffolds for tissue
engineering, allowing for the regeneration of damaged tissues and organs.
Overall, nanotechnology has the potential to transform the way we diagnose and treat
diseases, improving patient outcomes and reducing healthcare costs. However, more research is
needed to ensure the safety and effectiveness of these technologies.

25. What are the initiatives of the government of India in promoting nanotechnology?
The government of India has recognized the potential of nanotechnology and has taken several
initiatives to promote research, development, and commercialization in this field. Here are some
of the key initiatives:
1. National Nanotechnology Mission (NNM): The NNM was launched in 2007 with the
aim of promoting research and development in nanotechnology and its applications. The
mission has established several centers of excellence across the country and provides
funding for research projects, infrastructure development, and capacity building.
2. Nano Science and Technology Consortium (NSTC): The NSTC was established in 2006
with the aim of promoting collaboration between academia, industry, and government in
nanotechnology research and development. The consortium provides a platform for
researchers and entrepreneurs to share knowledge and resources, and facilitates the
commercialization of nanotechnology-based products and services.
3. Nanomission Program: The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has launched
the Nanomission Program to promote the development of nanotechnology-based
products and services in India. The program provides funding for research and
development projects, technology incubation centers, and pilot-scale manufacturing
facilities.
4. Nano Mission Council: The Nano Mission Council was set up to oversee the
implementation of the National Nanotechnology Mission and provide guidance and
support for research and development initiatives in nanotechnology. The council
includes experts from academia, industry, and government, and advises the government
on policy matters related to nanotechnology.
5. Nano Science and Technology Park (NSTP): The DST has established the NSTP to
provide a platform for collaboration between industry and academia in nanotechnology
research and development. The park provides state-of-the-art facilities for research and
development, and supports the incubation of technology startups and small and medium
enterprises (SMEs).
6. Nanotechnology-based Products Development Program: The Ministry of Micro,
Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) has launched a program to promote the
development of nanotechnology-based products by SMEs. The program provides funding
and technical support for product development, and aims to promote the
commercialization of nanotechnology-based products in the domestic and international
markets.
Overall, the government of India has taken several initiatives to promote nanotechnology
research, development, and commercialization. These initiatives aim to promote collaboration
between academia, industry, and government, and to support the development of innovative
products and services based on nanotechnology.

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26. What are the concerns or challenges arising from nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology has great potential to transform various sectors and improve human life in
several ways. However, there are also concerns and challenges associated with this emerging
field. Here are some of the key concerns and challenges arising from nanotechnology:
1. Health and safety concerns: There is growing concern over the potential health and
safety risks associated with exposure to nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are very small and
can easily penetrate the body's tissues, leading to toxic effects. There is also concern over
the potential environmental impact of nanoparticles, particularly in terms of their long-
term effects on ecosystems.
2. Ethical concerns: There are ethical concerns over the use of nanotechnology,
particularly in terms of its potential impact on human dignity and privacy. For example,
there are concerns over the use of nanotechnology in surveillance and monitoring of
individuals, and the potential for the technology to be used in military applications.
3. Regulatory challenges: There are challenges in regulating the use of nanotechnology,
particularly in terms of ensuring the safety of products and preventing the release of
harmful nanoparticles into the environment. There is also a need to establish clear
standards for the labelling and testing of nano-based products.
4. Economic challenges: There are challenges in terms of the economic implications of
nanotechnology, particularly in terms of its impact on employment and the distribution
of wealth. There is a risk that the benefits of nanotechnology will be concentrated in the
hands of a few, leading to increased inequality and social unrest.
5. Societal challenges: There are challenges in terms of the societal implications of
nanotechnology, particularly in terms of its impact on culture and identity. There is a risk
that the use of nanotechnology will erode traditional values and beliefs, leading to a loss
of social cohesion.
Overall, nanotechnology has the potential to bring significant benefits to human life, but there
are also concerns and challenges that need to be addressed. It is important for researchers,
policymakers, and the public to work together to ensure that nanotechnology is used in a safe
and ethical manner, and that its benefits are shared equitably across society.

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Chapter 3: Space Program in India & Applications
Syllabus: (from Paper V, Section I, Point 3) Space program in India and its applications with
special reference to industrial, agricultural and other rural development activities, INSAT, IRS
systems, EDUSAT and Chandrayaan-1 and future programme.
(From Paper V, Section I, Point 4) Application of Space Technology in India with references to
Education, Agriculture and Industry.

3.1 Space Program in India


1. Discuss briefly the Indian space programme explaining all the phases including
experimental phase, operational phase, and space exploration phase.
India's space programme has a rich history, spanning over six decades, and has made significant
progress since its inception.
The Indian space programme has three phases: the experimental phase, the operational phase,
and the space exploration phase.
1. Experimental Phase: The experimental phase of the Indian space programme began in
the 1960s with the establishment of the Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) in 1962. In 1969, the committee was reorganized and became the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO).
During this phase, the main focus was on building and launching experimental satellites
and Launch Vehicles to gain knowledge and experience in space technology.
The Aryabhata satellite, launched in 1975, was India's first satellite and marked the
beginning of the experimental phase. Several other satellites were also launched during
this phase, including Bhaskara and Apple.
2. Operational Phase: The operational phase of the Indian space programme began in the
1980s and focused on using space technology for national development.
During this phase, the emphasis was on building and launching satellites for remote
sensing, communication, and meteorology.
In 1983, India launched the first operational satellite, INSAT-1B, which was used for
telecommunications, meteorology, and broadcasting. Since then, ISRO has launched
several other satellites for various applications, including remote sensing, meteorology,
navigation, and communication.
3. Space Exploration Phase:The space exploration phase of the Indian space programme
began in the 2000s and focused on exploring space beyond Earth's orbit.
In 2008, India launched its first lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1, which discovered
evidence of water on the moon. In 2013, India launched its first Mars mission, Mars
Orbiter Mission (MOM), which successfully entered Mars orbit in 2014, making India the
first country to successfully reach Mars on its first attempt.
In addition to the above phases, the Indian space programme has also made significant
progress in launch vehicle technology. ISRO has developed a range of launch vehicles, including
the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV),
and the GSLV Mk III, which can launch heavier payloads.
Overall, the Indian space programme has come a long way since its inception and has made
significant contributions to national development and space exploration. With ambitious plans
for the future, including a human spaceflight mission and a second mission to Mars, ISRO is
poised to continue making significant strides in space technology.

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2. Write a brief note on the role of NSIL and IN-SPACe in Indian space programme.
NSIL (NewSpace India Limited) and IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and
Authorization Center) are two important entities in the Indian space programme.
NSIL is a public sector undertaking (PSU) under the Department of Space, Government of India.
It was established in 2019 to provide commercial launch services, develop space-based products
and services, and promote space-related industries in India. NSIL is responsible for identifying
and commercializing technologies developed by ISRO and other Indian space organizations, as
well as partnering with private players in the space sector to develop new technologies and
services.
IN-SPACe, on the other hand, is a regulatory body established in 2020 to facilitate and
regulate the participation of private players in the Indian space sector. IN-SPACe is responsible
for promoting and guiding private sector participation in space activities, including satellite
launches, space-based applications, and other related services. It is also responsible for granting
licenses and permissions for private entities to undertake space activities and for monitoring
their compliance with regulatory requirements.
The role of NSIL and IN-SPACe is critical in the context of the Indian space programme, as
they enable greater participation of private players in the sector, encourage innovation and
entrepreneurship, and promote the development of new technologies and services. This, in turn,
is expected to lead to greater economic growth, job creation, and international competitiveness
for India's space industry. With NSIL and IN-SPACe in place, India is well-positioned to leverage
its strengths in space technology and drive the growth of its space sector in the coming years.

3. Distinguish between polar and equatorial orbits of artificial satellites. Which of the
above two orbits is suitable for a (a) Geostationary satellite (b) Satellite used for weather
forecasting?
Polar and equatorial orbits are two types of orbits in which artificial satellites can be placed
around the Earth. The main differences between these two types of orbits are:
1. Polar Orbit: A polar orbit is an orbit in which a satellite passes over the Earth's North
and South poles. A polar orbit is inclined at an angle of 90 degrees to the equator.
Satellites in polar orbits provide
complete global coverage and are
suitable for remote sensing, Earth
observation, and mapping applications.
The orbital period of a polar satellite is
typically 90 minutes.
2. Equatorial Orbit: An equatorial orbit is
an orbit in which a satellite circles the
Earth's equator. An equatorial orbit is
inclined at an angle of 0 degrees to the
equator. Satellites in equatorial orbits
provide coverage of a specific region on
the Earth's surface and are ideal for
communication, broadcasting, and
weather monitoring applications. The
orbital period of an equatorial satellite depends on its altitude and can range from a few
hours to several days.

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(a) Geostationary satellites are placed in a special type of equatorial orbit known as the
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO). A GEO orbit is positioned at an altitude of
approximately 36,000 km above the Earth's surface and has an orbital period of 24
hours. This allows the satellite to remain stationary relative to an observer on the ground
and provides continuous coverage of a specific region on the Earth's surface. Therefore, a
geostationary satellite is suitable for applications such as communication, broadcasting,
and weather monitoring.
(b) Satellites used for weather forecasting are typically placed in polar orbits. A polar
orbit allows a satellite to cover the entire Earth's surface, which is essential for accurate
and global weather forecasting. Polar orbiting weather satellites typically have an orbital
period of 90 minutes and provide complete coverage of the Earth's surface twice a day.
This allows weather forecasters to track the movement of weather systems and monitor
changes in atmospheric conditions.

4. With respect to satellite orbits explain what are GEO, LEO, MEO, and SSO.
GEO, LEO, MEO, and SSO are different types of satellite orbits used in space technology.
1. GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit is a type of orbit in which a satellite is positioned at an
altitude of approximately 36,000 km above the Earth's surface. A satellite in a GEO orbit
completes one orbit of the Earth in approximately 24 hours, which is the same as the
Earth's rotation period. This allows the satellite to appear stationary in the sky relative to
an observer on the ground, making it ideal for communication, broadcasting, and
weather monitoring applications.
2. LEO: Low Earth Orbit is an orbit in which a satellite is positioned at an altitude between
160 km to 2,000 km above the Earth's surface. A satellite in a LEO orbit completes one
orbit of the Earth in approximately 90 minutes, which makes it suitable for applications
such as remote sensing, Earth observation, and satellite-based navigation systems.

3. MEO: Medium Earth Orbit is an orbit in which a satellite is positioned at an altitude


between 2,000 km to 35,786 km above the Earth's surface. Satellites in MEO orbits are
used for various applications such as GPS navigation, communication, and weather
monitoring.
4. SSO: Sun-Synchronous Orbit is a type of polar orbit in which a satellite's path is
synchronized with the Sun's position. A satellite in a SSO orbit passes over any given
point on Earth at the same local time each day. Satellites in SSO orbits are primarily used
for Earth observation and remote sensing applications.
The choice of orbit depends on the specific requirements of the satellite application. Factors
such as altitude, inclination, and orbital period can affect the satellite's coverage area,

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communication range, and power requirements. Each type of orbit has its own advantages and
limitations, and the selection of an appropriate orbit is crucial to the success of a satellite
mission.

5. Write a brief note on the PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles of ISRO.
The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has developed two major launch vehicles, the
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV),
which have played a significant role in India's space program.
1. PSLV: The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle is a four-stage rocket designed to place small to
medium-sized satellites into polar orbits. The PSLV has been used for a variety of
missions, including Earth observation, remote sensing, and scientific research. The first
successful launch of the PSLV took place in 1993, and it has since become a reliable and
cost-effective launch vehicle. The PSLV is known for its high reliability, and it has a
success rate of over 95%.
2. GSLV: The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle is a three-stage rocket designed to
place larger payloads, including communication and weather satellites, into
geosynchronous orbits. The GSLV has been used for a range of missions, including the
launch of India's first lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1. The GSLV uses both liquid and solid
propellants and has been designed to provide greater payload capacity than the PSLV.
The first successful launch of the GSLV took place in 2001, and it has since been used for
a variety of missions.
ISRO has continued to improve both the PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles, with new versions
being developed to increase their payload capacity and capabilities. The PSLV and GSLV have
been critical to the development of India's space program, and they have enabled the country to
launch a wide range of satellites for various applications.

6. Briefly explain the Unified Launch Vehicle and Reusable Launch Vehicle projects of
ISRO. Comment on their significance to the Indian space program.
The Unified Launch Vehicle (ULV) and Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) projects are two major
initiatives of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) that have the potential to
significantly advance India's space program.
1. Unified Launch Vehicle: The ULV is a project that aims to develop a new generation
launch vehicle capable of carrying heavier payloads into space. The ULV will be a
modular rocket system that can be configured to meet various mission requirements,
including sending payloads to low Earth orbit, geosynchronous transfer orbit, and even
to the Moon and Mars. The ULV will use liquid and solid propellants and is designed to be
a cost-effective and reliable launch vehicle.
2. Reusable Launch Vehicle: The RLV is a project that aims to develop a reusable space
launch vehicle, which can be used for multiple missions. The RLV will be a winged
vehicle, similar to an aircraft, which can take off vertically like a rocket and land
horizontally on a runway like an airplane. The goal of the RLV project is to develop a
reusable launch vehicle that can significantly reduce the cost of launching satellites into
orbit.
The ULV and RLV projects are significant to the Indian space program as they have the
potential to significantly advance India's space capabilities. The ULV will provide India with a
cost-effective and reliable launch vehicle capable of carrying heavier payloads, which will enable
the country to undertake more ambitious space missions. The RLV project will allow India to

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reduce the cost of launching satellites into orbit and make the process of launching and
retrieving satellites more efficient.
Overall, the ULV and RLV projects are crucial for India's space program, as they will enable
the country to expand its capabilities in space exploration, scientific research, and commercial
applications. By developing new launch vehicles that are cost-effective, reliable, and reusable,
ISRO is positioning India as a major player in the global space industry.

7. Discuss briefly about the engine that is expected to power ISRO's major upcoming
projects such as Unified Launch Vehicle and Reusable Launch Vehicle.
The engine that is expected to power ISRO's major upcoming projects, such as the Unified
Launch Vehicle (ULV) and Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV), is the Semi-Cryogenic Engine (SCE).
The Semi-Cryogenic Engine is a liquid-fuelled rocket engine that uses a combination of liquid
oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants. The engine is designed to provide high thrust and a
high specific impulse, which makes it more efficient than existing rocket engines. The SCE is
being developed to meet the demands of the next-generation launch vehicles like the ULV and
RLV.
The development of the Semi-Cryogenic Engine is a significant step for ISRO as it will enable the
country to undertake more ambitious space missions. The engine is expected to provide a
significant boost to India's space capabilities, as it will be more powerful and efficient than the
engines currently in use.
The SCE has undergone several ground tests, and ISRO plans to conduct a series of flight tests in
the coming years. The engine is expected to be used in ISRO's future launches, including the
Aditya-L1 mission to study the Sun.
Overall, the development of the Semi-Cryogenic Engine is a significant step for ISRO as it will
enable the country to achieve its ambitious space goals, including manned missions, deep space
exploration, and commercial satellite launches.

3.2 INSAT System


8. What is INSAT System? Discuss the applications of INSAT System of satellites of India.
The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a series of geostationary satellites operated by
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The INSAT system has played a critical role in
the development of telecommunications, meteorology, disaster management, and broadcasting
in India.
The applications of INSAT System are as follows:
1. Telecommunications: The INSAT system provides a comprehensive range of
telecommunications services, including voice, data, and video connectivity. The system's
capacity is used for distance learning, telemedicine, e-governance, and other essential
services like disaster response and emergency communication.
2. Meteorology: INSAT provides real-time weather information, including satellite images,
weather forecasts, and cyclone warnings. This information is used to issue warnings,
track weather patterns, and plan disaster response efforts. INSAT has been instrumental
in predicting and tracking major cyclones and floods, thereby saving lives and
minimizing damage.
3. Disaster Management: The INSAT system has been crucial in disaster management
efforts in India. The system provides real-time information on natural disasters like
cyclones, floods, and earthquakes, enabling timely and effective response. The system

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also provides communication infrastructure for disaster response efforts, enabling
coordination and information sharing between rescue teams.
4. Remote Sensing: The INSAT system provides remote sensing capabilities, including
high-resolution imaging and mapping, which are used for a range of applications like
land-use planning, forestry, and water resource management. The data from INSAT
satellites is also used for monitoring and managing natural disasters like cyclones and
floods.
5. Broadcasting: The INSAT system has been used for television broadcasting, including
direct-to-home (DTH) services, which have revolutionized the television industry in
India. The system has also been used for radio broadcasting, including community radio
services, which have played a critical role in rural development and empowerment.
In conclusion, the INSAT system has been a critical component of India's space programme,
providing a range of services for telecommunications, meteorology, disaster management,
remote sensing, and broadcasting. The system's applications have helped in improving the
quality of life of people in India, enabling access to essential services, and promoting
development and resilience.

9. What are some of the important satellites in INSAT satellite series of ISRO?
The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a series of geostationary satellites operated by
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The INSAT system consists of a constellation of
satellites that provide a range of services for telecommunications, meteorology, remote sensing,
and broadcasting. Here are some of the important satellites in the INSAT satellite series of ISRO:
1. INSAT-3D: INSAT-3D is a meteorological satellite that provides real-time weather
information, including satellite images, weather forecasts, and cyclone warnings. The
satellite has advanced imaging and sounding capabilities, which are used for monitoring
and predicting weather patterns.
2. INSAT-3DR: INSAT-3DR is a meteorological satellite that provides similar services to
INSAT-3D. The satellite has improved imaging and data relay capabilities, enabling faster
and more accurate weather prediction.
3. INSAT-4B: INSAT-4B is a communications satellite that provides voice, data, and video
connectivity across India. The satellite has multiple transponders, which are used for a
range of applications like distance learning, telemedicine, and e-governance.
4. INSAT-4CR: INSAT-4CR is a communications satellite that provides similar services to
INSAT-4B. The satellite has improved communication capabilities, including higher data
rates and better coverage.
5. INSAT-3E: INSAT-3E is a meteorological satellite that provides weather information for
disaster management and agriculture. The satellite has advanced imaging and sounding
capabilities, which are used for monitoring and predicting weather patterns.
6. GSAT-18: GSAT-18 is a communications satellite that provides voice, data, and video
connectivity across India. The satellite has advanced communication capabilities,
including high-throughput Ka-band transponders, which are used for broadband
services.
In conclusion, the INSAT satellite series of ISRO consists of a range of satellites that provide
critical services for telecommunications, meteorology, remote sensing, and broadcasting. The
satellites have advanced capabilities, which are used for monitoring weather patterns, providing
communication infrastructure, and enabling access to essential services.

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3.3 IRS System, EduSAT, Chandrayan - 1
10. What is the IRS System of ISRO? Describe the applications of the IRS System.
The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) System is a series of earth observation satellites developed by
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The IRS system has been operational since 1988
and has played a significant role in the development of various sectors of the Indian economy,
including agriculture, forestry, water resource management, urban planning, and disaster
management.
The IRS system consists of a series of satellites equipped with sensors that capture images of
the earth's surface. The images are then processed and used for various applications. The
following are some applications of the IRS system:
1. Agriculture: The IRS system provides valuable information to farmers, such as crop
health, soil moisture, and nutrient levels. This information helps farmers to make
informed decisions regarding the use of fertilizers, irrigation, and other agricultural
practices.
2. Forestry: The IRS system provides information on the extent and health of forests, which
is used for monitoring deforestation, forest fires, and other forest-related activities. This
information is also used for the planning and management of forestry resources.
3. Water Resource Management: The IRS system provides information on water bodies,
such as lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. This information is used for the monitoring and
management of water resources, including irrigation, flood control, and water supply.
4. Urban Planning: The IRS system provides high-resolution images of urban areas, which
are used for urban planning, development, and management. The images provide
valuable information on infrastructure, land use, and environmental factors.
5. Disaster Management: The IRS system provides information on natural disasters such
as floods, landslides, and earthquakes. This information is used for the early detection
and management of disasters, including rescue operations, relief efforts, and
rehabilitation.
6. Geology and Mineral Exploration: The IRS system provides information on geology,
topography, and mineral resources. This information is used for mineral exploration,
mapping, and geotechnical studies.
Overall, the IRS system has played a significant role in the development of various sectors of
the Indian economy. Its applications in agriculture, forestry, water resource management, urban
planning, disaster management, and geology have contributed to the growth of these sectors,
thereby contributing to the overall development of the country.

11. What are some of the important satellites in IRS system of ISRO?
The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) system of ISRO consists of several satellites that provide a wide
range of remote sensing data and services. Here are some of the important satellites in the IRS
system:
1. IRS-1C and IRS-1D: Launched in 1995 and 1997 respectively, these satellites were the
first high-resolution imaging satellites in the IRS system. They provide images with a
spatial resolution of up to 5.8 meters and have been used for a variety of applications,
including land use mapping, mineral exploration, and disaster management.
2. IRS-P3: Launched in 1996, this satellite is used for oceanographic and atmospheric
studies. It carries sensors that provide information on sea surface temperature, ocean
color, and wind speed, which are used for oceanographic research, fishing zone
detection, and weather forecasting.

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3. Resourcesat-1 and Resourcesat-2: Launched in 2003 and 2011 respectively, these
satellites provide high-resolution images for natural resource management, land use
planning, and environmental monitoring. They carry three sensors: the Linear Imaging
Self-Scanning Sensor (LISS), Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS), and the Cartosat-1
Camera.
4. Cartosat-1, Cartosat-2, and Cartosat-3: Launched in 2005, 2007, and 2019
respectively, these satellites are used for high-resolution mapping and terrain analysis.
Cartosat-1 provides images with a spatial resolution of up to 2.5 meters, while Cartosat-2
and Cartosat-3 provide images with a spatial resolution of up to 0.65 meters and 0.25
meters respectively.
5. Oceansat-1 and Oceansat-2: Launched in 1999 and 2009 respectively, these satellites
are used for oceanographic studies, such as the monitoring of ocean surface winds,
waves, and currents. They carry sensors such as the Ocean Color Monitor (OCM) and the
Scatterometer (OSCAT), which provide information on ocean surface features and
atmospheric conditions.
These are some of the important satellites in the IRS system of ISRO. Each satellite has a
specific set of sensors and capabilities that are used for different applications, making the IRS
system a versatile and valuable tool for remote sensing and earth observation.

12. Write about EDUSAT of ISRO.


EDUSAT is a satellite-based distance education program developed by the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO). Launched in 2004, EDUSAT is India's first satellite dedicated exclusively to
educational purposes. It was designed to provide interactive satellite-based distance education
to students, teachers, and professionals in India.
The EDUSAT system comprises a satellite in geostationary orbit, a network of earth stations, and
a control center. The satellite provides a two-way communication link between the remote
learning centers and the main hub. It operates on the Ku-band frequency, with a capacity of 12
transponders. The satellite also has onboard switches and routing equipment, enabling it to
manage data traffic and provide seamless connectivity.
The main objective of EDUSAT is to promote interactive learning and improve access to
education in remote areas of the country. It provides a platform for live transmission of
educational programs, interactive sessions, and video conferencing between remote learning
centers and the main hub. The system can transmit audio, video, and data, enabling students to
interact with their teachers in real-time.
The EDUSAT system has several applications, including:
1. Distance education: EDUSAT is primarily used for distance education programs,
enabling students in remote areas to access quality education.
2. Teacher training: The system provides training and professional development
opportunities for teachers and educators, enabling them to improve their skills and
knowledge.
3. Health education: EDUSAT is also used for health education programs, enabling medical
professionals to share information and provide training to remote healthcare workers.
4. Disaster management: The system can be used for disaster management, enabling
experts to provide real-time guidance and support during emergencies.
The EDUSAT system has been a major success in India, enabling students and professionals
in remote areas to access quality education and training. The system has been used for a wide

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range of programs, including primary education, vocational training, and professional
development. It has also been used to provide education to prisoners, enabling them to acquire
new skills and knowledge.
Overall, the EDUSAT system has been a major contribution by ISRO to the field of education
in India, enabling millions of students and professionals to access quality education and training.

13. Write about the Chandrayaan 1 programme of ISRO.


Chandrayaan-1 was a lunar exploration mission launched by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) on 22 October 2008. The primary objective of the Chandrayaan-1 mission
was to map the surface of the moon and study the mineral composition and distribution of
elements.
The Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and an impactor. The orbiter carried
scientific payloads for remote sensing and chemical analysis of the lunar surface. The impactor,
called the Moon Impact Probe (MIP), was designed to hit the lunar surface near the south pole
and study the properties of the lunar regolith.
The scientific payloads on the orbiter included:
1. Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC): This camera was used to map the lunar surface and
create a high-resolution 3D map of the moon.
2. Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI): This instrument was used to measure the
distance between the orbiter and the lunar surface.
3. Chandrayaan-1 Imaging X-Ray Spectrometer (C1XS): This spectrometer was used to
study the distribution of magnesium, aluminium, silicon, iron, and titanium on the lunar
surface.
4. Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3): This instrument was used to map the mineral
composition of the lunar surface, particularly the presence of water and hydroxyl (OH)
molecules.
5. Mini Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR): This instrument was used to study the
polar regions of the moon and search for evidence of water ice.
Chandrayaan-1 was a major success for ISRO, with several key achievements. It was the first
Indian spacecraft to reach the moon and successfully enter lunar orbit. It was also the first
mission to confirm the presence of water on the lunar surface, particularly in the polar regions.
The mission also discovered more than 40 small craters that were previously unknown and
confirmed the existence of a magnetic field on the moon.
The Chandrayaan-1 mission paved the way for future lunar exploration missions by ISRO
and other space agencies. It demonstrated India's capability to undertake complex and
challenging space missions and provided valuable scientific data on the moon's surface and
composition.

3.4 Future Missions


14. Write a note on the Gaganyaan mission of ISRO.
Gaganyaan is a human spaceflight program of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO),
which aims to send Indian astronauts to space in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Though initially aimed
to be launched by 2022 it is currently postponed to 2024. The mission is considered to be a
major milestone for the Indian space program, as it marks the first time that Indian astronauts
will be sent to space.

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The objective of the mission is to demonstrate India's capability to send humans to space
and to encourage the development of indigenous technologies for human spaceflight.
The mission is being developed in two phases. The first phase includes the development of the
crew module, which will carry the astronauts to space, and the necessary infrastructure for
ground support. In the second phase, the crew module will be integrated with the launch vehicle
and the necessary systems to support the astronauts during their mission in space.
ISRO has been working on developing the necessary technologies for the mission,
including life support systems, environmental control systems, and crew escape systems. The
agency has also been collaborating with various national and international agencies, including
the Russian space agency Roscosmos, to acquire the necessary expertise and equipment for the
mission.
The selection process for the astronauts who will participate in the mission has already
started. The Indian Air Force (IAF) has been tasked with shortlisting potential candidates for the
mission. The selected candidates will undergo extensive training, including physical fitness, and
simulations of various scenarios that they may face during their mission in space.
The Gaganyaan mission is expected to have a positive impact on the Indian space
program, as it will help develop the necessary infrastructure and expertise for future missions. It
will also inspire young scientists and engineers to take up careers in space research and
contribute to the growth of the Indian space industry.
In conclusion, the Gaganyaan mission is a significant step for India in its journey towards
becoming a major player in the space sector. It demonstrates the country's capabilities in space
technology and its commitment to exploring the frontiers of space.

15. Discuss the Chandrayaan 3 programme of ISRO.


Chandrayaan-3 is an upcoming lunar mission of the Indian Space Research Organization
(ISRO) that is planned to be launched in June – July, 2023. The mission is a follow-up to
Chandrayaan-2, which was launched in 2019 and aimed to land a rover on the Moon's south pole
but faced a setback due to a communication failure during the landing phase.
The primary objective of the Chandrayaan-3 mission is to demonstrate India's capability
to land on the lunar surface and deploy a rover to explore the Moon's terrain. The mission will
involve the launch of a spacecraft consisting of a lander, and a rover. There will not be an orbiter
unlike Chandrayaan – 2. However the propulsion module will act as a communications relay
satellite.
The spacecraft will be launched using ISRO's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV) Mk III launcher.
ISRO has been working on the development of the spacecraft and the necessary
infrastructure for the mission. The lander and rover for the mission are based on the designs of
their counterparts for the Chandrayaan-2 mission, with modifications to address the issues faced
during the landing phase.
The lander and rover are designed to operate for a minimum of 14 Earth days on the
lunar surface, during which they will conduct scientific experiments to study the Moon's surface,
composition, and environment. The instruments on the rover will include a seismometer to
study the Moon's interior, a spectrometer to study the mineral composition of the lunar surface,
and a camera to capture images and videos of the Moon's terrain.
The mission will also involve collaboration with other space agencies, including NASA, to
share data and expertise. The data from the mission will be shared with the global scientific
community to enhance our understanding of the Moon and its evolution.
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The Chandrayaan-3 mission is a significant step for India in its efforts to establish itself
as a major player in the space sector. The success of the mission will further boost India's space
capabilities and contribute to the country's scientific and technological advancement.

3.5 Applications in Rural development, Education, Agriculture and Industry


16. Discuss the applications of Indian space program in agriculture.
The Indian space program, driven by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), has
numerous applications in agriculture, which have been developed over the years through
various satellite missions. Some of the applications of the Indian space program in agriculture
are:
1. Crop Yield Estimation: Satellite-based remote sensing technology is used to estimate
crop yields by providing information on crop health, moisture content, and soil quality.
The data obtained from satellites such as RESOURCESAT-2, CARTOSAT-1, and RISAT-1 is
used to generate crop yield estimates, which help farmers plan their harvest and
optimize their crop management practices.
2. Soil Moisture Mapping: Satellite-based remote sensing technology can also be used to
map soil moisture levels, which are critical for agricultural planning and irrigation
management. The data obtained from satellites such as the Soil Moisture and Ocean
Salinity (SMOS) mission is used to generate soil moisture maps, which help farmers
optimize their irrigation schedules and conserve water.
3. Weather Forecasting: The Indian space program also plays a critical role in weather
forecasting for agriculture. Data from satellites such as INSAT-3D and INSAT-3DR is used
to monitor weather patterns, predict rainfall, and issue alerts for extreme weather
events. This information helps farmers plan their planting and harvesting schedules and
take necessary precautions to protect their crops.
4. Crop Acreage and Crop Type Mapping: Satellite-based remote sensing technology can
be used to map crop acreage and crop type. Data obtained from satellites such as
RESOURCESAT-2 and RISAT-1 is used to generate crop acreage and crop type maps,
which help farmers identify the types of crops being grown in a particular region and
plan their planting accordingly.
5. Natural Disaster Monitoring: The Indian space program also plays a crucial role in
monitoring natural disasters such as floods and droughts, which can have a significant
impact on agriculture. Data from satellites such as RISAT-1 is used to monitor flood-
prone areas and provide real-time information to farmers and other stakeholders,
helping them take necessary precautions to protect their crops.
In conclusion, the Indian space program, driven by ISRO, has several applications in
agriculture, including crop yield estimation, soil moisture mapping, weather forecasting, crop
acreage and crop type mapping, and natural disaster monitoring. These applications provide
critical information to farmers and other stakeholders, helping them make informed decisions
and optimize their crop management practices.

17. Discuss the applications of Indian space programme in rural development.


The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has played a significant role in promoting rural
development through its satellite-based technology applications. Here are some of the key
applications of the Indian space programme in rural development:

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1. Rural Communication: One of the main challenges of rural development is the lack of
proper communication infrastructure. The Indian space programme has been
instrumental in addressing this issue through its satellite-based communication
technology. The GSAT series of communication satellites provide voice, data, and video
connectivity to remote and inaccessible regions, thereby bridging the digital divide and
enabling access to essential services like healthcare, education, and banking.
2. Natural Resources Management: The Indian space programme provides valuable
inputs for natural resources management in rural areas. Data from satellites like the
RESOURCESAT-2 and CARTOSAT-1 is used for land-use mapping, forest cover
monitoring, and watershed management. This information is used to plan and implement
natural resource management activities like afforestation, soil conservation, and water
harvesting, which help in improving the livelihoods of rural communities.
3. Disaster Management: Rural areas are often vulnerable to natural disasters like floods,
cyclones, and earthquakes. The Indian space programme has been instrumental in
providing timely and accurate information to aid disaster management efforts. Satellites
like the RISAT-1 provide high-resolution imaging that helps in assessing the extent of
damage caused by natural disasters, guiding relief efforts, and facilitating rehabilitation
activities.
4. Agricultural Development: Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for a
significant portion of the rural population in India. The Indian space programme has
been used to develop applications for crop monitoring, crop yield estimation, and
weather forecasting, which are critical for agricultural planning and management. These
applications have helped farmers in optimizing their crop management practices,
reducing crop losses, and improving their incomes.
5. Rural Planning and Development: The Indian space programme has been instrumental
in providing valuable inputs for rural planning and development. Data from satellites like
the CARTOSAT-1 is used for mapping rural infrastructure like roads, schools, health
centers, and water supply systems. This information helps in identifying gaps in rural
infrastructure and developing plans for improving the quality of life of rural
communities.
In conclusion, the Indian space programme, driven by ISRO, has played a vital role in
promoting rural development in India. The various applications of the programme, including
rural communication, natural resources management, disaster management, agricultural
development, and rural planning and development, have helped in improving the livelihoods of
rural communities and bridging the urban-rural divide.

18. What is Tele-education? What are the applications of tele-education programmes


carried out by ISRO?
Tele-education refers to the use of telecommunications and information technologies to provide
education and training services remotely. Tele-education allows educational institutions and
teachers to reach students who are located in remote or underserved areas. The Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) has been using its satellite communication technology to provide
tele-education services to remote areas of India. The applications of tele-education programmes
carried out by ISRO are as follows:
1. Distance Learning:Tele-education services provided by ISRO allow educational
institutions to provide distance learning courses and programs to students who are
located in remote or underserved areas. The technology enables students to access

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educational resources and interact with teachers and other students online, reducing the
need for students to travel long distances for education.
2. Vocational Training: Tele-education services provided by ISRO also allow for vocational
training. Students in remote or underserved areas can access vocational training
programs online, enabling them to acquire skills and knowledge that are in demand in
the job market.
3. Teacher Training: Tele-education services provided by ISRO also allow for teacher
training. Teachers in remote or underserved areas can access training and educational
resources online, improving their skills and knowledge, and enhancing the quality of
education in their schools.
4. Digital Education: Tele-education services provided by ISRO also support the digital
education initiative in India. The technology enables educational institutions to provide
online educational resources and e-learning programs, improving access to education
and enhancing the quality of education.
In conclusion, tele-education refers to the use of telecommunications and information
technologies to provide education and training services remotely. The tele-education
programmes carried out by ISRO enable distance learning, vocational training, teacher training,
and digital education, improving access to education and enhancing the quality of education in
remote and underserved areas of India.

19. Traditional methods of in-person education have been disrupted by the Covid-19
pandemic. How can India's Space Program help in restoring and expanding access to
education in India?
India's Space Program has the potential to play a significant role in restoring and expanding
access to education in India, particularly during the Covid-19 pandemic. Here are several ways in
which India's Space Program can contribute:
1. Satellite-based Internet Connectivity: India's Space Program, specifically the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO), has launched a number of communication satellites,
such as GSAT-19 and GSAT-11, that provide satellite-based internet connectivity to
remote and rural areas in India. These satellites can be utilized to provide high-speed
internet access to schools, colleges, and educational institutions in areas with limited or
no internet connectivity. This can enable remote learning and virtual classrooms,
allowing students and teachers to connect, share resources, and engage in online
education, even in areas with poor terrestrial internet infrastructure.
2. Tele-education and Tele-training: India's Space Program can leverage satellite
communication capabilities to provide tele-education and tele-training programs. Live
classes, recorded lectures, and educational content can be transmitted via satellite to
remote areas where access to quality education is limited. Teachers and experts from
urban areas can conduct virtual classes and workshops for students and teachers in rural
areas, thus expanding access to education and professional development opportunities.
3. EdTech Applications: India's Space Program can collaborate with EdTech companies to
develop and deploy educational applications that leverage satellite technology. For
example, educational content, interactive lessons, and assessments can be delivered
through satellite-based e-learning platforms accessible via smartphones, tablets, or other
devices. This can provide students with self-paced learning opportunities and enable
them to access educational resources remotely, bridging the gap created by in-person
education disruptions.

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4. Remote Sensing and GIS: India's Space Program has a robust remote sensing and
geographic information system (GIS) capability through satellites such as Resourcesat-2,
Cartosat series, and others. These satellites can provide valuable data for educational
purposes, such as environmental studies, agriculture, disaster management, and urban
planning. This data can be utilized to develop educational content and curriculum,
allowing students to learn about real-world applications of satellite-based remote
sensing and GIS technology.
5. Inspiring STEM Education: India's Space Program, with its successful space missions
and achievements, can inspire and motivate students to take an interest in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. ISRO can collaborate with
educational institutions to develop STEM-based curricula, organize workshops, and
conduct outreach programs to promote STEM education, especially in rural and remote
areas.
In conclusion, India's Space Program has the potential to contribute significantly to restoring
and expanding access to education in India during the Covid-19 pandemic and beyond. Satellite-
based internet connectivity, tele-education, EdTech applications, remote sensing, GIS, and
inspiring STEM education are some of the ways in which India's Space Program can play a crucial
role in making education more accessible and inclusive in the country.

20. Discuss the role of ISRO in the industrial growth of the country.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has played a significant role in the industrial
growth of India. Since its inception in 1969, ISRO has been working towards developing
indigenous satellite technology, launch vehicles, and space exploration. Its efforts have led to the
creation of a robust space industry in India, with significant contributions to various sectors of
the Indian economy.
Here are some ways in which ISRO has contributed to the industrial growth of the country:
1. Development of Indigenous Technologies: ISRO has developed several indigenous
technologies, such as remote sensing, communication, and navigation, which have been
transferred to various industries in India. These technologies have led to the creation of
new products and services and have improved the efficiency and quality of existing ones.
2. Infrastructure Development: ISRO has built several infrastructure facilities, such as
launch pads, satellite testing facilities, and communication networks, which have been
utilized by both the government and private industries in India. This has led to the
development of a robust space industry and has enabled the growth of other industries
such as telecommunications, transportation, and agriculture.
3. Human Resource Development: ISRO has a robust human resource development
program, which includes training programs for engineers and scientists. This has led to
the creation of a skilled workforce in India, which has contributed to the growth of
various industries, including aerospace, defense, and electronics.
4. Commercialization of Space Technology: ISRO has been actively commercializing its
space technology, offering launch services to other countries and private companies. This
has led to the creation of a thriving satellite launch industry in India, which has
contributed to the growth of other industries such as broadcasting, telecommunications,
and weather forecasting.
5. Research and Development: ISRO has been actively involved in research and
development activities, which have led to the development of new technologies and
products. This has led to the growth of several industries, including healthcare,
agriculture, and energy.
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Overall, the contributions of ISRO to the industrial growth of India are significant. Its efforts
have led to the development of a robust space industry, which has contributed to the growth of
other industries in the country. Its indigenous technologies, infrastructure facilities, human
resource development programs, and research and development activities have all played a
significant role in the industrial growth of the country.

21. Elaborate on the industrial applications of Indian space program.


The Indian space program, operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), has
several industrial applications. ISRO has been working on developing indigenous satellite
technology, launch vehicles, and space exploration for over five decades.
Here are some of the industrial applications of the Indian space program:
1. Remote Sensing: One of the primary applications of ISRO's space program is remote
sensing. The satellites developed by ISRO, such as the Resourcesat series, Cartosat series,
and the Oceansat series, are equipped with advanced sensors that can capture high-
resolution images of the earth's surface. These images can be used for a variety of
industrial applications, such as agriculture, forestry, urban planning, and disaster
management.
2. Navigation: ISRO has also developed its own navigation system, called the Indian
Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), also known as NAVIC. NAVIC provides
accurate positioning and timing services to users in India and the surrounding regions.
This system has significant industrial applications in fields such as transportation,
logistics, and emergency services.
3. Communication: ISRO has developed several communication satellites, such as the
GSAT series, that provide voice, data, and video communication services. These satellites
have industrial applications in fields such as broadcasting, telemedicine, education, and
e-governance.
4. Launch Services: ISRO's launch vehicles, such as the PSLV and the GSLV, have been used
to launch not only Indian satellites but also satellites for other countries. This has led to
the development of a thriving satellite launch industry in India, with several private
companies offering launch services.
5. Space Exploration: ISRO's space exploration program, which includes missions to the
Moon and Mars, has several industrial applications. The technologies developed for these
missions, such as high-performance rocket engines and lightweight materials, can be
used in the development of new products and services.
Overall, the Indian space program has had a significant impact on various industrial sectors
and has contributed to the growth of the Indian economy.

22. What is Telemedicine? What are the applications of telemedicine programmes carried
out by ISRO?
Telemedicine refers to the use of telecommunications and information technologies to provide
healthcare services remotely. Telemedicine allows healthcare professionals to provide medical
services and consultations to patients who are located in remote or underserved areas.
Telemedicine can also be used to provide medical consultations to patients who are unable to
visit healthcare facilities due to mobility issues or other barriers.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has been using its satellite communication
technology to provide telemedicine services to remote areas of India. The applications of
telemedicine programmes carried out by ISRO are as follows:

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1. Remote Consultations: Telemedicine services provided by ISRO allow healthcare
professionals to provide remote consultations to patients who are located in remote or
underserved areas. The technology enables doctors to diagnose and treat patients
remotely, reducing the need for patients to travel long distances for medical
consultations.
2. Medical Education: Telemedicine services provided by ISRO also allow for medical
education and training. Doctors and other healthcare professionals in remote areas can
access training and educational resources online, enabling them to improve their skills
and knowledge.
3. Emergency Services: Telemedicine services provided by ISRO are also used in
emergency situations. The technology enables doctors and other healthcare
professionals to provide emergency consultations to patients who are located in remote
or underserved areas, improving the quality of care and saving lives.
4. Disease Surveillance: Telemedicine services provided by ISRO are also used for disease
surveillance. The technology enables healthcare professionals to track disease outbreaks
and provide real-time information on the spread of diseases, improving the ability of
healthcare systems to respond to outbreaks and prevent the spread of diseases.
In conclusion, telemedicine refers to the use of telecommunications and information
technologies to provide healthcare services remotely. The telemedicine programmes carried out
by ISRO enable remote consultations, medical education, emergency services, and disease
surveillance, improving access to healthcare services in remote and underserved areas of India.

23. Discuss the role and applications of Indian space programme in disaster management.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has been at the forefront of disaster
management in India, providing critical inputs for timely and effective disaster response. Here
are some of the key roles and applications of the Indian space programme in disaster
management:
1. Early Warning Systems: Satellite-based remote sensing technology is used to monitor
weather patterns, track natural disasters like cyclones, floods, and earthquakes, and
issue timely warnings. The Indian Space Programme has developed a comprehensive
suite of applications for disaster management, including the Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) for oceanic and tsunami events, and the National
Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) for other disasters like cyclones and floods.
2. Disaster Response and Damage Assessment: The Indian Space Programme has been
instrumental in providing real-time information to aid disaster response efforts. Data
from satellites like the RISAT-1 and CARTOSAT-1 is used for high-resolution imaging that
helps in assessing the extent of damage caused by natural disasters. This information is
used to guide relief efforts, facilitate rehabilitation activities, and assess the impact of
disasters on infrastructure and the environment.
3. Resource Management: Satellite-based remote sensing technology is used to monitor
and manage resources during disaster response efforts. Data from satellites like the
RESOURCESAT-2 and CARTOSAT-1 is used for land-use mapping, forest cover
monitoring, and water resources management. This information is used to plan and
implement disaster response activities like rescue and relief operations, rebuilding
infrastructure, and managing natural resources.
4. Communication: The Indian Space Programme provides critical communication
infrastructure during disaster response efforts. The GSAT series of communication
satellites provide voice, data, and video connectivity to remote and inaccessible regions,
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thereby enabling access to essential services like healthcare, education, and banking.
This infrastructure is used to coordinate disaster response efforts and provide critical
information to affected communities.
5. International Cooperation: The Indian Space Programme has been actively involved in
international cooperation for disaster management. The programme has partnered with
international agencies like the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)
and the International Charter Space and Major Disasters to share data and provide
technical assistance for disaster management.
In conclusion, the Indian Space Programme, driven by ISRO, has played a crucial role in
disaster management in India. The various applications of the programme, including early
warning systems, disaster response and damage assessment, resource management,
communication, and international cooperation, have helped in minimizing the impact of
disasters, saving lives, and promoting resilience.

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Chapter 4: Disaster Management
Syllabus: Climatic change, Floods, Cyclone, Tsunami, Natural and Manmade Disaster Management.

4.1 Disaster Management


1. Distinguish between a Hazard and a Disaster.
A hazard and a disaster are two related but distinct concepts:
1. A hazard is any potential source of harm or adverse health effects to humans, animals, or
the environment.
• Hazards can be natural or human-made, and examples include hurricanes,
earthquakes, floods, chemical spills, and infectious diseases. Hazards become
dangerous when they come into contact with vulnerable populations or ecosystems.
2. A disaster is an event caused by a hazard that results in significant damage, loss of life,
and disruption of normal life.
• Disasters can be natural (e.g., hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions) or human-
made (e.g., terrorist attacks, industrial accidents, nuclear explosions). The severity of
a disaster depends on the type and intensity of the hazard, the location, and the
preparedness and response of the affected community.
• It can be written that: Disaster = Hazard + Vulnerabilities
In summary, a hazard is a potential danger, while a disaster is the actual occurrence of
significant harm caused by that hazard.

2. What is Disaster Management? Why is it important to manage disasters?


Disaster management is the process of preparing, responding to, and recovering from natural or
human-made disasters. It involves a coordinated effort of government agencies, non-
governmental organizations, and communities to minimize the impact of disasters on people,
property, and the environment.
The goal of disaster management is to reduce the loss of life and property damage and to
promote the speedy recovery of affected communities. The key components of disaster
management include:
1. Preparedness: Developing plans, conducting training and drills, and stockpiling
resources to be able to respond effectively to disasters.
2. Response: Implementing emergency measures, such as evacuation, search and rescue,
and providing immediate relief and assistance to affected populations.
3. Recovery: Assessing damage, restoring essential services, and helping communities to
rebuild and return to normalcy.
Disaster management is important for several reasons:
1. Saves lives: Effective disaster management can help prevent or minimize the loss of life
and injury during a disaster.
2. Protects property: Disaster management can help protect infrastructure, buildings, and
other assets from damage or destruction during a disaster.
3. Reduces economic losses: Disaster management can help reduce the economic losses
associated with disasters by minimizing damage and facilitating the recovery process.
4. Enhances community resilience: Disaster management can help build community
resilience by promoting preparedness, strengthening social networks, and improving
communication and coordination among stakeholders.
In summary, disaster management is critical for protecting lives, property, and communities
from the devastating impact of disasters. It involves a comprehensive approach to planning,
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responding, and recovering from disasters, and requires the cooperation and coordination of
various stakeholders at all levels of government and civil society.

3. What is the classification of disasters based on source and duration?


Disasters can be classified based on their source and duration. Here are the four main categories:
1. Natural disasters: These are disasters caused by natural phenomena, such as
earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, landslides, and wildfires. Natural disasters
can occur suddenly and without warning, and can have a devastating impact on
communities and ecosystems.
2. Human-made disasters: These are disasters caused by human activities, such as
industrial accidents, transportation accidents, terrorist attacks, and wars. Human-made
disasters can be intentional or unintentional, and can result in loss of life, property
damage, and environmental degradation.
3. Hybrid disasters: These are disasters that result from a combination of natural and
human-made factors, such as a hurricane that causes a chemical spill or a flood that
damages a nuclear power plant.
4. Complex emergencies: These are disasters that result from a combination of multiple
factors, including conflict, displacement, poverty, and disease. Complex emergencies are
typically long-term and require a multi-sectoral response to address the underlying
causes and provide relief to affected populations.
In addition to the source of the disaster, the duration of the disaster can also be used to
classify disasters into three main categories:
1. Acute disasters: These are disasters that occur suddenly and have a short-term impact,
such as earthquakes and hurricanes.
2. Sub-acute disasters: These are disasters that have a longer duration and a slower onset,
such as droughts, famines, and epidemics.
3. Chronic disasters: These are disasters that are ongoing and long-lasting, such as
conflict, displacement, and poverty.

4. What is Disaster Management Cycle? Explain the various stages of disaster management
cycle.
The disaster management cycle is a framework for understanding the different phases of
disaster management. It consists of four stages, each with a distinct focus and set of activities:
1. Preparedness: The preparedness stage involves activities that help communities and
organizations to prepare for disasters. This includes developing disaster management
plans, conducting risk assessments, training personnel, stockpiling resources, and
establishing communication protocols.
2. Response: The response stage involves activities that are focused on providing
immediate relief and assistance to affected populations. This includes search and rescue
operations, medical assistance, food and shelter distribution, and emergency
communication.
3. Recovery: The recovery stage involves activities that help affected communities to
recover from the impacts of a disaster. This includes damage assessment, debris removal,
rebuilding infrastructure, restoring essential services, and providing long-term
assistance to affected populations.
4. Mitigation: The mitigation stage involves activities that are focused on reducing the
impact of future disasters. This includes implementing measures to reduce the

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vulnerability of communities and infrastructure, such as building codes, land-use
planning, and early warning systems.
The disaster management cycle is a continuous process, with each stage building on the
previous one. For example, the information gathered during the response stage can be used to
inform the recovery and mitigation stages. Additionally, the lessons learned during previous
disasters can be used to improve preparedness for future events.
Effective disaster management requires a coordinated effort among government agencies, non-
governmental organizations, and communities. It is critical to have robust communication and
coordination systems in place to ensure a timely and effective response to disasters. By following
the disaster management cycle, communities and organizations can improve their preparedness,
reduce the impact of disasters, and facilitate a faster recovery.

5. Elaborate on the legal and institutional framework for disaster management in India at
various levels.
Disaster management in India is guided by a comprehensive legal and institutional framework,
which is designed to ensure effective and efficient disaster response at all levels. The framework
includes laws, policies, guidelines, and institutions that operate at the national, state, and local
levels.
At the national level, the Disaster Management Act, 2005, is the key legal instrument that
governs disaster management in India. The Act provides a comprehensive framework for
disaster management, including the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, the
establishment of national and state disaster management authorities, and the formulation of
disaster management plans and policies.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the apex body responsible for
disaster management in India. It is headed by the Prime Minister of India and has representation
from various ministries, departments, and agencies. The NDMA is responsible for coordinating
disaster management efforts across the country and providing technical and financial assistance
to state governments.
At the state level, each state has a State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA), which is
responsible for disaster management within its jurisdiction. The SDMA is headed by the Chief
Minister of the state and includes representatives from various departments and agencies. The
SDMA is responsible for coordinating disaster response efforts within the state and ensuring that
the state is prepared to respond to disasters.
In addition to the NDMA and SDMA, each district has a District Disaster Management
Authority (DDMA), which is responsible for disaster management at the local level. The DDMA is
headed by the District Magistrate and includes representatives from various departments and
agencies. The DDMA is responsible for coordinating disaster response efforts within the district
and ensuring that the district is prepared to respond to disasters.
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is the primary agency responsible for
disaster response in India. It is a specialized force that is trained and equipped to respond to
various types of disasters, including natural disasters, industrial accidents, and terrorist attacks.
The NDRF is deployed during disasters to provide search and rescue, medical aid, and other
forms of assistance.
In addition to the legal and institutional framework, India has also developed a National
Disaster Management Plan, which outlines the country's overall approach to disaster
management. The plan includes strategies for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery, and is regularly updated to reflect changing needs and priorities.

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Overall, India's legal and institutional framework for disaster management is
comprehensive and robust. It provides a solid foundation for disaster response efforts and
ensures that all stakeholders are prepared to respond to disasters effectively and efficiently.

6. Discuss the common challenges in any disaster management plan.


Disaster management is a complex and challenging process that involves various stakeholders
and requires coordination and collaboration at all levels. Despite efforts to develop
comprehensive disaster management plans, several challenges may arise during the
implementation of these plans. Some of the common challenges in any disaster management plan
are:
1. Lack of coordination: Effective disaster management requires coordination and
collaboration among different stakeholders. However, in many cases, there may be a lack
of coordination among different agencies and departments involved in disaster
management, resulting in confusion and inefficiencies.
2. Limited resources: Disaster management requires significant resources, including
financial, human, and material resources. However, many countries and communities
may face resource constraints, which can impact the effectiveness of disaster
management efforts.
3. Communication barriers: Effective communication is essential during disaster
management, but communication barriers may arise due to language differences,
technical issues, or infrastructure damage, making it difficult to relay critical information.
4. Inadequate preparedness: Many disasters are unpredictable, but certain types of
disasters can be anticipated, such as seasonal floods or cyclones. However, in many cases,
communities may not be adequately prepared for such disasters, which can result in
increased damages and loss of life.
5. Response time: The speed of response during a disaster is critical, and delays in
response can result in increased damage and loss of life. However, response time can be
affected by several factors, including infrastructure damage, lack of resources, and
coordination challenges.
6. Risk communication: Effective risk communication is essential during disaster
management to ensure that communities are aware of potential risks and can take
necessary precautions. However, risk communication can be challenging, particularly
when dealing with complex or uncertain risks, and can result in confusion or mistrust.
7. Social and cultural factors: Social and cultural factors can impact disaster management
efforts. For example, cultural beliefs and practices may impact evacuation and response
efforts, or social factors such as poverty or social inequality may impact access to
resources and services during a disaster.
Overall, addressing these challenges requires a coordinated and collaborative approach that
involves all stakeholders and takes into account local context and needs. It is essential to
regularly review and update disaster management plans to reflect changing needs and priorities
and ensure that the plans are effective in mitigating the impacts of disasters.

4.2 Natural & Manmade Disasters


7. Assess the vulnerability of India to various natural and man-made disasters.
India is a country that is highly vulnerable to various natural and man-made disasters due to its
geographic location, population density, and socio-economic factors. Here are some examples of
the types of disasters India is vulnerable to:

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1. Natural disasters: India is prone to a range of natural disasters, including earthquakes,
cyclones, floods, droughts, landslides, and forest fires. The country is located in a region
that is highly susceptible to earthquakes, with several major fault lines running through
the country. Cyclones and floods are common in coastal regions, while droughts are
prevalent in many parts of the country.
2. Man-made disasters: India is also vulnerable to man-made disasters, including
industrial accidents, transportation accidents, and terrorist attacks. Industrial accidents
are common in the country due to inadequate safety measures, while transportation
accidents are prevalent due to the high volume of traffic on the roads and railways.
Terrorist attacks have occurred in various parts of the country, targeting both civilians
and government installations.
3. Public health emergencies: India has also faced several public health emergencies, such
as the COVID-19 pandemic, outbreaks of infectious diseases like dengue, chikungunya,
and malaria, and air pollution. The country has a high population density, inadequate
healthcare infrastructure, and limited access to clean water and sanitation, which make it
vulnerable to public health emergencies.
4. Cyber attacks: India is also vulnerable to cyber attacks, which can have a significant
impact on its economy and national security. The country has a large and growing digital
infrastructure, which makes it a target for cyber criminals and state-sponsored hackers.
In summary, India is vulnerable to a range of natural and man-made disasters, which pose a
significant threat to the country's population, infrastructure, and economy. Effective disaster
management strategies are critical to reducing the impact of disasters and improving the
country's resilience to future events.

4.3 Climate Change


8. What are the causes and negative impacts of Climate change?
Climate change refers to long-term changes in the Earth's climate, including increases in global
temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events.
Climate change is primarily caused by human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels
and deforestation, which release large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,
trapping heat and causing global temperatures to rise.
Some of the negative impacts of climate change include:
1. Rising sea levels: As global temperatures rise, ice sheets and glaciers melt, causing sea
levels to rise. This can result in flooding, erosion of coastlines, and loss of coastal
habitats.
2. Extreme weather events: Climate change can result in more frequent and intense
extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and wildfires,
which can result in significant damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and natural
ecosystems, as well as loss of life.
3. Changes in precipitation patterns: Climate change can cause changes in precipitation
patterns, including more frequent and intense rainfall events in some areas and longer
periods of drought in others, which can impact agriculture, water resources, and natural
ecosystems.
4. Loss of biodiversity: Climate change can result in the loss of biodiversity, as many plant
and animal species are unable to adapt to changing temperatures and precipitation
patterns.

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5. Health impacts: Climate change can have significant impacts on human health, including
heat stress, respiratory problems, and the spread of infectious diseases.
6. Economic impacts: Climate change can result in significant economic impacts, including
damage to infrastructure, loss of property and assets, and increased costs for food, water,
and energy.
Overall, climate change is a significant global challenge that requires urgent action to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change that are already occurring.

9. How to mitigate the negative impacts of Climate change?


Mitigating the negative impacts of climate change requires a concerted effort at all levels,
including individual, community, business, and government action. Here are some of the key
ways to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change:
1. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions: The primary cause of climate change is the release
of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. To mitigate the
negative impacts of climate change, it is crucial to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
transitioning to cleaner energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower, promoting
energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.
2. Promote adaptation measures: Adaptation measures involve building resilience to the
impacts of climate change, such as developing infrastructure that can withstand extreme
weather events, promoting sustainable agriculture, and protecting biodiversity. It is
essential to invest in adaptation measures to minimize the negative impacts of climate
change on human health, infrastructure, and natural ecosystems.
3. Promote sustainable transportation: The transportation sector is a significant
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Promoting sustainable transportation options
such as electric vehicles, public transportation, biking, and walking can significantly
reduce emissions and improve air quality.
4. Support carbon pricing: Carbon pricing involves putting a price on carbon emissions,
which can incentivize businesses and individuals to reduce their emissions. Carbon
pricing can also generate revenue that can be used to invest in clean energy and
adaptation measures.
5. Support renewable energy: Renewable energy, such as solar, wind, and hydropower,
can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions while also promoting energy security
and creating jobs.
6. Reduce food waste: Reducing food waste can significantly reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, as food waste in landfills produces methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
Promoting sustainable agriculture practices can also reduce emissions and promote food
security.
Overall, mitigating the negative impacts of climate change requires a collective effort and
urgent action. It is essential to prioritize climate action at all levels and invest in solutions that
can promote a sustainable and resilient future.

10. Is climate change a disaster? How to approach climate change from disaster
management perspective?
Climate change is not a traditional disaster in the sense that it does not result from a sudden,
unexpected event. However, the impacts of climate change can lead to a range of disasters, such
as floods, droughts, hurricanes, wildfires, and extreme heat events. In this sense, climate change

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can be considered a disaster, as it can result in significant damage to infrastructure, loss of life,
and other negative impacts.
Approaching climate change from a disaster management perspective involves
developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change and build resilience to its effects.
This requires a comprehensive approach that includes both mitigation and adaptation measures.
From a disaster management perspective, mitigation measures involve reducing
greenhouse gas emissions to slow the rate of climate change. This includes measures such as
promoting clean energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.
Mitigation measures can help to reduce the severity of the impacts of climate change in the long
term.
Adaptation measures, on the other hand, involve building resilience to the impacts of
climate change that are already occurring or are expected to occur in the future. This includes
measures such as developing infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events,
promoting sustainable agriculture, and protecting biodiversity. Adaptation measures can help to
reduce the vulnerability of communities to the impacts of climate change.
Overall, approaching climate change from a disaster management perspective requires a
comprehensive and coordinated approach that includes both mitigation and adaptation
measures. It is essential to prioritize climate action and invest in solutions that can promote a
sustainable and resilient future

4.4 Floods
11. What are floods? Assess the risk of floods to India.
Floods are a natural disaster caused by excessive amounts of water overflowing from water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, or oceans onto surrounding land areas. Heavy rainfall, snowmelt,
and dam or levee failures are common causes of floods.
India is particularly prone to floods due to its monsoon climate and extensive river systems. The
country experiences both slow-onset floods, which develop gradually over time due to heavy and
prolonged rainfall, and flash floods, which occur suddenly due to intense rainfall or dam failures.
Floods in India have resulted in significant loss of life, displacement of people, and damage to
property and infrastructure. For example, the 2019 floods in the state of Kerala resulted in over
400 deaths and the displacement of over 1 million people. In 2020, floods in the states of Assam,
Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh affected over 8 million people and caused over 200 deaths.
In addition to the immediate impacts, floods can also have long-term effects on communities,
including the loss of livelihoods, damage to crops, and the spread of water-borne diseases.
In conclusion, floods are a significant risk in India, and the country is taking measures to reduce
the impact of floods on its people and infrastructure. While progress has been made, more can be
done to strengthen early warning systems, improve infrastructure. promote responsible land use
practices, and preserve and restore natural features.

12. Briefly describe the impacts of floods. Discuss the measures to mitigate the risk of
floods.
Floods can have significant impacts on communities and infrastructure. The most immediate
impact of a flood is the flooding itself, which can cause loss of life, injuries, and damage to
buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. Floods can also cause landslides and soil erosion,
which can further increase the risk of flooding and damage.

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In addition to the immediate impacts, floods can also have longer-term effects on
communities, including displacement, loss of livelihoods, and mental health impacts such as
trauma and stress.
To mitigate the risk of floods, several measures can be taken at different levels:
1. Preparedness measures: Early warning systems can be set up to detect floods and alert
vulnerable communities. Emergency plans can be developed to ensure a coordinated
response to a flood, including evacuation procedures and communication protocols.
Community education programs can also be implemented to raise awareness about the
risks and how to respond to a flood.
2. Structural measures: Infrastructure such as dams, levees, and embankments can be
built to regulate water flow and prevent flood damage. Buildings can be designed to
withstand flooding, with elevated living areas and waterproof materials. Land-use
planning can also be used to restrict development in flood-prone areas.
3. Natural measures: Natural features such as wetlands, floodplains, and forests can help
to reduce the impact of a flood by acting as a natural barrier to the water. Restoring and
protecting these ecosystems can therefore help to mitigate the risk of floods.
4. International cooperation: Floods are a global threat, and international cooperation is
essential for effective mitigation measures. Countries can work together to develop and
implement warning and response systems, share best practices, and provide support to
vulnerable communities.
Overall, a combination of preparedness, structural, natural, and international measures can
help to mitigate the risk of floods and reduce their impact on communities. It is important for
governments, communities, and individuals to prioritize these measures to protect lives and
livelihoods in the face of this natural disaster.

4.5 Cyclones
13. What are cyclones? Assess the risk of cyclones to India.
Cyclones, also known as hurricanes or typhoons, are large, rotating storm systems characterized
by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges. Cyclones form over warm ocean waters and
can cause significant damage to coastal areas, including damage to infrastructure, loss of life, and
disruption of economic activities.
India is particularly vulnerable to cyclones due to its long coastline and location in the
tropical region. The eastern and western coasts of India are especially prone to cyclones, with
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea being the primary regions of cyclone formation.
The risk of cyclones to India is significant, with many coastal communities facing the
threat of cyclones each year. In recent years, India has experienced several severe cyclones,
including Cyclone Amphan in 2020, which caused significant damage and loss of life in West
Bengal and Odisha.
The risk of cyclones to India is compounded by factors such as population growth,
urbanization, and climate change. As coastal populations continue to grow and infrastructure
development increases, the impact of cyclones can become more severe, leading to more
significant loss of life and damage to property.
To address the risk of cyclones in India, it is crucial to develop and implement effective
disaster management strategies that can help to mitigate the impacts of cyclones and build
resilience to their effects. This includes measures such as early warning systems, evacuation

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planning, infrastructure development, and community preparedness. It is also important to
address the underlying factors that contribute to the risk of cyclones, such as climate change and
unsustainable development practices.

14. Briefly explain the mechanism of tropical cyclones.


Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure systems that form over warm ocean waters near the
equator. They are powered by the release of latent heat energy when moist air rises and
condenses into clouds, which then release precipitation.

The process begins with the heating of the ocean surface by the sun, which causes warm, moist
air to rise rapidly, creating an area of low pressure. As the air rises, it cools and the moisture
condenses into clouds, releasing heat energy that further intensifies the storm.
The Coriolis effect, caused by the Earth's rotation, then causes the rising air to spin and form a
rotating system of clouds and thunderstorms, known as the eyewall. The eyewall is where the
strongest winds and heaviest rainfall occur.
As the tropical cyclone moves across the ocean, it can intensify or weaken depending on a variety
of factors, including sea surface temperature, wind shear, and other environmental conditions.
When the tropical cyclone makes landfall, it can cause significant damage due to strong winds,
heavy rainfall, storm surge, and flooding. Therefore, it's essential to monitor and prepare for
these storms to minimize their impact on human lives and infrastructure.

15. Briefly describe the impacts of cyclones. Discuss the measures to mitigate the risk of
cyclones.
Impacts of cyclones can be significant and can include the following:
1. Damage to infrastructure: Cyclones can cause significant damage to buildings, roads,
bridges, and other critical infrastructure, leading to disruptions in transportation and
communication.

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2. Loss of life: Cyclones can cause loss of life due to drowning, building collapse, and other
hazards.
3. Displacement of communities: Cyclones can force communities to evacuate their
homes, leading to displacement and loss of livelihoods.
4. Economic disruption: Cyclones can disrupt economic activities, such as fishing,
agriculture, and tourism, leading to significant economic losses.
5. Environmental damage: Cyclones can cause significant environmental damage,
including the destruction of ecosystems and habitats, and pollution from debris and
chemical spills.
To mitigate the risk of cyclones, it is essential to implement effective disaster management
measures, including the following:
1. Early warning systems: Effective early warning systems can help to alert communities
to the threat of cyclones, giving them time to evacuate and prepare for the storm.
2. Evacuation planning: Evacuation planning is critical to ensure the safe and efficient
movement of people from high-risk areas to safer locations.
3. Infrastructure development: Building infrastructure that can withstand cyclones, such
as sea walls and storm shelters, can help to reduce the impact of cyclones on
communities.
4. Community preparedness: Educating communities about the risks of cyclones and how
to prepare for them can help to reduce the impact of cyclones and build resilience to
their effects.
5. Climate adaptation measures: Measures that promote climate adaptation, such as
sustainable agriculture and land-use planning, can help to reduce the vulnerability of
communities to cyclones.
Overall, mitigating the risk of cyclones requires a comprehensive and coordinated approach
that involves government, civil society, and communities. It is essential to invest in measures
that can help to reduce the impact of cyclones and build resilience to their effects.

4.6 Tsunami
16. What is Tsunami? Assess the risk of tsunamis to India.
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves with very long wavelengths (typically several hundred
kilometers) caused by large-scale disturbances of the ocean, such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides. When a tsunami approaches land, the shallow waters cause the wave
to increase in height and decrease in wavelength, resulting in a devastating surge of water.
India is vulnerable to the risk of tsunamis due to its location along the Indian Ocean,
which is prone to earthquakes and other geological activity that can trigger tsunamis. In
particular, the country's eastern and western coasts are at risk, with the eastern coast being
more vulnerable due to its proximity to the Sumatra subduction zone, where the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake and tsunami originated.
India has experienced several tsunamis in the past, with the most devastating being the
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The tsunami was triggered by a 9.1 magnitude earthquake off the
coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, and resulted in the deaths of over 230,000 people in 14 countries,
including India.

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Since the 2004 tsunami, India has made efforts to improve its tsunami warning and
response systems. The country is a member of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and
Mitigation System (IOTWMS), which was established in response to the 2004 disaster. The
system includes a network of seismometers and tidal gauges, as well as communication channels
for disseminating warnings to vulnerable communities.
However, there are still challenges in effectively managing the risk of tsunamis in India.
For example, many coastal communities are still not adequately prepared for a tsunami, and
there are limitations in the effectiveness of warning systems in remote and underdeveloped
areas. Furthermore, the risk of tsunamis is likely to increase in the future due to factors such as
population growth, urbanization, and climate change.
In summary, India is at risk of tsunamis, particularly along its eastern and western
coasts. While the country has made progress in improving its warning and response systems,
there is still a need for further investment in preparedness measures to reduce the impact of
future tsunamis.

17. What causes a Tsunami? Briefly explain how a tsunami occurs.


A tsunami is a series of ocean waves caused by a large and sudden disturbance of the ocean, such
as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, or meteorite impact.
When a large underwater earthquake occurs, it can cause the seafloor to shift abruptly, pushing a
massive amount of water upwards and creating a wave that spreads out in all directions from the
epicenter of the earthquake. The size and strength of the resulting tsunami depend on the
magnitude of the earthquake, the depth and location of the earthquake's epicenter, and the
characteristics of the surrounding coastline.
As the tsunami wave travels across the ocean, it can cover vast
distances at high speeds, reaching speeds of up to 800 kilometers per
hour. While the wave may be relatively small in deep water, as it
approaches the coastline, it can become much larger and more
powerful as the shallow water causes it to slow down and increase in
height.
When the tsunami wave reaches the shore, it can cause
massive destruction, including flooding, erosion, and the destruction of
buildings and infrastructure. Tsunamis can also create dangerous and
powerful currents in the ocean, making swimming or boating
hazardous even after the initial wave has passed.
Early warning systems and preparedness measures can help to minimize the impact of
tsunamis and save lives.

18. Briefly describe the impacts of tsunami. Discuss the measures to mitigate the risk of
tsunami.
Tsunamis can have devastating impacts on coastal communities and infrastructure. The most
immediate impact of a tsunami is the massive surge of water that can cause widespread flooding,
resulting in loss of life, injuries, and damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructure.
Tsunamis can also cause landslides and soil erosion, which can further increase the risk of
flooding and damage.

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In addition to the immediate impacts, tsunamis can also have longer-term effects on
communities, including displacement, loss of livelihoods, and mental health impacts such as
trauma and stress.
To mitigate the risk of tsunamis, several measures can be taken at different levels:
1. Preparedness measures: Early warning systems can be set up to detect tsunamis and
alert vulnerable communities. Emergency plans can be developed to ensure a
coordinated response to a tsunami, including evacuation procedures and communication
protocols. Community education programs can also be implemented to raise awareness
about the risks and how to respond to a tsunami.
2. Structural measures: Infrastructure such as seawalls and breakwaters can be built to
reduce the impact of a tsunami. Buildings can be designed to withstand the force of a
tsunami, with reinforced foundations and elevated living areas. Land-use planning can
also be used to restrict development in high-risk areas.
3. Natural measures: Natural features such as mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands can
help to reduce the impact of a tsunami by acting as a natural barrier to the wave.
Restoring and protecting these ecosystems can therefore help to mitigate the risk of
tsunamis.
4. International cooperation: Tsunamis are a global threat, and international cooperation
is essential for effective mitigation measures. Countries can work together to develop
and implement warning and response systems, share best practices, and provide support
to vulnerable communities.
Overall, a combination of preparedness, structural, natural, and international measures can
help to mitigate the risk of tsunamis and reduce their impact on coastal communities. It is
important for governments, communities, and individuals to prioritize these measures to protect
lives and livelihoods in the face of this natural disaster.

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Chapter 5: Energy Resources
Syllabus: Energy Resources: Energy demands, Indian energy scenario- hydel, thermal and nuclear.
Importance of renewable resources - Solar, Wind, small/Mini/Micro hydel, Biomass, waste based,
geothermal, tidal & fuel cells. Energy security - Role of Science & Technology, Bio-fuel cultivation
and extraction.

5.1 Important Notes about Energy


Energy refers to all sources and all types of consumption – not just electricity. It includes all
energy consumption from the wood burnt in a rural household for cooking, to the fuel used for
transportation (diesel & petrol) to coal burnt in a thermal power plant. The share of electricity in
the country's total energy mix is expected to increase from around 19% currently to around 24%
by 2040. Current total energy demand in India is around 900 Mtoe (Million Tonne Oil
Equivalent); Electricity – both including renewable and non-renewable sources – is only around
180 Mtoe (corresponding to roughly 410 GW). The term ‘installed power generation capacity’,
however, refers exclusively to electricity.

Installed Generation Capacity (Sector Wise) As on 31.01.2023


Sector MW % of Total

Central Sector 99,455 24.2%

State Sector 1,04,922 25.4%

Private Sector 2,07,272 50.4%


Total 4,11,649 100%

Source: Central Electricity Authority (CEA)

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Installed Generation Capacity (Fuel wise) as on 31.01.2023

CATEGORY Installed Generation % of SHARE IN Total


Capacity (Mw)

Fossil Fuel

Coal 204,435 49.7%

Lignite 6,620 1.6%


Gas 24,824 6.1%

Diesel 589 0.1%

Total Fossil Fuel 2,36,469 57.4 %

Non-Fossil Fuel

RES (Incl. Hydro) 168,400 40.9%

Hydro 46,850 11.4 %


Wind, Solar & Other RE 121,550 29.5 %

Wind 41,983 10.2 %

Solar 63,894 15.1 %

BM Power/Cogen 10,210 2.5 %

Waste to Energy 523 0.1 %

Small Hydro Power 4,940 1.2 %

Nuclear 6,780 1.6%


Total Non-Fossil Fuel 175,180 42.5%

Total Installed Capacity 4,11,649 100%


(Fossil Fuel & Non-Fossil
Fuel)

Note: 1000 MW (Megawatts) = 1 GW (Gigawatt); therefore total installed capacity can be written
as 411 GW.

5.2 Energy Demands


1. Analyze the energy demands of India.
According to the World Energy Outlook 2021 and India Energy Outlook 2021 by the
International Energy Agency (IEA), India's energy demands are expected to continue growing
significantly over the next two decades, driven by the country's rapidly growing economy,
population, and urbanization. Here are some of the key highlights:

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1. Total energy demand: India's total energy demand is expected to nearly double by
2040, reaching 1,842 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in the India Energy Outlook
2021 scenario. This growth is driven by a combination of factors, including population
growth, economic development, and urbanization.
2. Electricity demand: India's electricity demand is expected to triple by 2040, driven by
rising incomes, urbanization, and increasing demand from the industrial and commercial
sectors. The share of electricity in the country's total energy mix is expected to increase
from around 19% currently to around 24% by 2040.
3. Fossil fuel consumption: Despite increasing investment in renewable energy, fossil
fuels are expected to remain the dominant source of energy in India's energy mix over
the next two decades. Coal is expected to continue to be the primary source of electricity
generation, accounting for around 40% of the country's electricity generation by 2040.
4. Renewable energy: India's renewable energy capacity is expected to increase
significantly over the next two decades, driven by government policies and declining
costs of renewable technologies. The IEA's India Energy Outlook 2021 scenario projects
that renewable energy could meet around 40% of the country's electricity demand by
2040.
5. Energy access: Despite progress in recent years, a significant proportion of India's
population still lacks access to modern energy services. The IEA's India Energy Outlook
2021 scenario projects that around 100 million people will still lack access to electricity
by 2040, while 500 million people will continue to rely on traditional biomass for
cooking.
In conclusion, India's energy demands are expected to continue growing significantly over
the next two decades, driven by a combination of factors, including population growth, economic
development, and urbanization. While renewable energy is expected to play an increasingly
important role in the country's energy mix, fossil fuels are expected to remain dominant,
particularly in the electricity sector. The government will need to prioritize policies and
investments that promote energy efficiency and renewable energy to ensure sustainable and
affordable energy access for all.

2. Discuss the strategies and methods to be implemented by India to meet the growing
energy demands
India faces a significant challenge in meeting its growing energy demands sustainably, while also
ensuring energy security and affordable energy access for all. Here are some strategies and
methods that India could implement to address these challenges:
1. Increase investment in renewable energy: India has set an ambitious target of
achieving 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030, which will require significant
investment in wind, solar, and other renewable technologies. The government should
continue to incentivize and support renewable energy projects, including by providing
subsidies, tax incentives, and low-cost financing.
2. Promote energy efficiency: Energy efficiency is a key strategy to reduce energy demand
and promote sustainable energy use. The government could implement policies and
programs to promote energy-efficient buildings, appliances, and transportation. This
could include setting energy efficiency standards, providing incentives for energy-
efficient products, and promoting public transport and electric vehicles.

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3. Enhance grid infrastructure: The integration of renewable energy sources into the grid
requires a robust and flexible electricity grid. The government should continue to invest
in the expansion and modernization of the grid infrastructure, including the deployment
of smart grid technologies, to accommodate a higher share of renewable energy sources.
4. Increase domestic fossil fuel production: Despite the emphasis on renewable energy,
India is still heavily dependent on fossil fuels for its energy needs. The government
should focus on increasing domestic production of oil and gas, which will reduce
dependence on imports and enhance energy security.
5. Foster international cooperation: India can also benefit from international
cooperation and technology transfer to support the deployment of renewable energy and
energy-efficient technologies. The government should explore opportunities for
collaboration with other countries and organizations to accelerate the deployment of
sustainable energy technologies.
6. Address energy access challenges: While India has made significant progress in
expanding energy access in recent years, there is still a large proportion of the
population that lacks access to modern energy services. The government should
prioritize policies and investments to expand access to reliable and affordable energy for
all, particularly in rural and remote areas.
In conclusion, India has set ambitious targets to meet its growing energy demands
sustainably. To achieve these targets, the government should focus on promoting renewable
energy, enhancing energy efficiency, expanding grid infrastructure, increasing domestic fossil
fuel production, fostering international cooperation, and addressing energy access challenges. A
comprehensive and integrated approach is needed to ensure that India can meet its energy
demands sustainably and affordably.

3. Define conventional energy sources. Compare and contrast the conventional energy
sources from non-conventional energy sources.
Conventional energy sources refer to the traditional sources of energy that have been widely
used for decades, mainly fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which are burned to
generate electricity, power transportation, and provide heating and cooling for homes and
industries. These energy sources are called "conventional" because they have been the primary
sources of energy for many years and have been relied upon as the backbone of the world's
energy systems. However, their usage has been linked to environmental problems such as
climate change and air pollution.
Conventional energy sources and non-conventional energy sources have several differences,
which can be compared and contrasted on various fronts:
1. Nature of the Source: Conventional energy sources are finite resources that are
extracted from the earth, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Non-conventional energy
sources, on the other hand, are renewable resources that are derived from natural
sources like sunlight, wind, water, and geothermal heat.
2. Availability: Conventional energy sources are readily available, and their supply is often
stable, but their availability is limited and will eventually be depleted. In contrast, non-
conventional energy sources are available in abundance and are renewable, which means
that they can be replenished over time.
3. Environmental Impact: Conventional energy sources are known to have a significant
impact on the environment, primarily through greenhouse gas emissions and air

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pollution. Non-conventional energy sources have a much smaller environmental impact
and are considered cleaner energy sources, as they do not emit pollutants or greenhouse
gases.
4. Cost: Conventional energy sources are generally cheaper than non-conventional energy
sources due to the well-established infrastructure for their extraction and distribution.
However, the cost of non-conventional energy sources, such as solar and wind, has
decreased significantly in recent years and is becoming more competitive with
conventional sources.
5. Reliability: Conventional energy sources are generally considered to be reliable, as they
can be stored and transported easily. Non-conventional energy sources can be affected
by weather conditions and are generally considered less reliable, as their supply can be
intermittent.
6. Infrastructure: Conventional energy sources require extensive infrastructure, such as
pipelines, power plants, and refineries, to extract, refine, and distribute them. In contrast,
non-conventional energy sources require different types of infrastructure, such as solar
panels, wind turbines, and hydroelectric dams.
In summary, conventional energy sources and non-conventional energy sources have several
differences, including their nature, availability, environmental impact, cost, reliability, and
infrastructure. While conventional energy sources have been the primary source of energy for
decades, the increasing awareness of their environmental impact has led to a growing interest in
non-conventional energy sources

4. Discuss the challenges faced by Energy Sector in India.


The energy sector in India faces several challenges, including:
1. Energy security: India is heavily dependent on imported crude oil and natural gas,
which makes its energy security vulnerable to geopolitical risks and supply disruptions.
The country needs to diversify its energy sources and increase domestic production to
enhance energy security.
2. Access to electricity: Despite significant progress in recent years, millions of people in
India still lack access to electricity. Ensuring universal access to electricity remains a
major challenge, particularly in rural areas.
3. Energy affordability: High energy prices can have a significant impact on households,
businesses, and the overall economy. Ensuring that energy remains affordable is critical
for sustaining economic growth and reducing poverty.
4. Environmental concerns: The energy sector is one of the largest sources of greenhouse
gas emissions, which contribute to air pollution and climate change. India needs to
transition to cleaner sources of energy to address environmental concerns while meeting
its growing energy demand.
5. Infrastructure constraints: India's energy infrastructure needs significant investment
to improve grid stability, reduce transmission and distribution losses, and enhance
energy efficiency. The country also needs to develop new infrastructure to support the
integration of renewable energy sources and electric vehicles.
Thus, to summarize, energy sector in India faces significant challenges including energy
security, access to energy, energy affordability, environmental concerns and infrastructure
constrains. To face these challenges policy planners should focus on increasing domestic

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production of energy sources to enhance energy security, improve rural electrification and
affordability of energy to ensure access to all, and make transition to cleaner sources of energy
and invest in energy infrastructure to reduce environmental impact and improve efficiency.

5.3 Thermal Power


5. Write about the coal based thermal power in India.
Coal-based thermal power is the most dominant source of electricity generation in India,
accounting for around 70% of the total electricity generated in the country. Coal-fired power
plants in India are known for their high efficiency and reliability, making them an integral part of
the country's energy mix.
India is the third-largest coal-producing country in the world, with vast reserves of coal spread
across various regions of the country. The abundance of coal resources has enabled the country
to build a large number of coal-based power plants, which have helped to meet the growing
energy demands of the nation.
Public & Private Operators:
India's coal-based thermal power sector comprises both state-owned and privately owned
power plants. The state-owned power plants are operated by entities such as the National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), which is the largest power producer in India. Private sector
players such as Adani Power, Tata Power, and Reliance Power also operate coal-based thermal
power plants in India.
Measures to improve:
The Indian government has taken several measures to improve the efficiency and reduce the
environmental impact of coal-based thermal power plants. The government has mandated the
installation of pollution control equipment such as electrostatic precipitators, flue gas
desulfurization systems, and low NOx burners in all new power plants. The government has also
set targets for the adoption of renewable energy sources, which will help to reduce the country's
dependence on coal-based power.
Challenges:
However, despite these measures, the coal-based thermal power sector in India continues to face
several challenges. One of the primary challenges is the issue of coal quality, which can vary
significantly depending on the source. Poor quality coal can lead to reduced efficiency and higher
emissions, which can have a significant impact on the environment. Additionally, the high
dependence on coal-based power has led to concerns about the country's vulnerability to price
fluctuations in the global coal market.
In conclusion, coal-based thermal power remains a significant source of electricity generation in
India, and it will continue to play a crucial role in meeting the country's energy needs in the
foreseeable future. However, it is essential to address the challenges facing the sector and adopt
a more balanced approach that includes a greater emphasis on renewable energy sources.

6. What are the limitations of the coal based thermal power in India? What are the
solutions to those limitations?
Coal-based thermal power is the most dominant source of electricity generation in India,
accounting for around 70% of the total electricity generated in the country. However, it also has
several limitations that need to be addressed to ensure sustainable and efficient power
generation. Some of the significant limitations of the coal-based thermal power in India are:

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1. High carbon emissions: The use of coal as a fuel in thermal power plants is a significant
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, which causes climate change and air pollution.
• India is the third-largest emitter of CO2 after China and the US.
2. Water scarcity: Thermal power plants consume a large amount of water for cooling
purposes, which can put pressure on water resources and cause water scarcity,
particularly in water-stressed regions.
3. Coal availability: India's dependence on coal imports exposes the power sector to price
volatility, and supply disruptions can lead to power shortages.
4. Environmental impacts: Coal mining and transportation can cause land degradation,
deforestation, and air and water pollution.
To address these limitations, some potential solutions are:
1. Transition to renewable energy: India has set an ambitious target of achieving 450 GW
of renewable energy capacity by 2030. By scaling up renewable energy deployment, the
country can reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and mitigate carbon emissions.
2. Increase efficiency: Improving the efficiency of thermal power plants can reduce the
amount of coal required to generate a unit of electricity, resulting in lower emissions and
cost savings.
3. Advanced technologies: Advanced technologies such as carbon capture and storage
(CCS) can capture CO2 emissions from power plants and store them underground,
reducing the carbon footprint of thermal power generation.
4. Water conservation: Implementing measures such as using dry cooling systems,
optimizing water use, and reusing wastewater can reduce water consumption in thermal
power plants.
5. Sustainable mining practices: Adopting sustainable mining practices such as land
restoration and reducing waste can minimize the environmental impacts of coal mining.
Overall, a combination of these solutions can help address the limitations of the coal-based
thermal power sector in India and support the country's transition to a sustainable and low-
carbon energy system.

7. Write about the natural gas potential in India's energy sector.


Natural gas is a vital component of India's energy mix, accounting for approximately 6% of the
country's total primary energy consumption. With the government's focus on cleaner and
sustainable energy, the demand for natural gas in India is expected to increase in the coming
years. India has significant natural gas reserves, but the majority of these reserves are yet to be
explored.
Here are some of the key aspects of India's natural gas potential in the energy sector:
1. Abundant reserves: India has significant natural gas reserves, estimated at 1,400 billion
cubic meters (bcm), making it the 22nd largest reserve holder in the world. The majority
of the reserves are located in the western offshore region, the Krishna-Godavari basin,
and the northeastern region.
2. Lower emissions: Natural gas is a cleaner fossil fuel compared to coal and oil, with
lower carbon emissions and other air pollutants. Natural gas can also be used as a
complement to renewable energy sources, providing a reliable source of electricity when
the sun is not shining, and the wind is not blowing.

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3. Domestic production: India has a significant potential for domestic natural gas
production, with several exploration and production projects underway. Domestic
production can reduce India's dependence on imported natural gas and enhance the
country's energy security.
4. Infrastructure development: India is investing in building natural gas infrastructure,
including pipelines, regasification terminals, and city gas distribution networks. This
infrastructure development is crucial for the growth of the natural gas industry in India.
5. Cost-competitive: Natural gas prices in India are expected to remain competitive,
providing a cost-effective alternative to other fossil fuels. The government has also
implemented policies to encourage the use of natural gas, such as tax incentives and
subsidies for gas-based power generation.
Overall, natural gas has significant potential in India's energy sector, providing a cleaner and
reliable source of energy. The development of domestic natural gas reserves and infrastructure,
along with supportive policies, can help accelerate the growth of the natural gas industry in
India.

8. What are the limitations of the natural gas in India's energy sector? Suggest solutions.
While natural gas has significant potential in India's energy sector, it also has some limitations
that need to be addressed to ensure sustainable and efficient energy production. Here are some
of the key limitations and solutions:
1. Limited domestic production: Despite India's significant natural gas reserves, domestic
production has been limited due to factors such as regulatory hurdles, lack of
infrastructure, and exploration challenges. To address this, the government needs to
incentivize domestic natural gas exploration and production, streamline the regulatory
process, and invest in infrastructure development.
2. Price volatility: Natural gas prices in India are subject to volatility due to global market
conditions and import dependence. To mitigate this, the government can explore long-
term contracts with natural gas suppliers, increase domestic production, and develop a
strategic natural gas reserve to ensure energy security.
3. Infrastructure limitations: India's natural gas infrastructure is still developing, with
challenges such as inadequate pipeline connectivity, insufficient regasification capacity,
and limited storage facilities. The government can address these limitations by investing
in infrastructure development, promoting public-private partnerships, and providing
incentives for private investment in the sector.
4. Competition with renewable energy: Renewable energy sources such as solar and
wind are becoming increasingly cost-competitive, which could limit the growth potential
of natural gas in India's energy mix. To address this, the government can promote the
complementary use of natural gas and renewable energy, such as using natural gas as a
backup to intermittent renewable sources.
5. Environmental concerns: While natural gas is cleaner than coal, it still produces
greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change. To address this, the
government can promote the use of low-carbon natural gas technologies such as biogas
and hydrogen, and incentivize carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.
Overall, addressing these limitations requires a combination of government policies, private
sector investment, and infrastructure development. By promoting domestic production,
enhancing infrastructure, and incentivizing low-carbon natural gas technologies, India can
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harness the potential of natural gas in its energy sector while mitigating environmental impacts
and ensuring energy security.

9. Discuss the potential of shale gas and coal bed methane (CBM) in India.
Shale gas and coal bed methane (CBM) are unconventional sources of natural gas that have the
potential to significantly augment India's energy resources.
Here's a closer look at their potential:
Shale gas potential in India:
Shale gas is natural gas trapped in shale formations deep underground. India has significant
shale gas reserves, estimated at around 96 trillion cubic feet (tcf).
However, the exploitation of these reserves has been limited due to several challenges, including
regulatory hurdles, technological limitations, and environmental concerns.
To unlock the potential of shale gas in India, the government has taken steps to streamline the
regulatory process, encourage exploration and production, and promote the use of advanced
drilling techniques.
The government has also proposed a new policy framework that includes revenue sharing,
auction-based exploration, and marketing freedom for shale gas operators.
Coal bed methane potential in India:
CBM is natural gas trapped in coal seams. India has significant CBM reserves, estimated at
around 92 tcf.
The exploitation of CBM reserves has been limited due to technical challenges, such as low
permeability, and regulatory hurdles.
To unlock the potential of CBM in India, the government has taken steps to promote exploration
and production, including providing fiscal incentives such as tax breaks and allowing 100% foreign
direct investment (FDI) in the sector. The government has also announced plans to auction CBM
blocks and promote public-private partnerships to develop CBM infrastructure.
The potential of shale gas and CBM in India is significant, and their exploitation can provide a
much-needed boost to the country's energy security. However, their development must be
carried out in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner. The government
must ensure that adequate regulatory frameworks are in place, and that the local communities
are consulted and adequately compensated.
The development of these unconventional natural gas sources must also be complemented by a
transition towards renewable energy sources, to ensure that India's energy mix is sustainable
and meets its climate goals.

5.4 Hydro Electricity


10. Discuss the potential of hydroelectricity in India.
India has a significant potential for hydroelectricity generation due to its vast network of rivers,
streams, and canals. Hydroelectricity is a renewable and clean source of energy that can help
India reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and mitigate the negative impacts of climate change.
According to the Central Electricity Authority (CEA), India has an estimated hydroelectric
potential of approximately 150 GW, which is the fifth-largest in the world. However, only about
50 GW of this potential has been exploited so far, with the remaining potential still
untapped.(Total installed Hydroelectric capacity now is 46.8 GW which is 11% of the total)

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India has several large hydroelectric projects, including the Bhakra Nangal Dam in the northern
state of Punjab, the Sardar Sarovar Dam in the western state of Gujarat, and the Tehri Dam in the
northern state of Uttarakhand. These projects have a combined installed capacity of around
12,500 MW.
In recent years, the Indian government has been promoting the development of small
hydroelectric projects (SHPs) to harness the hydroelectric potential of the country's small and
medium-sized rivers. These SHPs typically have a capacity of less than 25 MW and can be built
quickly and at a lower cost than large hydroelectric projects. As of March 2021, there were over
4,700 SHPs in operation in India with a combined installed capacity of around 5,000 MW.
Despite the potential for hydroelectricity in India, there are also some challenges to its
development. One of the main challenges is environmental and social impacts, particularly in the
case of large hydroelectric projects. These projects can cause displacement of local communities,
loss of biodiversity, and changes to the natural flow of rivers, which can have far-reaching
ecological consequences.
In conclusion, hydroelectricity has a significant potential in India, and the government is taking
steps to develop this source of renewable energy. However, it is essential to balance the
economic benefits of hydroelectric projects with the environmental and social impacts to ensure
sustainable and equitable development.

11. What are the limitations of hydroelectricity in India? Suggest some solutions.
While hydroelectricity has significant potential in India, there are some limitations that need to
be addressed to fully exploit this source of renewable energy. Some of the major limitations are:
1. Seasonal variations in water flow: India's rivers are subject to seasonal variations in
water flow, which can affect the output of hydroelectric power plants. During the dry
season, water levels in rivers can drop significantly, leading to a decrease in power
generation.
2. Environmental and social impacts: Large hydroelectric projects can have significant
environmental and social impacts, including displacement of local communities, loss of
biodiversity, and changes to the natural flow of rivers.
3. High capital costs: The construction of large hydroelectric projects can be capital-
intensive, which can make them economically unfeasible in some cases.

To overcome these limitations, some solutions that can be considered are:


1. Developing small hydroelectric projects: Small hydroelectric projects can be built
quickly and at a lower cost than large hydroelectric projects. These projects can also have
a smaller environmental footprint and can be designed to operate efficiently even during
low-flow periods.
2. Building pumped-storage hydroelectricity: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity involves
pumping water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during periods of low
demand and then releasing it to generate electricity during periods of high demand. This
can help to overcome the seasonal variations in water flow and provide a stable source of
energy.
3. Implementing sustainable and socially responsible project designs: Hydroelectric
projects can be designed to minimize environmental and social impacts, and to ensure

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that local communities are adequately compensated and involved in the decision-making
process.
4. Investing in research and development: Research and development can help to
identify new and innovative technologies that can improve the efficiency and reduce the
cost of hydroelectric power generation.
In conclusion, while hydroelectricity has significant potential in India, it is essential to address
the limitations and adopt sustainable and socially responsible project designs to fully exploit this
source of renewable energy.

5.5 Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power is the
second-largest source of low-carbon electricity in the world today (after Solar power).
12. Discuss the current scenario of nuclear energy in India
Nuclear energy is an important component of India's energy mix, accounting for around 1.6% of
the country's total installed electricity capacity. Here is an overview of the current scenario of
nuclear energy in India:
1. Installed capacity: India has 22 nuclear power reactors in operation with a total
installed capacity of 6,780 MW, located across various states including Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Gujarat. In addition, construction of four more reactors with
a combined capacity of 3,400 MW is underway.
2. Contribution to energy mix: Nuclear energy currently accounts for around 1.6% of
India's total installed electricity capacity, and 2% of total electricity generated.
3. Expansion plans: India has set an ambitious target of increasing its nuclear power
capacity to 22,480 MW by 2031, as part of its efforts to diversify its energy mix and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This would require the construction of several new
nuclear power plants over the next decade.
4. Safety and security: The safety and security of nuclear power plants are of utmost
importance. India has taken several measures to ensure the safety and security of its
nuclear power plants, including setting up an independent nuclear regulatory body and
implementing stringent safety standards.
5. International cooperation: India has been expanding its cooperation with other
countries in the field of nuclear energy, including the construction of new reactors with
the help of foreign partners. India has also signed several agreements with countries
such as Russia, France, and the US to cooperate in the development of nuclear energy and
related technologies.
6. Public perception: Nuclear energy has been a controversial topic in India, with concerns
over safety, security, and nuclear waste management. There have been protests against
the construction of new nuclear power plants in some parts of the country, particularly
in areas that are vulnerable to natural disasters.
In conclusion, nuclear energy is an important component of India's energy mix, providing a
significant amount of electricity generation capacity. India has ambitious plans to expand its
nuclear power capacity over the next decade, but this will require careful attention to safety and
security measures, as well as addressing public concerns over nuclear energy. The successful

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implementation of India's nuclear energy plans could help to diversify the country's energy mix
and reduce its dependence on fossil fuels.

13.What are the major concerns and challenges with nuclear power in India? How to
address them?
Nuclear power is an important component of India's energy mix, but it also poses several
challenges and concerns. Here are some of the major challenges and concerns with nuclear
power in India and potential ways to address them:
1. Safety concerns: The safety of nuclear power plants is of utmost importance. There are
concerns over the potential risks associated with nuclear accidents, particularly in the
event of a natural disaster or terrorist attack. To address these concerns, India should
continue to invest in safety measures and regulations. The government should also work
closely with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to ensure that the highest
safety standards are met.
2. Waste management: Nuclear power generates radioactive waste, which requires careful
handling and disposal. There are concerns over the lack of safe storage and disposal
facilities for nuclear waste in India. To address this, India needs to develop safe and
secure storage and disposal facilities for nuclear waste. This could involve investing in
research and development to identify new storage technologies and sites.
3. Cost: Nuclear power plants are expensive to build and maintain, and the cost of nuclear
energy is often higher than other forms of energy. To address this, India needs to
improve the efficiency of its nuclear power plants and explore opportunities to reduce
costs through international cooperation and technology transfer.
4. Public perception: Nuclear power has been a controversial topic in India, with concerns
over safety, security, and nuclear waste management. There have been protests against
the construction of new nuclear power plants in some parts of the country. To address
this, the government should engage in dialogue with communities and stakeholders to
address their concerns and ensure transparency in the decision-making process.
5. Dependence on foreign technology: India currently depends on foreign technology for
its nuclear power plants, which could pose challenges for the transfer of technology and
maintenance of the plants. To address this, India should invest in research and
development of its own nuclear technologies and strengthen domestic capabilities in the
field of nuclear power.
In conclusion, nuclear power is an important component of India's energy mix, but it also
poses several challenges and concerns. To address these challenges, India needs to invest in
safety measures, waste management, and cost reduction, engage with communities and
stakeholders, and strengthen domestic capabilities in nuclear technology. With careful planning
and management, nuclear power can continue to play a role in India's energy mix while meeting
the highest safety and security standards.

5.6 Renewable Energy Sources


Note: India had set a goal of 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030 as announced by the
Prime Minister in 26th COP, UNFCCC in 2021 in Glasgow. This was further revised to 500 GW by
2030.

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14. What are renewable energies? Discuss various types of renewable energies and their
prospects in India?
Renewable energies are sources of energy that are replenished naturally and continuously, such
as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal. These sources of energy have the potential to
provide sustainable and clean energy while reducing the reliance on non-renewable and
polluting sources of energy like coal and oil.
1. Solar Energy: India has tremendous potential for solar energy, with more than 300
sunny days a year. The government has set a target to achieve 100 GW of solar power by
2022. The prospects for solar energy in India are bright, and the country has already
made significant progress towards achieving this target.
2. Wind Energy: India has the fourth-largest installed wind capacity in the world, with a
current installed capacity of 39.2 GW. The government has set a target to achieve 60 GW
of wind power by 2022. However, wind power growth in India has slowed down in
recent years due to land availability issues, regulatory hurdles, and transmission
infrastructure constraints.
3. Hydro Energy: India has significant potential for hydroelectricity, with an estimated
potential of 148,700 MW. However, only around 45% of this potential has been exploited
so far, and there are challenges associated with large hydroelectric projects, such as
environmental and social impacts.
4. Biomass Energy: Biomass is the fourth most important energy source in India after coal,
oil, and natural gas. Biomass energy can be produced from various sources like
agricultural waste, forest waste, and urban waste. Biomass energy has the potential to
provide decentralized energy solutions for rural areas in India.
5. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is a relatively unexplored renewable energy
source in India. The country has a few geothermal springs, but their potential for energy
generation is yet to be fully evaluated.
In conclusion, renewable energy sources have significant potential in India, and the government
has set ambitious targets to achieve a higher share of renewables in the energy mix. While solar
and wind energy are the most developed renewable energy sources in India, there is a need to
explore other sources such as hydro, biomass, and geothermal to achieve the country's energy
goals.

15. Define New Energy sources. Write about various new energies that are being
developed in India.
New energy sources refer to the emerging technologies and methods that are being developed to
meet the world's growing energy demand while minimizing the environmental impact. In India,
several new energy sources are being developed to meet the country's energy needs and reduce
its carbon footprint. Here are some of the new energies that are being developed in India:
1. Solar Energy: India has a vast potential for solar energy due to its geographical location
and abundant sunlight. The government of India has set a target to achieve 100 GW of
solar energy capacity by 2022. Rooftop solar, solar farms, and floating solar are some of
the methods being developed in India.
2. Wind Energy: India has a significant potential for wind energy, particularly in coastal
areas. The government has set a target to achieve 60 GW of wind energy capacity by
2022. Onshore wind turbines and offshore wind turbines are some of the methods being
developed in India.
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3. Bioenergy: Bioenergy refers to the energy produced from organic matter such as crop
residues, forest residues, and municipal solid waste. India has a significant potential for
bioenergy, and the government has set a target to achieve 10 GW of bioenergy capacity
by 2022. Biogas, biomass power, and biofuels are some of the methods being developed
in India.
4. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy refers to the energy produced from the heat of
the earth's crust. India has a limited potential for geothermal energy due to its location,
but several geothermal projects are being developed in the country.
5. Hydrogen Energy: Hydrogen energy refers to the energy produced from the reaction of
hydrogen and oxygen. India has started developing hydrogen fuel cell technology for
vehicles and power generation.
6. Tidal Energy: Tidal energy refers to the energy produced from the movement of the
tides. India has a significant potential for tidal energy due to its long coastline. Several
tidal energy projects are being developed in the country.
7. Waste to Energy: Waste to energy refers to the energy produced from the conversion of
waste. India has a vast potential for waste to energy due to its high amount of waste
generated. Biogas, waste-to-power, and refuse-derived fuel are some of the methods
being developed in India.
These new energy sources have the potential to significantly reduce India's carbon footprint and
meet its growing energy demand. The government of India is providing support and incentives
to encourage the development and adoption of these new energy sources.

5.6.1 Solar
16. Discuss the solar energy potential in india, its limitations and solutions.
India has enormous potential for solar energy due to its geographical location, which provides
abundant sunlight throughout the year. According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE), India's solar power potential is estimated to be around 750 GW.
Some of the major advantages of solar energy in India are:
1. Abundant sunlight: India receives an average of 300 sunny days a year, making it an
ideal location for solar power generation.
2. Energy security: Solar energy can help to reduce India's dependence on imported fossil
fuels, thereby enhancing energy security.
3. Rural electrification: Solar energy can provide decentralized energy solutions for
remote and rural areas in India that are not connected to the grid.
4. Cost competitiveness: The cost of solar power has been declining rapidly, making it an
increasingly competitive source of energy in India.
However, there are some limitations to the expansion of solar energy in India, which include:
1. Land availability: The availability of land for large-scale solar power projects can be a
challenge, especially in densely populated areas.
2. Grid integration: The integration of solar power into the existing grid infrastructure can
be a challenge due to issues such as grid stability, intermittency, and variability.
3. Technology constraints: Solar power technology is still evolving, and the performance
and efficiency of solar panels can be affected by factors such as dust, humidity, and
temperature.

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To overcome these limitations, some solutions that can be considered are:
1. Rooftop solar: Rooftop solar installations can help to overcome land availability issues
and provide decentralized energy solutions for households, businesses, and institutions.
2. Energy storage: Energy storage solutions such as batteries can help to address the
intermittency and variability of solar power and provide a stable source of energy.
3. Smart grid infrastructure: Smart grid infrastructure can help to integrate solar power
into the existing grid infrastructure and ensure grid stability and reliability.
4. Research and development: Research and development can help to identify new and
innovative solar power technologies that can improve the performance and efficiency of
solar panels and reduce their cost.
In conclusion, solar energy has significant potential in India, and the country has already
made significant progress towards achieving its solar power targets. However, there are some
limitations that need to be addressed to fully exploit the potential of solar energy in India, and
solutions such as rooftop solar, energy storage, smart grid infrastructure, and research and
development can help to overcome these limitations.

17. Discuss about the National Solar Mission of India.


The National Solar Mission (NSM) is an initiative of the Government of India and State
Governments to promote solar power in the country. It is one of the eight key National Missions
under India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) which was launched in 2008. The
objective of NSM is to establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by creating the policy
conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as possible.
The NSM has three phases: Phase 1 (2010-2013), Phase 2 (2013-2017) and Phase 3 (2017-
2022). The original target for NSM was to achieve a total installed solar capacity of 20 GW by
2022, but it was revised to 100 GW by 2022 in 20152. The NSM has various schemes and
programmes to support grid-connected and off-grid solar applications, such as rooftop solar,
solar parks, canal-top solar, etc.
Achievements
Some of the achievements of NSM are:
1. Growth in installed capacity: It has helped India to become one of the leading countries
in solar power generation with a cumulative installed capacity of 63.3 GW as of Feb 2023.
2. Reduction of solar power tarrifs: It has reduced the cost of solar power significantly,
from about Rs. 17 per kWh in 2010 to about Rs. 2 per kWh in 2021.
3. Innovative Schemes: It has supported various innovative schemes and programmes for
grid-connected and off-grid solar applications, such as rooftop solar, solar parks, canal-
top solar, etc.
4. Conducive Environment: It has created a conducive environment for solar energy
development by establishing policy frameworks, regulatory mechanisms, financial
incentives, R&D support, etc.
5. Job creation: The growth of the solar power sector has created employment
opportunities in manufacturing, installation, operation, and maintenance of solar power
projects.
6. Energy access: The NSM has provided access to clean and affordable energy for
households, businesses, and institutions that are not connected to the grid.

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5.6.2 Wind Energy
18. Discuss the wind energy potential in India.
India has a vast potential for wind energy due to its geographical location and topography. The
country has a long coastline, mountain ranges, and vast expanses of land, all of which can be
utilized for the production of wind energy.
According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), India's total potential for wind
energy is estimated to be around 300 GW. However, the country's current installed wind power
capacity stands at around 41 GW (as of January 2023), which accounts for 10% of India's total
installed power capacity.
The states of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra are the leading states
in terms of installed wind power capacity. The Indian government has also identified several
other states with high potential for wind energy, including Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
and Telangana.
The Indian government has taken several steps to promote wind energy in the country. The
government provides incentives such as accelerated depreciation, generation-based incentives,
and viability gap funding to encourage investment in the sector. Additionally, the government
has set a target of achieving 60 GW of wind power capacity by 2022.
However, there are also some challenges that need to be addressed for the development of wind
energy in India. One of the significant challenges is the intermittency of wind power, which
requires a strong grid infrastructure to balance supply and demand. The high cost of setting up
wind farms and the lack of suitable sites for wind farms are also challenges that need to be
addressed.
Overall, India has significant potential for wind energy, and the country is taking steps to harness
this potential. With the right policies and investments, India can become a major player in the
global wind energy market.

19. What are the challenges for wind energy sector in India? Suggest solutions to these
challenges.
While India has enormous potential for wind energy, there are several challenges that the sector
faces. Here are some of the main challenges and solutions to overcome them:
1. Intermittency: Wind power is an intermittent source of energy, and its generation
depends on the availability of wind. To address this, India needs to develop a robust grid
infrastructure to balance supply and demand. The government should also invest in
energy storage technologies such as batteries and pumped hydro storage to store excess
energy generated by wind turbines during periods of low demand.
2. High capital costs: The initial capital cost of setting up wind farms is high, which
discourages many investors. To overcome this, the government could provide incentives
such as tax breaks and subsidies to encourage investment in the sector. The government
could also facilitate the access of wind energy projects to low-cost capital by easing
financing options from banks and financial institutions.
3. Land availability: Identifying suitable land for wind farm installation is challenging. The
government could develop a comprehensive land-use plan that identifies areas with high
wind potential and encourages landowners to lease land for wind farm development.

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4. Grid integration: As the share of wind energy in the electricity mix grows, integrating it
into the grid becomes a challenge. India needs to invest in smart grid technologies,
advanced forecasting tools, and better communication systems to integrate wind energy
into the grid seamlessly.
5. Technological advancements: To reduce costs and increase efficiency, India needs to
invest in advanced wind turbine technology. The government should encourage the
development and adoption of new technologies by providing research and development
incentives.
6. Policy framework: The government needs to provide stable policies and regulations
that encourage the development of the wind energy sector. The policies should focus on
long-term planning, incentivizing energy storage, providing transmission infrastructure,
and developing new business models.
Overall, India's wind energy sector has enormous potential, but there are several challenges that
need to be addressed. With the right policies, incentives, and investments, India can overcome
these challenges and become a global leader in the wind energy market.

5.6.3 Other Renewable Energy Sources


20. What are small/micro/mini hydel powers? Discuss their potential in India.
Any hydroelectricity project with the maximum potential of 25MW is called small hydro power.
Small hydropower, micro hydropower, and mini hydropower are types of hydropower systems
that generate electricity using small to medium-sized water flows.
These systems are designed to be smaller and less expensive than large hydropower systems
and can be used in remote or rural areas where access to the grid is limited or non-existent.
Here's a brief explanation of each type:
1. Micro hydropower: Micro hydropower systems generate electricity using water flows
between 5 kW and 100 kW.
2. Mini hydropower: Mini hydropower systems generate electricity using water flows
between 100 kW and 2 MW.
3. Small hydropower: Small hydropower systems generate electricity using water flows
between 100 kilowatts (kW) and 25 megawatt (MW).
India has significant potential for small, micro, and mini hydropower systems. According to the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the country has a potential capacity of around 25,000
MW for small, mini, and micro hydropower systems. Current installed capacity of Small
hydropower is around 5,000 MW (Jan, 2023).
Here are some factors that suggest the potential of small, micro, and mini hydropower in India:
1. Water resources: India has a vast network of rivers and streams that can be used to
generate hydropower. Especially in Himalayan region where access can be difficult for
transmission networks.
2. Rural electrification: A significant portion of India's population lives in rural areas
where access to electricity is limited. Small, micro, and mini hydropower systems can be
used to provide electricity to these areas and help to promote rural electrification.
3. Cost-effectiveness: Small, micro, and mini hydropower systems are generally less
expensive than large hydropower systems and can be more cost-effective in remote or
rural areas.

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4. Environmentally friendly: Hydropower is a renewable energy source that does not
emit greenhouse gases. Small, micro, and mini hydropower systems have a smaller
environmental footprint than large hydropower systems and can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
However, the potential of small, micro, and mini hydropower in India is yet to be fully realized.
The sector faces several challenges, including regulatory barriers, lack of financing, and social
and environmental concerns. To realize the potential of small, micro, and mini hydropower in
India, the government needs to provide a supportive policy and regulatory framework,
encourage private sector participation, and invest in infrastructure development. Additionally,
public awareness and participation in hydropower development practices should be promoted.

21. What is bio energy? Explain various types of bio energy sources in India.
Bioenergy refers to energy that is generated from biomass, which is organic matter produced by
living organisms such as plants and animals. Bioenergy is considered a renewable energy source
because biomass can be replenished through natural processes like photosynthesis.
In India, bioenergy plays an important role in meeting the country's energy needs. The current
installed capacity of Bioenergy is 10GW (Jan, 2023). Indian aimed for the bioenergy of 10GW by
2022.
Some of the different types of bioenergy sources used in India include:
1. Biofuels: Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels made from biomass. The most commonly
used biofuels in India are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is primarily made from
sugarcane molasses and is used as a blending agent in petrol. Biodiesel is made from
vegetable oils, animal fats, or waste cooking oil and can be used as a substitute for diesel.
2. Biogas: Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as
agricultural waste, animal manure, and sewage. Biogas can be used for cooking, lighting,
and electricity generation.
3. Biomass power: Biomass power refers to the use of biomass to generate electricity. This
can be done through direct combustion or through a process called gasification, which
converts biomass into a gas that can be burned to produce electricity.
4. Bagasse cogeneration: Bagasse is the fibrous residue that remains after sugarcane has
been crushed to extract juice. Bagasse can be burned to produce steam, which can then
be used to generate electricity. This process is called bagasse cogeneration and is
commonly used in the sugar industry in India.
5. Wood energy: Wood energy refers to the use of wood and other woody biomass for
heating and cooking. This is a common practice in rural areas of India where access to
modern energy sources is limited.
Overall, bioenergy has the potential to play an important role in India's energy mix, particularly
in rural areas where access to modern energy sources is limited. However, there are also
concerns about the sustainability of bioenergy production, particularly if it involves the use of
food crops or leads to deforestation.

22. What is waste to energy? What are the common methods of waste to energy?
Waste to energy (WtE) is the process of converting solid waste into energy in the form of heat,
electricity, or fuel. The process involves using the combustible components of waste as fuel to

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generate energy. WtE can help to reduce the volume of waste that needs to be landfilled, provide
a source of renewable energy, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The following are some common methods of waste to energy:
1. Incineration: Incineration is a combustion-based process that involves burning waste at
high temperatures to generate steam, which then drives turbines to generate electricity.
Incineration can reduce the volume of waste by up to 90%, and the energy generated can
be used to power homes and businesses.
2. Gasification: Gasification involves converting waste into gas by heating it in the
presence of a limited amount of oxygen. The gas can then be used to generate electricity
or produce synthetic fuels.
3. Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process that involves heating waste in
the absence of oxygen. This process produces a gas that can be used to generate
electricity or produce fuel, as well as a solid residue that can be used as a fertilizer or a
fuel.
4. Anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion involves breaking down organic waste in the
absence of oxygen to produce biogas, which can be used to generate electricity or
produce fuel. The remaining residue can be used as fertilizer.
5. Plasma gasification: Plasma gasification is a process that uses high-temperature plasma
to convert waste into gas. The gas can be used to generate electricity, and the solid
residue can be used as a construction material.
6. Landfill gas recovery: Landfill gas recovery involves capturing the methane gas
produced by decomposing waste in landfills and using it to generate electricity.
These methods can be used separately or in combination with each other, depending on the type
and quantity of waste, local regulations, and other factors.

23. Discuss the potential of waste to energy in India.


India generates a significant amount of waste, and the country's growing population and rapid
urbanization are expected to increase the amount of waste generated in the coming years. At the
same time, India faces significant challenges in meeting its energy needs, particularly in rural
areas.
Waste to energy (WtE) has the potential to address both of these challenges by converting waste
into a source of renewable energy. Here are some factors that suggest the potential of waste to
energy in India:
1. Large waste generation: India generates around 62 million tonnes of waste per year,
and this is expected to reach 165 million tonnes by 2030. This provides a significant
amount of waste that can be used to generate energy.
2. Landfill space constraints: Landfill space is becoming scarce in India, particularly in
urban areas. WtE can help to reduce the volume of waste that needs to be landfilled,
which can help to alleviate this problem.
3. Energy demand: India is the world's third-largest energy consumer, and the demand for
energy is expected to increase significantly in the coming years. WtE can provide a
source of renewable energy that can help to meet this demand.
4. Government initiatives: The Indian government has recognized the potential of WtE
and has taken several initiatives to promote its development. For example, the
government has launched the Swachh Bharat Mission, which aims to create clean and
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sustainable cities, and the National Biogas and Manure Management Programme, which
aims to promote the use of biogas.
5. Technological advancements: India has made significant progress in developing WtE
technologies, particularly in the areas of anaerobic digestion and gasification. These
technologies have the potential to convert a wide range of waste into energy.
However, despite these factors, the potential of waste to energy in India is yet to be fully realized.
The sector faces several challenges, including inadequate waste collection and segregation
systems, lack of investment, and regulatory barriers. To realize the potential of WtE in India, the
government needs to provide a supportive policy and regulatory framework, encourage private
sector participation, and invest in infrastructure development. Additionally, public awareness
and participation in waste management practices should be promoted.

24. What is a fuel cell? Explain its functioning.


A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel into electricity
without combustion. It is a type of battery that uses a fuel, such as hydrogen, and an oxidant,
such as oxygen, to produce electricity.
A typical fuel cell consists of three main components: the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte.
The anode and cathode are two electrodes that are separated by an electrolyte. The anode is the
negative electrode, and the cathode is the positive electrode.
When fuel is supplied to the anode, it is split into protons and electrons. The protons pass
through the electrolyte to the cathode, while the electrons flow through an external circuit,
generating an electric current. At the cathode, the protons and electrons combine with the
oxidant to produce water and heat.
The chemical reactions that occur in a fuel cell depend on the type of fuel and oxidant used. In a
hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen is supplied to the anode, while oxygen is supplied to the cathode.
The hydrogen is split into protons and electrons, and the protons pass through the electrolyte to
the cathode. At the cathode, the protons and electrons combine with oxygen to produce water
and heat.
The efficiency of a fuel cell depends on several factors, including the type of fuel and oxidant
used, the operating temperature, and the design of the fuel cell. Fuel cells are highly efficient
compared to traditional combustion-based technologies, and they produce fewer emissions.
Fuel cells have several applications, including powering vehicles, buildings, and remote locations
where access to the grid is limited. They are also used in portable electronic devices, such as
laptops and smartphones.
In summary, a fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel
into electricity without combustion. It consists of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, and
works by splitting the fuel into protons and electrons and then recombining them with the
oxidant to produce electricity, water, and heat.

25. Explain the functioning of a hydrogen based fuel cell.


A hydrogen-based fuel cell consists of three main components: the anode, the cathode, and the
electrolyte. The anode and cathode are two electrodes that are separated by an electrolyte. When
hydrogen is supplied to the anode, it is split into protons and electrons through a process called
electrolysis.

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The protons pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, while the electrons flow through an
external circuit, generating an electric current. At the cathode, oxygen (usually from air) is
supplied, and it combines with the protons and electrons to produce water and heat.
The overall chemical reaction that occurs in a hydrogen-based fuel cell can be expressed as:2H2 +
O2 → 2H2O
This reaction produces electricity, water, and heat, and is highly efficient compared to traditional
combustion-based technologies. The water produced is the only emission from the fuel cell,
making it a clean and environmentally friendly source of energy.
The efficiency of a hydrogen-based fuel cell depends on several factors, including the type of
electrolyte used, the operating temperature, and the design of the fuel cell. The most common
electrolyte used in hydrogen fuel cells is a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM), which operates
at a relatively low temperature of around 80°C (176°F).
Hydrogen-based fuel cells have several applications, including powering vehicles, buildings, and
remote locations where access to the grid is limited. They are also used in portable electronic
devices, such as laptops and smartphones.
In summary, a hydrogen-based fuel cell converts the chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity
through a process called electrolysis. Hydrogen is supplied to the anode, where it is split into
protons and electrons. The protons pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, while the
electrons flow through an external circuit, generating an electric current. At the cathode, oxygen
is supplied, and it combines with the protons and electrons to produce water and heat. The
overall reaction is highly efficient and produces only water as an emission.

26. Are hydrogen based fuel cells rechargeable? If yes, how are they recharged?
Hydrogen-based fuel cells are rechargeable. However, instead of recharging the fuel cell by
plugging it into a power outlet like a battery, a hydrogen fuel cell is recharged by refueling it with
hydrogen.
To recharge a hydrogen fuel cell, the depleted hydrogen fuel is replaced with fresh hydrogen,
either by refilling the fuel tank or replacing the fuel cartridge. This process is similar to refueling
a gas-powered vehicle, but instead of gasoline, hydrogen is used as the fuel.
One advantage of hydrogen fuel cells is that they can be refueled quickly, taking only a few
minutes to refuel compared to the hours required to recharge a battery-powered vehicle.
Additionally, hydrogen fuel cells offer a longer driving range compared to battery-powered
vehicles.
However, the availability of hydrogen refueling infrastructure is currently limited, which is a
major challenge to the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. There are also safety
concerns related to the storage and transportation of hydrogen fuel.
In summary, hydrogen fuel cells are rechargeable by refueling them with hydrogen. This process
is similar to refueling a gas-powered vehicle, but instead of gasoline, hydrogen is used as the fuel.
However, the availability of hydrogen refueling infrastructure is currently limited, which is a
major challenge to the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

5.7 Energy Security


27. Write a note on the energy security of India.
India's energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy resources at affordable
prices to support economic growth and improve the quality of life of its citizens. India is the
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world's third-largest energy consumer after China and the United States, and its energy demand
is expected to increase rapidly in the coming years.
India's energy mix is dominated by coal, which accounts for approximately 55% of its energy
consumption, followed by oil (28%), natural gas (7%), hydroelectricity (4%), and renewable
energy (6%). India is heavily dependent on imports to meet its energy needs, with
approximately 80% of its oil and gas requirements being met through imports.
Energy security is a top priority for India, and the government has taken several initiatives to
enhance energy security. India has established strategic partnerships with oil-producing
countries to ensure a reliable supply of crude oil. The country has also diversified its sources of
natural gas imports and has encouraged the exploration and production of domestic natural gas
reserves.
India has set ambitious renewable energy targets, aiming to achieve 450 GW of renewable
energy capacity by 2030, which includes 280 GW of solar energy, 140 GW of wind energy, 10 GW
of bioenergy, and 5 GW of hydro energy. The government has implemented various policies and
incentives to promote the development of renewable energy, including a National Solar Mission,
the Green Energy Corridor Project, and the National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy.
The government has also undertaken initiatives to improve energy efficiency and conservation.
The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has launched several programs to promote energy-
efficient appliances, buildings, and industries. The government has also implemented a scheme
to provide LED bulbs at subsidized rates to households, resulting in significant energy savings.
Despite these efforts, India still faces several challenges in ensuring energy security. The
country's energy infrastructure is outdated and insufficient, leading to frequent power outages
and supply disruptions. India's heavy reliance on coal has resulted in severe environmental
degradation and air pollution, leading to significant health and environmental costs. The country
also faces geopolitical risks and price fluctuations in the global oil and gas markets, which can
impact energy security.
In conclusion, India's energy security is crucial for its economic growth and development. The
government's initiatives to diversify its energy sources, promote renewable energy, and improve
energy efficiency are positive steps towards achieving energy security. However, more needs to
be done to upgrade the country's energy infrastructure, reduce its dependence on fossil fuels,
and address the environmental and health impacts of energy production and consumption.

28. What are the key initiatives taken by the government of India to ensure energy
security?
The Government of India has taken several initiatives to ensure energy security. Here are some
key initiatives:
1. Diversification of Energy Sources: The government has taken steps to diversify the
country's energy mix by promoting renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro,
and biomass. The National Solar Mission, the National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy, and the
Green Energy Corridor Project are some examples of the government's initiatives in this
regard.
2. Energy Efficiency: The government has implemented several programs to promote
energy efficiency and conservation. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has launched
various programs to promote energy-efficient appliances, buildings, and industries. The
UJALA scheme, which provides LED bulbs at subsidized rates to households, has resulted
in significant energy savings.

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3. Energy Security Partnerships: The government has established strategic partnerships
with oil-producing countries to ensure a reliable supply of crude oil. India has signed
long-term agreements with countries such as the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia,
and Iran to ensure the availability of crude oil at affordable prices.
4. Domestic Production: The government has encouraged the exploration and production
of domestic oil and gas reserves to reduce dependence on imports. The government has
launched several initiatives to promote domestic production, such as the New
Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) and the Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP).
5. Energy Diplomacy: The government has undertaken energy diplomacy to secure its
energy needs. India is a member of several international energy forums, such as the
International Energy Agency (IEA), the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA),
and the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
6. Energy Infrastructure Development: The government is investing in the development
of energy infrastructure to enhance energy security. The government has launched
initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (Saubhagya) to ensure
access to electricity for all households.
In conclusion, the government of India has taken several initiatives to ensure energy security,
including diversification of energy sources, energy efficiency programs, energy security
partnerships, domestic production, energy diplomacy, and energy infrastructure development.
These initiatives are crucial to meeting India's growing energy demand and ensuring energy
security in the long run.

29. How science and technology can help India achieve energy security?
Science and technology can play a crucial role in helping India achieve energy security. Here are
some ways in which science and technology can help:
1. Renewable Energy: Science and technology can help develop new and more efficient
renewable energy technologies. Research and development in areas such as solar, wind,
hydro, and bioenergy can help increase the efficiency and reduce the costs of these
technologies. India can also explore new technologies such as offshore wind and
geothermal energy.
2. Energy Storage: Energy storage technologies, such as batteries and fuel cells, can help
store energy generated from renewable sources for later use. Research and development
in this area can help increase the efficiency and reduce the costs of these technologies.
3. Smart Grids: Smart grid technologies can help improve the efficiency of the electricity
grid and enable the integration of renewable energy sources. The use of advanced
sensors, communication networks, and algorithms can help optimize the use of
electricity and reduce energy waste.
4. Energy Efficiency: Science and technology can help develop new and more efficient
appliances, buildings, and industries. Research and development in areas such as energy-
efficient lighting, building insulation, and industrial automation can help reduce energy
consumption and improve energy efficiency.
5. Carbon Capture and Storage: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies can help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel-based power plants. Research and
development in this area can help improve the efficiency and reduce the costs of these
technologies.

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6. Advanced Transportation: Science and technology can help develop new and more
efficient transportation technologies, such as electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Research and development in this area can help reduce the dependence on fossil fuels for
transportation and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
In conclusion, science and technology can play a significant role in helping India achieve
energy security. Developing new and more efficient renewable energy technologies, energy
storage technologies, smart grids, energy-efficient appliances, buildings, and industries, CCS
technologies, and advanced transportation can help India meet its energy needs while reducing
its dependence on fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

5.8 Biofuel cultivation and extraction


30. What are the types of biofuels? Explain why bio-fuels are considered a viable
alternative for India.
There are three main types of biofuels:
1. First-generation biofuels: These are produced from food crops such as sugarcane, corn,
and soybean. The most common types of first-generation biofuels are bioethanol and
biodiesel.
2. Second-generation biofuels: These are produced from non-food crops or agricultural
waste, such as straw, corn stover, and wood chips. Second-generation biofuels include
cellulosic ethanol and biomass-to-liquid (BTL) fuels.
3. Third-generation biofuels: These are produced from algae, which can be grown in non-
arable land, wastewater, and saltwater. Third-generation biofuels include algae-based
biodiesel and bioethanol.
Biofuels are considered a viable alternative for India for several reasons:
1. Energy security: India is heavily dependent on imported crude oil, which makes its
energy security vulnerable to geopolitical risks and supply disruptions. The use of
biofuels can reduce India's dependence on foreign oil and enhance energy security.
2. Rural development: Biofuel production can provide additional income to farmers and
create employment opportunities in rural areas, which can help reduce poverty and
promote rural development.
3. Environmental sustainability: Biofuels have a lower carbon footprint than fossil fuels,
which can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate
change. The use of biofuels can also help reduce air pollution from transportation, which
is a major problem in many Indian cities.
4. Energy diversification: The use of biofuels can diversify India's energy mix and reduce
its dependence on fossil fuels. This can help reduce price volatility and promote energy
independence.

31. What are the differences between first, second and third generations of biofuels? Why
are first and second generation biofuels seen as threat to food security? How do third
generation biofuels manage to address those problems?
The first, second, and third generations of biofuels are differentiated based on the feedstock or
raw material used for their production, as well as the technology and processes employed. The
differences between them are as follows:

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1. First generation biofuels: These are produced from edible crops such as corn,
sugarcane, vegetable oils, and animal fats. They are typically made using traditional crop-
based processes such as fermentation or transesterification. First generation biofuels are
widely used globally and include bioethanol (produced from crops such as corn and
sugarcane) and biodiesel (produced from vegetable oils and animal fats). However, they
are often criticized for their negative impacts on food security, as they compete with food
crops for land, water, and other resources. The use of food crops for biofuel production
can drive up food prices, reduce food availability, and contribute to deforestation and
land degradation.
2. Second generation biofuels: These are produced from non-food feedstocks, such as
agricultural residues, crop waste, and lignocellulosic materials (e.g., wood, grasses).
Second generation biofuels are typically produced using advanced processes such as
cellulosic bioconversion or thermochemical conversion. They are considered more
sustainable than first generation biofuels, as they do not compete with food crops and
can utilize waste materials that would otherwise go unused. However, second generation
biofuels are still facing challenges in terms of large-scale production and commercial
viability.
3. Third generation biofuels: These are produced from algae, which are a type of
microorganism that can convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into biomass through a
process called photosynthesis. Third generation biofuels, also known as algae-based
biofuels, have the potential to address some of the problems associated with first and
second generation biofuels. They do not compete with food crops for resources, can be
grown in non-arable land or even in wastewater, and have high oil yields per unit area
compared to traditional crops. Additionally, algae can potentially capture carbon dioxide
from industrial processes, which could help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
In summary, while first and second generation biofuels have been criticized for their negative
impacts on food security and sustainability, third generation biofuels, which are produced from
algae, have the potential to overcome these challenges by utilizing non-food feedstocks and
offering unique advantages in terms of land use, resource utilization, and potential carbon
capture. However, it's important to note that third generation biofuels are still in the early stages
of development and commercialization, and more research and technological advancements are
needed to fully realize their potential.

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Chapter 6: Crop Science
Syllabus: Crop Science in India; Characteristics of Plants - Crop plants, Forest species, Medicinal
Aromatic plants, Useful and Harmful plants and utility for mankind.

6.1 Crop Science in India


1. What is crop science? What are the major objectives of crop science?
Crop science is a branch of agricultural science that focuses on the study of crops, including their
cultivation, genetics, physiology, and management. It involves understanding the interactions
between crops, the environment, and the various agricultural practices that can be used to
optimize crop growth and production.
The major objectives of crop science include:
1. Improving crop yields: Crop scientists work to improve the quantity and quality of crop
yields through the development of new crop varieties, improved cultivation practices,
and the use of advanced technologies.
2. Increasing resistance to pests and diseases: Crop scientists develop and implement
pest and disease management strategies that minimize the use of harmful chemicals and
promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Enhancing soil fertility: Crop scientists develop and implement soil management
practices that enhance soil fertility and promote sustainable agriculture.
4. Developing sustainable agriculture practices: Crop scientists work to develop
sustainable agricultural practices that optimize crop growth and production while
minimizing negative environmental impacts.
5. Improving food security: Crop scientists work to improve food security by developing
crops that are more resilient to changing environmental conditions and by increasing the
efficiency and sustainability of agricultural production systems.
Overall, crop science plays a critical role in supporting global food security and sustainability,
and in addressing some of the most pressing challenges facing the world today, such as climate
change, population growth, and resource depletion.

2. Write about crop science in India.


Crop science has a long and important history in India, where agriculture is a critical sector of
the economy, providing livelihoods for millions of people and contributing significantly to
national food security.
India has a diverse range of agro-climatic zones, which support a wide variety of crops, including
cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, spices, and fibers. However, the productivity of Indian
agriculture has historically been constrained by a range of factors, including poor soil fertility,
water scarcity, pest and disease pressure, and limited access to modern agricultural technologies
and practices.
In response to these challenges, crop science research and development has played a critical role
in driving agricultural growth and productivity in India. The Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) is the apex body responsible for coordinating and promoting research and
development in agriculture and allied fields, including crop science. The ICAR has established a
network of national and regional research institutions and agricultural universities across the
country, which work to develop and disseminate new crop varieties, improved cultivation
practices, and pest and disease management strategies.

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One of the major success stories of crop science in India has been the Green Revolution, which
began in the 1960s and involved the widespread adoption of high-yielding varieties of wheat and
rice, along with improved cultivation practices and the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
This initiative led to a significant increase in crop yields and helped to transform India from a
food-deficit country to a self-sufficient one.
In recent years, there has been increasing focus on sustainable agriculture and the use of
integrated pest management strategies that minimize the use of harmful chemicals and promote
the use of biocontrol agents and natural enemies. There has also been a growing emphasis on the
development of climate-resilient crop varieties that can tolerate drought, floods, and other
extreme weather events.
Despite these advances, there are still many challenges facing Indian agriculture, including
declining soil fertility, water scarcity, and climate change. Crop science will continue to play a
critical role in addressing these challenges and promoting sustainable agricultural growth and
development in India.

3. Briefly discuss the organization of ICAR and its thrust areas.


The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous organization under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare, Government of India. It is the apex body for
coordinating, guiding, and managing research and education in agriculture in India.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body responsible for coordinating
and promoting research and development in agriculture and allied fields in India. It was
established in 1929 and is headquartered in New Delhi. ICAR has established a network of
national and regional research institutions and agricultural universities across the country,
which work to develop and disseminate new crop varieties, improved cultivation practices, and
pest and disease management strategies.
ICAR is organized into several bureaus, each responsible for a specific area of agricultural
research and development. These include:
1. Bureau of Agricultural Research: Responsible for coordinating and promoting
research in the field of agriculture and allied sciences.
2. Bureau of Animal Genetics and Breeding: Responsible for research and development
in the field of animal genetics and breeding.
3. Bureau of Fisheries Education and Research: Responsible for research and
development in the field of fisheries science.
4. Bureau of Agricultural Extension Education: Responsible for developing and
promoting agricultural extension services to farmers and rural communities.
5. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering: Responsible for research and development in the
field of agricultural engineering, including farm mechanization and post-harvest
management.
6. Bureau of Soil and Land Use Survey: Responsible for research and development in the
field of soil science and land use planning.
7. Bureau of Plant Industry: Responsible for research and development in the field of crop
science, including the development of new crop varieties and pest and disease
management strategies.
The thrust areas of ICAR include:

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1. Increasing crop productivity and production through the development of high-yielding
crop varieties and improved cultivation practices.
2. Improving soil health and fertility through the development and dissemination of
sustainable soil management practices.
3. Enhancing water use efficiency through the development and dissemination of efficient
irrigation and water management technologies.
4. Developing and promoting sustainable agricultural practices that minimize negative
environmental impacts and support long-term agricultural growth and development.
5. Developing and promoting integrated pest management strategies that minimize the use
of harmful chemicals and promote the use of biocontrol agents and natural enemies.
6. Developing and promoting climate-resilient crop varieties that can tolerate drought,
floods, and other extreme weather events.
7. Promoting the use of advanced agricultural technologies, such as precision agriculture
and digital farming, to optimize agricultural production and sustainability.

4. What is IARI? Discuss its functions and contributions to crop science research India.
IARI stands for the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, which is an agricultural research
institute located in New Delhi, India. It was established in 1905 and is considered to be one of the
premier institutes for agricultural research in the country.
Functions:
The primary function of IARI is to conduct research in various areas of agriculture and to
develop new technologies and methods to increase agricultural productivity and food
security. Some of the key areas of research at IARI include crop improvement, plant
breeding, biotechnology, agronomy, soil science, horticulture, and plant protection.
Contributions:
Over the years, IARI has made significant contributions to crop science research in India.
One of its most notable achievements is the development of high-yielding varieties of
wheat and rice, which played a crucial role in the Green Revolution that transformed
India's agricultural landscape in the 1960s and 70s.
In addition to its contributions to crop improvement, IARI has also made important
contributions to research on soil management, water conservation, and sustainable
agricultural practices. Its research has helped to address some of the major challenges
facing Indian agriculture, such as soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate change.
IARI also plays a key role in training and capacity building in the field of agriculture. It
offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses in agricultural sciences and
conducts training programs for farmers, extension workers, and other stakeholders in
the agricultural sector.
Overall, IARI has played a critical role in advancing crop science research in India and has made
significant contributions to the development of the country's agricultural sector. Its research and
development efforts have helped to increase agricultural productivity, enhance food security,
and improve the livelihoods of millions of farmers across the country.

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5. Discuss the achievements of India in crop science.
India has made significant achievements in crop science over the years, including improvements
in crop yields, disease resistance, and overall food security.
The research and development activities of ICAR has enabled the country to increase the
production of food grains by 6 times, horticultural crops by 11 times, fish by 17 times, milk by
10.5 times, and eggs by 53 times between 1951 and 2021 leading to food and nutritional security
of the country.
It has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in agriculture.
Some of the notable achievements in Indian crop science are:
1. Green Revolution: In the 1960s, India launched the Green Revolution, which aimed to
increase agricultural productivity by introducing high-yielding varieties of crops, using
modern farming techniques, and providing farmers with access to credit and other
resources. This program has been successful in increasing crop yields and ensuring food
security for the country's growing population.
2. Hybrid Rice: India has developed several high-yielding hybrid rice varieties that have
helped farmers increase their crop yields significantly. Some of the notable hybrid rice
varieties developed in India are Pusa RH10, Sahbhagi Dhan, and DRR Dhan 45.
3. Bt Cotton: India is the fourth largest producer of cotton in the world and has developed
Bt cotton, which is genetically modified to produce an insecticidal protein. This has
reduced the need for chemical pesticides and helped farmers increase their yields
significantly.
4. Biofortified Crops: Indian scientists have developed several biofortified crops that are
rich in micronutrients, such as iron and zinc. These crops can help address the issue of
malnutrition and improve the health of millions of people.
5. Climate Resilient Crops: India has developed several climate-resilient crop varieties
that can withstand extreme weather conditions such as droughts and floods. These crops
are vital for ensuring food security in a changing climate.
6. Seed Production: India has become one of the world's largest producers of seeds,
including hybrid and genetically modified varieties. This has helped the country achieve
self-sufficiency in seed production and reduced dependence on imports.
Overall, India's achievements in crop science have played a critical role in ensuring food security
and improving the livelihoods of millions of farmers. With continued investment in research and
development, India has the potential to become a global leader in agriculture and help address
some of the world's most pressing challenges, such as climate change and food insecurity.

6. Elaborate the achievements of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)?


ICAR has made significant achievements in various fields of agriculture over the years.
The research and development activities of ICAR has enabled the country to increase the
production of food grains by 6 times, horticultural crops by 11 times, fish by 17 times, milk by
10.5 times, and eggs by 53 times between 1951 and 2021 leading to food and nutritional security
of the country.
It has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in agriculture.

Some of the notable achievements of ICAR are:

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1. High-yielding crop varieties: ICAR has developed several high-yielding crop varieties
that have helped farmers increase their crop yields significantly. Some of the notable
crop varieties developed by ICAR are wheat varieties HD 2967 and HD 3086, rice
varieties Swarna and Pusa Basmati 1121, and soybean variety JS 9560.
2. Climate-resilient crop varieties: ICAR has developed several climate-resilient crop
varieties that can withstand extreme weather conditions such as droughts, floods, and
heatwaves. Some of the notable climate-resilient crop varieties developed by ICAR are
maize variety Arjuna and chickpea variety JG 14.
3. Biofortified crops: ICAR has developed several biofortified crop varieties that are rich in
micronutrients, such as iron and zinc. Some of the notable biofortified crop varieties
developed by ICAR are wheat variety DBW 187 and pearl millet variety HHB 67.
4. Livestock improvement: ICAR has made significant contributions to improving the
productivity of livestock in India. It has developed several improved breeds of cattle,
buffalo, sheep, and goat that have higher milk and meat yields and are more disease-
resistant.
5. Fisheries development: ICAR has played a critical role in the development of India's
fisheries sector. It has developed several new technologies for fish farming, including
cage farming, integrated fish farming, and biofloc technology.
6. Agricultural education: ICAR manages several agricultural universities and institutes in
India and provides education and training in various fields of agriculture. It has played a
significant role in producing a skilled workforce for the agriculture sector in India.
Overall, ICAR's achievements in agriculture research and education have played a critical role in
ensuring food security, improving the livelihoods of farmers, and promoting sustainable
agriculture practices in India. With continued investment in research and development, ICAR has
the potential to further advance agriculture in India and contribute to global food security.

6.2 Characteristics of Plants


Note: Plants are also discussed in Biology section mainly for Preliminary exam perspective.
7. Discuss the general morphological characteristics of plants.
Plants are characterized by a variety of morphological features that vary depending on the
species and the environment in which they grow. Here are some of the general morphological
characteristics of plants:
1. Root system: Plants have a root system that anchors them in the soil and absorbs water
and nutrients. The root system can be fibrous or taproot, shallow or deep, depending on
the plant species and environment.
2. Stem: The stem of a plant supports the leaves, flowers, and fruit, and transports water
and nutrients between the roots and the rest of the plant. Stems can be woody or
herbaceous, and they can vary in shape, size, and color.
3. Leaves: Leaves are the primary site of photosynthesis in plants, and they come in a
variety of shapes, sizes, and textures. They can be simple or compound, and they may be
arranged in an alternate, opposite, or whorled pattern along the stem.
4. Flowers: Flowers are the reproductive structures of flowering plants, and they come in a
variety of shapes, colors, and sizes. They may be solitary or arranged in inflorescences,
and they may be pollinated by wind, water, insects, or animals.

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5. Fruit: Fruits are the mature ovaries of flowering plants, and they are important for seed
dispersal and reproduction. Fruits can be fleshy or dry, and they may contain one or
many seeds.
6. Adaptations: Plants have a variety of adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive
in different environments. These adaptations may include specialized leaves, stems, or
roots, as well as mechanisms for water conservation, nutrient acquisition, and defense
against predators and pathogens.
Overall, the morphological characteristics of plants are incredibly diverse and varied, reflecting
the remarkable adaptability of these organisms to different environments and ecological niches.

8. Explain important physiological characteristics of plants


Physiology is the study of the functioning of living organisms and their parts, including plants.
Here are some important physiological characteristics of plants:
1. Photosynthesis: Plants are unique in their ability to produce their own food through the
process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts in plant cells contain the pigment chlorophyll,
which captures energy from sunlight and converts it into chemical energy that can be
used to produce glucose and other organic compounds.
2. Respiration: Plants, like all living organisms, undergo respiration to generate energy
from the organic compounds they produce during photosynthesis. Respiration takes
place in the mitochondria of plant cells, where glucose is broken down to release energy.
3. Transpiration: Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from plant leaves through tiny
openings called stomata. This process is important for plant survival because it allows
plants to take up water from the soil and transport it to the leaves, where it is used for
photosynthesis and other metabolic processes.
4. Hormonal regulation: Plants produce a variety of hormones that regulate growth,
development, and response to environmental stimuli. For example, auxins promote cell
elongation and root growth, while gibberellins promote stem elongation and flowering.
5. Nutrient uptake: Plants require a variety of nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium, to grow and thrive. They absorb these nutrients from the soil through
their root systems, using specialized transport proteins to move them from the soil into
the plant cells.
6. Defense mechanisms: Plants have evolved a variety of defense mechanisms to protect
themselves against pests, pathogens, and environmental stress. These mechanisms may
include the production of toxic compounds, physical barriers, and induced responses
such as the production of defensive proteins or signaling molecules.
Overall, these physiological characteristics are critical for the survival and growth of plants,
allowing them to carry out essential metabolic processes, respond to environmental stimuli, and
defend against threats to their health and wellbeing.

9. Discuss the general characteristics of terrestrial plants.


Terrestrial plants, also known as land plants, exhibit several general characteristics that are
essential for their survival and success in terrestrial environments. These characteristics include:
1. Multicellularity: Terrestrial plants are multicellular, composed of many cells that work
together to form tissues, organs, and complex structures. This allows them to carry out
specialized functions such as photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, and reproduction.
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2. Cell walls made of cellulose: Terrestrial plants have cell walls made of cellulose, a
complex carbohydrate that provides structural support and rigidity to the plant cells.
Cellulose allows plants to maintain their shape and withstand the forces of gravity and
wind on land.
3. Cuticle: Terrestrial plants have a waxy layer called the cuticle on the surface of their
leaves and stems. The cuticle helps to reduce water loss through evaporation and
protects against damage from environmental factors such as UV radiation and pathogens.
4. Vascular tissue: Terrestrial plants have specialized tissues for conducting water,
nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant body. Xylem tissue transports water and
minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant, while phloem tissue transports sugars
and other organic compounds from the leaves to other plant parts.
5. Roots: Terrestrial plants have roots that anchor them in the soil and absorb water and
nutrients. Root systems can vary greatly in size and complexity depending on the plant
species and its ecological niche.
6. Reproduction: Terrestrial plants have complex reproductive structures that allow them
to reproduce sexually or asexually. Sexual reproduction involves the production of
specialized reproductive cells (gametes) and the fusion of these cells to produce offspring
with genetic diversity. Asexual reproduction involves the production of offspring without
the need for gametes, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical or very similar
to the parent plant.
7. Adaptations to terrestrial habitats: Terrestrial plants have evolved various
adaptations to cope with the challenges of living on land. These can include mechanisms
for conserving water, such as specialized leaf structures (e.g., succulents), mechanisms
for capturing and digesting nutrients (e.g., carnivorous plants), and strategies for
dispersing seeds to new locations (e.g., fruits and specialized seed dispersal
mechanisms).
8. Diverse life forms: Terrestrial plants exhibit a wide range of life forms, including herbs,
shrubs, trees, epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants), and various specialized forms
such as succulents, mosses, and lichens. This diversity allows plants to occupy different
ecological niches and thrive in various terrestrial environments around the world.
9. Importance in ecosystems: Terrestrial plants play a crucial role in terrestrial
ecosystems. They are the primary producers, converting sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide into organic matter through photosynthesis, which forms the basis of the food
chain. They also provide habitats, food, and shelter for numerous other organisms,
contribute to nutrient cycling, and have a significant impact on Earth's climate through
their role in carbon sequestration.
In conclusion, the general characteristics of terrestrial plants include multicellularity, cellulose
cell walls, cuticles, vascular tissue, roots, complex reproductive structures, adaptations to
terrestrial habitats, diverse life forms, and ecological importance. These characteristics
collectively enable terrestrial plants to thrive on land and play a vital role in terrestrial
ecosystems.

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6.3 Crop plants, Forest species, Medicinal Aromatic plants
10. Write about the classification of plants in terms of crop plants, forest species, and
medicinal and aromatic plants.
Plants can be classified in various ways based on different criteria such as their structure,
habitat, life cycle, economic value, etc. One such classification is based on their economic
importance, where plants are classified into three major categories: crop plants, forest species,
and medicinal and aromatic plants.
Crop plants: Crop plants refer to those plants that are cultivated for their economic value as
food, fiber, fuel, or industrial products. Examples include cereals such as wheat, rice, and maize;
vegetables such as potatoes, tomatoes, and onions; fruits such as apples, bananas, and oranges;
and cash crops such as coffee, tea, and tobacco. Crop plants are usually grown in monoculture or
polyculture systems and require intensive management practices such as fertilization, irrigation,
pest control, etc.
Forest species: Forest species refer to those plants that grow naturally in forest ecosystems and
have economic value as timber, pulpwood, fuelwood, or non-timber forest products (NTFPs).
Examples include hardwoods such as oak, teak, and mahogany; softwoods such as pine and
spruce; and NTFPs such as wild mushrooms, berries, and medicinal plants. Forest species play an
important role in sustaining ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, soil conservation,
water regulation, and biodiversity conservation.
Medicinal and aromatic plants: Medicinal and aromatic plants refer to those plants that have
medicinal or therapeutic properties and are used in the preparation of traditional or modern
medicines, herbal remedies, or fragrances. Examples include aloe vera, ginseng, echinacea,
lavender, and peppermint. Medicinal and aromatic plants are often grown as cash crops in
specialized systems and require specific management practices such as cultivation, harvesting,
drying, and processing.
Overall, the classification of plants in terms of crop plants, forest species, and medicinal and
aromatic plants highlights their diverse economic values and ecological roles. Each category has
its own set of management practices, challenges, and opportunities, and requires sustainable and
integrated approaches to ensure their long-term benefits for humans and the environment.

11. Write about the important medicinal and aromatic plants and their uses for human.
Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years, and many of the world's
most important medicines are derived from plant sources. In addition to their medicinal
properties, many plants are also used for their aromatic properties, which are used in perfumes,
cosmetics, and other products.
Here are some of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants and their uses for humans:
1. Aloe Vera: Aloe Vera is a succulent plant that has been used for centuries to treat burns,
cuts, and other skin conditions. It is also used in cosmetics and skin care products for its
soothing and moisturizing properties.
2. Chamomile: Chamomile is a flowering plant that is often used to make tea. It is known
for its calming properties and is used to treat anxiety, insomnia, and digestive problems.
3. Echinacea: Echinacea is a flowering plant that is used to boost the immune system and
treat colds, flu, and other respiratory infections.

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4. Lavender: Lavender is a fragrant herb that is often used in aromatherapy to promote
relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also used in cosmetics and personal care products for
its pleasant scent.
5. Peppermint: Peppermint is a popular herb that is used to treat digestive problems,
headaches, and other conditions. It is often consumed as a tea or used in aromatherapy.
6. Turmeric: Turmeric is a spice that is commonly used in Indian cuisine. It contains
curcumin, a compound that has anti-inflammatory properties and may help reduce the
risk of certain diseases, such as cancer and Alzheimer's disease.
7. Ginseng: Ginseng is a root that is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat
fatigue, improve mental clarity, and boost the immune system.
These are just a few examples of the many important medicinal and aromatic plants that have
been used for centuries to treat a variety of ailments and conditions. Plants continue to be an
important source of medicine and aromatic compounds for humans today, and ongoing research
is helping us discover even more uses for these amazing natural resources.

12. Write about the important aromatic plants and their uses for humans.
Aromatic plants are those that contain essential oils and other fragrant compounds. These plants
have been used for centuries for their medicinal, cosmetic, and culinary properties, as well as for
their pleasant scents. Here are some of the most important aromatic plants and their uses for
humans:
1. Lavender: Lavender is one of the most popular and versatile aromatic plants. Its
essential oil is used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also
used in cosmetics and personal care products for its soothing properties and pleasant
scent.
2. Rosemary: Rosemary is an herb that is often used in cooking, but it also has medicinal
properties. Its essential oil is used in aromatherapy to improve memory and
concentration, and it is also used in cosmetics and personal care products for its
invigorating scent.
3. Peppermint: Peppermint is a refreshing and invigorating aromatic plant. Its essential oil
is often used in aromatherapy to treat digestive problems and headaches. It is also used
in cosmetics and personal care products for its cooling and refreshing properties.
4. Eucalyptus: Eucalyptus is an aromatic plant that is commonly used to treat respiratory
problems. Its essential oil is often used in aromatherapy to help relieve congestion and
coughs.
5. Chamomile: Chamomile is an aromatic plant that is known for its calming properties. Its
essential oil is used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. It is also
used in cosmetics and personal care products for its soothing properties.
6. Jasmine: Jasmine is a fragrant flower that is often used in perfumes and cosmetics for its
sweet and exotic scent. Its essential oil is also used in aromatherapy to promote
relaxation and reduce anxiety.
7. Sandalwood: Sandalwood is a fragrant wood that is used in perfumes and cosmetics for
its warm and exotic scent. Its essential oil is also used in aromatherapy to promote
relaxation and reduce anxiety.
These are just a few examples of the many important aromatic plants and their uses for humans.
Aromatic plants continue to play an important role in aromatherapy, cosmetics, perfumes, and

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other industries. They are also valued for their medicinal properties and are used in many
traditional and alternative medicine practices.

13. What are essential oils? Enumerate the important uses of essential oils?
Essential oils are highly concentrated plant extracts obtained through various methods such as
steam distillation, cold pressing, or solvent extraction. They contain the volatile aromatic
compounds from plants that give them their characteristic aroma and flavor. Essential oils are
used in a wide range of applications due to their therapeutic properties, fragrance, and flavor.
Some important uses of essential oils include:
1. Aromatherapy: Essential oils are commonly used in aromatherapy, a form of alternative
medicine that utilizes the inhalation or topical application of essential oils to promote
physical and emotional well-being. Different essential oils are believed to have various
therapeutic effects, such as promoting relaxation, reducing stress, improving mood,
enhancing sleep, and supporting respiratory health.
2. Personal care and beauty products: Essential oils are widely used in the formulation of
personal care and beauty products such as soaps, lotions, creams, perfumes, and hair
care products. They provide natural fragrances and can also possess beneficial
properties for the skin and hair, such as moisturizing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging
effects.
3. Cleaning and household products: Essential oils are used in many cleaning and
household products as natural alternatives to synthetic fragrances and chemicals. They
can provide a pleasant scent and possess antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral
properties, making them useful for cleaning and disinfecting purposes.
4. Culinary uses: Some essential oils are used as flavorings in food and beverages due to
their intense aroma and taste. They are used sparingly to add unique flavors to dishes,
desserts, beverages, and confectionery.
5. Natural remedies: Essential oils are often used in natural remedies for various health
conditions. For example, tea tree oil is used for its antiseptic properties, lavender oil for
its calming effects, and peppermint oil for its digestive properties. However, it's
important to note that the use of essential oils for medicinal purposes should be done
with caution and under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.
6. Insect repellents: Essential oils such as citronella, lemongrass, and eucalyptus are
commonly used in natural insect repellents due to their strong scent and insect-repelling
properties. They are used in candles, sprays, and diffusers to keep mosquitoes, flies, and
other insects at bay.
7. Emotional well-being: Essential oils are believed to have an impact on emotional well-
being and are used in practices such as meditation, massage, and relaxation techniques.
They are thought to help reduce stress, anxiety, and promote relaxation and a positive
mood.
8. DIY projects: Essential oils are popular in DIY (do-it-yourself) projects for making
homemade products such as candles, bath salts, room sprays, and more. They provide
natural scents and can be customized to suit individual preferences and needs.

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14. Describe the role of fungi in medicine, agriculture and industry.
Fungi play a significant role in various fields such as medicine, agriculture, and industry. Some of
the major contributions of fungi in these areas are as follows:
1. Medicine: Fungi are a valuable source of many important drugs. For example, penicillin,
the first antibiotic discovered, is produced by a fungus called Penicillium. Other drugs
derived from fungi include cyclosporine, used to prevent organ transplant rejection, and
statins, used to lower cholesterol levels. Fungi are also being studied for their potential
use in treating cancer and other diseases.
2. Agriculture: Fungi play an important role in soil health and plant growth. Mycorrhizal
fungi, for example, form a symbiotic relationship with plant roots, helping them to absorb
nutrients from the soil. Fungi also play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter,
which releases nutrients back into the soil. Some fungi, such as Trichoderma, are used as
biocontrol agents to protect crops from plant pathogens.
3. Industry: Fungi are used in various industrial processes. For example, yeasts are used in
the production of bread, beer, and wine. Fungi are also used in the production of
enzymes, which are used in a wide range of industrial processes, including the
production of textiles, paper, and biofuels. Fungi can also be used to produce
biodegradable plastics and other sustainable materials.
In summary, fungi have many important roles in medicine, agriculture, and industry. Their
contributions to these fields have been significant, and they continue to be studied for their
potential applications in new and emerging areas.
Note: Fungi are a distinct group of organisms that are different from plants in terms of their cell
structure, nutrition, reproduction, and habitat. Although they may share some similarities with
plants, such as their ability to form large, visible structures, they are actually quite different from
each other.

6.4 Useful and Harmful plants and utility to mankind


15. What are harmful plants? Give the categories of harmful plants along with examples.
Harmful plants are those that can cause harm to humans or other organisms through direct
contact, ingestion, or inhalation. These harmful plants can cause a range of health effects, from
mild skin irritation to severe poisoning or even death. It is important to be aware of these plants
and to take precautions when handling or encountering them in the wild.
Here are some examples of harmful plants from India divided into different categories (Allergics,
Narcotics, and Weeds):
Allergic plants:
1. Euphorbia hirta - It is commonly known as asthma weed or milkweed and can cause skin
rashes, itching, and respiratory problems in some people.
2. Calotropis gigantea - It is commonly known as giant milkweed and can cause skin
irritation, itching, and respiratory problems in some people.
3. Nerium: Commonly called Erraganneru. All the plant parts contain numerous toxins that
are harmful to children and adults.
Narcotic plants:
1. Cannabis sativa - It is commonly known as marijuana or ganja and is widely used as a
recreational drug for its psychoactive effects.

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2. Papaver somniferum - It is commonly known as opium poppy and is used to produce
opium, a narcotic drug used for pain relief.
3. Nicotiana tobacum: It is commonly called Tobacco. The leaves are used for smoking in
the form of cigar, cigarette, beedi and hookah. It contains harmful alkaloid – Nicotine.
Excessive consumption of nicotine leads to mouth and lung cancer.
Weeds:
1. Parthenium hysterophorus - It is commonly known as congress grass or carrot grass and
is a highly invasive weed that can cause respiratory problems and skin irritation in some
people.
2. Eichhornia crassipes - It is commonly known as water hyacinth and is an invasive aquatic
weed that can block waterways and reduce biodiversity.
It is important to note that some plants may belong to multiple categories, and their effects may
vary depending on the individual and the method of use.

16. Discuss the uses of the plants to the mankind.


Plants are essential to human life and well-being, providing a wide range of benefits that
contribute to our physical, social, and cultural needs. Some of the key uses of plants to mankind
include:
1. Food: Plants are the primary source of food for humans, providing essential nutrients
such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Common food plants include
grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds.
2. Medicine: Many plants have medicinal properties and have been used for centuries to
treat a wide range of illnesses and health conditions. Examples include the use of willow
bark to produce aspirin, and the use of the cinchona tree to produce quinine, which is
used to treat malaria.
3. Fiber and materials: Plants provide a wide range of fibers and materials that are used to
make clothing, paper, building materials, and other products. Examples include cotton,
hemp, bamboo, and timber.
4. Energy: Plants are used as a source of energy, providing fuel for heating, cooking, and
transportation. Biomass energy and biofuels are derived from plant materials, such as
wood, corn, and soybeans.
5. Aesthetics and cultural uses: Plants are often used for their aesthetic and cultural
value, such as in gardening, landscaping, and art. They also play important roles in
cultural practices, such as the use of flowers in religious ceremonies and the use of herbs
in traditional medicine and cooking.
Overall, plants are essential to human life and well-being, providing a wide range of benefits that
contribute to our physical, social, and cultural needs. Protecting and conserving plant species
and ecosystems is therefore important for ensuring sustainable development and a healthy
planet.

17. Discuss the food uses of the plants to the mankind.


Plants have been an integral part of human life since ancient times, serving not only as a source
of oxygen and aesthetic beauty but also as a significant food source. Humans have used plants for
food in a variety of ways, ranging from raw consumption to culinary preparation.

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Here are some examples of food uses of plants:
1. Fruits and Vegetables: Fruits and vegetables are the most common plant-based food
sources consumed by humans. They are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
Fruits such as apples, bananas, and oranges are commonly eaten raw, while vegetables
like carrots, broccoli, and lettuce are often cooked or consumed raw in salads.
2. Grains: Grains such as wheat, rice, and corn are staple foods in many parts of the world.
These plants provide a rich source of carbohydrates, fiber, and essential nutrients.
3. Legumes: Legumes such as beans, peas, and lentils are a rich source of protein, fiber, and
other essential nutrients. They are often used in soups, stews, and salads.
4. Herbs and Spices: Herbs and spices are often used to add flavor to foods. Examples
include basil, thyme, rosemary, cinnamon, and ginger.
5. Nuts and Seeds: Nuts and seeds such as almonds, walnuts, and sunflower seeds are a
rich source of protein, healthy fats, and other essential nutrients.
6. Edible Flowers: Edible flowers such as roses, violets, and nasturtiums are often used in
salads, teas, and as garnishes.
In addition to these, many plants are also used to make beverages such as tea, coffee, and wine.
Overall, the food uses of plants are numerous and play a significant role in human health and
well-being.

18. Explain the uses of plants as sources of wood, fibre, rubber, and beverages to the
mankind
Plants have provided humans with a variety of resources for thousands of years. Here are some
of the main uses of plants as sources of wood, fiber, rubber, and beverages:
1. Wood: Wood from trees is one of the most important natural resources used by humans.
It is used to build homes, furniture, tools, and paper. Some of the most commonly used
trees for wood include pine, oak, and maple.
2. Fiber: Plants are a rich source of fiber, which is used to make textiles, paper, and rope.
Cotton is one of the most widely used plant fibers for textiles, while hemp and jute are
commonly used for rope and paper.
3. Rubber: Rubber is a natural product that comes from the sap of rubber trees. It is used
to make a variety of products, including tires, footwear, and gloves. Other plants, such as
guayule and dandelion, are also used to produce natural rubber.
4. Beverages: Plants have been used to make beverages for thousands of years. Tea and
coffee are two of the most widely consumed beverages in the world, and both are made
from plants. Other plants used to make beverages include cacao (for chocolate), hops (for
beer), and grapes (for wine).
Overall, plants have provided humans with a wide range of resources that have been essential to
our development and survival. From building materials to food and beverages, plants continue to
play an important role in our daily lives.

19. Briefly explain the plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices
Plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices have been used by humans for various purposes
for centuries.

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Narcotics are substances that are used to induce sleep or relieve pain, and some are derived
from plants. For example, opium is obtained from the opium poppy plant and is used to make
drugs such as morphine and heroin. These substances are controlled substances and are illegal
in many countries due to their potential for addiction and abuse.
Dyes are substances that are used to color textiles, clothing, and other materials. Many natural
dyes are derived from plants, such as indigo, which is obtained from the indigo plant and used to
dye fabric blue. Other plant-based dyes include saffron, madder, and henna.
Spices are plant products that are used to add flavor to food. Many spices are derived from
seeds, fruits, or roots of plants, such as black pepper, cinnamon, and ginger. They have been used
in cooking for thousands of years and are also used in traditional medicine practices.
Overall, plant products like narcotics, dyes, and spices have had significant impacts on human
cultures and societies. While some have been used responsibly and sustainably for centuries,
others have been associated with negative consequences such as addiction, exploitation, and
environmental degradation.

20. Discuss the fodder and energy uses of the plants to the mankind.
Plants have been used for fodder and energy for millennia and continue to play a significant role
in meeting human needs. Here are some of the key uses of plants for fodder and energy:
1. Fodder: Fodder refers to plants that are grown specifically to feed livestock, such as
cattle, sheep, and goats. Common fodder plants include grasses, legumes, and corn. These
plants provide a source of nutrition for animals, helping to maintain their health and
productivity. In turn, livestock provide food, milk, and other products for human
consumption.
2. Energy: Plants are also an important source of energy for humans, providing fuel for
heating, cooking, and transportation. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, were
originally derived from ancient plants and animals, but today many renewable sources of
energy are derived directly from plants. For example, biomass energy involves burning
plant materials, such as wood, to generate heat and electricity. Biofuels, such as ethanol
and biodiesel, are made from plant materials such as corn and soybeans.
3. Industrial uses: In addition to fodder and energy, plants are also used for a variety of
industrial purposes, such as manufacturing paper, textiles, and building materials. For
example, bamboo is a fast-growing plant that can be used to make a variety of products,
including furniture, flooring, and paper.
Overall, plants are an essential resource for meeting human needs for food, fuel, and other
products. However, it is important to use these resources sustainably and responsibly to avoid
overexploitation and environmental degradation.

21. Explain briefly the indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants


The indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants refer to the benefits that humans derive from
plants that do not involve directly using them for food, medicine, or other purposes. These uses
are often associated with ecosystem services, which are the benefits that humans receive from
the natural environment.
Some examples of indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants include:
1. Oxygen production: Plants produce oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is
essential for human respiration and the functioning of many ecosystems.

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2. Carbon sequestration: Plants absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
helping to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
3. Soil stabilization: Plant roots help to stabilize soil and prevent erosion, which is
essential for maintaining healthy soil and preventing landslides and other natural
disasters.
4. Water purification: Plants help to filter and purify water by absorbing nutrients and
pollutants from the soil and water.
5. Habitat and biodiversity: Plants provide habitat and food for a wide variety of animals,
including insects, birds, and mammals, which helps to maintain biodiversity and healthy
ecosystems.
Overall, the indirect or non-consumptive uses of plants are essential for human well-being and
the functioning of ecosystems. Protecting and conserving plant species and ecosystems is
therefore important for ensuring sustainable development and a healthy planet.

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7. Biotechnology
Syllabus: Concept of Biotechnology and application of genetic engineering and Stem Cell Research.
Biotechnology in Agriculture (bio-fertilizers, bio - pesticides, bio- fuels, tissue culture, cloning) and
Environment (Biotechnology in Environmental clean-up process)
7.1 Concept of Biotechnology
1. What are the fundamental concepts of biotechnology that form the basis for the modern
biotechnology field?
Biotechnology is a rapidly developing field that encompasses a wide range of disciplines,
including molecular biology, genetics, biochemistry, microbiology, and engineering. Some of the
fundamental concepts of biotechnology that form the basis of the modern biotechnology field
are:
1. Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering is the process of manipulating the genetic
material of living organisms to produce desirable traits or to remove unwanted traits.
This technology has revolutionized agriculture, medicine, and industry.
2. Recombinant DNA technology: Recombinant DNA technology is a technique that allows
the combination of genetic material from different sources. It has enabled scientists to
produce a variety of useful products such as insulin, growth hormones, and vaccines.
3. Bioprocessing: Bioprocessing involves the use of microorganisms or cells to produce
products such as enzymes, vaccines, and antibiotics. It has a significant impact on the
pharmaceutical and food industries.
4. Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is the use of computer algorithms to analyze biological
data. It has allowed scientists to understand the genetic basis of diseases and to develop
new drugs and therapies.
5. Biomaterials: Biomaterials are materials that are used in medical devices, tissue
engineering, and drug delivery. They have the potential to revolutionize the field of
regenerative medicine.
6. Synthetic biology: Synthetic biology is the design and construction of new biological
systems or the modification of existing systems for specific purposes. It has the potential
to create new drugs, vaccines, and other useful products.
These fundamental concepts have formed the basis of the modern biotechnology field and
continue to drive innovation and progress in the industry.

2. Elaborate on the applications of biotechnology across various fields.


Biotechnology is a rapidly advancing field that has numerous applications across various fields.
Here are some examples:
1. Agriculture: Biotechnology is widely used in agriculture to improve crop yield,
resistance to pests and diseases, and nutrient content. Genetically modified (GM) crops
have been developed using biotechnology to introduce desirable traits into crops, such as
herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, and drought tolerance.
2. Industrial biotechnology: Biotechnology is used to produce industrial enzymes,
biofuels, bioplastics, and other products. For example, enzymes are used in the
production of detergents, paper, textiles, and food. Bioplastics are produced from
renewable resources and can replace petroleum-based plastics in many applications.

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3. Environmental biotechnology: Biotechnology is used to monitor and improve the
quality of air, water, and soil. Bioremediation is a process that uses microorganisms to
degrade environmental pollutants, such as oil spills and toxic chemicals. Bioreactors are
also used to treat wastewater and produce renewable energy from organic waste.
4. Medical biotechnology: Biotechnology is used in the diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention of diseases. Genetic testing, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy are examples
of biotechnology applications in medicine. Biotechnology is also used in the production
of pharmaceuticals, such as insulin, vaccines, and cancer drugs.
5. Forensic biotechnology: Biotechnology is used in forensic science to analyze DNA
samples and identify suspects in criminal investigations. DNA profiling, DNA sequencing,
and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) are examples of biotechnology techniques used in
forensic science.
6. Veterinary biotechnology: Biotechnology is used in veterinary medicine to improve
animal health and productivity. For example, genetically engineered animals are
produced to increase milk production, improve disease resistance, and produce human
therapeutic proteins.
In conclusion, biotechnology has numerous applications across various fields, ranging from
agriculture to medicine to environmental science. Its ability to manipulate biological systems at
the molecular level has the potential to address many of the world's pressing challenges,
including food security, energy sustainability, and human health.

3. Discuss the important applications of biotechnology in human health.


Biotechnology has revolutionized the field of human health by providing new tools and
techniques for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases. Here are some important
applications of biotechnology in human health:
1. Genetic testing and personalized medicine: Biotechnology has enabled the
development of genetic tests that can identify mutations and variations in an individual's
DNA that may increase their risk of developing certain diseases. This information can
then be used to develop personalized treatment plans tailored to an individual's unique
genetic makeup.
2. Drug discovery and development: Biotechnology has greatly accelerated the discovery
and development of new drugs. Techniques such as genetic engineering and recombinant
DNA technology have allowed scientists to produce large quantities of proteins and
antibodies that can be used as drugs. Additionally, advances in computational biology
and machine learning have enabled the rapid identification of potential drug candidates
and improved the efficiency of drug development.
3. Vaccines: Biotechnology has been instrumental in the development of vaccines for many
infectious diseases, including COVID-19. Techniques such as genetic engineering and
recombinant DNA technology have allowed the production of safe and effective vaccines
that can protect against a wide range of pathogens.
4. Gene therapy: Biotechnology has opened up new possibilities for treating genetic
disorders through gene therapy. This involves the introduction of functional genes into a
patient's cells to correct or replace faulty genes that are causing the disease.
5. Stem cell therapy: Biotechnology has also enabled the development of stem cell
therapies, which use stem cells to replace or repair damaged tissues and organs. This has

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the potential to revolutionize the treatment of a wide range of diseases, including cancer,
heart disease, and diabetes.
In conclusion, biotechnology has provided new tools and techniques that have greatly expanded
our ability to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases. Its applications in genetic testing, drug
development, vaccines, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy have the potential to transform the
field of human health and improve the lives of millions of people.

4. Discuss the biotechnology sector's growth potential in India.


India's biotechnology sector has significant growth potential, with several factors contributing to
its development. The following are some of the key factors driving the growth of the
biotechnology sector in India:
1. Government Support: The Indian government has been supportive of the biotechnology
sector and has implemented several policies and initiatives to encourage its growth. The
government has set up institutions like the Department of Biotechnology, Biotechnology
Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), and National Biotechnology Development
Strategy, which provide funding, infrastructure, and regulatory support for the sector.
2. Skilled Workforce: India has a large pool of highly skilled professionals in the fields of
biotechnology, biology, and chemistry. Indian universities and research institutes offer
several undergraduate and graduate programs in biotechnology, which produce a steady
stream of skilled professionals.
3. Growing Market: The demand for biotech products and services is increasing in India
due to the rising population, increasing awareness of health and wellness, and the
growing prevalence of chronic diseases. Additionally, India has a large agriculture sector,
which provides a significant market for biotech products.
4. Research and Development: India is investing heavily in research and development in
the biotechnology sector. Indian companies and research institutes are developing
innovative products and technologies in areas such as biopharmaceuticals, genetic
engineering, and industrial biotechnology.
5. Collaborations and Partnerships: Indian biotechnology companies are partnering with
global firms to develop new products and technologies. Collaborations with international
firms provide access to funding, technology, and expertise.
Despite these positive factors, the biotechnology sector in India faces several challenges, such as
inadequate infrastructure, high regulatory barriers, and limited access to funding.
However, the Indian government is taking steps to address these challenges, and with continued
investment and support, the biotechnology sector in India has significant growth potential.

Size of the Biotechnology sectorin India


According to a report by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), the biotechnology
industry in India was valued at $64 billion in 2020, and it is projected to grow to $150
billion by 2025.
The biopharmaceutical segment is the largest contributor to the industry's revenue,
accounting for around 60% of the total value. Other significant segments include bio-
agriculture, bio-services, and bio-industrial products.

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5. Elaborate on recent government initiatives to promote biotechnology sector in india
The Indian government has taken several initiatives to promote the biotechnology sector in
India. Some of the recent initiatives include:
1. National Biotechnology Development Strategy, 2020-25: The government launched
the National Biotechnology Development Strategy, 2020-25 in 2020, which aims to
position India as a world leader in biotechnology research and development. The
strategy focuses on promoting entrepreneurship, developing infrastructure, promoting
international collaborations, and strengthening regulatory frameworks.
2. Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC): BIRAC is a public-
sector enterprise set up by the government to promote innovation and entrepreneurship
in the biotechnology sector. It provides funding, infrastructure, and regulatory support to
startups and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the sector.
3. Biotechnology Ignition Grant: The Biotechnology Ignition Grant is a scheme launched
by BIRAC to provide funding to startups and SMEs in the biotechnology sector. The
scheme provides up to INR 50 lakhs ($70,000) in funding to early-stage startups to help
them develop innovative products and technologies.
4. Mission Innovation: The government launched the Mission Innovation scheme to
promote research and development in clean energy technologies, including
biotechnology-based solutions. The scheme aims to provide funding and regulatory
support to startups and SMEs developing innovative clean energy technologies.
5. Atal Innovation Mission: The Atal Innovation Mission is a government initiative that
aims to promote innovation and entrepreneurship in various sectors, including
biotechnology. The scheme provides funding, mentoring, and other support to startups
and SMEs developing innovative products and services.
These initiatives, along with other government policies and programs, are expected to provide a
boost to the biotechnology sector in India and help it reach its full potential as a key player in the
global biotechnology industry.

7.2 Application of Genetic Engineering


6. Define genetic engineering. Briefly explain the process of genetic engineering in plants
and in animals.
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying
the genetic material (DNA) of an organism by
introducing or removing specific genes or
genetic sequences. This process allows scientists
to manipulate the genetic makeup of an
organism, giving it new traits or functions that
may not occur naturally.
The process of genetic engineering involves
several steps:
1. Isolation of DNA: The first step in
genetic engineering is to isolate the DNA
from the organism of interest. This can
be done using various techniques, such
as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or

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restriction enzymes.
2. Insertion of DNA: The next step is to insert the desired DNA sequence into the genome
of the target organism. This is done using various techniques, such as gene guns or
bacterial vectors, which deliver the DNA into the cells of the organism.
3. Selection of transformed cells: After the DNA has been inserted, the cells are screened
to identify those that have taken up the new DNA sequence. This is done using various
methods, such as antibiotic resistance or fluorescence.
4. Expression of new genes: Once the transformed cells have been identified, the new
genes or genetic sequences are expressed within the organism, giving it the desired trait
or function.
Genetic engineering can be used in both plants and animals, although the process may differ
slightly depending on the organism.
• In plants, genetic engineering is typically done by inserting new genes into the plant's
genome using a gene gun or a bacterial vector. This can be used to produce plants with
desirable traits, such as increased yield, improved nutrient content, or resistance to pests
and diseases.
• In animals, genetic engineering can be used to produce transgenic animals that carry new
genes or genetic sequences. This can be done using techniques such as embryonic stem
cell transfer. Transgenic animals can be used to produce therapeutic proteins, study
disease mechanisms, or improve animal health and productivity.
In conclusion, genetic engineering is the process of modifying the genetic material of an
organism to introduce new traits or functions. The process involves the isolation and insertion of
new DNA sequences, followed by the expression of the new genes within the organism. Genetic
engineering can be used in both plants and animals and has many potential applications, ranging
from agriculture to medicine to biotechnology.

7. Discuss the benefits of genetic engineering to humanity with examples. Or


Write a note on the applications of genetic engineering in various fields.
Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification or genetic manipulation, has the
potential to benefit humanity in various ways. Here are some examples:
1. Improved agricultural crops: Genetic engineering has been used to create genetically
modified (GM) crops with desirable traits, such as resistance to pests, diseases, and
environmental conditions, as well as enhanced nutritional content. These GM crops can
increase agricultural yields, reduce the use of chemical pesticides, and enhance food
quality and nutritional value, potentially addressing issues of global food security and
malnutrition.
Example: Golden rice, which has been genetically engineered to contain higher levels of
vitamin A, has the potential to combat vitamin A deficiency in developing countries, a
major cause of childhood blindness and other health problems.
2. Medical applications: Genetic engineering has revolutionized medicine by enabling the
production of therapeutic proteins, vaccines, and other medical products using
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) such as bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells.
This has led to the development of new treatments for various diseases, including genetic
disorders, cancer, and metabolic diseases.

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Example: Insulin, a life-saving medication for people with diabetes, is produced using
genetically modified bacteria or yeast that produce human insulin.
3. Gene therapy: Gene therapy holds promise for the treatment of genetic diseases by
directly modifying the genes responsible for the disorder. This can involve repairing or
replacing faulty genes with functional ones, offering potential cures for previously
incurable genetic conditions.
Example: Gene therapy has shown success in treating severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID), also known as "bubble boy" disease, by correcting the genetic
mutation responsible for the disorder.
4. Environmental applications: Genetic engineering has been used for environmental
purposes, such as bioremediation, where genetically modified microorganisms are used
to clean up environmental pollutants, and genetic modification of plants for
phytoremediation, where plants can absorb and remove contaminants from soil and
water.
Example: Genetically modified bacteria have been used to clean up oil spills by breaking
down the oil into less toxic substances, helping to restore affected ecosystems.
5. Disease prevention: Genetic engineering has the potential to prevent the transmission
of genetic diseases from parents to their children through techniques such as
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and gene editing in embryos, offering the
possibility of eradicating certain genetic diseases from future generations.
Example: In-vitro fertilization (IVF) combined with PGD has been used to prevent the
transmission of genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, to offspring by selecting
embryos without the disease-causing genetic mutation for implantation.
It's important to note that genetic engineering also raises ethical, social, and safety
concerns, and careful consideration of potential risks and benefits is necessary in its
applications. Nevertheless, genetic engineering has the potential to offer significant benefits to
humanity in various ways, including improved agriculture, medical advancements, disease
prevention, and environmental applications.

8. Discuss the different types of potential risks involved with genetic engineering. Also
suggest some measures to deal with them.
Genetic engineering is a powerful technology that can have a range of potential risks associated
with it. Here are some of the main types of risks associated with genetic engineering and some
measures that can be taken to overcome them:
1. Environmental risks: Genetic engineering can have unintended environmental impacts,
such as the spread of transgenes into wild populations, which can have ecological
consequences that are difficult to predict or control.
• To overcome this risk, researchers can conduct rigorous environmental risk
assessments and use containment measures such as gene drives to prevent the
spread of transgenes into wild populations.
2. Health risks: Genetic engineering can pose health risks to humans and other organisms.
For example, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used in agriculture may have
unintended effects on non-target species and the environment.

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• To overcome this risk, researchers can conduct rigorous safety assessments and
use regulatory frameworks to ensure the safety of genetically modified
organisms.
3. Social risks: Genetic engineering can exacerbate existing social inequalities by creating
genetic haves and have-nots, with access to genetic technologies and treatments limited
to those who can afford them.
• To overcome this risk, policies can be put in place to ensure equal access to
genetic technologies and treatments, and efforts can be made to increase public
awareness and education about the potential risks and benefits of genetic
engineering.
4. Ethical risks: Genetic engineering raises a range of ethical concerns related to safety,
social justice, informed consent, autonomy, and environmental impacts.
• To overcome this risk, researchers can engage in open and transparent public
debate about the ethical implications of genetic engineering, and use ethical
frameworks and guidelines to guide their research and development activities.
5. Economic risks: Genetic engineering can pose economic risks to farmers and other
stakeholders. For example, the use of genetically modified crops can result in the
development of pesticide-resistant weeds and insects, leading to increased costs and
reduced yields.
• To overcome this risk, researchers can develop sustainable agricultural practices
that minimize the use of pesticides and other inputs, and work with farmers and
other stakeholders to implement these practices.
In conclusion, genetic engineering is a powerful technology that can have a range of
potential risks associated with it. To overcome these risks, researchers can conduct rigorous
safety and environmental risk assessments, use regulatory frameworks and ethical guidelines,
engage in open and transparent public debate, and work with stakeholders to develop
sustainable and socially responsible genetic engineering practices.

9. Discuss the ethical concerns associated with genetic engineering.


Genetic engineering is a powerful technology that allows us to manipulate the genetic makeup of
organisms, including humans. While genetic engineering holds great promise for medical,
agricultural, and environmental applications, it also raises a number of ethical concerns. Here
are some of the main ethical concerns associated with genetic engineering:
1. Safety: Genetic engineering can have unintended consequences, such as off-target effects
or unintended changes in the genome, which can pose risks to human health and the
environment. For example, the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in
agriculture has raised concerns about the potential for unintended effects on non-target
species, soil ecology, and human health.
2. Social justice: Genetic engineering has the potential to exacerbate existing social
inequalities by creating genetic haves and have-nots, with access to genetic technologies
and treatments limited to those who can afford them. This raises ethical concerns about
fairness, justice, and equity.
3. Informed consent: The use of genetic engineering in humans requires informed
consent, which can be difficult to obtain in some cases. For example, genetic testing and
screening can reveal information about an individual's health status, which can have

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significant implications for their life, such as employment opportunities, insurance
coverage, and social relationships.
4. Autonomy: Genetic engineering can also raise concerns about individual autonomy and
the right to make informed decisions about one's own genetic makeup. This raises ethical
questions about who should have the authority to make decisions about genetic
engineering, and whether individuals should have the right to make decisions about their
own genetic makeup.
5. Environmental impacts: Genetic engineering can also have unintended environmental
impacts, such as the spread of transgenes into wild populations, which can have
ecological consequences that are difficult to predict or control.
In conclusion, genetic engineering is a complex and powerful technology that raises a number of
ethical concerns related to safety, social justice, informed consent, autonomy, and environmental
impacts. These concerns highlight the need for careful evaluation and oversight of genetic
engineering applications, and for open and transparent public debate about the ethical
implications of this technology.

What are Off-target effects in genetic engineering?


Off-target effects refer to unintended changes or effects that occur as a result of genetic
engineering, particularly when using gene-editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas9.
These effects can occur when the editing tool mistakenly targets a section of DNA that was
not intended to be modified, resulting in unintended alterations to the genome.

10. Is there any difference between gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing?
Below is the overview of the differences between gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing:
1. Gene therapy: Gene therapy involves the direct alteration of an individual's genes to
treat or prevent disease. It aims to correct or replace faulty genes with functional ones to
cure or mitigate the effects of genetic disorders. Gene therapy can be performed on
somatic cells, which are non-reproductive cells of the body, or on germ cells, which are
reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) that can pass on genetic changes to future
generations. Gene therapy is still a developing field with ongoing research and clinical
trials, and it has the potential to revolutionize the treatment of genetic diseases.
2. Transgenic organisms: Transgenic organisms are organisms that have had their genes
modified by the insertion of genes from another species. This is done using genetic
engineering techniques to introduce foreign genes into the genome of an organism.
Transgenic organisms are created for various purposes, such as improving agricultural
crops, generating animal models for research, and producing therapeutic proteins.
Examples of transgenic organisms include genetically modified crops, genetically
engineered bacteria for insulin production, and genetically modified mice for studying
human diseases.
3. Gene enhancement/genome editing: Gene enhancement or genome editing refers to
the intentional modification of an individual's genes to improve or enhance certain traits
or characteristics. This can involve changing the DNA sequence of an individual's genes
to enhance physical abilities, cognitive function, or other traits. Gene enhancement is a
controversial topic due to ethical concerns, such as potential risks, fairness, and societal

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implications. Genome editing techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9, have made gene
enhancement technically feasible, but there are ethical and social considerations that
need to be carefully addressed.
In summary, gene therapy is focused on treating or preventing genetic diseases, transgenic
organisms involve the insertion of genes from one species into another, and gene
enhancement/genome editing refers to intentional modification of genes for enhancing traits or
characteristics. While there may be overlaps and interactions among these areas, they are
distinct in their goals, methods, and ethical implications.

11. Explain the ethical concerns in gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing with examples? When can genome editing be considered
ethical?
Gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene enhancement/genome editing raise several
ethical concerns related to safety, efficacy, and social implications. Here are some examples:
1. Gene therapy: Gene therapy involves the introduction of genetic material into a patient's
cells to treat or cure a genetic disease. Some ethical concerns associated with gene
therapy include the risk of unintended consequences, such as off-target effects or
immune reactions, as well as the potential for permanent genetic changes that can be
passed on to future generations.
• Example: In 1999, a teenager named Jesse Gelsinger died during a clinical trial for
gene therapy. The trial was halted, and an investigation found that the
researchers had failed to disclose information about previous adverse reactions
in animal studies.
2. Transgenic organisms: Transgenic organisms are organisms that have been genetically
modified by the insertion of foreign DNA. Some ethical concerns associated with
transgenic organisms include the risk of unintended consequences, such as ecological
disruption or unforeseen effects on human health, as well as the potential for unintended
spread of transgenes into wild populations.
• Example: In 2002, a genetically modified strain of corn called StarLink was found
in the human food supply, despite the fact that it had not been approved for
human consumption. This incident raised concerns about the regulation and
oversight of genetically modified organisms.
3. Gene enhancement/genome editing: Gene enhancement or genome editing involves
the intentional modification of an individual's genetic makeup to enhance certain traits
or characteristics. Some ethical concerns associated with gene enhancement include the
potential for exacerbating existing social inequalities, as well as the possibility of
unintended consequences, such as unforeseen effects on physical or mental health.
• Example: In 2018, a Chinese scientist named He Jiankui announced that he had
used genome editing to create the world's first gene-edited babies. The
announcement was widely criticized for its lack of scientific rigor, as well as
ethical concerns related to the safety and long-term implications of genetic
modification.
When considering the ethics of genome editing, it is important to weigh the potential
benefits against the potential risks and consider the social implications of the technology.
Genome editing may be considered ethical when it is used to treat or prevent serious genetic
diseases or to enhance human health and well-being in a responsible and transparent manner,
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with appropriate oversight and regulation. However, genome editing for non-medical purposes,
such as enhancing physical or mental abilities or creating designer babies, raises serious ethical
concerns and should be subject to careful scrutiny and debate.

7.3 Stem Cells


12. What are stem cells? What are the applications of stem cell research?
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop into different cell types in
the body. They are characterized by their ability to self-renew (i.e., produce more stem cells) and
differentiate into specialized cells, such as muscle cells, nerve cells, or blood cells.
There are two main types of stem cells:
1. Embryonic stem cells: These are stem cells that are derived from embryos that are three
to five days old. They are pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate into any cell type in
the body.
2. Adult stem cells: These are stem cells that are found in adult tissues, such as bone
marrow, skin, and muscle. They are multipotent, meaning they can differentiate into a
limited number of cell types.
Stem cell research has many potential
applications in medicine and research. Here
are some of the main applications:
1. Regenerative medicine: Stem cells
can be used to replace damaged or
diseased cells and tissues in the
body. For example, stem cells can be
used to generate new heart cells in
patients with heart disease or to
repair spinal cord injuries.
2. Drug discovery and development:
Stem cells can be used to test the
safety and efficacy of new drugs. By
growing stem cells in a laboratory,
researchers can test how drugs
affect different cell types and identify potential side effects.
3. Disease modeling: Stem cells can be used to model diseases in a laboratory setting. By
using stem cells from patients with a specific disease, researchers can study how the
disease develops and test potential treatments.
4. Basic research: Stem cells can be used to study the basic mechanisms of development
and differentiation in the body. By studying how stem cells differentiate into different
cell types, researchers can gain insights into how the body develops and functions.
5. Tissue engineering: Stem cells can be used to create new tissues and organs in a
laboratory setting. By combining stem cells with biomaterials and growth factors,
researchers can create 3D structures that mimic the architecture and function of native
tissues.
6. Gene editing: Stem cells can be used as a tool for gene editing, a process that involves
modifying the DNA of cells to correct genetic mutations or introduce new traits. By using

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gene editing techniques on stem cells, researchers can create new therapies for genetic
disorders.
Overall, the applications of stem cell research are diverse and have the potential to revolutionize
many areas of medicine and research. However, the use of stem cells is a complex and
controversial issue, and more research is needed to establish the safety and efficacy of stem cell
therapies.

13. What are the concerns/risks with stem cell research? Suggest some measures to deal
with them.
Stem cell research has the potential to revolutionize medicine by providing new treatments for a
range of diseases and conditions. However, there are also concerns and risks associated with this
field of research, including:
1. Ethical concerns: Some people have raised ethical concerns about the use of embryonic
stem cells, which involves the destruction of human embryos. This has led to debates
about the moral and ethical implications of stem cell research.
2. Risk of tumor formation: There is a risk that stem cells could form tumors or cause
other unintended effects when used in therapies. This is a particular concern with
pluripotent stem cells, which have the potential to differentiate into any cell type in the
body.
3. Immune rejection: There is a risk that stem cell therapies could be rejected by the
immune system, leading to graft-versus-host disease or other complications.
To address these concerns, several measures have been proposed:
1. Ethical guidelines: Ethical guidelines have been established to ensure that stem cell
research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. These guidelines provide a
framework for researchers to follow when working with stem cells, and help to ensure
that the research is conducted in a way that is consistent with societal values and norms.
2. Safety protocols: Researchers can minimize the risk of tumor formation and other
unintended effects by using rigorous safety protocols in their research. This includes
carefully testing the safety and efficacy of stem cell therapies in animal models before
moving on to human trials.
3. Immune compatibility: To minimize the risk of immune rejection, researchers can
develop stem cell therapies that are compatible with the patient's immune system. This
can involve using the patient's own stem cells or using stem cells from a donor who is a
close genetic match to the patient.
4. Education and public awareness: Educating the public about the benefits and risks of
stem cell research can help to build support for this field of research and alleviate
concerns about the ethical and safety issues involved. This can involve working with
patient advocacy groups, scientific societies, and other stakeholders to raise awareness
and provide accurate information about stem cell research.

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7.4 Biotechnology in Agriculture
14. What is meant by genetically modified crops? Briefly explain the process of producing
genetically modified crops/plants.
Genetically modified (GM) crops are plants that have been genetically engineered to possess
specific desirable traits, such as resistance to pests, herbicides, or environmental stresses, that
are not naturally present in the plant species.
The process of producing genetically modified crops involves several steps:
1. Identification of target trait: The first step is to identify the specific trait that the crop
needs to acquire, such as resistance to a particular pest or herbicide.
2. Isolation of genes: Next, the gene or genes responsible for the desired trait are isolated
from a donor organism, such as bacteria, plants, or animals.
3. Insertion of genes: The isolated genes are then inserted into the DNA of the target crop
plant using a variety of methods, such as gene guns or Agrobacterium-mediated
transformation.
4. Screening and selection: The transformed plants are then screened and selected for the
desired trait using a variety of methods, such as molecular markers or phenotypic
analysis.
5. Testing and regulatory approval: The selected plants are then subjected to extensive
testing and regulatory approval to ensure their safety and efficacy. This can involve
testing the plants in greenhouse and field trials to assess their performance and
environmental impact.
Once the GM crop has been approved for commercial use, it can be grown and harvested like any
other crop.

15. Discuss the role of genetically modified crops in agriculture with a note on the
legitimate concerns about transgenic agriculture.
Genetically modified (GM) crops have been developed to help address several challenges in
agriculture, such as improving crop yields, increasing resistance to pests and diseases, reducing
the need for chemical inputs like pesticides and herbicides, and improving nutritional value.
Here are some of the potential benefits and concerns associated with GM crops:
Benefits of GM crops in agriculture:
1. Increased crop yields: GM crops
can produce higher yields than
traditional crops, which can help
to feed a growing global
population.
2. Improved resistance to pests
and diseases: GM crops can be
engineered to produce proteins
that are toxic to pests, reducing
the need for chemical pesticides.
3. Drought and stress resistance:
GM crops can be engineered to be
more resilient to drought and

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other environmental stresses, which can help farmers cope with the effects of climate
change.
4. Nutritional improvements: GM crops can be engineered to contain higher levels of
vitamins and minerals, improving the nutritional value of food.
Concerns about GM crops:
1. Environmental impact: There are concerns that GM crops could have unintended
impacts on the environment, such as the potential for gene flow to wild relatives, which
could create new weed species.
2. Food safety: Some people are concerned about the potential for GM crops to have
negative impacts on human health, such as allergies or other unintended health effects.
3. Intellectual property issues: Some people are concerned about the ownership of GM
crop technology and the potential for seed companies to control the global food supply.
4. Social and economic impacts: There are concerns about the potential for GM crops to
exacerbate social and economic disparities, particularly in developing countries where
small farmers may not have access to GM crop technology.
To address these concerns, regulatory bodies around the world have established rigorous safety
protocols for the development and use of GM crops. These protocols typically involve extensive
testing and monitoring to ensure that GM crops are safe for human consumption, and that their
use does not have negative impacts on the environment or social equity.

7.5 Bio-fertilizers
16. What are bio-fertilizers? What are their types?
Bio-fertilizers are natural fertilizers that contain living microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi,
and algae, that enhance soil fertility and plant growth.
Unlike chemical fertilizers, which provide plants with nutrients directly, bio-fertilizers work by
improving the soil ecosystem and facilitating nutrient cycling.
Here are some of the main types of bio-fertilizers:
1. Nitrogen-fixing bio-fertilizers: These contain bacteria that can convert atmospheric
nitrogen into a form that plants can use, such as ammonia or nitrate.
• Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria include Rhizobium, and Azotobacter
2. Phosphorus-solubilizing bio-fertilizers: These contain microorganisms that can
solubilize insoluble forms of phosphorus in the soil, making it available to plants.
• Examples of phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms include Bacillus
megateriumand Pseudomonas fluorescens.
3. Potassium-solubilizing bio-fertilizers: These contain microorganisms that can
solubilize insoluble forms of potassium in the soil, making it available to plants.
• Examples of potassium-solubilizing microorganisms include Bacillus coagulans
and Pseudomonas sp.
4. Plant growth-promoting bio-fertilizers: These contain microorganisms that can
enhance plant growth and development by producing plant growth hormones, enhancing
nutrient uptake, and suppressing plant pathogens.
• Examples of plant growth-promoting microorganisms include Trichoderma
harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens.

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17. What are the benefits of bio-fertilizers over chemical fertilizers?
Bio-fertilizers offer several benefits over chemical fertilizers, including:
1. Sustainability: Bio-fertilizers are sustainable and environmentally friendly, as they do
not contain synthetic chemicals and do not contribute to soil and water pollution.
2. Soil health: Bio-fertilizers can improve soil health by promoting the growth of beneficial
microorganisms, enhancing nutrient cycling, and reducing soil-borne diseases.
3. Cost-effectiveness: Bio-fertilizers can be cost-effective, as they can reduce the need for
chemical fertilizers and increase crop yields.
Overall, bio-fertilizers are a promising approach to improving soil fertility and plant growth
while promoting sustainability and environmental health. However, the use of bio-fertilizers
requires careful selection of appropriate microorganisms and management practices to ensure
their effectiveness.

18. What are the limitations of bio-fertilizers?


Bio-fertilizers have several advantages over chemical fertilizers, such as being environmentally
friendly, sustainable, and cost-effective. However, they also have some limitations that need to be
considered. Some of the limitations of bio-fertilizers are:
1. Specificity: Bio-fertilizers are often specific to certain plants or crops, which means that
they may not work well with other crops. This limits their applicability and may require
the use of multiple types of bio-fertilizers for different crops.
2. Slow release of nutrients: Bio-fertilizers release nutrients slowly over time, which may
not meet the immediate needs of the plant. This may require the use of chemical
fertilizers to supplement the nutrients.
3. Storage and shelf life: Bio-fertilizers are living organisms, and their effectiveness can be
affected by storage conditions and shelf life. They require proper storage and handling to
maintain their viability and effectiveness.
4. Effectiveness: The effectiveness of bio-fertilizers can be influenced by several factors,
including soil conditions, moisture, temperature, and the presence of other
microorganisms. It may also take longer to see the benefits of using bio-fertilizers
compared to chemical fertilizers.
5. Quality control: Bio-fertilizers are often produced by small-scale manufacturers and
require quality control measures to ensure their safety and effectiveness. This can be
challenging, and there may be inconsistencies in the quality of bio-fertilizers.

7.6 Bio-pesticides
19. What are bio-pesticides? What are their benefits over chemical pesticides?
Bio-pesticides are a type of pest control product that are derived from natural substances like
plants, bacteria, or fungi. They are used to control pests in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.
The benefits of bio-pesticides over chemical pesticides include:
1. Environmental safety: Bio-pesticides are often considered to be safer for the
environment than chemical pesticides, as they typically have lower toxicity and degrade
more quickly in the environment.

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2. Reduced health risks: Bio-pesticides are generally considered to be less harmful to
human health than chemical pesticides, as they have lower toxicity and are less likely to
leave residues on food.
3. Target-specific: Bio-pesticides are often more specific in their action, targeting only the
pest species they are designed to control, while leaving non-target species unharmed.
4. Lower resistance: Pests are less likely to develop resistance to bio-pesticides than
chemical pesticides, as bio-pesticides often have multiple modes of action, making it
harder for pests to evolve resistance.
5. Easy to use: Bio-pesticides are often easy to use and apply, requiring no specialized
equipment or training.
6. Can be used in organic farming: Bio-pesticides are often approved for use in organic
farming, as they are derived from natural substances.
Overall, bio-pesticides are considered to be a safer and more sustainable alternative to chemical
pesticides, and are increasingly being used in pest control programs around the world. However,
they may not be as effective as chemical pesticides in all situations, and their effectiveness can
depend on factors such as pest species, weather conditions, and application methods.

Some examples of Bio-pesticides:


• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): a bacterium that produces a toxin that is lethal to certain
insects
• Trichoderma harzianum: a fungus that is used to control fungal diseases in crops such
as tomatoes, cucumbers, and strawberries.
• Azadirachtin/Neem oil: a natural compound that is found in the neem tree and is used
as a bio-pesticide to control a wide range of insect pests.
• Pyrethrins: natural insecticides that are derived from the flowers of certain
chrysanthemum species

20. What are the limitations of bio-pesticides vis à vis conventional pesticides?
While bio-pesticides have many benefits over conventional chemical pesticides, they also have
some limitations that can make them less effective in some situations. Here are some limitations
of bio-pesticides compared to conventional pesticides:
1. Limited spectrum of activity: Bio-pesticides are often more targeted in their activity,
meaning they are only effective against specific pests or diseases. This can make them
less effective against a broad range of pests compared to conventional pesticides.
2. Variable efficacy: The efficacy of bio-pesticides can be variable and dependent on
environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, which can make them less
reliable in some situations.
3. Shorter shelf life: Bio-pesticides often have a shorter shelf life than conventional
pesticides, meaning they may need to be used soon after purchase and cannot be stored
for long periods of time.
4. Limited availability: Bio-pesticides are not as widely available as conventional
pesticides, and may not be stocked in as many stores or be available in as many
formulations.
5. Higher cost: Bio-pesticides can be more expensive than conventional pesticides, due to
the cost of development, production, and registration.

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6. Application challenges: Bio-pesticides can be more difficult to apply effectively than
conventional pesticides, requiring specialized equipment and application techniques.
It is important to note that the limitations of bio-pesticides are not necessarily absolute, and
many of these challenges can be overcome through ongoing research and development.
Furthermore, the benefits of bio-pesticides, such as their safety and environmental
sustainability, may outweigh their limitations in many situations, particularly in organic and
sustainable agriculture systems.

7.7 Tissue Culture


21. What is tissue culture? What are its applications?
Tissue culture, also known as cell culture, is a technique for growing cells, tissues, and organs in
vitro, or in a laboratory setting. It involves taking a small piece of tissue from a plant or animal,
and placing it in a nutrient-rich medium that supports the growth of the cells. The cells can then
be grown into mature tissues or organs, or used for genetic modification, disease resistance, or
other applications.
Tissue culture has a wide range of applications in
research, medicine, and agriculture. Some of its major
applications are:
1. Plant breeding: Tissue culture is used to
produce large numbers of plants that are
genetically identical to the parent plant, which
can be used for breeding, conservation, or the
production of genetically modified crops.
2. Drug discovery: Tissue culture is used to grow
human cells and tissues in the laboratory for
drug testing and development.
3. Medical research: Tissue culture is used to
study the behavior of cells in response to
various stimuli, and to investigate the
mechanisms of disease and development of new therapies.
4. Regenerative medicine: Tissue culture is used to grow stem cells, which can be used to
repair or replace damaged tissues and organs.
5. Industrial production: Tissue culture is used to produce high-value compounds such as
enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, which can be used in a variety of industries
including food, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology.
Overall, tissue culture is a powerful tool in modern biology, allowing researchers to study and
manipulate living cells and tissues in ways that were not possible before.

7.8 Cloning
22. What is cloning? Explain different types of cloning with suitable examples?
Cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copy of an individual plant or animal. It
can be done through a number of different techniques, including:
1. Organism/Reproductive cloning: This involves creating a new individual that is
genetically identical to the original organism. In animals, this is typically done through a

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process called Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT), where the nucleus of a donor cell
is transferred to an enucleated (nucleus removed) egg cell, and the resulting embryo is
implanted into a surrogate mother. In plants, cloning is often done through vegetative
propagation, where a plant is reproduced from a vegetative part, such as a stem, leaf, or
root.
2. Cell cloning/Therapeutic: This involves creating embryonic stem cells that are
genetically identical to the patient, which can be used to replace damaged or diseased
tissues. It is typically done through a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer, where
the nucleus of a patient's cell is transferred to an enucleated egg cell, and the resulting
embryo is grown in vitro to produce stem cells.
3. Molecular Cloning: This involves creating copies of a specific DNA sequence, rather than
a whole organism. It is typically done through a process called polymerase chain reaction
(PCR), where DNA is amplified using special enzymes.
Examples of cloning include:
1. Dolly the sheep: In 1996, scientists in Scotland used somatic cell nuclear transfer to
create the first mammal cloned from an adult cell. Dolly the sheep was genetically
identical to the donor cell, and lived for six years before being euthanized due to health
problems.
2. Cloning of crop plants: Banana plants (having desirable traits) are often cloned through
tissue culture to produce large numbers of plants that are genetically identical to the
parent plant.
3. Therapeutic cloning: Therapeutic cloning is being researched as a potential treatment
for a range of diseases, including Parkinson's disease, diabetes, and spinal cord injuries.
In summary, cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copy of an individual plant
or animal. Different types of cloning include reproductive cloning, therapeutic cloning, and DNA
cloning, each with different applications and techniques.

23. Discuss the advantages of cloning and also mention the ethical concerns associated
with the cloning process.
Advantages of Cloning:
1. Preservation of Endangered Species: Cloning can be used to preserve endangered or
extinct species by creating genetically identical copies of the animal.
2. Medical Advances: Cloning technology has the potential to create tissues or organs that
are genetically identical to a patient’s own cells, which could be used for transplantation
without the risk of rejection.
3. Agriculture: Cloning can be used to create genetically identical crops that are resistant
to pests and diseases, reducing the use of pesticides and increasing crop yields.
4. Animal Research: Cloning can be used to create genetically identical animals for
research purposes, which can be used to study diseases and develop new treatments.
5. Reproduction: Cloning can be used to help couples who are struggling with infertility by
creating a genetically identical copy of one of the partners.
Ethical Concerns Associated with Cloning:

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1. The Value of Human Life, Dignity and Autonomy: The cloning process raises ethical
questions about the value of human life, and whether it is ethical to create human life in a
laboratory setting.
2. Cloning for Reproduction: Cloning raises concerns about the possibility of creating
cloned humans for reproductive purposes, which many people believe is ethically
unacceptable.
3. Safety Concerns: The cloning process is still largely experimental, and there are
concerns about the safety of the technology and the potential long-term effects on cloned
organisms. There are potential health risks associated with cloning, including
developmental abnormalities, premature aging, and a higher risk of genetic disorders.
4. Cloning and Genetic Diversity: Cloning can reduce genetic diversity within a
population, which can make a species more vulnerable to disease and environmental
stress.
5. Animal Welfare: There are concerns about the welfare of cloned animals, including the
possibility of increased rates of illness and developmental abnormalities.
6. Parent-Child Relationship: The parent-child relationship may be impacted by cloning,
as it blurs the line between genetic and social relationships.
7. Moral and Social Implications: Cloning raises questions about the moral and social
implications of creating genetically identical human beings, particularly in terms of
individual identity, social relationships, and cultural values.
In summary, while cloning has the potential to provide significant benefits in fields such as
medicine and agriculture, there are also significant ethical concerns associated with the
technology, particularly around the creation of human life and the potential effects on animal
welfare and genetic diversity. It is important to weigh the potential benefits and risks of cloning
carefully before deciding whether to pursue this technology further.

7.9 Bio-Fuels
Note: Bio-fuels are also discussed as part of the Chapter 5: Energy Resources.
24. What are Bio-fuels? What are their types?
Biofuels are renewable fuels that are produced from biomass, which is organic matter such as
plants and agricultural waste. There are three main types of biofuels:
1. Ethanol: This is an alcohol that is produced by fermenting sugars from crops such as
corn, sugarcane, and switchgrass.
• Ethanol is commonly used as a fuel additive in petrol, and can also be used in high-
concentration blends such as E85 (85% ethanol and 15% petrol).
2. Biodiesel: This is a renewable diesel fuel that is produced from vegetable oils or animal
fats.
• Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel in
various concentrations. In India – mostly B5 blend (95% petro-diesel + 5% bio-
diesel) is used.
• Jatropha and Derris India are the two most suitable crops for the production of Bio-
diesel

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• The oil extracted from the seeds of Jatropha or Derris contain glycerol which
interferes with the function of the IC engine. Hence the oil is processed to produce
methy ester or ethyl ester which can be used as bio-diesel.
3. Biogas: This is a gas that is produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as
agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, and wastewater. Biogas is primarily composed
of methane and carbon dioxide, and can be used as a fuel for heating and electricity
generation.
Biofuels offer several advantages over fossil fuels, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions,
improved energy security, and increased rural economic development. However, biofuels also
have some limitations, such as competition with food crops for land and water resources, and
potential negative environmental impacts such as land-use change and biodiversity loss. As a
result, the sustainability of biofuels is an important consideration in their development and use.

Ethanol Blending Program (EBP)


The Ethanol Blending Program (EBP) is a government-led initiative to promote the use of
ethanol as a fuel additive in transportation. The program aims to reduce dependence on
imported crude oil, promote rural economy, and decrease greenhouse gas emissions. The
government has achieved its 10% ethanol blending in petrol target by 2022 and aims to
achieve 20% by 2025. To reach this goal, the government is promoting ethanol production
from various feedstocks, providing financial incentives to the industry, and mandating the
use of ethanol blended fuel by certain vehicles. The program has benefits, including
reducing air pollution, supporting domestic ethanol industry growth, and increasing farmer
income. However, challenges such as feedstock availability and infrastructure investment
need to be addressed. Successfully implementing the EBP will be critical in achieving India's
energy security and sustainable development goals.

7.10 Environmental clean-up process


25. Write about the role of biotechnology in environmental clean-up processes.
Biotechnology plays a crucial role in environmental clean-up processes, especially in the
bioremediation of polluted sites. Bioremediation is the process of using microorganisms, such
as bacteria and fungi, to break down and transform toxic pollutants into harmless substances.
Biotechnology has several advantages over traditional methods of environmental clean-up, such
as chemical treatments and physical removal of pollutants. Bioremediation is generally more
cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and sustainable than other methods, as it uses natural
processes to clean up contaminated sites.
One of the most significant applications of biotechnology in environmental clean-up is the use of
genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) to degrade pollutants. GEMs are engineered to
produce specific enzymes that can break down pollutants, making them more effective than
naturally occurring microorganisms.
Another application of biotechnology in environmental clean-up is phytoremediation, which
involves the use of plants to remove pollutants from the soil or water. Plants absorb pollutants
through their roots and transform them into less toxic forms or store them in their tissues.
Biotechnology has also been used to develop biosensors, which can detect pollutants in the
environment quickly and accurately. Biosensors use biological materials, such as enzymes or
antibodies, to detect the presence of pollutants in air, water, or soil.

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Overall, biotechnology has the potential to revolutionize environmental clean-up processes and
provide sustainable solutions to pollution problems. However, it is essential to ensure that the
use of biotechnology in environmental clean-up is carefully monitored to prevent unintended
consequences and ensure the safety of human health and the environment.

Oilzapper&Oilivorous-S are the formulations of 4/5 types of bacteria to clean up oil


pollution developed by TERI

7.11 Miscellaneous
26. What is CRISPR-Cas9? Briefly explain its functioning and give its applications.
CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome editing technology that allows scientists to make precise
and targeted modifications to the DNA of living organisms. It is a type of site-directed nuclease
(nuclease is an enzyme that breaks down nucleic acids) that uses RNA-guided endonucleases to
target and cleave specific DNA sequences.
The CRISPR-Cas9 system is derived from a natural bacterial immune system that defends against
invading viruses. The system consists of two main components: the Cas9 enzyme (nuclease),
which acts as a molecular "scissors" that can cut DNA at specific sites, and a guide RNA molecule,
which directs the Cas9 enzyme to the target DNA sequence.
To use the CRISPR-Cas9 system for genome editing, scientists design a specific guide RNA
molecule that matches the target DNA sequence they want to modify. The guide RNA is then
combined with the Cas9 enzyme and introduced into the cells of the organism they want to
modify. The Cas9 enzyme then cuts the DNA at the target site, which triggers the cell's natural
DNA repair mechanisms. Scientists can then
introduce new genetic material or modify the
existing DNA sequence during the repair process.
The CRISPR-Cas9 system has numerous
applications in basic research, biotechnology, and
medicine. Some of its most notable applications
include:
1. Gene editing: The CRISPR-Cas9 system can
be used to introduce precise genetic
modifications to an organism, such as
introducing or correcting mutations,
knocking out specific genes, or adding new
genetic information.
2. Functional genomics: The CRISPR-Cas9
system can be used to systematically
knockout genes in order to study their
functions and roles in biological processes.
3. Agriculture: The CRISPR-Cas9 system can be used to develop crops with desirable traits,
such as increased yield or disease resistance.
4. Therapeutics: The CRISPR-Cas9 system holds promise for treating genetic diseases,
such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia, by correcting disease-causing mutations.
Overall, the CRISPR-Cas9 system has revolutionized genome editing and has opened up new
possibilities for advancing scientific understanding and developing new technologies and
treatments.

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Chapter 8: Food Biotechnology
Syllabus: Food bio-technology, Food safety and Food quality standards, Food Laws and
Regulations. Recent trends in organic farming and farm mechanization. Safe Drinking Water –
Defluoridation and other Techniques.
8.1 Food bio-technology
1. What is food biotechnology? Give some examples.
Food biotechnology is the use of biological techniques, such as genetic engineering, molecular
biology, and bioprocessing, to improve the production, quality, safety, and nutritional value of
food.
It involves the manipulation of microorganisms, plants, and animals at the molecular
level to develop new food products, enhance the shelf life of existing products, and create more
sustainable and environmentally friendly food production methods.
Examples of food biotechnology applications include the genetic modification of crops to
increase their yield, resistance to pests and diseases, and nutritional value; the use of microbial
fermentation to produce cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products; and the development of
enzymes to improve the processing of food ingredients. Food biotechnology also includes the use
of biotechnology to improve food safety by detecting and preventing foodborne pathogens, such
as Salmonella and E. coli, in the food supply chain.

2.Mention briefly the significance of food biotechnology.


Food biotechnology is significant in various ways:
1. Improved food production: Biotechnology helps in developing crops that are more
resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses, leading to higher crop yields and
more efficient food production.
2. Enhanced nutritional value: Biotechnology techniques are used to enrich the
nutritional value of food products by increasing their vitamin, mineral, and protein
content.
3. Extended shelf life: Biotechnology helps in developing food products that have a longer
shelf life and are more resistant to spoilage and contamination.
4. Safer food products: Biotechnology can be used to detect and eliminate harmful
microorganisms from food products, making them safer for consumption.
5. Reduced environmental impact: Biotechnology helps in developing food products and
processes that are more environmentally sustainable, reducing the use of harmful
chemicals and reducing waste.
Overall, food biotechnology plays an essential role in providing safe, nutritious, and sustainable
food to meet the growing demand of the world's population.

3. Briefly explain the history of food biotechnology with relevant examples.


Food biotechnology has been practiced for thousands of years in the form of traditional food
preservation techniques, such as fermenting, pickling, and drying. However, modern food
biotechnology emerged in the 1970s with the advent of genetic engineering.
In 1982, the first genetically modified food, a tomato with a delayed ripening trait, was
developed by Calgene, a biotechnology company. This tomato was approved for commercial sale
in the United States in 1994. Since then, numerous genetically modified crops have been

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developed, including corn, soybeans, and cotton, with traits such as herbicide resistance and
insect resistance.
In the 1990s, the first genetically modified animal, a mouse, was developed. Since then,
genetically modified fish, pigs, and cows have been developed for various purposes, such as
disease resistance and increased growth.
In addition to genetic engineering, food biotechnology has also been used for microbial
fermentation, which has been practiced for thousands of years to produce foods such as bread,
beer, and cheese. In the 1980s, genetic engineering techniques were used to create
microorganisms that produce enzymes for the food industry, such as rennet for cheese
production.
More recently, food biotechnology has been used to develop plant-based meat alternatives, such
as the Impossible Burger and Beyond Burger, which use genetically modified yeast to produce
heme, a molecule that gives meat its characteristic taste and texture.
Overall, food biotechnology has a rich history of innovation and has played an important role in
improving the quality, safety, and sustainability of our food supply.

4. Discuss the applications of food biotechnology.


Food biotechnology has a wide range of applications in food production, processing, and
preservation. Here are some of the main applications:
1. Genetic modification of crops: Genetic engineering techniques are used to introduce
desirable traits into crops, such as disease resistance, herbicide resistance, and increased
yield. For example, genetically modified corn and soybeans are widely grown in the
United States and other countries.
2. Fermentation: Microbial fermentation is used to produce a variety of foods, including
bread, beer, cheese, and yogurt. Fermentation can also be used to produce biofuels and
other industrial products.
3. Enzyme production: Biotechnology is used to produce enzymes for food processing,
such as rennet for cheese production and amylase for baking. Enzymes can also be used
to improve the nutritional quality of foods, such as by breaking down allergenic proteins
in peanuts.
4. Food safety: Biotechnology is used to develop methods for detecting and preventing
foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella and E. coli. Biotechnology is also used to
develop vaccines for animals to prevent the spread of diseases that can be transmitted to
humans through food.
5. Nutritional enhancement: Biotechnology is used to improve the nutritional quality of
foods, such as by increasing the levels of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. For
example, golden rice has been genetically modified to produce beta-carotene, a precursor
to vitamin A, which can help prevent blindness in developing countries.
6. Meat alternatives: Biotechnology is used to develop plant-based meat alternatives that
mimic the taste and texture of meat. For example, the Impossible Burger and Beyond
Burger use genetically modified yeast to produce heme, a molecule that gives meat its
characteristic taste and texture.
Overall, food biotechnology has a wide range of applications that can improve the quality, safety,
and sustainability of our food supply.

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5. Write about the Government of India's initiatives to promote food industry in India.
The Government of India has launched several initiatives to promote the food industry in India.
These initiatives aim to boost food processing, improve food safety, and increase exports of
Indian food products. Here are some of the key initiatives:
1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY): This scheme was launched in 2017
with the aim of creating modern infrastructure for food processing in India. The scheme
includes a range of initiatives, such as the creation of mega food parks, cold chain
facilities, and food processing clusters.
2. National Mission on Food Processing (NMFP): This mission was launched in 2017
with the aim of increasing the level of food processing in India from the current 10% to
20% by 2025. The mission includes a range of initiatives, such as the creation of food
processing units in rural areas, the establishment of food testing laboratories, and the
development of human resources for the food processing industry.
3. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI): The FSSAI is a regulatory body
established in 2006 to ensure food safety and hygiene in India. The FSSAI has been
working to improve food safety standards in India through initiatives such as the
creation of a food recall system, the establishment of food safety labs, and the
implementation of mandatory food safety training for food handlers.
4. Agri Export Policy: The Agri Export Policy was launched in 2018 with the aim of
increasing exports of Indian agricultural products, including processed foods. The policy
includes a range of initiatives, such as the creation of an export promotion forum, the
establishment of market intelligence units, and the provision of financial assistance to
exporters.
5. Make in India: The Make in India initiative was launched in 2014 with the aim of
promoting manufacturing in India. The food processing industry is one of the focus
sectors under this initiative, and the government has been working to create an enabling
environment for food processing in India by streamlining regulations and providing
incentives for investment.
Overall, the Government of India has launched several initiatives to promote the food industry in
India, with a focus on increasing food processing, improving food safety, and boosting exports.
These initiatives are expected to create new opportunities for Indian food companies and
contribute to the growth of the Indian economy.

6. What is fermentation? Describe the process of industrial fermentation and explain its
social and economic relevance.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts organic compounds, such as sugars and
carbohydrates, into other products using microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, or fungi. The
process is often used in industrial applications to produce a wide range of products, including
food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels.
The process of industrial fermentation typically involves the following steps:
1. Inoculation: A culture of microorganisms is added to a nutrient-rich medium, such as a
sugar solution.
2. Incubation: The mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions of temperature,
pH, and oxygen levels to allow the microorganisms to grow and produce the desired
product.

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3. Harvesting: Once the desired product has been produced, it is separated from the
fermentation broth using various techniques such as filtration or centrifugation.
4. Purification: The product is then purified to remove any impurities and achieve the
desired level of purity.
Industrial fermentation has significant social and economic relevance. Here are some of the key
benefits:
1. Food and beverages: Fermentation is used in the production of a wide range of food and
beverage products, including bread, cheese, yogurt, beer, and wine. These products are
important for human nutrition and contribute to the economy through the food and
beverage industry.
2. Pharmaceuticals: Many important drugs are produced through fermentation, including
antibiotics, hormones, and enzymes. These products are essential for the treatment of
human diseases and contribute to the economy through the pharmaceutical industry.
3. Biofuels: Fermentation is used to produce biofuels such as ethanol and butanol, which
can be used as alternative fuels for vehicles. This has the potential to reduce dependence
on fossil fuels and contribute to the economy through the energy industry.
4. Waste reduction: Fermentation can be used to convert organic waste into useful
products, such as biogas or fertilizers. This can help to reduce waste and contribute to
sustainable development.
In summary, industrial fermentation is a process that has significant social and economic
relevance. It is used to produce a wide range of products that are important for human nutrition,
healthcare, energy, and waste reduction. As such, it plays an important role in the economy and
in sustainable development.

7. What is yeast fermentation? Explain industrial use of yeast in making different


products?
Yeast fermentation is a process in which yeast microorganisms convert sugars and other
carbohydrates into alcohol and carbon dioxide. This process is commonly used in the production
of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits.
Industrial use of yeast in making different products is diverse, and includes the following:
1. Baking: Yeast is used in baking to leaven bread and other baked goods. When added to a
dough, yeast ferments the sugars in the dough and produces carbon dioxide gas, which
causes the dough to rise.
2. Brewing: Yeast is a key ingredient in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic
beverages. Different strains of yeast are used to produce different types of beer and wine,
and the type of yeast used can greatly affect the flavor and aroma of the final product.
3. Distilling: Yeast is also used in the production of distilled spirits such as whiskey, rum,
and vodka. In this process, yeast ferments a mixture of grains, fruits, or other raw
materials to produce a beer-like liquid that is then distilled to produce the final spirit.
4. Biofuels: Yeast is used in the production of biofuels such as ethanol, which can be used
as a substitute for gasoline. In this process, yeast ferments sugars derived from crops
such as corn or sugarcane to produce ethanol.
5. Pharmaceutical industry: Yeast is used to produce a variety of pharmaceutical
products, including insulin, vaccines, and enzymes used in medical treatments.

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In summary, yeast fermentation is a versatile process that has a wide range of industrial
applications. It is used to produce a variety of products, including baked goods, beer, wine,
distilled spirits, biofuels, and pharmaceuticals. The use of yeast in these applications has
significant economic and social relevance, contributing to various industries and benefiting
consumers in numerous ways.

8.2 Food safety


8. What is food safety? Mention the five keys of WHO to safer food.
Food safety refers to the measures taken to ensure that food is free from harmful contaminants
and pathogens that could cause illness or disease in those who consume it.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified five keys to safer food, which are as
follows:
1. Keep clean: This key focuses on the importance of maintaining clean food preparation
and storage areas, as well as good personal hygiene practices by food handlers.
2. Separate raw and cooked foods: This key stresses the importance of separating raw
meats, poultry, and seafood from cooked foods, as well as avoiding cross-contamination
by using separate cutting boards and utensils.
3. Cook thoroughly: This key emphasizes the need to cook food thoroughly, especially
meats, poultry, and seafood, in order to kill any harmful bacteria or viruses that may be
present.
4. Keep food at safe temperatures: This key focuses on the importance of storing food at
safe temperatures, either by keeping it hot or cold, and avoiding leaving food at room
temperature for extended periods of time.
5. Use safe water and raw materials: This key highlights the importance of using safe
water for food preparation and ensuring that raw materials, such as fruits and
vegetables, are free from harmful contaminants.

9. FSSAI is playing a key role in improving the food safety in India. Critically evaluate.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) was established in 2011 to ensure
food safety and promote public health in India. FSSAI has taken several steps to improve food
safety in India, such as setting standards for food products, regulating food imports, and
enforcing food safety regulations.
One of the major initiatives taken by FSSAI is the implementation of the Food Safety and
Standards Act, 2006, which aims to consolidate various food safety laws in India and ensure that
food products meet specific safety and quality standards. This has helped to streamline the
regulatory process and ensure that food products are safe for consumption.
FSSAI has also launched several public awareness campaigns to educate consumers about the
importance of food safety and the role of FSSAI in regulating the food industry. This has helped
to create a culture of food safety in India and encourage people to demand safe and healthy food
products.
However, there are still some challenges that FSSAI faces in improving food safety in India. One
of the biggest challenges is the lack of awareness among food businesses about food safety
standards and regulations. Many small food businesses in India still do not have adequate
knowledge about food safety, which can lead to non-compliance with regulations.

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Another challenge is the lack of adequate resources and infrastructure to effectively enforce food
safety regulations. FSSAI needs to work closely with state governments and local authorities to
improve the capacity and capability of food safety enforcement agencies.
Overall, while FSSAI has made significant progress in improving food safety in India, there is still
a long way to go. Continued efforts are needed to ensure that all food products sold in India meet
the highest safety and quality standards, and that consumers are empowered to make informed
choices about the food they eat.

8.3 Food Laws and Regulations


10. Discuss the key provisions of the Food Safety and Standards Act of India.
The Food Safety and Standards Act (FSSA) was enacted in India in 2006 and came into effect
from 2011.The act was introduced to regulate and oversee the manufacture, storage,
distribution, sale, and import of food products in India.
The main objective of the FSSA is to consolidate and harmonize the food safety standards,
regulations and enforcement mechanisms in India. The FSSA replaced several existing food-
related laws in India, including the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954.
The key provisions of the FSSA are:
1. Food Safety Standards: The FSSA sets the standards for the safety and quality of food
products manufactured, sold, and imported into India. The act has provisions for food
labeling, packaging, and advertising.
2. Food Authority: The act establishes the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) as the central regulatory authority for food safety in India. The FSSAI is
responsible for laying down the standards and guidelines for food safety, regulating and
monitoring the manufacture, storage, distribution, sale, and import of food products in
India.
3. Licensing and Registration: The FSSA mandates that all food businesses operating in
India must obtain a license or registration from the FSSAI. The license or registration is
based on the size and nature of the business, and failure to obtain the same can result in
penalties.
4. Food Safety Enforcement: The FSSA provides for the establishment of the Food Safety
Commissionerate in every state, which is responsible for enforcing food safety
regulations and ensuring compliance with the FSSA provisions. The act empowers the
enforcement authorities to inspect food premises, seize sub-standard or unsafe food
products, and initiate legal action against offenders.
5. Food Recall: The FSSA has provisions for mandatory food recalls, in case a food product
is found to be unsafe or non-compliant with safety standards. The recall process involves
notifying the public and withdrawing the product from the market.
6. Penalty and Punishment: The FSSA provides for penalties and punishment for non-
compliance with safety standards, which can include fines, imprisonment, or cancellation
of the license.
Overall, the FSSA is a comprehensive and important legislation aimed at ensuring food safety and
quality in India. The act has played a crucial role in streamlining the food safety regulations and
enforcement mechanisms in India, and in creating a culture of food safety among food businesses
and consumers.

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8.4 Organic farming
11. What is Organic farming? Mention its important characteristics.
Organic farming is a method of agriculture that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides,
and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to produce crops and livestock. Instead, organic
farmers rely on natural inputs and practices, such as crop rotation, composting, and biological
pest control, to maintain soil health and manage pests and diseases.
Some of the important characteristics of organic farming are:
1. Soil health: Organic farming places a strong emphasis on maintaining soil health and
fertility through practices such as crop rotation, green manuring, and composting.
Healthy soil is considered to be the foundation of organic farming and is critical to
producing high-quality crops.
2. Natural pest and disease management: Organic farmers rely on natural methods to
manage pests and diseases, such as crop rotation, companion planting, and the use of
natural predators and biological controls. Chemical pesticides and fertilizers are not used
in organic farming.
3. Biodiversity: Organic farming encourages the maintenance of biodiversity on farms,
including the planting of diverse crops and the preservation of natural habitats for
wildlife.
4. No use of synthetic inputs: Organic farming prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizers,
pesticides, and GMOs. Instead, organic farmers rely on natural inputs, such as compost,
animal manure, and cover crops, to maintain soil health and provide nutrients for crops.
5. Animal welfare: Organic farming places a strong emphasis on the welfare of animals,
including providing them with access to pasture and outdoor space, and avoiding the use
of antibiotics and hormones.
6. Sustainability: Organic farming is designed to be a sustainable method of agriculture
that minimizes the environmental impact of farming practices and ensures the long-term
viability of farming systems.
Overall, organic farming is a holistic approach to agriculture that prioritizes soil health,
biodiversity, and sustainability, while avoiding the use of synthetic inputs and promoting natural
pest and disease management.

12. Explain the various benefits of organic farming.


Organic farming has many benefits that are categorized as below:
1. Environmental benefits: Organic farming avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, which can have harmful effects on the environment, including water pollution,
soil degradation, and damage to wildlife and ecosystems.
2. Health benefits: Organic farming avoids the use of synthetic chemicals in food
production, which can have negative health effects on both consumers and farm workers.
Organic foods are also often richer in nutrients than conventionally grown foods.
3. Economic benefits: Organic farming can be a more profitable and sustainable system of
agriculture for farmers, as it often reduces the need for expensive inputs and can result
in higher yields and improved soil health over time.
4. Social benefits: Organic farming can contribute to the development of more resilient
and sustainable communities, by promoting local food systems, preserving traditional

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farming practices, and promoting the health and well-being of farm workers and rural
communities.
Overall, organic farming represents a holistic approach to agriculture that prioritizes
sustainability, environmental stewardship, and social responsibility, while promoting healthy
food and healthy communities.

13. How is organic farming expected to solve the problems/ill-effects of modern


agriculture?
Organic farming is expected to solve the problems and ill-effects of modern agriculture in several
ways:
1. Promoting soil health: Modern agriculture often relies on heavy use of synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides that can degrade soil health over time. Organic
farming, on the other hand, emphasizes the use of natural methods for improving soil
health, such as crop rotation, composting, and cover cropping. By promoting soil health,
organic farming can increase the resilience of agricultural ecosystems and reduce the
need for synthetic inputs.
2. Reducing environmental pollution: The use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in
modern agriculture can lead to pollution of waterways, soil, and air. Organic farming
reduces pollution by minimizing the use of synthetic inputs and promoting natural
methods for pest and disease control.
3. Supporting biodiversity: Modern agriculture often relies on monoculture cropping
systems that can be detrimental to biodiversity. Organic farming, on the other hand,
promotes biodiversity by emphasizing the use of crop rotations, cover crops, and
intercropping systems.
4. Producing healthier food: Organic farming often results in the production of healthier
food because it eliminates the use of synthetic inputs that can be harmful to human
health. Organic food is also often richer in certain nutrients, such as antioxidants and
vitamins, because of the healthy soil conditions and natural growing methods used in
organic farming.
5. Supporting local economies: Organic farming often involves smaller-scale production
and distribution systems, which can support local economies and provide economic
benefits to small farmers.
Overall, organic farming is expected to solve the problems and ill-effects of modern agriculture
by promoting sustainable agricultural practices that support healthy ecosystems, reduce
environmental pollution, produce healthier food, and support local economies.

14. Differentiate between manures and fertilisers with suitable examples.


Manures and fertilizers are both used to provide essential nutrients to plants for their growth
and development. However, there are some key differences between the two:
Manures:
1. Manures are organic materials derived from plant or animal sources, such as compost,
animal dung, crop residues, and green manure.
2. They are usually bulky and have a low nutrient concentration.

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3. Manures are slowly released into the soil, providing a slow and steady supply of
nutrients to plants over time.
4. They improve soil fertility by adding organic matter, improving soil structure, and
enhancing microbial activity.
5. Examples of manures include cow dung, poultry manure, vermicompost, and bone meal.
Fertilizers:
1. Fertilizers are synthetic or inorganic substances that are manufactured to provide
specific nutrients to plants, typically in concentrated form.
2. They have a high nutrient concentration and are available in various formulations, such
as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), as well as micronutrients like iron,
zinc, and manganese.
3. Fertilizers are quickly released into the soil, providing a rapid and concentrated supply of
nutrients to plants.
4. They are formulated to meet specific nutrient requirements of plants, allowing for
precise control over nutrient availability.
5. Examples of fertilizers include urea, ammonium nitrate, superphosphate, and potassium
chloride.
In summary, manures are organic materials that improve soil fertility and provide slow-release
nutrients, while fertilizers are synthetic substances that provide concentrated and rapid-release
nutrients to meet specific plant nutrient requirements. Both manures and fertilizers have their
advantages and can be used in combination to optimize plant nutrition and soil fertility. It is
important to follow recommended application rates and guidelines to avoid overuse or misuse of
these inputs, and to consider factors such as soil type, crop requirements, and environmental
impact when choosing between manures and fertilizers.

8.5 Farm mechanization


15. What is farm mechanization? What are the types of farm mechanization?
Farm mechanization refers to the use of machines and equipment to perform various farming
operations, such as planting, harvesting, plowing, and tilling. Farm mechanization is intended to
make farming more efficient and productive, by reducing the amount of manual labor required
and increasing the speed and accuracy of farming operations.
There are several types of farm mechanization, including:
1. Tractors: Tractors are versatile machines that are used for a wide range of farming
operations, such as plowing, tilling, planting, and harvesting. Tractors come in various
sizes and types, from small garden tractors to large industrial machines.
2. Harvesters: Harvesters are machines that are used to harvest crops, such as wheat, corn,
and soybeans. There are different types of harvesters, such as combine harvesters, which
combine the functions of cutting, threshing, and cleaning the grain in one machine.
3. Planters and seeders: Planters and seeders are machines that are used to plant crops,
such as corn, soybeans, and wheat. These machines can plant seeds at a precise depth
and spacing, which can improve crop yields and reduce waste.
4. Tillage equipment: Tillage equipment is used to prepare the soil for planting by
breaking up clumps and creating a smooth, level surface. There are various types of
tillage equipment, such as plows, harrows, and cultivators.

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5. Irrigation equipment: Irrigation equipment is used to deliver water to crops, either
through sprinklers, drip systems, or other methods. Irrigation equipment can be
automated to provide water at the right time and in the right amounts, which can
improve crop yields and reduce water waste.
6. Livestock equipment: Livestock equipment includes machines and tools used for
raising and caring for livestock, such as milking machines, feeding equipment, and animal
handling equipment.
Overall, farm mechanization plays an important role in modern agriculture, by improving
efficiency, productivity, and profitability, while reducing the amount of manual labor required.
However, the use of farm mechanization should be balanced with other considerations, such as
environmental sustainability, social responsibility, and the well-being of farm workers and
communities.

16. What are the benefits of farm mechanization?


There are several benefits of farm mechanization, including:
1. Increased productivity: Farm mechanization can increase the productivity of farming
operations by reducing the amount of manual labor required and increasing the speed
and accuracy of tasks. This can lead to higher crop yields and reduced labor costs.
2. Improved efficiency: Farm mechanization can make farming operations more efficient
by enabling farmers to complete tasks more quickly and with greater accuracy. This can
result in savings in time, fuel, and other resources.
3. Reduced labor requirements: Farm mechanization can reduce the amount of manual
labor required for farming operations, which can be especially beneficial in areas where
labor is scarce or expensive.
4. Increased accuracy and precision: Farm mechanization can improve the accuracy and
precision of farming operations, such as planting, fertilizing, and harvesting, which can
result in higher crop yields and reduced waste.
5. Improved safety: Farm mechanization can improve the safety of farming operations by
reducing the risk of injury or death from manual labor, such as heavy lifting, working
with sharp tools, or exposure to harmful chemicals.
6. Cost savings: Farm mechanization can result in cost savings for farmers by reducing
labor costs, increasing yields, and reducing waste.
7. Consistency and quality: Farm mechanization can provide consistency and quality in
farming operations, which can result in higher quality crops and products, and
ultimately, better prices in the marketplace.
Overall, farm mechanization can be an important tool for farmers to increase productivity,
efficiency, and profitability, while also reducing labor requirements and improving safety and
quality. However, the use of farm mechanization should be balanced with other considerations,
such as environmental sustainability, social responsibility, and the well-being of farm workers
and communities.

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8.6 Safe Drinking Water – Defluoridation
17. Bring out various issues involved in the supply of drinking water in India. Add a note
on drinking water quality standards.
The supply of drinking water in India faces several challenges, which have implications for public
health and the economy. Here are some of the key issues involved:
1. Availability of water: The availability of clean drinking water is a major challenge in
many parts of India, particularly in rural areas. Many regions in the country suffer from
water scarcity, while others face contamination of groundwater and surface water
sources.
2. Infrastructure: The infrastructure for delivering drinking water, including pipes, pumps,
and treatment plants, is often inadequate, particularly in rural areas. This can lead to the
loss of water due to leakages, and can also result in the delivery of water that is
contaminated.
3. Quality of water: The quality of drinking water in India is often poor, with high levels of
contaminants such as arsenic, fluoride, and nitrate. This can lead to a range of health
problems, including skin diseases, dental problems, and cancer.
4. Climate change: Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on the
availability and quality of drinking water in India, particularly in regions that are already
vulnerable to water scarcity and contamination.
5. Governance: The governance of the water sector in India is complex, with multiple
agencies and stakeholders involved in managing water resources. This can lead to
conflicts over water use and a lack of coordination in managing water resources.
Drinking water quality standards in India are set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). The
BIS has established standards for various parameters such as pH, total dissolved solids, and the
levels of various contaminants. The standards are designed to protect public health and ensure
that drinking water is safe to consume. However, the enforcement of these standards can be
challenging, particularly in rural areas where monitoring and testing may be limited.

18. Explain the methods of de-flouridation of water.


Fluoride is a naturally occurring element that is found in water, soil, and rocks. While fluoride is
beneficial in small quantities for dental health, excessive consumption of fluoride can lead to a
condition known as fluorosis, which can cause dental and skeletal problems. Therefore, de-
fluoridation of water is necessary in areas where the natural fluoride content is high. There are
several methods of de-fluoridation of water, including:
1. Reverse osmosis: Reverse osmosis is a process of water filtration that removes
impurities, including fluoride, from water by using pressure to force water through a
semipermeable membrane. This method can remove up to 95% of the fluoride from
water.
2. Activated alumina defluoridation: Activated alumina is a highly porous material that
can adsorb fluoride from water. The water is passed through a column filled with
activated alumina, which adsorbs the fluoride ions. This method can remove up to 95%
of the fluoride from water.
3. Distillation: Distillation is a process of water purification that involves heating water to
produce steam, which is then condensed back into water. This process removes

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impurities, including fluoride, from the water. This method can remove up to 80% of the
fluoride from water.
4. Adsorption by bone char: Bone char is a material made from animal bones that can be
used to adsorb fluoride from water. The water is passed through a column filled with
bone char, which adsorbs the fluoride ions. This method can remove up to 90% of the
fluoride from water.
5. Ion exchange: Ion exchange is a process in which ions in the water are exchanged for
other ions on the surface of a resin. This process can be used to remove fluoride ions
from water. This method can remove up to 90% of the fluoride from water.
Overall, de-fluoridation of water is an important process to ensure that drinking water is safe
and healthy. The choice of method for de-fluoridation depends on the local conditions, such as
the concentration of fluoride in the water, the availability of materials and equipment, and the
cost and effectiveness of the method.

19. Explain the Nalgonda de-fluoridation technique.


The Nalgonda technique is a low-cost, community-based de-fluoridation method that was
developed in the 1980s in response to the high levels of fluoride in groundwater in the Nalgonda
district of the then Andhra Pradesh, India. The method involves the use of locally available
materials, including brick powder, burnt clay, and a wooden sieve, to remove fluoride from
water.
The Nalgonda technique works on the principle of adsorption, in which fluoride ions are
adsorbed onto the surface of the brick powder and burnt clay. The materials are mixed in a ratio
of 3:1 and ground to a fine powder. The powder is then packed into a cylindrical vessel, which is
fitted with a wooden sieve at the bottom to prevent the powder from flowing out.
To use the Nalgonda technique, water is poured into the cylindrical vessel, and the water is
allowed to flow through the powdered mixture. As the water flows through the mixture, the
fluoride ions are adsorbed onto the surface of the powder, reducing the fluoride concentration in
the water. The treated water is then collected in a separate container.
The effectiveness of the Nalgonda technique depends on the concentration of fluoride in the
water, the amount of powdered mixture used, and the flow rate of the water. Typically, the
Nalgonda technique can reduce the fluoride concentration in water from 5-6 mg/L to less than 1
mg/L.
The Nalgonda technique is a simple, low-cost, and effective method of de-fluoridation that can be
easily implemented in rural communities where access to more sophisticated de-fluoridation
methods may be limited. However, the method requires regular maintenance to ensure the
effective removal of fluoride, and the treated water may need to be further treated to remove
other impurities.

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Chapter 9:Microbial Infections
Syllabus: Microbial infections; Introduction to bacterial, viral, protozoal and fungal infections.
Basic knowledge of infections caused by different groups of micro-organisms- diarrhoea, dysentery,
cholera, tuberculosis, malaria, viral infections like HIV, encephalitis, chikungunya, bird flu-
preventive measures during out breaks.
Note: This chapter has a daunting number of questions that need to be covered to cover the
syllabus comprehensively. In order to make it easy for the aspirants – the Previous Year Questions
of multiple state PSCs were referred to and diseases that are unlikely to appear in exam are not
discussed. Tabular format is also given for quick reference and revision.
9.1 Microbial Infectious Agents at a Glance
Aspect Virus Bacteria Protozoa Fungi
Type Genetic Single-celled Single-celled Eukaryotic
material prokaryotes eukaryotes organisms
enclosed (cells without a (cells with a
nucleus) nucleus)
Reproduction Replicates Binary fission, Binary fission, Spores, budding,
inside host cells conjugation sexual sexual reproduction
reproduction
Size Smallest Small to larger Variable Variable
20-300 0.5-5 5 to 100 unicellular yeasts
nanometers in micrometers in micrometers; are around 3 to 4
diameter diameter some can micrometers in
grow upto a diameter;
few multicellular fungi
millimeters can be several cms
or even meters in
length
Cell Structure No cell wall, Cell wall Cell Cell wall (chitin)
capsid (protein (peptidoglycan) membrane,
coat that nucleus,
surrounds the organelles
genetic
material)
Pathogenicity Can cause wide Can cause wide Can cause Can cause infections,
range of range of diseases parasitic allergies
diseases diseases
Examples of Influenza, HIV, Tuberculosis, Malaria, Candidiasis,
Diseases COVID-19, Cholera amoebic ringworm, Balck
Chikungunya dysentery fungus
Treatment Antiviral Antibiotics Antiprotozoal Antifungal
medications medications medications, topical
creams
Prevention Vaccination, Vaccination, Hygiene, Hygiene, avoiding
infection hygiene, infection avoiding contact with spores
control control measures contaminated

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measures water

9.2 Some Common Infectious Diseases


Disease Pathogenesis Symptoms Treatment Prevention
Diarrhea Viral, bacterial, or Frequent watery Rehydration, Safe food handling,
parasitic infection stools,Abdominal anti-diarrheal hand hygiene
cramps drugs
Dysentery Bacterial infection Bloody diarrhea, Antibiotics, Safe food handling,
(e.g. Shigella) abdominal pain rehydration hand hygiene
Cholera Bacterial infection Profuse watery Rehydration, Safe water and
(Vibrio cholerae) diarrhea, antibiotics food, sanitation
dehydration (severe)
Tuberculosis Bacterial infection Persistent cough, Antibiotics Vaccination,
(Mycobacterium weight loss, (multi-drug infection control
tuberculosis) fatigue therapy) measures
Malaria Parasitic Fever, chills, Antimalarial Insecticide-treated
(Protozoa) headache, fatigue drugs bed nets, mosquito
infection control
(Plasmodium spp.)
HIV/AIDS Viral infection Weak immune Antiretroviral Safe sex, needle
(Human system, therapy exchange
immunodeficiency opportunistic (ART) programs, HIV
virus) infections testing
Viral Viral infection (e.g. Fever, headache, Supportive Mosquito control,
Encephalitis Herpes simplex, neck stiffness, care, antiviral avoiding exposure
West Nile) neurological drugs (if to infected animals
symptoms applicable)
Chikungunya Viral infection Fever, joint pain, Symptomatic Mosquito control,
(Chikungunya rash treatment, avoiding exposure
virus) pain relief to infected
mosquitoes
Bird Flu Viral infection Fever, cough, Antiviral Proper handling of
(Avian influenza respiratory drugs (if poultry, avoiding
virus) symptoms applicable) exposure to
infected birds
Candidiasis Fungus (Candida Oral thrush, Antifungal Good hygiene (e.g.
species) genital/vaginal medications keeping skin dry
yeast infection (e.g. and clean),
fluconazole) avoiding
unnecessary use of
antibiotics,
wearing loose-
fitting clothing

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1. Differentiate between endemic, epidemic and pandemic diseases.
Endemic, epidemic, and pandemic are terms used to describe the spread and prevalence of
diseases.
1. Endemic: A disease is considered endemic when it is regularly found and maintained at a
stable level within a particular geographic area or population. This means that the
disease is constantly present in that area or population, with a consistent number of
cases over time. Examples of endemic diseases include malaria in many parts of sub-
Saharan Africa and Chagas disease in Latin America.
2. Epidemic: An epidemic occurs when there is a sudden increase in the number of cases of
a disease in a particular area or population. This increase is often higher than what is
normally expected for that area or population, and it may be caused by a new strain of a
disease or a change in environmental conditions. Examples of epidemic diseases include
the 1918 influenza pandemic, which killed millions of people worldwide, and the recent
outbreaks of Ebola virus in West Africa.
3. Pandemic: A pandemic is an epidemic that has spread across multiple countries or
continents and has affected a large number of people. A pandemic can occur when a new
strain of a disease emerges and people have little or no immunity to it. The COVID-19
pandemic is a current example of a pandemic disease that has affected millions of people
around the world.
In summary, endemic diseases are always present in a specific area or population, while
epidemic diseases refer to sudden increases in the number of cases in a specific area or
population. Pandemic diseases are epidemic diseases that have spread to multiple countries or
continents and have affected a large number of people.

9.3 Viral Infections


2. What is a virus? Compare and contrast virus with bacteria briefly.
A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates inside living cells of organisms. It consists of
genetic material (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Viruses
cannot replicate on their own and require a host cell to reproduce.
Bacteria, on the other hand, are unicellular microorganisms that can exist as independent
organisms. They have a variety of shapes, including spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral, and can
live in a wide range of environments. Bacteria have their own genetic material (DNA) and can
reproduce through cell division.
While both viruses and bacteria can cause diseases, there are some key differences between the
two. Bacteria are usually larger than viruses and can be treated with antibiotics. Viruses, on the
other hand, are much smaller and cannot be treated with antibiotics. Additionally, bacteria can
live outside of a host organism, while viruses require a host cell to survive and reproduce. Unlike
bacteria, viruses are not considered to be living organisms as they are incapable of independent
reproduction and metabolic activities.

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3. Write briefly about some common viral infections and their symptoms.
Viral infections are caused by viruses, which are small infectious agents that can only reproduce
within living cells of organisms. Viruses can infect humans, animals, plants, and even bacteria.
Some of the common viral infections that affect humans include:
1. Influenza (flu): This is a viral infection that affects the respiratory system, and can cause
symptoms such as fever, cough, and body aches.
2. Common cold: This is a viral infection that affects the upper respiratory system, and can
cause symptoms such as runny nose, sore throat, and cough.
3. Measles: This is a viral infection that can cause a rash, fever, and cough.
4. Chickenpox: This is a viral infection that causes a rash and fever, and is most common in
children.
5. HIV/AIDS: This is a viral infection that attacks the immune system, and can lead to
serious health complications if left untreated.
Treatment for viral infections depends on the type and severity of the infection, and may involve
medications to manage symptoms, rest, and hydration. In some cases, antiviral medications may
be prescribed to help fight the virus. In many cases, however, viral infections are self-limited and
will resolve on their own with time and supportive care. Vaccines are also available for many
viral infections, which can help prevent infection and reduce the risk of complications.

4. What is HIV Infection? Discuss its symptoms, treatment, and prevention.


HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks and weakens the immune system,
which can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). HIV is primarily transmitted
through unprotected sexual contact, sharing of needles and syringes, and from mother to child
during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
HIV attacks the body's immune system by targeting and destroying CD4 cells, a type of white
blood cell that helps fight off infection. As the immune system weakens, the body becomes more
vulnerable to other infections and diseases.

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Symptoms of HIV can vary, but in the early stages of infection, some people may experience flu-
like symptoms such as fever, headache, and rash. However, many people with HIV may not
experience any symptoms for years, and can unknowingly transmit the virus to others.
There is no cure for HIV, but antiretroviral therapy (ART) can effectively suppress the virus and
prevent the progression of HIV to AIDS. ART involves taking a combination of medications every
day, which can reduce the amount of virus in the blood and improve immune system function.
Prevention measures for HIV include practicing safe sex by using condoms, not sharing needles
or syringes, and getting tested regularly for HIV. HIV testing is widely available, and early
diagnosis and treatment can help prevent the spread of the virus and improve health outcomes
for people living with HIV.

5. Discuss the spread and threat of HIV/AIDS in India.


HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)/AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is a
significant public health concern in India, with an estimated 2.1 million people living with HIV in
the country in 2019. India has the third-largest HIV epidemic in the world, after South Africa and
Nigeria.
HIV in India is primarily transmitted through unprotected sexual contact, as well as through
sharing of needles and syringes among people who inject drugs. HIV also affects some key
populations more than others, including men who have sex with men, transgender individuals,
female sex workers, and people who inject drugs.
The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to address the HIV epidemic in the
country, such as the National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) and the National Strategic Plan
for HIV/AIDS and STIs. These initiatives aim to increase access to HIV testing and treatment,
prevent new infections, and reduce stigma and discrimination towards people living with HIV.
Treatment for HIV in India is available through antiretroviral therapy (ART), which involves
taking a combination of medications every day to suppress the virus and improve immune
system function. ART is available free of charge through the Indian government's ART centers.
Prevention measures for HIV in India include promoting safe sex practices through the use of
condoms, increasing access to harm reduction services for people who inject drugs, and
promoting awareness and education about HIV and its transmission. Continued efforts to
address HIV in India are needed to reduce the burden of the epidemic and improve health
outcomes for people living with HIV.

6. What is COVID 19 and how does it spread?


COVID-19, also known as coronavirus disease 2019, is an infectious disease caused by the severe
acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2). It was first identified in December 2019
in Wuhan, China, and has since spread globally, leading to a pandemic.
COVID-19 is primarily spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person talks,
coughs, or sneezes. These droplets can land in the mouth or nose of someone nearby or be
inhaled into the lungs. It can also be spread by touching a surface contaminated with the virus
and then touching the mouth, nose, or eyes.
The symptoms of COVID-19 vary from mild to severe and can appear between 2 to 14 days after
exposure to the virus. Common symptoms include fever, cough, fatigue, body aches, and loss of
taste or smell. In severe cases, it can lead to pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome,
and death, especially in older adults and those with underlying health conditions.

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To prevent the spread of COVID-19, it is recommended to wear masks in public, practice social
distancing, frequently wash hands with soap and water, and avoid large gatherings or crowded
places. Vaccines are also available and have been shown to be highly effective in preventing
severe illness, hospitalization, and death from COVID-19.

7. What are immuno-diagnostic tests?


Immuno-diagnostic tests are laboratory tests that use the body's immune response to detect the
presence of a particular pathogenor other foreign substance in a patient's sample, such as blood,
urine, or saliva. These tests work by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in the sample that
are produced in response to the pathogen.
Immuno-diagnostic tests are used for a variety of purposes, including diagnosing infectious
diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating immune status. These tests are
important tools in the diagnosis and management of many diseases, including HIV, hepatitis, and
COVID-19.

8. How are immuno-diagnostic methods used in context of the Covid 19 pandemic?


Immuno-diagnostic methods have been crucial in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic,
especially for identifying infected individuals and tracking the spread of the virus.
The three most commonly used immuno-diagnostic methods for COVID-19 are:
1. Rapid antigen tests: Rapid antigen tests are immuno-diagnostic tests that detect the
presence of viral proteins in a sample taken from the patient. These tests are relatively
quick and inexpensive, and can be done at the point of care. However, they are less
sensitive than other diagnostic tests, and false negatives can occur.
2. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) tests: RT-PCR tests are
molecular diagnostic tests that detect the genetic material of the virus in a sample taken
from the patient. These tests are highly sensitive and specific, but they require specialized
equipment and trained personnel, and the turnaround time for results can be longer.
3. Rapid antibody Tests: This test is conducted on the small blood sample of the patient
collected typically through a prick to the finger. It detects the presence of IgG & IgM
antibodies that the immune system develops to fight the virus. Since the antibodies
persist for weeks after the infection and even when the patient has recovered fully –
these tests are mainly used for surveillance purposes rather than diagnostic purpose.
Immuno-diagnostic methods have been used in various ways during the COVID-19 pandemic,
including:
1. Screening: Rapid antigen tests have been used for mass screening in schools,
workplaces, and other settings to quickly identify infected individuals and prevent
further spread of the virus.
2. Diagnosis: RT-PCR tests are the gold standard for diagnosing COVID-19, and are used to
confirm cases in individuals with symptoms or suspected exposure.
3. Contact tracing: Immuno-diagnostic methods have been used in contact tracing efforts
to identify individuals who may have been exposed to the virus and should be tested.
4. Surveillance: Immuno-diagnostic methods have been used in surveillance efforts to
track the spread of the virus and identify hotspots of infection.

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Overall, immuno-diagnostic methods have played a crucial role in the global response to the
COVID-19 pandemic, enabling rapid identification and tracking of infected individuals and
contributing to efforts to control the spread of the virus.

9. Discuss the pathogenesis of COVID-19.


The pathogenesis of COVID-19, the disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, involves several
steps:
1. Entry of the virus: The virus enters the body through the respiratory tract, primarily
through inhalation of droplets containing the virus. The virus can also enter through
contact with contaminated surfaces and subsequent touching of the face.
2. Attachment to host cells: The virus attaches to cells in the respiratory tract using a
spike protein on its surface that binds to a receptor on the host cells.
3. Invasion of host cells: Once attached, the virus enters the host cells and begins to
replicate.
4. Immune response: The body's immune system responds to the virus, triggering an
inflammatory response that can lead to damage of lung tissue and other organs.
5. Clinical symptoms: The most common symptoms of COVID-19 include fever, cough,
fatigue, and difficulty breathing. Some patients may also experience loss of taste or smell,
muscle aches, and gastrointestinal symptoms.
6. Disease progression: In some patients, the disease can progress to severe pneumonia,
acute respiratory distress syndrome, and multi-organ failure. Older adults and people
with underlying medical conditions are at higher risk of severe disease.

10. Write briefly about Encephalitis disease including symptoms, treatment, and
prevention.
Encephalitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the brain, which can cause
neurological symptoms such as headache, fever, confusion, seizures, and in severe cases, coma
and death. Encephalitis can be caused by a variety of factors, including viral, bacterial, fungal, or
parasitic infections, as well as autoimmune disorders, drug reactions, or toxins.
Viral encephalitis is the most common cause of encephalitis worldwide, and is often transmitted
through the bites of infected mosquitoes or ticks. Common viruses that can cause encephalitis
include herpes simplex virus, West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and tick-borne
encephalitis virus.
Treatment for encephalitis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In
cases of viral encephalitis, antiviral medications may be used to treat the infection. Supportive
care such as fluids, oxygen, and medications to manage symptoms may also be given.
Prevention measures for encephalitis include practicing good hygiene, avoiding contact with
infected animals or insect vectors, and getting vaccinated against viral causes of encephalitis
when available.

11. Write about the prevalence of Encephalitis in India.


Encephalitis is a significant public health concern in India, particularly in the northern and
eastern regions of the country. There are several types of encephalitis that occur in India,

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including Japanese encephalitis, acute encephalitis syndrome (AES), and Nipah virus
encephalitis.
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne viral infection that is endemic in many parts of
India, particularly in rural areas. Outbreaks of Japanese encephalitis often occur during the
monsoon season, and can cause severe neurological symptoms and death.
Acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) is a syndrome that is characterized by inflammation of the
brain and a sudden onset of fever and neurological symptoms. AES can be caused by a variety of
factors, including viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections, and can lead to severe illness and death.
Outbreaks of AES have been reported in several states in India, including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
and Assam.
Nipah virus encephalitis is a rare but deadly viral infection that is transmitted to humans from
fruit bats. Nipah virus encephalitis outbreaks have occurred in several states in India, including
Kerala, and can cause severe respiratory and neurological symptoms.
Prevention measures for encephalitis in India include avoiding mosquito bites through the use of
insect repellent and protective clothing, and getting vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis
when available. Improved sanitation and hygiene practices can also help prevent the spread of
encephalitis.

12. What is the cause of Chikungunya? What are its symptoms, treatment and preventive
measures?
Chikungunya is a viral disease that is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes, primarily
the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus species. The virus belongs to the Alphavirus genus of the
family Togaviridae.
The symptoms of Chikungunya typically include fever, severe joint pain, headache, muscle pain,
joint swelling, and rash. In some cases, individuals may experience long-term joint pain and
inflammation, which can persist for months or even years after the initial infection.
Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for Chikungunya. Treatment usually involves
the use of pain relievers, fever reducers, and anti-inflammatory medications to help manage the
symptoms. Bed rest and increased fluid intake are also recommended to help alleviate the
symptoms.
Preventive measures for Chikungunya include avoiding mosquito bites by wearing long-sleeved
clothing and using insect repellent, especially during the daytime when the Aedes mosquitoes
are most active. Eliminating mosquito breeding sites, such as standing water, around homes and
communities is also important in reducing the spread of the disease.
Vaccines for Chikungunya are currently under development, but none have been approved for
general use yet. Therefore, prevention measures and early detection of the disease are the most
effective strategies for controlling the spread of Chikungunya.

13. Write briefly about Dengue.


Dengue is a viral disease that is transmitted to humans by infected Aedes mosquitoes, primarily
Aedes aegypti. The virus belongs to the Flavivirus genus of the family Flaviviridae.
The symptoms of dengue typically include fever, severe headache, muscle and joint pain, rash,
and mild bleeding from the nose or gums. In some cases, individuals may experience severe
dengue, which can cause life-threatening complications such as severe bleeding, organ failure,
and shock.

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Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for dengue. Treatment usually involves the use
of pain relievers, fever reducers, and fluids to help manage the symptoms. However, early
detection and proper medical care can significantly reduce the risk of severe complications and
mortality.
Preventive measures for dengue include avoiding mosquito bites by wearing long-sleeved
clothing and using insect repellent, especially during the daytime when the Aedes mosquitoes
are most active. Eliminating mosquito breeding sites, such as standing water, around homes and
communities is also important in reducing the spread of the disease.
Vaccines for dengue are available, but their effectiveness varies depending on the individual's
age and previous exposure to the virus. Therefore, prevention measures and early detection of
the disease remain the most effective strategies for controlling the spread of dengue.

14. Discuss the frequent spread of dengue fevers in Telangana and India.
Dengue fever is a significant public health concern in Telangana and India due to its frequent
outbreaks and high morbidity rates. The primary reason for the frequent spread of dengue in
Telangana and India is the presence of the Aedes mosquitoes that transmit the virus. These
mosquitoes breed in stagnant water and can be found in both rural and urban areas.
Factors such as rapid urbanization, inadequate sanitation, and lack of effective mosquito control
measures have contributed to the increase in the incidence of dengue in Telangana and India.
The disease is more prevalent during the monsoon season when the mosquito population is at its
highest.
Dengue fever is a notifiable disease in India, and the government has taken several measures to
control its spread, including the implementation of mosquito control programs, public
awareness campaigns, and the provision of diagnostic and treatment facilities. However, these
efforts have been limited by inadequate resources, infrastructure, and manpower.
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has further complicated the situation as resources and attention
have been diverted towards controlling the spread of the coronavirus, resulting in limited
resources for dengue control efforts.
In summary, dengue fever remains a significant public health concern in Telangana and India,
and concerted efforts are needed to control its spread. This requires a multifaceted approach
that includes improving sanitation, implementing effective mosquito control measures, and
increasing public awareness of the disease.

15. Write about the influenza viral disease. Discuss its types, pathogenesis, symptoms,
treatment, and preventive measures.
Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is a viral respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses.
The disease is highly contagious and can spread rapidly from person to person. Influenza viruses
can cause mild to severe illness, and in severe cases, it can be fatal.
Types: There are three types of influenza viruses: A, B, and C. Influenza A viruses are known to
cause pandemics and epidemics and have a high mutation rate, leading to the emergence of new
strains. Influenza B viruses cause seasonal epidemics and are less likely to cause pandemics.
Influenza C viruses usually cause mild respiratory illness and do not cause epidemics.
Pathogenesis: Influenza viruses enter the body through the respiratory tract, specifically the
nose, mouth, or throat, and then infect the respiratory epithelial cells. The virus replicates in the
host cells and then spreads to adjacent cells, causing inflammation and damage to the

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respiratory tract. The immune response to the virus can also cause damage to the respiratory
epithelium.
Symptoms: The symptoms of influenza include fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, headache,
chills, and fatigue. In some cases, it can also cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The symptoms
usually appear 1-4 days after exposure to the virus and can last for several days to a few weeks.
Treatment: Antiviral drugs like oseltamivir and zanamivir are effective in treating influenza if
given within 48 hours of symptom onset. These drugs can reduce the duration and severity of
symptoms and prevent complications. Other treatments include rest, hydration, and fever-
reducing medications like acetaminophen and ibuprofen.
Preventive measures: The best way to prevent influenza is by getting an annual flu vaccine. The
vaccine contains inactivated or weakened influenza viruses and can protect against the strains
that are expected to circulate during the flu season. Other preventive measures include washing
hands frequently, covering mouth and nose while coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close
contact with sick people.
In conclusion, influenza is a highly contagious viral respiratory illness that can cause mild to
severe symptoms. There are three types of influenza viruses, and the best way to prevent the
disease is by getting an annual flu vaccine and practicing good hygiene habits. If you do get
infected, antiviral drugs can be effective in treating the illness if given within the first 48 hours of
symptom onset.

The HN nomenclature of influenza viral diseases refers to the two surface glycoproteins of the
virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). These glycoproteins are important for virus
entry and exit from host cells and are targets of the host immune response.
There are 18 subtypes of H and 11 subtypes of N, resulting in different strains of influenza viruses
such as H1N1 (spread in 2009; called Swine flue) and H3N2 (recently spread in India in 2023).
The nomenclature is used to classify and track circulation of different strains, and knowing the
subtype is crucial for developing vaccines, antivirals, and predicting pandemics.

16. What causes Bird flu disease? Elaborate on its types and treatment.
Bird flu, also known as avian influenza, is a viral disease that primarily affects birds. The virus is
highly contagious and can spread quickly among birds, leading to severe outbreaks in poultry
farms and bird populations. In rare cases, the virus can also infect humans, leading to serious
illness and death.
The bird flu virus is classified into two types: low pathogenic and high pathogenic. Low
pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) is a milder form of the disease, while high pathogenic avian
influenza (HPAI) is more severe and can cause significant illness and death in both birds and
humans.
Bird flu outbreaks have occurred in several countries around the world, including India. The first
reported case of bird flu in India was in 2006, and since then, several outbreaks have occurred in
different states, leading to the culling of millions of birds. In India, the most common subtype of
bird flu virus is H5N1.
Humans can contract bird flu through close contact with infected birds or their droppings, or by
handling contaminated objects. Symptoms of bird flu in humans can range from mild to severe
and include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, and breathing difficulties. There is no

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specific treatment for bird flu in humans, and prevention measures include avoiding contact with
infected birds, practicing good hygiene, and getting vaccinated when available.

17. What is meant by Vector-borne diseases? Discuss with examples some common
vector-borne diseases that afflict India.
Vector-borne diseases are infections that are transmitted to humans by the bite of infected
arthropods, including mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, sandflies, and blackflies. These vectors act as
carriers for the pathogens that cause the diseases, and transmit them to humans during the
feeding process.
In India, several vector-borne diseases are prevalent, and they pose a significant public health
challenge. Some common vector-borne diseases that afflict India include:
1. Malaria: Malaria is a parasitic disease transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito. It is
prevalent in several parts of India, especially in areas with poor sanitation and limited
access to healthcare.
2. Dengue fever: Dengue fever is caused by the dengue virus, which is transmitted by the
Aedes mosquito. It is endemic in several parts of India, and outbreaks occur frequently,
especially during the monsoon season.
3. Chikungunya: Chikungunya is a viral disease transmitted by the Aedes mosquito. It is
characterized by fever, joint pain, and rash, and is prevalent in several parts of India.
4. Japanese encephalitis: Japanese encephalitis is a viral disease transmitted by the Culex
mosquito. It is prevalent in several parts of India, especially in rural areas, and can cause
severe neurological complications.
5. Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease transmitted by the sandfly. It is
prevalent in several parts of India, especially in areas with poor sanitation and limited
access to healthcare.
To control the spread of vector-borne diseases in India, it is essential to implement effective
vector control measures, including the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual
spraying, and environmental management. Additionally, increasing public awareness of the
diseases and their prevention is crucial to reducing their incidence and impact.

18. Why is Mosquito called the most dangerous species? Discuss briefly with reference to
various diseases it causes.
Mosquitoes are considered one of the most dangerous species on the planet due to their ability
to transmit a range of infectious diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, Zika
virus, and chikungunya, among others. Mosquitoes are responsible for millions of deaths
worldwide, making them a significant public health threat.
Malaria is one of the most deadly diseases spread by mosquitoes, accounting for over 400,000
deaths each year. Mosquitoes transmit the malaria parasite from person to person through their
bite, causing flu-like symptoms, fever, and chills, which can progress to severe anemia and organ
failure.
Dengue fever is another disease transmitted by mosquitoes and is a leading cause of illness and
death in tropical and subtropical regions. It causes flu-like symptoms, including high fever,
severe headache, and joint pain, and can progress to severe bleeding, shock, and even death.

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Yellow fever is a viral disease spread by mosquitoes and can cause fever, headache, and muscle
pain, progressing to jaundice, bleeding, and organ failure. Yellow fever can be prevented by
vaccination.
Zika virus is a mosquito-borne disease that can cause birth defects in babies born to infected
mothers, including microcephaly, a condition where the baby's head is smaller than expected,
leading to developmental problems.
Chikungunya is a viral disease spread by mosquitoes and causes fever, joint pain, and rash. While
it is usually not fatal, it can cause chronic joint pain and disability.
In addition to these diseases, mosquitoes can also transmit other illnesses such as Japanese
encephalitis (JE), West Nile virus, and Rift Valley fever, among others.
Mosquitoes are considered the most dangerous species due to their ability to transmit so many
different diseases and their widespread distribution in many parts of the world. Preventive
measures such as using insecticide-treated bed nets, wearing protective clothing, and using
insect repellent are crucial in reducing the risk of mosquito-borne diseases. Additionally,
mosquito control measures such as reducing standing water where mosquitoes breed, using
insecticides, and biological control methods can also help to reduce the mosquito population and
the spread of diseases.

9.4 Bacterial Infections


19. Write briefly about some common bacterial infections and their symptoms.
Bacterial infections are caused by pathogenic bacteria that invade the body and multiply, causing
a wide range of symptoms. Some common bacterial infections and their symptoms include:
1. Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis and
can affect the lungs, as well as other parts of the body. Symptoms include coughing, chest
pain, fatigue, fever, and weight loss.
2. Pneumonia: Pneumonia is a bacterial infection that affects the lungs and can cause
coughing, fever, shortness of breath, chest pain, and fatigue.
3. Cholera is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It is typically
spread through contaminated water or food and can cause severe watery diarrhea,
vomiting, and dehydration. Other symptoms of cholera include muscle cramps, rapid
heartbeat, and low blood pressure. Treatment for cholera typically involves rehydration
therapy and antibiotics.
4. Streptococcal pharyngitis: This is a bacterial infection that affects the throat and
tonsils. It is caused by group A Streptococcus bacteria and can cause sore throat, fever,
swollen lymph nodes, and difficulty swallowing.
5. Urinary tract infection (UTI): UTIs are caused by bacteria that infect the urinary tract,
including the bladder, kidneys, and urethra. Symptoms include pain or burning during
urination, frequent urination, cloudy or bloody urine, and lower abdominal pain.
6. Salmonella infection: Salmonella bacteria can cause food poisoning, leading to
symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, and vomiting.
Treatment for bacterial infections typically involves antibiotics, which can kill the bacteria
causing the infection. However, the choice of antibiotics depends on the type of bacteria causing
the infection, and treatment may need to be adjusted based on the individual's response. It is
important to seek medical attention promptly if symptoms of a bacterial infection develop to
prevent the infection from becoming more severe.

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20. Write about Cholera disease including its symptoms, treatment, and prevention.
Cholera is an acute diarrheal disease caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae. It is primarily spread
through contaminated water or food, and is most common in areas with poor sanitation and
inadequate access to clean water.
The symptoms of cholera typically develop within a few hours to several days of infection, and
may include severe diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration. In severe cases, cholera can lead to rapid
dehydration and electrolyte imbalances, which can be life-threatening if left untreated.
Cholera outbreaks can occur in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene practices, particularly in
regions with overcrowding, limited access to clean water, and inadequate sewage systems. The
disease is most common in developing countries, particularly in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Treatment for cholera typically involves rehydration therapy, which involves replacing fluids
and electrolytes lost through diarrhea and vomiting. Antibiotics may also be prescribed to
reduce the severity and duration of symptoms, although they are not a substitute for rehydration
therapy.
Prompt treatment of cholera is essential to prevent complications and improve outcomes. If left
untreated, severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalances can lead to shock, kidney failure, and
death.
Prevention of cholera involves improving sanitation and hygiene practices, such as promoting
hand washing and proper food handling and preparation. Vaccines are also available to prevent
cholera, although their effectiveness may vary depending on the strain of the bacteria and the
individual's immune response.

21. Write about the prevalence of Cholera in India.


Cholera has been a significant public health concern in India for many years. The disease is most
common in areas with poor sanitation and limited access to clean water, particularly in rural
regions and urban slums.
India experienced several major cholera outbreaks in the past, including a devastating outbreak
in 2010 that affected thousands of people and resulted in hundreds of deaths. In recent years,
however, the number of reported cholera cases in India has declined significantly.
Despite these improvements, cholera remains a significant public health challenge in India,
particularly in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene practices. Risk factors for cholera in India
include inadequate access to clean water, overcrowding, and poor sewage systems.
Prevention of cholera in India involves promoting improved sanitation and hygiene practices,
increasing access to clean water, and providing education to the public about the importance of
proper food handling and preparation. Vaccines are also available to prevent cholera, although
their effectiveness may vary depending on the strain of the bacteria and the individual's immune
response.
Treatment for cholera in India typically involves rehydration therapy, which involves replacing
fluids and electrolytes lost through diarrhea and vomiting. Antibiotics may also be prescribed to
reduce the severity and duration of symptoms, although they are not a substitute for rehydration
therapy. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are essential to prevent complications and
improve outcomes.

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22. Write a note on Tuberculosis (TB) disease.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
It primarily affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body, such as the kidneys,
spine, and brain.
TB is spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. People who are
exposed to TB can become infected if they inhale the bacteria. However, not everyone who is
infected with TB will develop symptoms. People with latent TB infection do not have any
symptoms and are not contagious, but they may develop active TB disease at a later time if their
immune system becomes weakened.
The symptoms of active TB disease may include cough, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. TB
can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including a chest X-ray, sputum smear microscopy,
and molecular tests.
TB is a major global health concern, particularly in developing countries. Risk factors for TB
include poverty, malnutrition, and weak immune systems, such as those caused by HIV infection.
Treatment for TB involves a combination of antibiotics taken for several months. Treatment is
usually effective in curing TB, although it can be difficult and time-consuming. In some cases,
drug-resistant TB may develop, which can be much more difficult to treat.
Prevention of TB involves improving living conditions, reducing overcrowding, and promoting
better hygiene practices. Vaccines are also available to prevent TB, although their effectiveness
may vary depending on the individual's immune response. Early diagnosis and treatment are
essential to prevent the spread of TB and improve outcomes for people with the disease.

Active and Latent TB


Active TB disease is a condition where the bacteria that cause tuberculosis are actively
multiplying and causing symptoms. People with active TB disease can spread the infection to
others.
Latent TB infection, on the other hand, is a condition where a person has the TB bacteria in their
body but is not showing any symptoms and is not contagious. However, the bacteria can become
active and cause TB disease in the future, especially in people with weakened immune systems.
People with latent TB infection may be prescribed medications to prevent the bacteria from
becoming active and causing disease.

23. Elaborate on the spread of Tuberculosis disease in India.


Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant public health concern in India, with a high burden of both
active and latent (infected but no symp TB cases. India has the highest burden of TB in the world,
accounting for about a quarter of all TB cases globally.
TB in India is primarily spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes, and is
more common in areas with poor living conditions and inadequate access to healthcare. Risk
factors for TB in India include poverty, malnutrition, HIV infection, and diabetes.
The symptoms of TB in India are similar to those in other parts of the world, and may include
cough, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. TB can be diagnosed through a variety of tests,
including a chest X-ray, sputum smear microscopy, and molecular tests.
Treatment for TB in India involves a combination of antibiotics taken for several months. The
Indian government provides free TB treatment through the national TB program, and has

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implemented several initiatives to improve TB diagnosis, treatment, and prevention in the
country.
Despite these efforts, TB remains a significant public health challenge in India, and drug-
resistant TB is also a concern. Prevention of TB in India involves improving living conditions,
reducing overcrowding, and promoting better hygiene practices. Vaccines are also available to
prevent TB, although their effectiveness may vary depending on the individual's immune
response.
Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent the spread of TB and improve outcomes
for people with the disease in India.

24. Discuss the burden of Tuberculosis disease in India. What are the goals of India
government regarding TB elimination?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), India accounts for 28% of all TB cases in the
world, according to the Global TB Report 2022. An estimated 449,000 people died of
tuberculosis (TB) in India in 2019, which is the highest number of TB deaths in any country.
The Government of India has set ambitious goals for TB elimination through the National
Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025. The goals of the plan include:
1. Achieving a 90% reduction in TB incidence and 95% reduction in TB deaths by 2025,
compared to 2015 levels.
2. Ensuring access to quality diagnosis and treatment for all TB patients, including those
with drug-resistant TB.
3. Enhancing TB surveillance and monitoring systems to improve data collection and
analysis.
4. Strengthening research and development efforts to improve TB diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention.
5. Addressing social determinants of TB, such as poverty, malnutrition, and poor living
conditions.
To achieve these goals, the Indian government has implemented several initiatives, such as
expanding the reach of the national TB program, improving TB diagnosis and treatment services,
increasing access to TB drugs and diagnostic tests, and promoting community involvement in TB
prevention and control. The government is also implementing digital technologies to improve TB
management and treatment outcomes.
While progress has been made in reducing TB incidence and mortality in India, there is still a
long way to go to achieve the elimination targets. Continued efforts and investment are required
to accelerate progress towards TB elimination in India.

9.5 Protozoal Infections


25. Describe the most common protozoan diseases, causative agents and preventive
measures.
Protozoan diseases are caused by microscopic single-celled organisms called protozoa. These
diseases can affect various organs and systems in the human body and can range from mild to
severe. Some of the most common protozoan diseases, along with their causative agents and
preventive measures, are:

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1. Malaria: Malaria is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium, which is transmitted
to humans through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. The disease is
prevalent in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Preventive measures
include the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying with insecticides,
antimalarial medications for prevention (such as chloroquine, or mefloquine), and
controlling mosquito breeding sites.
2. Amoebiasis: Amoebiasis, also known as amoebic dysentery, is caused by the protozoan
parasite Entamoeba histolytica. It is usually transmitted through contaminated food or
water. Preventive measures include practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands
thoroughly with soap and water before handling food, avoiding consumption of
untreated water or raw/undercooked food, and maintaining proper sanitation and
hygiene practices.
3. Giardiasis: Giardiasis is caused by the protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia, which is
transmitted through ingestion of contaminated water or food. Preventive measures
include drinking clean and treated water, avoiding consumption of untreated water from
natural sources, practicing good hygiene, and maintaining proper sanitation and food
handling practices.
4. Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease caused by various species of the
protozoan parasite Leishmania. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected
sandflies and can cause a range of clinical manifestations, from cutaneous ulcers to
visceral involvement. Leishmaniasis is endemic in many parts of the world, including
Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the Middle East.
5. Trichomoniasis: Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the
protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. It is transmitted through sexual contact and
can affect both men and women. Trichomoniasis can cause symptoms such as vaginal
discharge, itching, and discomfort, and it is important to seek prompt medical attention
for diagnosis and treatment. Practicing safe sex and maintaining good sexual health
practices can help prevent the spread of Trichomoniasis.
Preventing protozoan diseases often involves good hygiene practices, such as washing hands
frequently with soap and water, consuming safe and treated water, properly cooking food, and
avoiding contact with contaminated water or soil. Additionally, in some cases, the use of
insecticides, insecticide-treated bed nets, and medications for prophylaxis or treatment may also
be recommended. It's important to follow appropriate preventive measures and seek medical
attention if you suspect you may have a protozoan disease.

26. Write a note on the problem of Malaria in India.


Malaria is a significant public health concern in India, particularly in the rural areas of the
country. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), India accounted for about 4% of
the global malaria burden in 2021, with an estimated 5.6 million cases.
Malaria in India is primarily caused by the Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax
parasites, which are transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito. Malaria is more common during the
monsoon season, which lasts from June to September in most parts of India.
The symptoms of malaria in India are similar to those in other parts of the world, and may
include fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, malaria can lead to
organ failure and death. Young children, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune
systems are particularly vulnerable to severe malaria.

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The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to control and eliminate malaria in
the country, such as the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) and the
National Framework for Malaria Elimination.
Efforts to eliminate malaria in India have been successful in some areas, but challenges remain,
particularly in rural areas with limited access to healthcare and insecticide resistance. Continued
investment in malaria control and elimination efforts is needed to reduce the burden of malaria
in India.
Lifecycle of Malaria Parasite
Plasmodium is a parasite that causes malaria, a serious and sometimes deadly disease that
affects humans. The parasite's lifecycle involves both humans and female Anopheles
mosquitoes. When a mosquito bites an infected human, it ingests the parasite's sexual forms.
Inside the mosquito's gut, the parasite transforms and reproduces, eventually producing
thousands of infective sporozoites. When the mosquito bites another human, the sporozoites
are injected and infect liver and blood cells, causing symptoms such as fever and anemia. The
cycle then starts again when a mosquito bites an infected person.

27. Write a note on the preventive measures of malaria.


There are several preventive measures that can be taken to reduce the risk of malaria:
1. Use insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) while sleeping: These nets provide a
physical barrier between humans and mosquitoes and are treated with insecticide to kill
or repel mosquitoes.
2. Wear protective clothing: Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants to cover as much
skin as possible, especially during peak mosquito hours (dusk and dawn).
3. Apply mosquito repellent: Use mosquito repellent on exposed skin and clothing to
prevent mosquito bites.
4. Eliminate standing water: Mosquitoes breed in standing water, so eliminating any
standing water in and around homes can reduce the number of mosquitoes.
5. Indoor residual spraying: This involves spraying insecticides on the walls and ceilings
inside homes to kill mosquitoes.
6. Take antimalarial medications: Travelers to areas with high malaria transmission
should take antimalarial medications as prescribed by a doctor.
7. Seek early diagnosis and treatment: Anyone with symptoms of malaria should seek
prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent complications and reduce the risk of
transmission to others.
Overall, a combination of these preventive measures can significantly reduce the risk of malaria
transmission.

9.6 Fungal Infections


28. What are fungi? Describe some common fungal infections.
Fungi are a group of organisms that belong to the kingdom Fungi. They are eukaryotic, meaning
their cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Fungi are distinct from plants,
animals, and bacteria, and they play important roles in various ecosystems.
Fungi can exist as single-celled or multicellular organisms, and they obtain nutrients through the
process of absorption. They are heterotrophs, meaning they cannot produce their own food and

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must obtain nutrients from other organisms. Most fungi are decomposers, breaking down dead
organic matter and recycling nutrients in the ecosystem. However, some fungi are parasites,
infecting living organisms and causing diseases.
Fungi have a wide range of shapes and sizes. Some fungi are unicellular, such as yeasts, while
others form complex, multicellular structures, such as mushrooms. Fungi can also form
symbiotic relationships with other organisms, such as lichens, which are a combination of fungi
and algae or cyanobacteria.
Fungi play important roles in various fields, including medicine, agriculture, and industry. They
are used to produce antibiotics, food products such as bread and cheese, and enzymes for
various industrial processes.
Some common fungal infections.
Fungal infections are caused by various types of fungi that can invade different parts of the body
and cause illness or disease.
Fungi are a group of eukaryotic living organisms that are found in the environment and can grow
on or inside the human body. Some of the common fungal infections include:
1. Athlete's foot: This is a fungal infection that affects the skin of the feet, causing itching,
burning, and peeling.
2. Ringworm: This is a fungal infection that can affect the skin, scalp, or nails, causing a
ring-shaped rash and itching.
3. Candidiasis: This is a fungal infection that can affect various parts of the body, including
the skin, mouth, and genital area, and is caused by the fungus Candida.
4. Aspergillosis: This is a fungal infection that can affect the lungs, causing symptoms such
as coughing, wheezing, and chest pain.
5. Histoplasmosis: This is a fungal infection that can affect the lungs and other organs, and
is caused by the fungus Histoplasma.
Treatment for fungal infections may involve antifungal medications, which can be taken orally or
applied topically to the affected area. In addition to medication, proper hygiene, rest, and other
supportive care measures may be necessary to aid recovery. In some cases, surgical intervention
may be necessary to remove fungal growths or damaged tissue. It is important to seek medical
attention if you suspect a fungal infection, as untreated fungal infections can lead to serious
complications.

29. What is black fungus? Write about the pathogenesis, symptoms, and treatment of
black fungus?
Black fungus, also known as mucormycosis is a rare but serious fungal infection that can affect
various parts of the body, including the sinuses, lungs, brain, and skin. It is caused by a group of
fungi called mucormycetes, which are commonly found in soil, plants, and decaying organic
matter.
Pathogenesis: The pathogenesis of black fungus involves the inhalation of fungal spores, which
can enter the body through the respiratory tract. The spores can then invade the blood vessels
and spread to other parts of the body, causing tissue damage and necrosis (cell death). People
with weakened immune systems, such as those with diabetes, cancer, or HIV, are at higher risk of
developing black fungus.
Symptoms: The symptoms of black fungus depend on the site of infection and can vary from
mild to severe. Common symptoms include fever, headache, facial pain or swelling, blurred
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vision, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, skin lesions, and blackening or discoloration of the
infected area.
Treatment: Treatment of black fungus involves a multidisciplinary approach and may include
antifungal medication, surgical debridement (removal of infected tissue), and supportive care.
Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for the successful management of black fungus.
Antifungal drugs such as amphotericin B, posaconazole, and isavuconazole are used to treat the
infection, and the choice of drug and duration of treatment depend on the severity and location
of the infection.
In addition to medical treatment, it is important to manage the underlying conditions that can
increase the risk of black fungus, such as diabetes, and to maintain good hygiene and cleanliness.
People with diabetes should monitor their blood sugar levels regularly and follow a healthy
lifestyle to prevent the development of black fungus.
In conclusion, black fungus is a serious fungal infection that requires prompt diagnosis and
treatment. It is important to be aware of the symptoms and risk factors of the infection and seek
medical attention if any symptoms occur.

30. Discuss the preventive measures of fungal diseases.


Preventive measures of fungal diseases can vary depending on the specific type of fungal
infection. However, some general preventive measures include:
1. Maintaining good hygiene: Regularly washing hands and taking care of personal
hygiene can help prevent fungal infections.
2. Avoiding exposure to fungus: Try to avoid areas that are likely to have fungal spores,
such as damp and moldy environments. Wear protective clothing, such as gloves and
masks, if you work in environments that are at risk for fungal exposure.
3. Proper ventilation: Adequate ventilation can help prevent fungal growth in indoor
environments.
4. Keeping skin dry: Fungi thrive in warm, moist environments. Keeping skin dry can help
prevent fungal infections, especially in areas prone to sweating such as the armpits and
groin.
5. Treating underlying health conditions: People with weakened immune systems, such
as those with diabetes or HIV, are at increased risk for fungal infections. Proper
management of underlying health conditions can help reduce the risk of infection.
6. Avoiding contaminated objects: Avoid sharing personal items, such as towels, clothes,
and hairbrushes, with others to prevent the spread of fungal infections.
7. Properly storing food: Fungi can grow on food and cause infections. Properly storing
food can help prevent fungal growth and reduce the risk of infection.
It is important to note that preventive measures may not completely eliminate the risk of fungal
infections, especially for individuals with weakened immune systems. It is recommended to seek
medical attention if you suspect you have a fungal infection or have been exposed to fungus.

9.7 General Diseases


31. What is Diarrhoea? What are its causes?
Diarrhea is a common condition characterized by frequent, loose, and watery bowel movements.

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It can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, certain medications, food
intolerances, and other medical conditions.
Some common causes of diarrhea include:
1. Viral infections: Several viruses can cause diarrhea, including norovirus, rotavirus, and
viral hepatitis.
2. Bacterial infections: Bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and
Campylobacter can cause diarrhea.
3. Parasitic infections: Parasites such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium can cause diarrhea.
4. Food intolerances: Some people may be intolerant to certain foods, such as lactose or
gluten, which can cause diarrhea.
5. Medications: Certain medications, such as antibiotics, can cause diarrhea as a side effect.
6. Medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease
(IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and celiac disease, can cause chronic diarrhea.
Other factors that can contribute to diarrhea include stress, anxiety, and excessive alcohol
consumption.
Treatment for diarrhea depends on the underlying cause, but may include rehydration therapy to
replace fluids lost through diarrhea, over-the-counter medications to reduce symptoms, and
antibiotics in cases of bacterial infections.
It is important to seek medical attention if diarrhea persists for more than a few days, is
accompanied by fever or severe abdominal pain, or is accompanied by other symptoms such as
dehydration or blood in the stool.

32. Discuss about the prevalence of Diarrhoea in India


Diarrhea is a major public health concern in India, particularly among children under the age of
five. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), diarrhea is responsible for around 10%
of deaths in this age group in India. The prevalence of diarrhea is higher in rural areas compared
to urban areas, and is associated with poor sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as inadequate
access to clean water and proper healthcare.
Several factors contribute to the high incidence of diarrhea in India, including the consumption
of contaminated food and water, poor sanitation practices, and inadequate healthcare
infrastructure in many parts of the country. Additionally, the prevalence of malnutrition and
other underlying health conditions among children in India can make them more vulnerable to
diarrhea and other infections.
The Indian government has taken several measures to address the issue of diarrhea, including
promoting improved sanitation and hygiene practices, increasing access to safe drinking water,
and implementing vaccination programs against rotavirus, a leading cause of diarrhea in children.
The government has also initiated programs to educate the public about the importance of
proper hygiene and sanitation practices.
Despite these efforts, diarrhea remains a significant public health issue in India, and further
measures are needed to improve access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and healthcare
services, particularly in rural areas.

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33. What is Dysentery? What are its causes?
Dysentery is a type of gastrointestinal infection that affects the colon and causes inflammation of
the intestinal lining. It is characterized by frequent and bloody stools, along with abdominal pain
and cramping. Dysentery can be caused by bacterial, viral, or parasitic infections, and is most
commonly associated with poor sanitation and hygiene practices.
The most common type of dysentery is bacillary dysentery, which is caused by the bacteria
Shigella. Other types of dysentery include amoebic dysentery, which is caused by the parasite
Entamoeba histolytica, and viral dysentery, which is caused by a group of viruses known as
enteroviruses.
Symptoms of dysentery typically develop within a few days of infection, and may include fever,
nausea, vomiting, and dehydration. In severe cases, dysentery can lead to complications such as
dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and organ failure.
Treatment for dysentery depends on the underlying cause, but may include antibiotics to kill
bacterial infections, anti-parasitic medications to treat amoebic infections, and supportive care
measures such as rehydration therapy and pain relief. Prevention of dysentery involves
maintaining good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly, avoiding contaminated
food and water, and ensuring access to clean water and sanitation facilities.

34. What are "life style disorders"? Discuss life style disorders and their relevance to
India.
Lifestyle disorders, also known as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), are health conditions
that are caused by an individual's lifestyle choices and habits. These include unhealthy diet, lack
of physical activity, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol consumption. Some common lifestyle
disorders include obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and certain types of
cancer.
In India, lifestyle disorders have become a significant public health concern due to changing
lifestyles, rapid urbanization, and increasing socio-economic development. According to the
World Health Organization, NCDs are responsible for 61% of deaths in India, with cardiovascular
disease, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes being the leading causes.
The high prevalence of lifestyle disorders in India is attributed to several factors, including
unhealthy dietary habits, lack of physical activity, stress, and environmental factors such as
pollution. Urbanization and globalization have led to changes in dietary habits, with an
increasing trend towards the consumption of processed foods, high in fat, salt, and sugar. In
addition, sedentary lifestyles have become increasingly common, with many people spending
long hours in front of screens and engaging in minimal physical activity.
Preventing and managing lifestyle disorders in India requires a multi-faceted approach that
involves both individual behavior change and policy-level interventions. Some measures that can
help reduce the burden of lifestyle disorders in India include promoting healthy diets,
encouraging physical activity, implementing tobacco control policies, and improving access to
healthcare services. Education and awareness campaigns can also play a crucial role in raising
awareness about the importance of adopting healthy lifestyles to prevent lifestyle disorders.

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9.8 Preventive measures during Outbreaks
35. Delineate the preventive measures to be taken during outbreaks of infectious
diseases.
During outbreaks of infectious diseases, there are several preventive measures that can be taken
to reduce the spread of the disease and protect individuals and communities. These measures
include:
1. Vaccination: Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of many
infectious diseases, and it is important for individuals to receive recommended vaccines
to protect themselves and others.
2. Personal hygiene: Frequent hand washing with soap and water, using hand sanitizers,
covering the mouth and nose while coughing or sneezing, and avoiding touching the face
are effective ways to prevent the spread of disease.
3. Physical distancing: Maintaining physical distance from others, avoiding large
gatherings, and staying at home when sick can help reduce the spread of infectious
diseases.
4. Wearing masks: Wearing masks, particularly in crowded indoor settings, can help
reduce the spread of respiratory illnesses.
5. Quarantine and isolation: Individuals who are infected with an infectious disease or
who have been in close contact with an infected person may be required to quarantine or
isolate themselves to prevent further spread of the disease.
6. Contact tracing: Identifying and tracing contacts of individuals with a confirmed
infection can help to contain the spread of the disease.
7. Environmental cleaning: Regular cleaning and disinfection of frequently touched
surfaces and objects can help reduce the spread of disease.
8. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Wearing PPE, such as face masks, gloves, and
gowns, can help protect you and others from getting sick. However, it's important to use
PPE properly and follow guidelines from health authorities to avoid spreading germs.
9. Health monitoring: Monitoring your health and seeking medical care if you develop
symptoms of the disease in question is crucial to help prevent the spread of the disease
and receive appropriate treatment.
These preventive measures are most effective when implemented together as part of a
comprehensive strategy to control and contain outbreaks of infectious diseases.

The Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897


The Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 is a law enacted in India that grants powers to the central
and state governments to take special measures and implement necessary regulations to
contain the outbreak of any epidemic disease. The act was introduced during the British rule,
in response to the bubonic plague epidemic in the 1890s.
The act also provides protection to government officials and persons acting under the act
from legal suits or prosecution for actions taken in good faith to control the spread of the
epidemic.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, several states have invoked the Epidemic Diseases
Act to implement measures such as lockdowns, restrictions on public gatherings, and
mandatory wearing of masks, among others, to contain the spread of the virus.

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Chapter 10:Vaccines
Syllabus: Vaccines: Introduction to immunity, Fundamental concepts in vaccination and
traditional methods of vaccine production (production of DPT and Rabies vaccine), Production of
modern vaccines (production of Hepatitis Vaccine).

10.1 Introduction to immunity:


1. Define Immunity. Describe the components and functions of the human immune
system.
Immunity refers to the body's ability to defend against disease-causing microorganisms, such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, as well as abnormal cells, such as cancer cells. The immune
system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to recognize and
neutralize foreign invaders and prevent their spread.
The human immune system is composed of two major types of immunity: innate immunity and
adaptive immunity.
1. Innate immunity: Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense against pathogens.
It includes physical barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes, as well as various
cells and proteins that recognize and attack foreign invaders. These cells include
phagocytes, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells, which engulf and digest pathogens or
activate other immune cells to do so. Innate immunity also involves the release of various
antimicrobial proteins, such as interferons and complement proteins, which enhance the
immune response.
2. Adaptive immunity: Adaptive immunity, also known as acquired immunity, is a more
specific and targeted response that develops over time as the immune system encounters
and learns to recognize specific pathogens. It involves specialized immune cells called
lymphocytes, including B cells and T cells, which are activated when they recognize a
specific antigen (a protein on the surface of a pathogen) and generate a targeted
response to eliminate it. B cells produce antibodies, which bind to and neutralize
pathogens, while T cells directly attack infected cells.
The immune system also has various regulatory mechanisms to prevent self-attack or over-
reactivity. For example, it includes regulatory T cells that prevent excessive immune activation
and memory cells that remember previously encountered pathogens to facilitate faster and
stronger responses upon re-exposure.
Overall, the immune system is a complex and sophisticated defense mechanism that plays a
critical role in maintaining overall health and preventing disease.

2. Explain the types of immunity with examples.


There are two main types of immunity: innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
1. Innate immunity: Innate immunity, also known as non-specific immunity, is the first
line of defense against pathogens and does not require prior exposure to a particular
pathogen. This type of immunity is present at birth and is always active. Innate immunity
is mediated by physical barriers, chemical barriers, and cells that can quickly respond to
pathogens. Examples of innate immunity include:
• Physical barriers: The skin and mucous membranes prevent pathogens from
entering the body.
• Chemical barriers: Saliva, stomach acid, and enzymes in tears and sweat can
destroy pathogens.
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• Cellular barriers: Neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells are
specialized cells that can recognize and destroy foreign invaders.
2. Adaptive immunity: Adaptive immunity, also known as specific immunity, is a response
that is tailored to a specific pathogen. Adaptive immunity develops over time as a result
of exposure to a pathogen, vaccination, or passive immunization. Adaptive immunity is
mediated by specialized cells and molecules, including B cells and T cells. Examples of
adaptive immunity include:
• Antibodies: Antibodies are produced by B cells in response to a specific pathogen.
Antibodies can recognize and neutralize pathogens, preventing them from
infecting cells.
• T cells: T cells can recognize and destroy infected cells and can also help activate
B cells to produce antibodies.
• Vaccines: Vaccines are designed to stimulate the immune system to produce a
specific response to a pathogen, without causing disease. This prepares the
immune system to quickly respond to the pathogen if encountered in the future.
Both innate and adaptive immunity play important roles in protecting the body from pathogens.
Innate immunity provides immediate protection against a wide range of pathogens, while
adaptive immunity provides long-term protection against specific pathogens.

3. What are antibodies and antigens? What role do they play in immune system?
Antibodies and antigens are both important components of the immune system.
Antigens are molecules that can trigger an immune response. These can be proteins,
carbohydrates, or other molecules found on the surface of pathogens such as viruses or bacteria.
When the immune system recognizes an antigen as foreign, it mounts a response to destroy the
pathogen and prevent infection.
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by B cells in response to an
antigen. Antibodies are designed to recognize and bind specifically to a particular antigen, often
on the surface of a pathogen. This binding can neutralize the pathogen directly, or it can mark it
for destruction by other cells in the immune system.
Antibodies play a key role in the adaptive immune response, providing targeted protection
against specific pathogens. Once the immune system has encountered a particular antigen, B
cells can produce antibodies that recognize and neutralize that antigen quickly and efficiently if
the pathogen is encountered again.
Overall, antibodies and antigens are important components of the immune system, working
together to recognize and destroy foreign invaders and protect the body from infection and
disease.

4. Describe and differentiate between active and passive immunity along with their
advantages and disadvantages.
Active and passive immunity are two types of immunity that can develop in response to
pathogens or vaccines.
Active immunity is a type of immunity that develops as a result of an individual's own immune
response to a pathogen or vaccine. When the immune system encounters a pathogen, it mounts a
response to produce specific antibodies against that pathogen. The process of producing these
antibodies can take several days, but once the antibodies have been produced, the individual has
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long-lasting immunity against that pathogen. This type of immunity can also develop as a result
of vaccination, in which a weakened or inactive form of the pathogen is introduced to the body,
triggering an immune response and the production of specific antibodies.
Advantages of active immunity include:
• Long-lasting protection: Active immunity provides long-lasting protection against
specific pathogens.
• Memory response: Once the immune system has encountered a pathogen or vaccine, it
retains memory of that pathogen, enabling it to respond more quickly and efficiently in
the future if the same pathogen is encountered again.
Disadvantages of active immunity include:
• Delayed protection: It can take several days for the immune system to produce specific
antibodies against a pathogen or vaccine, leaving the individual susceptible to infection
during that time.
• Requires a functional immune system: Active immunity relies on the individual's own
immune system to produce antibodies, so individuals with compromised immune
systems may not develop effective immunity.
Passive immunity, on the other hand, is a type of immunity that is acquired from an external
source. Instead of the individual's own immune system producing antibodies, antibodies are
introduced into the body from an external source, such as through breast milk or through
injection of antibodies obtained from another individual or animal. Passive immunity is usually
short-lived and provides immediate but temporary protection against a specific pathogen.
Advantages of passive immunity include:
• Immediate protection: Passive immunity provides immediate protection against specific
pathogens.
• No need for a functional immune system: Passive immunity does not rely on the
individual's own immune system to produce antibodies, so individuals with
compromised immune systems can still benefit from passive immunity.
Disadvantages of passive immunity include:
• Short-lived protection: Passive immunity is usually short-lived and provides temporary
protection against specific pathogens.
• No memory response: Passive immunity does not provide memory response, so the
individual is not protected against future encounters with the same pathogen.
In summary, both active and passive immunity have their advantages and disadvantages. Active
immunity provides long-lasting protection and memory response but requires a functional
immune system and takes time to develop. Passive immunity provides immediate protection and
does not require a functional immune system but is short-lived and does not provide memory
response.

10.2 Fundamental concepts in vaccination:


5. What are vaccines? What is the basic concept behind the working of vaccines?
Centre for Disease control & Prevention [CDC] defined a Vaccine as a type of bio-chemical
preparation that stimulates the immune system to produce a protective response against a specific
disease-causing agent, or pathogen.

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The protective response is called immunity, which is the ability of the body to recognize and
defend against an invading pathogen.Generally, a vaccine comprises of an agent that has a
resemblance to the disease-causing microbe.
The basic concept behind the working of vaccines is to stimulate the immune system to produce
an immune response against a specific pathogen or disease without causing the disease itself.
Vaccines contain antigens, which are molecules that mimic the antigens found on the surface of
the pathogen that causes the disease. When a vaccine is administered, it triggers the immune
system to recognize and respond to the antigens, just as it would in response to a real infection.
This immune response stimulates the production of antibodies, which are proteins that can
neutralize or eliminate the pathogen from the body.
In addition to producing antibodies, the immune system also creates immune memory, which
enables it to respond more quickly and effectively to future exposures to the same pathogen. By
creating immune memory, vaccines provide long-lasting protection against many infectious
diseases. This is why vaccination is considered to be one of the most effective and important
public health interventions available.

6. What are some fundamental concepts in vaccination?


Fundamental Concepts in Vaccination:
1. Immunity: Vaccination works by stimulating the body's immune system to produce an
immune response that can protect against a specific pathogen.
2. Antigen: The part of a pathogen that triggers an immune response. Vaccines contain antigens,
or pieces of antigens, that are specific to the targeted pathogen.
3. Vaccine efficacy: The percentage reduction in disease incidence in a vaccinated group
compared to an unvaccinated group under optimal conditions.
4. Herd immunity: The indirect protection against a disease that occurs when a sufficient
proportion of a population is vaccinated, which reduces the spread of the disease and protects
those who are unable to be vaccinated.
5. Adjuvant: A substance added to a vaccine to enhance the immune response and make the
vaccine more effective.
6. Booster: A supplementary dose of a vaccine that is given after the initial vaccination to
maintain or increase immunity.
7. Vaccine safety: The evaluation and monitoring of the safety of a vaccine, including the
identification and management of adverse effects.
8. Immunization schedule: A recommended timeline for administering vaccines to individuals
based on their age, risk factors, and other considerations.
9. Side effects: Side effects are unwanted reactions to a vaccine, which can range from mild, such
as soreness at the injection site, to more serious, such as an allergic reaction.

7. What is immunisation. Discuss the immunisation program in India under Mission


Indradhanush.
Immunization is the process of inducing immunity or protection against infectious diseases
through vaccination. It involves the administration of a vaccine, which contains a weakened or
dead form of a pathogen, or a part of it, to stimulate the body's immune system to produce an
immune response against the pathogen.

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In India, the immunization program is one of the largest public health programs in the world,
known as the Universal Immunization Program (UIP). The program was launched in 1985 to
provide free vaccination to all children under the age of 2 years against several vaccine-
preventable diseases, such as tuberculosis, polio, measles, and hepatitis B.
To strengthen the immunization program in India and increase the coverage of vaccinations, the
government launched Mission Indradhanush in 2014. This program aims to immunize all
children and pregnant women who are not fully immunized or have missed their scheduled
vaccinations.
Under Mission Indradhanush, the government has identified 201 high-priority districts across
the country, which have low immunization coverage and a high burden of vaccine-preventable
diseases. The program has a special focus on improving immunization coverage in these
districts.
Some of the key features of Mission Indradhanush include:
1. Intensive immunization drives: The program conducts intensive immunization drives
in the identified districts, where health workers go door-to-door to identify and
immunize children and pregnant women who have missed their vaccinations.
2. Focus on urban areas: The program also focuses on improving immunization coverage
in urban areas, where the coverage is often lower than in rural areas.
3. Use of technology: The program uses technology to track and monitor the progress of
immunization drives and to identify areas where there is a need for improvement.
4. Involvement of community: The program involves the community in promoting
immunization and creating awareness about the importance of vaccinations.
Since the launch of Mission Indradhanush, there has been a significant increase in the coverage
of vaccinations in the identified districts. As of March 2021, the program has achieved an average
of 76.5% immunization coverage in the targeted districts, compared to 65.7% in 2014.
Overall, Mission Indradhanush has been a successful program in improving immunization
coverage in India and protecting children and pregnant women against vaccine-preventable
diseases.

10.3 Types of vaccines


8. Explain the various types of vaccines with suitable examples.
There are several different types of vaccines, each of which works in a slightly different way. The
most common types of vaccines are:
1. Inactivated or killed vaccines: These vaccines contain pathogens that have been killed
or inactivated, so they cannot cause disease. Because the pathogen is still intact, the
immune system recognizes it as foreign and produces an immune response against it.
Examples of inactivated or killed vaccines include the polio vaccine, hepatitis A vaccine,
and the flu vaccine.
2. Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain a weakened, but still alive, version of
the pathogen. The weakened pathogen is able to replicate and produce an immune
response, but because it is weakened, it does not cause disease. Examples of live
attenuated vaccines include the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, the yellow
fever vaccine, and the chickenpox vaccine.
3. Subunit, recombinant, or conjugate vaccines: These vaccines contain specific pieces of
the pathogen, such as proteins or sugars, that are recognized by the immune system.
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These pieces are isolated and purified, then used to stimulate an immune response.
Examples of subunit vaccines include the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine and the
hepatitis B vaccine.
4. DNA vaccines: These vaccines use a small piece of DNA from the pathogen to stimulate
an immune response. The DNA is injected into the body, and the immune system
recognizes it as foreign and produces an immune response against it. DNA vaccines are
still in the experimental stage and are not yet widely used.
5. mRNA vaccines: These vaccines use a small piece of messenger RNA (mRNA) from the
pathogen to stimulate an immune response. The mRNA is injected into the body, and the
immune system recognizes it as foreign and produces an immune response against it.
mRNA vaccines are a relatively new technology, but have been used successfully in the
development of COVID-19 vaccines.
6. Vector vaccines: These vaccines use a harmless virus or bacterium to deliver pieces of
the pathogen to the body. The harmless virus or bacterium acts as a vector, carrying the
pathogen pieces into the body and stimulating an immune response. Examples of vector
vaccines include the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine and the Ebola vaccine.
Each type of vaccine has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, live attenuated
vaccines can provide long-lasting immunity with a single dose, but may not be safe for use in
people with weakened immune systems. Inactivated vaccines are generally safe, but may require
multiple doses to provide adequate immunity. Subunit vaccines are safe and effective, but may
require booster shots to maintain immunity. The choice of vaccine depends on the particular
disease being vaccinated against, as well as other factors such as safety, efficacy, and availability.

9. Write about the different types of modern vaccines available today. How are the
modern vaccines better than the conventional vaccines?
There are several types of modern vaccines that are currently available, including mRNA
vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and protein subunit vaccines. These vaccines have several
advantages over conventional vaccines, including improved safety, efficacy, and speed of
development.
1. mRNA vaccines: mRNA vaccines, such as the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19
vaccines, use a small piece of genetic material called messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct
cells in the body to produce a protein from the pathogen. The immune system then
recognizes this protein as foreign and mounts an immune response against it. mRNA
vaccines have several advantages over conventional vaccines, including their speed of
development, which allows for rapid response to emerging infectious diseases. They are
also generally safe and do not contain any live virus or bacteria.
2. Viral vector vaccines: Viral vector vaccines, such as the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19
vaccine and the Ebola vaccine, use a harmless virus to deliver genetic material from the
pathogen into cells in the body. This genetic material then instructs cells to produce a
protein from the pathogen, which triggers an immune response. Like mRNA vaccines,
viral vector vaccines are generally safe and do not contain any live virus or bacteria.
3. Protein subunit vaccines: Protein subunit vaccines, such as the HPV vaccine and the
hepatitis B vaccine, use purified proteins from the pathogen to stimulate an immune
response. These vaccines are generally safe and effective, but may require booster shots
to maintain immunity.

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Modern vaccines have several advantages over conventional vaccines. They are generally safer,
as they do not contain any live virus or bacteria. They are also more targeted, as they can be
designed to target specific proteins from the pathogen. This allows for a more specific immune
response and reduces the risk of side effects. Modern vaccines are also generally faster to
develop, which allows for more rapid response to emerging infectious diseases.
In addition, some modern vaccines, such as mRNA vaccines, can be produced more quickly and
at a lower cost than conventional vaccines. This is because they do not require the production of
large amounts of live virus or bacteria, which can be time-consuming and expensive.
Overall, modern vaccines represent a significant advancement in the field of vaccinology. They
are safer, more effective, and more targeted than conventional vaccines, and allow for a more
rapid response to emerging infectious diseases.

10. Describe the journey of development from conventional to modern day vaccines
(Recombinant vaccines).
The development of vaccines has evolved significantly over time, from the first use of variolation
to protect against smallpox in ancient China to the development of modern recombinant
vaccines. Here is a brief overview of the journey of vaccine development:
1. Conventional vaccines: Conventional vaccines were first developed in the 18th and
19th centuries and were typically made from weakened or killed pathogens. For
example, the smallpox vaccine was made from the cowpox virus, which provided
immunity to smallpox. These vaccines were effective but had some limitations, including
the risk of reversion to virulence and the need for large quantities of live virus or
bacteria to produce the vaccine.
2. Subunit vaccines: In the 1960s, researchers began developing subunit vaccines, which
contained only a small part of the pathogen, such as a protein or sugar molecule. This
allowed for a more targeted immune response and reduced the risk of side effects.
Examples of subunit vaccines include the hepatitis B vaccine and the human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine.
3. Recombinant vaccines: Recombinant DNA technology, which was developed in the
1970s, allowed for the creation of recombinant vaccines. These vaccines are made by
inserting the genetic material from a pathogen into a harmless carrier virus or bacterium.
The carrier then produces a protein from the pathogen, which triggers an immune
response. Examples of recombinant vaccines include the hepatitis B vaccine, the human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, and the COVID-19 vaccines developed by Pfizer-BioNTech
and Moderna.
The development of recombinant vaccines has revolutionized the field of vaccinology, allowing
for the creation of highly targeted and effective vaccines with fewer side effects. Recombinant
vaccines are also faster and less expensive to produce than conventional vaccines, as they do not
require large quantities of live virus or bacteria.
Overall, the journey of vaccine development has been a long and complex one, with many
important discoveries along the way. Today, recombinant vaccines represent the cutting edge of
vaccine development and hold great promise for protecting against a wide range of infectious
diseases.

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11. How are mRNA Vaccines different from traditional vaccines?
Vaccines work by training the body to recognise and respond to the proteins produced by
disease-causing organisms, such as a virus or bacteria.
Traditional vaccines are made up of small or inactivated doses of the whole disease-causing
organism, or the proteins that it produces, which are introduced into the body to provoke the
immune system into mounting a response.
mRNA vaccines tricks the body into producing some of the viral proteins itself.
They work by using mRNA, or messenger RNA, which is the molecule that essentially puts DNA
instructions into action. Inside a cell, mRNA is used as a template to build a protein.
Once a vaccine is developed, it undergoes rigorous testing to ensure its safety and efficacy. If the
vaccine is found to be safe and effective, it can be produced on a large scale. Vaccine production
involves growing the pathogen in a laboratory, purifying it, and then combining it with adjuvants
and other ingredients to create the final vaccine product. The vaccine is then packaged and
distributed to healthcare providers for administration to patients.

10.4 Traditional Methods of Vaccine Production


12. Explain the traditional methods of vaccine production. How is it different from
modern methods of vaccine production?
Traditional methods of vaccine production involve the use of whole or inactivated pathogens,
such as bacteria or viruses, to produce a vaccine. These methods have been used for many years
and involve several steps, including:
1. Culturing the pathogen: The pathogen is grown in a laboratory under controlled
conditions.
2. Inactivating the pathogen: The pathogen is killed or inactivated using heat, chemicals,
or radiation to make it safe for use in humans.
3. Purifying the pathogen: The inactivated pathogen is purified to remove any unwanted
substances.
4. Formulating the vaccine: The purified pathogen is formulated with other ingredients,
such as adjuvants, to enhance the immune response.
Examples of vaccines produced using traditional methods include the inactivated polio vaccine,
the pertussis vaccine, and the hepatitis A vaccine.
Modern methods of vaccine production involve the use of recombinant DNA technology to
produce a vaccine. This technology involves introducing a small piece of the pathogen's DNA,
called an antigen, into a harmless host organism, such as yeast or bacteria. The host organism
then produces the antigen, which is used to stimulate the immune system to produce an immune
response against the pathogen.
Modern methods of vaccine production have several advantages over traditional methods,
including:
1. Safety: Modern vaccines are often safer than traditional vaccines, as they do not involve
the use of live or inactivated pathogens.
2. Efficiency: Modern vaccines can be produced more quickly and efficiently than
traditional vaccines, as they do not require the culturing and inactivation of the
pathogen.

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3. Flexibility: Modern vaccines can be designed to target specific antigens of the pathogen,
allowing for greater specificity and effectiveness.
Examples of vaccines produced using modern methods include the human papillomavirus
vaccine, the hepatitis B vaccine, and the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.
In summary, while traditional methods of vaccine production have been used for many years and
have been effective in controlling infectious diseases, modern methods of vaccine production
offer several advantages in terms of safety, efficiency, and flexibility.

DPT & Rabies


1. Diphtheria - a bacterial infection that affects the throat and nose.
2. Pertussis - a highly contagious bacterial infection that causes severe coughing
spells.
3. Tetanus - a serious bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and can
cause muscle stiffness and spasms.
4. Rabies - a viral infection that affects the nervous system and is transmitted
through the bite of an infected animal.

13. Explain the production process of DPT vaccine.


The DPT vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against three infectious diseases:
diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus. The production process for the DPT
vaccine involves several steps:
1. Culturing the bacteria: The bacteria that cause diphtheria and pertussis are grown in
the laboratory under controlled conditions. The tetanus bacteria are not cultured, but the
toxin produced by the bacteria is purified for use in the vaccine.
2. Inactivating the bacteria: The bacteria are then inactivated using a chemical or physical
process, such as formaldehyde or heat, to make them safe for use in humans.
3. Purifying the bacteria: The inactivated bacteria are then purified to remove any
unwanted substances.
4. Formulating the vaccine: The purified bacteria are then mixed with an adjuvant, which
is a substance that enhances the immune response, and combined with the purified
tetanus toxin to create the final DPT vaccine.
5. Filling and packaging the vaccine: The vaccine is then filled into vials or syringes and
packaged for distribution.
The production of the DPT vaccine requires strict quality control measures to ensure the safety
and effectiveness of the vaccine. The final product undergoes extensive testing to ensure that it
meets the required standards for purity, potency, and safety.
In summary, the production process for the DPT vaccine involves culturing, inactivating,
purifying, formulating, and packaging the bacteria and tetanus toxin to create a safe and effective
vaccine that protects against three serious infectious diseases.

14. Explain the production process of Rabies vaccines (in traditional method).
Traditional rabies vaccine production process:
• Culturing the virus: The rabies virus is grown in cell cultures, typically using chicken
embryo cells or a continuous cell line, under controlled laboratory conditions.

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• Inactivation: The virus is then inactivated using a chemical process, such as beta-
propiolactone or formalin, to make it safe for use in humans.
• Purification: The inactivated virus is purified to remove any unwanted substances, such
as cellular debris.
• Formulation: The purified virus is combined with an adjuvant, which enhances the
immune response, and packaged into vials or syringes for distribution.
Rabies vaccine requires strict quality control measures to ensure the safety and effectiveness of
the final product. The production process is closely monitored to ensure that the vaccine meets
the required standards for purity, potency, and safety.
In summary, the production process for rabies vaccines involves culturing and purifying the
virus, inactivating it to make it safe, and combining it with an adjuvant before packaging it for
distribution.

10.5 Production of Modern Vaccines


15. What are the modern ways of vaccine manufacturing. How is it different from
traditional methods?
Modern vaccine manufacturing methods use advanced technologies to produce vaccines in a
more efficient and controlled manner than traditional methods. Here are some of the modern
ways of vaccine manufacturing:
1. Recombinant DNA technology: This involves using genetic engineering to create
recombinant vaccines that are made by inserting the genetic code for a specific antigen
into a harmless host organism, such as yeast or bacteria. The host organism then
produces the antigen, which is purified and used as a vaccine.
2. Virus-like particle (VLP) technology: VLPs are non-infectious particles that resemble
viruses but do not contain genetic material. They can be produced by inserting the
genetic code for viral surface proteins into a harmless host organism, which then
produces the VLPs. These VLPs can be used as vaccines because they stimulate an
immune response similar to that produced by a real virus.
3. Cell culture technology: This involves growing vaccine viruses or bacteria in cell
cultures, which allows for more precise control over the growth and quality of the
vaccine. This technology is commonly used to produce flu vaccines and some other
vaccines.
4. mRNA technology: This is a new vaccine technology that involves using synthetic
messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to produce a specific antigen. The mRNA is
delivered into cells using a lipid nanoparticle and once inside the cells, it instructs them
to produce the antigen. This technology was used to produce the Pfizer-BioNTech and
Moderna COVID-19 vaccines.
Compared to traditional methods, modern vaccine manufacturing methods offer several
advantages, such as:
• Faster production times
• Greater precision and control over the manufacturing process
• Reduced risk of contamination
• Ability to produce vaccines in large quantities
• Lower costs

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Overall, the use of modern vaccine manufacturing methods has led to the development of more
effective and safe vaccines that can be produced more efficiently and at a lower cost than
traditional methods.

16. Write about the production process of Hepatitis B vaccine


The Hepatitis B vaccine is a highly effective vaccine that provides protection against the Hepatitis
B virus, which can cause severe liver disease, including liver cancer.
The production process of the Hepatitis B vaccine is a complex and carefully controlled process
that involves multiple stages, including genetic engineering, fermentation, and purification.
1.Genetic Engineering: The first step in the production process is the genetic engineering of a
specific strain of the Hepatitis B virus. The virus is grown in a lab under controlled conditions
and is then genetically modified to produce a specific antigen called HBsAg (Hepatitis B surface
antigen). The HBsAg antigen is the key component of the vaccine, and it is the part of the virus
that stimulates the immune system to produce protective antibodies.
2.Fermentation: The genetically engineered virus is then grown in large quantities in a
fermentation tank, using a culture of yeast cells that have been modified to produce the HBsAg
antigen. The fermentation process takes several days and involves carefully controlled
conditions, including temperature, pH, and oxygen levels.
3. Purification: After the fermentation process is complete, the virus is purified to remove any
impurities and contaminants. The purification process involves several steps, including filtration,
centrifugation, and chromatography. These steps separate the HBsAg antigen from other
components of the culture, such as yeast cells and proteins.
4. Formulation: Once the HBsAg antigen has been purified, it is combined with other ingredients
to create the final vaccine product. These ingredients include adjuvants, which are substances
that enhance the immune response, and stabilizers, which help to preserve the vaccine during
storage and transportation.
5. Quality Control: The final vaccine product undergoes rigorous testing to ensure that it is safe
and effective. This includes testing for purity, potency, and sterility, as well as testing for
potential contaminants, such as bacteria or viruses.
Overall, the production process of the Hepatitis B vaccine is a complex and highly
controlled process that requires extensive scientific expertise and quality control measures. The
resulting vaccine is a safe and effective means of preventing Hepatitis B infection and its
associated health risks.

17. Write a note on the different types of Covid-19 vaccines with examples.
There are several types of COVID-19 vaccines currently available or in development. Here are the
four main types of COVID-19 vaccines along with examples:
1. mRNA vaccines: mRNA vaccines contain a small piece of genetic material called
messenger RNA (mRNA), which provides instructions for the body to produce a protein
found on the surface of the virus that causes COVID-19. This protein triggers an immune
response that can protect against the virus. Examples of mRNA vaccines include the
Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.
2. Viral vector vaccines: Viral vector vaccines use a harmless virus to deliver a piece of the
COVID-19 virus's genetic material into the body. This genetic material then produces a

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protein that triggers an immune response. Examples of viral vector vaccines include the
Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine and the AstraZeneca/Oxford COVID-19 vaccine.
3. Protein subunit vaccines: Protein subunit vaccines contain harmless pieces of proteins
from the COVID-19 virus, which trigger an immune response. Examples of protein
subunit vaccines include the Novavax COVID-19 vaccine and the Sanofi/GSK COVID-19
vaccine.
4. Inactivated or killed virus vaccines: Inactivated or killed virus vaccines use a form of
the COVID-19 virus that has been inactivated or killed so that it cannot cause disease, but
can still trigger an immune response. Examples of inactivated or killed virus vaccines
include the Sinovac COVID-19 vaccine and the Bharat Biotech COVAXIN.
All of these vaccines have been shown to be effective in preventing COVID-19, although the level
of effectiveness may vary. It is important to note that all COVID-19 vaccines currently available
or in development have undergone rigorous testing and have been authorized for emergency use
by regulatory agencies around the world.

18. Describe the Covid-19 vaccination program in India.


The COVID-19 vaccination program in India began on January 16, 2021, with the aim of
vaccinating the entire eligible population to control the spread of COVID-19. Here are some key
features of the COVID-19 vaccination program in India:
1. Eligibility: Initially, the vaccine was only available to healthcare workers and frontline
workers. Later, the eligibility criteria were expanded to include people over 60 years of
age and those over 45 years with comorbidities. Since May 1, 2021, the eligibility has
been further expanded to include all adults above 18 years of age.
2. Vaccine types: India is currently using two vaccines for COVID-19 vaccination:
Covishield (the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine manufactured by the Serum Institute of
India) and Covaxin (developed by Bharat Biotech).
3. Distribution: The vaccines are distributed to the states and union territories based on
their population size and the number of healthcare and frontline workers. The
government is also working with private hospitals and clinics to increase the number of
vaccination sites.
4. Registration: People can register for the vaccine through the CoWIN portal, Aarogya
Setu app, or by visiting a vaccination center. People are required to provide basic details
such as name, age, and ID proof to register.
5. Doses: Both Covishield and Covaxin require two doses, with a gap of 4-6 weeks between
the doses.
6. Cost: The COVID-19 vaccine is free of cost at government-run vaccination centers.
Private hospitals are allowed to charge up to a maximum of Rs. 250 per dose.
7. Progress: As of April, 2023, over 2.2 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccine have been
administered in India, with around 73% of the eligible population having received at
least one dose.
The Indian government has also launched several initiatives to encourage people to get
vaccinated, including door-to-door campaigns, mobile vaccination centers, and awareness drives.
The vaccination program is seen as a critical tool in controlling the spread of COVID-19 in India.

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19. Elaborate on the Indian efforts to develop and promote the use of Covid-19 vaccines.
India has made significant efforts in developing and promoting the use of COVID-19 vaccines
since the outbreak of the pandemic. Here are some key efforts:
1. Vaccine development: India has been actively involved in the development of COVID-19
vaccines. Two vaccines developed in India, Covishield and Covaxin, have been approved
for emergency use by the Indian drug regulator.
2. Vaccine manufacturing: India is one of the largest vaccine manufacturers in the world,
and has played a crucial role in manufacturing COVID-19 vaccines. The Serum Institute of
India, the world's largest vaccine manufacturer by volume, is producing the Covishield
vaccine developed by AstraZeneca and the University of Oxford.
3. Vaccine diplomacy: India has been playing an important role in the distribution of
COVID-19 vaccines to other countries. India has supplied COVID-19 vaccines to over 100
countries as part of its vaccine diplomacy efforts.
4. Vaccine promotion: The Indian government has launched several initiatives to promote
the use of COVID-19 vaccines. These include awareness campaigns, door-to-door
vaccination drives, and mobile vaccination units to reach remote areas.
5. Vaccine distribution: The Indian government has set up a system for the distribution of
COVID-19 vaccines across the country. Vaccines are being distributed to the states and
union territories based on their population size and the number of healthcare and
frontline workers.
6. Vaccine accessibility: The Indian government has made efforts to ensure that COVID-19
vaccines are accessible to all. Vaccines are being provided free of cost at government-run
vaccination centers, and private hospitals are allowed to charge a maximum of Rs. 250
per dose.
Overall, India's efforts in developing and promoting the use of COVID-19 vaccines have been
crucial in controlling the spread of the pandemic and saving lives.

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Part – II: Environment
Paper – IV (Section – III): Development and Environmental Problems

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Chapter 1: Environment vs. Development
Syllabus: Environment vs. Development: Definition of Environment, Environmentalism;
Environmental Protection Policy, Environmental Policy Instruments.

1.1 Environment vs. Development: Definition of Environment


1. What is environment? Define environment.
Environment refers to the physical, social, and cultural surroundings in which an organism,
individual, or group lives and interacts. It includes all the natural and human-made factors and
conditions that impact the living organisms and their activities.
The environment includes a wide range of components such as air, water, land, plants, animals,
microorganisms, and the climate. It also includes human-made elements such as buildings, roads,
and other infrastructure, as well as social and cultural factors such as economic systems, political
structures, and belief systems.
The environment is essential to human survival and well-being, as it provides the resources and
conditions necessary for life. Protecting the environment and its resources is crucial for
sustaining the planet's ecological balance and ensuring the continuity of life for future
generations.

2. Comment on development versus environment.


Development and environment are two distinct concepts with different meanings.
While development and environment are distinct concepts, they are often interconnected. The
process of development can have a significant impact on the environment, with activities such as
industrialization, urbanization, and deforestation leading to pollution, habitat destruction, and
climate change. In turn, environmental degradation can have negative impacts on human health
and well-being, as well as on economic development.
As such, it is important to balance the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain
the environment for future generations. This requires careful planning, policy-making, and
action to promote sustainable development that supports both economic growth and
environmental protection.

3. It is important to balance the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain
the environment for future generations. Elaborate.
Or
What is need for sustainable development?
Balancing the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain the environment is
critical for several reasons.
First, the natural environment provides essential resources and servicesthat support human life
and well-being, including clean air and water, fertile soil, and diverse ecosystems that support
biodiversity and provide ecosystem services such as pollination and climate regulation. These
resources and services are finite and can be depleted or degraded through unsustainable
development practices, leading to negative impacts on human health and well-being.
Second, economic development is essential for improving living standards and reducing poverty,
particularly in developing countries. However, unsustainable development practices can lead to
environmental degradation and negative impacts on the health and well-being of local

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communities, particularly those that rely on natural resources for their livelihoods. This can lead
to a vicious cycle of poverty and environmental degradation.
Finally, addressing environmental challenges such as climate change requires global cooperation
and action. Balancing the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain the
environment is essential for achieving sustainable development and addressing these challenges.
To achieve this balance, policymakers and stakeholders must take a holistic approach to
development that considers the social, economic, and environmental impacts of development
activities. This requires implementing policies and practices that promote sustainable
development, such as investing in renewable energy, promoting sustainable agriculture and
forestry practices, and supporting the transition to a circular economy. It also requires engaging
local communities in decision-making processes and empowering them to participate in the
design and implementation of sustainable development initiatives.
Ultimately, balancing the goals of development with the need to protect and sustain the
environment is not only important for current generations but also for future generations. By
promoting sustainable development, we can ensure that future generations inherit a healthy and
prosperous planet.

1.2 Environmentalism
4. What is environmentalism? Discuss briefly the history of environmentalism.
Environmentalism is a social and political movement that seeks to protect the natural world and
promote sustainability. It involves advocating for policies and practices that promote
conservation, reduce pollution, and address environmental problems.
The history of environmentalism can be traced back to the 19th century when writers and
thinkers began to express concerns about the impact of industrialization on the environment. In
the early 20th century, conservationists such as John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt helped to
establish national parks and protected areas to preserve natural habitats and wildlife in the USA.
The modern environmental movement emerged in the 1960s and 1970s in response to growing
concerns about pollution, resource depletion, and other environmental problems. Rachel
Carson's book "Silent Spring," published in 1962, helped to raise awareness about the negative
impacts of pesticides and other chemicals on the environment and human health.
In 1970, the first Earth Day was organized, which brought together millions of people to
demonstrate for environmental protection. This event helped to catalyze the passage of
landmark environmental legislation in the United States, such as the Clean Air Act and the Clean
Water Act.
Since then, environmentalism has become a global movement, with activists and organizations
working to address issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental justice.
The movement has also evolved to include a broader focus on sustainability, recognizing the
interconnections between environmental, social, and economic issues.

5. Trace the history of environmentalism in India.


Environmentalism in India has a long and complex history, rooted in the country's cultural,
social, and political traditions. Here are some key milestones in the evolution of
environmentalism in India:
• Pre-colonial period: India has a rich tradition of nature conservation and
environmental stewardship, embodied in practices such as sacred groves, community-

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based conservation, and traditional knowledge systems. For example, the Bishnoi
community in Rajasthan has been practicing tree conservation for centuries, and the
Chipko movement in the 1970s drew inspiration from such traditions.
• Colonial period: The British colonial administration imposed various policies and
practices that had negative environmental impacts, such as deforestation, commercial
hunting, and dam-building. Some Indian thinkers and activists, such as Mahatma Gandhi,
began to critique these policies and advocate for environmental conservation.
• Post-independence period: After India gained independence in 1947, the government
focused on economic development and modernization, which often came at the cost of
environmental degradation. However, some individuals and organizations began to raise
concerns about environmental issues, such as pollution, deforestation, and wildlife
conservation. The establishment of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act in 1972 was a
major milestone in this regard.
• 1970s-80s: The Chipko movement, which began in 1973 in Uttarakhand, became a
symbol of grassroots environmental activism and inspired similar movements across
India. Other notable movements of this era include the Narmada Bachao Andolan, which
protested against the construction of large dams, and the Silent Valley movement, which
opposed the logging of a tropical forest in Kerala.
• 1990s-2000s: The liberalization and globalization of India's economy during this period
led to a surge in industrialization and urbanization, which brought with it new
environmental challenges such as air pollution, water scarcity, and waste management.
NGOs and civil society groups played a key role in raising awareness and advocating for
solutions to these problems. The introduction of environmental impact assessment (EIA)
laws in 1994 was a significant legal reform in this regard.
• 2010s-present: India has continued to grapple with environmental challenges, such as
climate change, biodiversity loss, and natural disasters. The government has launched
various initiatives and policies to address these issues, such as the National Action Plan
on Climate Change (2008) and the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (2014). NGOs and citizen-led
movements also continue to play a critical role in shaping public discourse and policy on
environmental issues.

1.3 Environmental Protection Policy& Instruments


6. Discuss the objectives of National Environmental Policy of India.
The National Environmental Policy (NEP) of India was first introduced in 2006 and has since
been updated in 2018. The policy sets out the country's objectives and strategies for managing
and protecting the environment. Some of the main objectives of the National Environmental
Policy of India include:
1. Conservation of natural resources: The NEP aims to conserve and manage natural
resources, including forests, rivers, and other ecosystems, to maintain their ecological
balance and promote sustainable development.
2. Pollution control: The policy aims to reduce pollution and promote the use of cleaner
technologies and practices to minimize the negative impacts of development on the
environment and human health.
3. Climate change mitigation and adaptation: The NEP recognizes the need to address
climate change and its impacts on the environment and society. The policy aims to

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promote the use of renewable energy sources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and
increase resilience to climate change.
4. Sustainable development: The policy seeks to promote sustainable development that
balances economic growth with environmental protection and social well-being. It
emphasizes the need to adopt a holistic and integrated approach to development that
considers environmental, social, and economic factors.
5. Public participation and awareness: The NEP emphasizes the importance of engaging
with local communities and stakeholders in decision-making processes and promoting
awareness and education on environmental issues.
6. International cooperation: The policy recognizes the need for international
cooperation and collaboration to address global environmental challenges and promote
sustainable development.
Overall, the National Environmental Policy of India sets out a comprehensive framework for
managing and protecting the environment in the country. Its objectives and strategies aim to
promote sustainable development and ensure that future generations inherit a healthy and
prosperous planet.

7. Explain the key features of the India's Environment Protection Act.


The Environment Protection Act of 1986 is a comprehensive legislation that was enacted by the
Indian Parliament to protect and improve the environment in the country. Some of the key
features of this Act are:
1. Prevention and control of pollution: The Act provides for the prevention and control
of pollution by regulating and prohibiting activities that can cause pollution. It lays down
standards for emissions and effluent discharge and requires industries to obtain
environmental clearances before starting operations.
2. Powers of the Central and State Governments: The Act empowers the Central and
State Governments to take measures to protect and improve the quality of the
environment. They can issue orders, directions, and guidelines to regulate and prohibit
activities that can cause environmental harm.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment: The Act provides for the process of Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) before any project or activity that can have a significant impact
on the environment is undertaken. This process helps in identifying the potential
environmental impacts of the project and ways to mitigate them.
4. Penalties and punishments: The Act provides for penalties and punishments for
violations of its provisions. It includes fines, imprisonment, or both for offenders, and
compensation for the victims of pollution.
5. Establishment of authorities: The Act provides for the establishment of various
authorities such as the Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control
Boards to enforce the provisions of the Act and monitor the quality of the environment.
Overall, the Environment Protection Act is a crucial legislation that has helped in protecting
and improving the environment in India by regulating and controlling pollution and ensuring
compliance with environmental standards.

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1.4 EIA
8. What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? What are its core values?
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process that evaluates the potential environmental
impacts of proposed projects or activities. The goal of EIA is to identify and mitigate potential
negative impacts on the environment and to promote sustainable development.
EIA is one of the successful innovations of 20th century in environmental conservation. It is now
a formal procedure under the law in more than 100 countries.
The core values of EIA include integrity, utility, and sustainability, which are essential for
ensuring that the assessment process is comprehensive and effective.
1. Integrity: Integrity is a core value of EIA that ensures the assessment process is honest,
transparent, and unbiased. It requires that the process is based on accurate and reliable
data, and that the findings are communicated openly and honestly.
• The EIA process must be conducted in a way that is free from any undue
influence or conflict of interest, so that the findings reflect the true potential
impacts of the proposed project or activity.
2. Utility: The utility of EIA refers to its ability to provide useful information to decision-
makers. The assessment process should provide decision-makers with a clear
understanding of the potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of the
proposed project or activity.
• This information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and use
in decision-making. The utility of EIA is critical to ensuring that decisions are
made based on a full understanding of the potential consequences of a project.
3. Sustainability: Sustainability is a core value of EIA that recognizes the need to balance
economic, social, and environmental considerations in decision-making. The assessment
process should evaluate the potential impacts of the proposed project or activity on these
three pillars of sustainability.
• It should also consider the long-term effects of the project, including its potential
to contribute to or detract from sustainable development. Sustainability is critical
to ensuring that decisions are made that promote the well-being of current and
future generations.
In summary, the core values of integrity, utility, and sustainability are essential for ensuring that
the EIA process is comprehensive, effective, and contributes to sustainable development. By
adhering to these values, the assessment process can provide decision-makers with the
information they need to make informed decisions that protect the environment, support local
communities, and promote sustainable development.

9. How does EIA help in decreasing the impacts on Environment?


Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) helps decrease the impacts on the environment by
providing a systematic and comprehensive approach to identify, assess, and mitigate potential
environmental impacts of proposed projects or activities.
Some of the ways that EIA helps decrease the impacts on the environment include:
1. Identifying potential environmental impacts: The EIA process involves identifying
potential environmental impacts of proposed projects or activities. This includes
considering a range of environmental factors, such as air and water quality, biodiversity,

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and cultural heritage. By identifying potential impacts early in the project planning
process, measures can be taken to avoid or mitigate them.
2. Assessing the significance of impacts: EIA involves assessing the significance of
potential environmental impacts. This helps to identify the impacts that are most
significant and require the most attention. It also helps to identify which measures are
most effective in mitigating the impacts.
3. Incorporating mitigation measures: EIA includes the identification and incorporation
of mitigation measures to reduce or eliminate potential environmental impacts. This may
involve changing project design, using different materials or technologies, or
implementing management plans to minimize impacts during project construction and
operation.
4. Monitoring and evaluation: EIA includes monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of
mitigation measures over time. This helps to ensure that the measures are working as
intended and that any unforeseen impacts are identified and addressed promptly.
5. Public participation: EIA involves public participation, which allows stakeholders to
provide input and feedback on the potential environmental impacts of proposed projects
or activities. This helps to ensure that potential impacts are identified and that mitigation
measures are effective and acceptable to local communities.
Overall, EIA helps decrease the impacts on the environment by promoting a comprehensive and
integrated approach to identifying and mitigating potential environmental impacts of proposed
projects or activities. By incorporating mitigation measures and monitoring their effectiveness
over time, EIA can help ensure that projects and activities are environmentally responsible and
contribute to sustainable development.

10. Explain the legal framework of Environmental Impact Assessment in India


The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process in India is governed by a legal framework
that includes several laws, regulations, and guidelines. The following are the key components of
the legal framework for EIA in India:
1. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is
the primary legislation that provides the legal framework for EIA in India. It empowers
the central government to take measures to protect and improve the environment and to
regulate the process of EIA.
2. The EIA Notification, 1994: The EIA Notification, 1994 was issued under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and sets out the procedures for conducting EIA for
certain types of developmental activities. The notification applies to projects listed in its
schedule, which includes activities such as mining, thermal power plants, highways, and
airports, among others.
3. The EIA Notification, 2006: The EIA Notification, 2006 is an amendment to the 1994
notification and includes additional projects and activities that require EIA. The 2006
notification also introduces new procedures for the EIA process, including public
consultation and the requirement for environmental clearance.
4. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act,
2010 establishes the NGT, a specialized court that deals with environmental disputes and
matters related to EIA. The NGT has the power to hear cases related to violations of
environmental laws, including those related to the EIA process.

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5. The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2011: The Coastal Regulation Zone
Notification, 2011 regulates developmental activities in coastal areas, including activities
that require EIA. The notification aims to protect the coastal environment and
communities and requires that projects undergo a comprehensive EIA process before
they can be approved.
6. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980: The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 regulates the
diversion of forestland for non-forest purposes, including developmental activities that
require EIA. The act requires that projects undergo a comprehensive EIA process and
obtain the necessary clearances before forestland can be diverted.
In summary, the legal framework for EIA in India includes several laws, regulations, and
guidelines that aim to protect the environment and promote sustainable development. The
framework requires that projects undergo a comprehensive EIA process, including public
consultation and the requirement for environmental clearance, before they can be approved. The
NGT also provides a specialized court to deal with environmental disputes and violations of
environmental laws, including those related to the EIA process.

11. Explain in detail the process of conducting EIA.


The process of conducting an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a comprehensive and
systematic process that involves several stages. The following is a general overview of the key
steps involved in the EIA process:
1. Screening: The first step in the EIA process is screening, which involves determining
whether a proposed project or activity requires an EIA. The project is evaluated based on
its potential environmental, social, and economic impacts. The screening process
determines whether a project falls under the purview of the EIA regulations and requires
further assessment.
2. Scoping: Scoping is the process of identifying the potential impacts of the proposed
project or activity that need to be assessed in detail. This involves identifying the
relevant environmental, social, and economic factors that could be affected by the
project. Scoping helps to ensure that the assessment process is comprehensive and that
all relevant impacts are considered.
3. Impact assessment: The impact assessment stage is where the actual assessment of the
potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of the proposed project or activity
is conducted. The assessment includes a baseline study of the existing environmental
conditions in the project area, as well as an analysis of the potential impacts that the
project could have on the environment, including air and water quality, biodiversity, and
cultural heritage. The assessment also considers the social and economic impacts of the
project, such as impacts on local communities and livelihoods.
4. Mitigation measures: Based on the findings of the impact assessment, the project
proponent identifies and proposes measures to mitigate the potential impacts of the
project. Mitigation measures are designed to reduce or eliminate the potential negative
impacts of the project and to enhance positive impacts. The proposed measures are
reviewed and evaluated for their effectiveness and feasibility.
5. Environmental Management Plan: The Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
outlines the strategies and measures that will be put in place to manage the
environmental impacts of the project. The EMP includes monitoring and reporting

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requirements, and it is developed based on the findings of the impact assessment and the
proposed mitigation measures.
6. Public consultation: Public consultation is a critical component of the EIA process, as it
provides an opportunity for stakeholders and the public to provide feedback and express
concerns about the proposed project. The project proponent must ensure that the public
is provided with relevant information about the project and the EIA process, and that
their feedback is taken into consideration during the decision-making process.
7. Environmental clearance: The final step in the EIA process is obtaining environmental
clearance. Environmental clearance is granted by the regulatory authority responsible
for overseeing the EIA process, and it signifies that the proposed project has been
evaluated and found to be environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable.
Environmental clearance is usually granted with conditions that the project proponent
must adhere to, including the implementation of mitigation measures and monitoring
requirements.
In summary, the EIA process is a comprehensive and systematic process that evaluates the
potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of a proposed project or activity. The
process involves several stages, including screening, scoping, impact assessment, identification
of mitigation measures, development of an Environmental Management Plan, public
consultation, and obtaining environmental clearance. By following the EIA process, project
proponents can ensure that their projects are environmentally sustainable, socially responsible,
and economically viable.

12. Critically analyse the process of EIA in India.


The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process in India has undergone several changes
over the years, with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the process. However, there are
still several issues with the EIA process in India that need to be addressed. Here are some critical
analyses of the EIA process in India:
1. Lack of Transparency: The EIA process in India lacks transparency, and it is often
difficult for the public to access information about the projects being assessed. The
process is also opaque, with the decision-making authority not always providing
adequate reasons for their decisions. This lack of transparency makes it difficult for
stakeholders and the public to participate effectively in the decision-making process.
2. Inadequate Public Participation: Public participation is a crucial element of the EIA
process, but in India, it is often limited and ineffective. The public is not always provided
with adequate information about the projects being assessed, and the consultation
process is often poorly structured and does not provide a meaningful opportunity for
input. This lack of meaningful public participation undermines the credibility of the EIA
process.
3. Poor Quality of EIA Reports: There have been several instances where the quality of the
EIA reports has been poor, with inadequate analysis of the potential environmental
impacts of the proposed projects. In some cases, EIA reports have been prepared by
consultants hired by the project proponents, leading to conflicts of interest and biased
reporting.
4. Limited Scope of Assessment: The scope of assessment in the EIA process in India is
often limited, with a focus on the immediate impacts of the project rather than the long-

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term impacts. The assessment also often fails to consider cumulative impacts, which can
result in significant environmental damage over time.
5. Ineffective Monitoring and Compliance: Monitoring and compliance are essential
elements of the EIA process, but in India, they are often ineffective. There is a lack of
enforcement of the conditions attached to the environmental clearance, and there is little
accountability for non-compliance. This lack of monitoring and compliance undermines
the effectiveness of the EIA process.
In conclusion, while the EIA process in India has undergone several changes to improve its
effectiveness, there are still several issues that need to be addressed. These issues include the
lack of transparency, inadequate public participation, poor quality of EIA reports, limited scope
of assessment, and ineffective monitoring and compliance. Addressing these issues will require
significant reforms to the EIA process, including improving transparency, enhancing public
participation, ensuring the independence and quality of EIA reports, expanding the scope of
assessment, and strengthening monitoring and compliance mechanisms.

13. Write about the role played by NGT in protecting environment citing some examples.
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has played a significant role in protecting the environment in
India. Since its inception, the NGT has heard several cases related to environmental issues and
has issued orders and directives aimed at mitigating environmental harm.
Here are some examples of the role played by the NGT in protecting the environment:
1. Ban on Plastic: In 2016, the NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the
National Capital Region (NCR).
• The NGT's order directed the government to ensure that no plastic was used in
the NCR and that violators would be fined. The ban was implemented to reduce
plastic pollution, which was causing significant harm to the environment and
public health.
2. Regulating Construction Activities: In 2018, the NGT ordered a ban on all construction
activities in Delhi and the NCR, citing severe air pollution in the region.
• The NGT's order directed the government to ensure that construction activities
did not take place in the NCR until adequate measures were taken to control air
pollution.
3. Restoring Wetlands: In 2017, the NGT ordered the restoration of the wetlands in and
around Bengaluru.
• The NGT's order directed the government to ensure that the wetlands were
protected and restored, and no construction activities were allowed in the area.
The order was implemented to protect the biodiversity of the region and
maintain the ecological balance.
4. Regulating Mining Activities: In 2019, the NGT imposed a fine of Rs 100 crore on a
mining company in Odisha for violating environmental laws.
• The NGT's order directed the company to pay the fine and also ordered the
suspension of mining activities in the region. The order was implemented to
prevent environmental harm caused by mining activities, including air and water
pollution and damage to biodiversity.

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5. Closing Industries Polluting Rivers: In 2013, the NGT ordered the closure of 76
industrial units in Uttarakhand that were discharging untreated effluents into the Ganga
river.
• The NGT found that the units were violating environmental laws and causing
significant harm to the river's ecosystem. The closure of these units has helped in
reducing the pollution in the Ganga river.

6. Stopping Construction in Eco-Sensitive Areas: In 2016, the NGT ordered a halt to all
construction activities in the eco-sensitive areas of the Aravalli mountain range in
Haryana.
• The NGT found that the construction activities were causing significant harm to
the environment and wildlife in the area. The order has helped in protecting the
biodiversity and ecosystems of the Aravalli mountain range.

7. Monitoring River Cleaning Efforts: In 2017, the NGT set up a monitoring committee to
oversee the cleaning of the Yamuna river in Delhi.
• The NGT found that the government was not doing enough to clean the river, and
the monitoring committee was necessary to ensure that the cleaning efforts were
effective. The monitoring committee has helped in improving the quality of the
Yamuna river water.

8. Holding Industries Accountable for Pollution: In 2018, the NGT ordered four
industrial units in Delhi to pay a compensation of Rs. 5 crore for causing environmental
damage due to their activities.
• The NGT found that the units were polluting the air and water in the area, causing
harm to the environment and public health. The order has helped in holding
industries accountable for their environmental impact.
In conclusion, the NGT has played a crucial role in protecting the environment in India through
its decisions and orders. The examples cited above demonstrate the NGT's effectiveness in
addressing environmental issues and holding polluters accountable. The NGT's role in protecting
the environment is crucial in ensuring sustainable development and protecting the rights of
future generations

14. Critically analyze the NGT's achievements and suggest solutions to improve.
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has made significant achievements in protecting the
environment in India since its establishment in 2010. However, there are several challenges that
the NGT faces that could hinder its effectiveness in the future. Here's a critical analysis of the
NGT's achievements and suggestions for improvement:
Achievements of NGT:
1. Specialized Forum: The NGT has provided a specialized forum for the effective and
speedy disposal of cases related to environmental protection and conservation. This has
helped in ensuring that environmental disputes are resolved quickly and efficiently.
2. Environmental Justice: The NGT has played a crucial role in promoting environmental
justice and ensuring that environmental laws and regulations are enforced effectively. It
has helped in holding industries and individuals accountable for their environmental
impact.

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3. Awareness and Education: The NGT has undertaken several initiatives to spread
awareness and education on environmental issues. This has helped in improving
environmental governance and promoting sustainable development.
Challenges faced by NGT:
1. Lack of Adequate Staff and Infrastructure: The NGT faces a severe shortage of staff
and infrastructure. The tribunal is understaffed, and its infrastructure is inadequate,
which hinders its effectiveness in dealing with the increasing workload.
2. Delay in Hearing of Cases: The NGT has a backlog of cases, and there are delays in
hearing cases. This delays the resolution of environmental disputes and hampers the
effective enforcement of environmental laws and regulations.
3. Inadequate Implementation of NGT Orders: The NGT's orders are often not
implemented adequately by government agencies. This undermines the effectiveness of
the NGT's decisions and orders.
Solutions for improvement:
1. Increase Staff and Infrastructure: The government needs to increase the staff and
infrastructure of the NGT to ensure that it can effectively deal with the increasing
workload.
2. Time-Bound Disposal of Cases: The NGT should adopt measures to dispose of cases in a
time-bound manner. This will help in reducing the backlog of cases and ensure that
environmental disputes are resolved quickly and efficiently.
3. Follow-Up and Monitoring of NGT Orders: The government should ensure adequate
follow-up and monitoring of NGT orders to ensure that they are implemented effectively.
This will help in improving the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations.
4. Strengthening the Environmental Governance Framework: The government should
strengthen the environmental governance framework in India to ensure that
environmental issues are addressed more comprehensively. This includes measures such
as strengthening environmental impact assessment, improving the enforcement of
environmental laws, and promoting sustainable development.
In conclusion, while the NGT has made significant achievements in protecting the environment
in India, there are several challenges that need to be addressed to improve its effectiveness. The
government needs to take measures to increase staff and infrastructure, dispose of cases in a
time-bound manner, follow-up and monitor NGT orders, and strengthen the environmental
governance framework to ensure a more comprehensive approach to environmental protection
and conservation.

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Chapter 2: Natural Resources
Syllabus: Natural resources: Forest resources- Commercialization of forests - Forest Acts vs Forest
dwellers/ users; Water: surface water and groundwater, competing demand for water - drinking,
industrial and agriculture; Land resources: competing uses of land – food, feed, fuel, and fibre;
Mining and Environment; Sustainability of natural resources.

2.1 Forests
Covered Syllabus: Forest resources- Commercialization of forests - Forest Acts vs Forest dwellers/
users.
1. Write a note on the Salient Features of India State of the Forest Report (ISFR), 2021.
India State of the Forest Report (ISFR), 2021 is the 17thedition of the biennial report published
by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change, Government of India. The report provides a comprehensive assessment of
the forest cover and tree resources in India, along with detailed information on the changes in
forest cover, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and forest-related policies and programs.
The salient features of the ISFR, 2021 are:
1. Total forest and tree cover: The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.6% of the
geographical area of the country.
• The Total Forest cover is 7,13,789 sq km which is 21.7% of the geographical area
of the country.
• The Tree cover is 2.9% of the geographical area of the country.
2. Increase in forest cover: According to the report, the total forest and tree cover in India
has increased marginally by 2261 square kilometers (0.28% in forest & tree cover;
0.06% in overall area) over the last two years. This includes a growth in forest cover of
0.22% while tree cover growth of 0.76%.

3. The top five states in terms of increase in forest cover:


• Andhra Pradesh > Telangana > Odisha > Karnataka > Jharkhand.
• Forest cover decreased in north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Maniur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
4. Increase in mangrove cover: The report states that the mangrove cover in the country
has increased by 17 square kilometers over the last two years, taking the total mangrove
cover to 4,992 square kilometers.
5. Increase in carbon stock: The report highlights that India's total carbon stock in forests
has increased by 79.4 million tonnes over the last two years, taking the total carbon stock
to 7,204 million tonnes.

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6. Increase in tree cover outside forests: The report states that the tree cover outside
forests has increased by 721 square kilometers over the last two years, taking the total
tree cover outside forests to 95,748 square kilometers.
7. Forest Prone to Fire: The analysis reveals that 22.27% of the forest cover is prone to
forest fire.
8. Assessment of Tiger Reserves: In addition to the regular chapters, this time round, a
special chapter on “Forest Cover assessment in Tiger reserves and Tiger corridor areas of
the country and decadal change in Forest Cover” has also been included. While the tiger
reserves saw a decline in the area (22 sq kms) the tiger corridors have noted an increase
in area (37 sq kms).
• Of the total 52 tiger reserves surveyed, forest cover has shown a decadal increase
in 20 of them, while the rest of the 32 have shown decreased forest cover.
9. Climate Change Impacts: The report also estimated that by 2030 the Indian forests will
be adversely affected by Climate change and rise in global temperatures.
Overall, the ISFR, 2021 provides a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the forest cover and
tree resources in India, highlighting the positive trends in forest cover and carbon stock, while
also highlighting the need for continued efforts to conserve and sustainably manage forests and
biodiversity.

2. Describe the key features of the National Forest Policy of India.


India’s forests are currently governed by the National Forest Policy, 1988. It has environmental
balance and livelihood at its centre.
▪ Salient Features and Goals:
o Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of
ecological balance.
o Conservation of Natural Heritage (existing).
o Checking Soil Erosion and Denudation in catchment areas of rivers, lakes, and
reservoirs.
o Checking extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts.
o Substantially increasing Forest/Tree Cover through Afforestation and Social Forestry.
o Taking steps to meet requirements of fuel, wood, fodder, minor forest produces, soil and
timber of Rural and Tribal Population.
o Increasing the productivity of Forests to meet National Needs.
o Encouraging efficient utilization of Forest Produce and Optimum Use of Wood (Timber).
o Generation of Work Opportunities, the involvement of Women.
▪ Criticism: It has not been updated in a long time while the situation of forests and climate
has substantially changed.
o Key policies regarding forests and forest management are either missing, delayed or left
open-ended. For example, at present, there is no clear definition of forest that is
accepted nationally and states are left to determine their definition of forests.
▪ A draft National Forest Policy was released in 2019. The basic thrust of the draft
is conservation, protection and management of forests along with safeguarding the interest
of tribals and forest-dependent people.

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3. Write about the strategy for Conservation of Forests in India.
India has a rich diversity of forests, which cover around 24% of the country's land area. These
forests provide numerous ecological, economic, and social benefits to the country. To conserve
these forests, the government of India has implemented various policies and programs over the
years. Here are some of the strategies for the conservation of forests in India:
1. Protected Areas: The government has established a network of protected areas such as
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves to conserve the biodiversity
of forests. These protected areas help to conserve the critical habitats of species and
promote the sustainable use of forest resources.
2. Forest Conservation Act: The Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 to regulate
the diversion of forestland for non-forest purposes. This act aims to ensure the proper
management and utilization of forest resources while promoting their conservation.
3. Joint Forest Management: The government has implemented the Joint Forest
Management program to involve local communities in the management and conservation
of forests. Under this program, local communities are given the responsibility of
protecting and managing the forest resources in their area.
4. Afforestation: The government has launched several afforestation programs to increase
the forest cover in the country. These programs aim to plant new forests, improve
degraded forest areas, and restore the ecological health of degraded forest ecosystems.
5. Forest Certification: The government promotes forest certification programs such as
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Programme for the Endorsement of Forest
Certification (PEFC) to promote sustainable forest management practices and
responsible use of forest resources.
6. Forest Fire Management: The government has implemented programs to prevent and
manage forest fires. These programs aim to reduce the impact of forest fires on the
ecological health of forests and prevent the loss of biodiversity and forest resources.
In conclusion, the conservation of forests is critical for the sustainable development of India. The
strategies outlined above aim to conserve the ecological, economic, and social benefits of forests
while promoting sustainable forest management practices.

4. Write about the various types of forests in India.


India is blessed with a diverse range of forests that are spread across the country. These forests
are home to a wide variety of flora and fauna and play a crucial role in maintaining the ecological
balance. The forests in India can be broadly classified into the following types:
1. Tropical Rainforest: These forests are found in the north-eastern states of India, such as
Assam, Meghalaya, and Arunachal Pradesh. They receive heavy rainfall, which supports
the growth of a dense canopy of tall trees.
• These forests are home to a wide variety of species, including rare and
endangered ones like the Asian elephant, Bengal tiger, and one-horned
rhinoceros.
2. Deciduous Forest: The deciduous forests of India are found in the central and eastern
parts of the country.
• They shed their leaves during the dry season to conserve water.
• These forests are dominated by teak, sal, and bamboo trees and are home to a
wide variety of animals like tigers, leopards, and deer.
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3. Alpine Forest: These forests are found in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas,
above 10,000 feet.
• They are characterized by coniferous trees like spruce, fir, and pine.
• These forests are home to a variety of animals, including the snow leopard,
Himalayan musk deer, and blue sheep.
4. Mangrove Forest: Mangrove forests are found along the coastlines of India, in the delta
regions of rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Godavari.
• These forests are characterized by salt-tolerant trees and are home to a variety of
aquatic animals like crocodiles, dolphins, and crabs.
5. Thorn Forest: The thorn forests of India are found in the arid and semi-arid regions of
the country, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• These forests are dominated by thorny shrubs and trees like acacia and babul.
They are home to animals like the Indian gazelle, desert fox, and the great Indian
bustard.
6. Evergreen Forest: The evergreen forests of India are found in the western Ghats, the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the north-eastern states of the country.
• They are characterized by a dense canopy of tall trees that retain their leaves
throughout the year. These forests are home to a variety of animals like the lion-
tailed macaque, Malabar giant squirrel, and the great Indian hornbill.
In conclusion, India's diverse range of forests is a treasure trove of biodiversity, and it is
essential to protect and conserve them for the well-being of the planet and future generations.

Difference between the evergreen forests and tropical rainforests of India.


There is a difference between the evergreen forests and tropical rainforests of India.
While both tropical rainforests and evergreen forests are characterized by a dense canopy of
tall trees, they differ in terms of rainfall and species diversity.
Tropical rainforests have higher rainfall and a greater variety of species, while evergreen
forests have a more consistent (throughout the year) rainfall and a more specific range of
species adapted to the region. Tropical rainforests are mainly found in Northeast India while
ever green forests are found in Western Ghats.

5. How are forests helping the human society? Explain.


Forests play a crucial role in sustaining human society and the planet's health. Here are some
ways in which forests help human society:
1. Providing clean air: Forests produce oxygen through photosynthesis, which is essential
for human survival. Trees absorb carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, and produce
oxygen, which helps to reduce air pollution and improve air quality.
2. Preserving biodiversity: Forests are home to countless species of plants and animals,
and they help to preserve biodiversity on the planet. Biodiversity is essential for the
functioning of ecosystems, and it provides important resources such as food, medicine,
and raw materials.
3. Providing water: Forests help to regulate the water cycle by intercepting rainwater,
reducing runoff, and increasing infiltration into the ground. This helps to recharge

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groundwater and maintain river flows, which are essential for meeting human water
needs.
4. Mitigating climate change: Forests are important carbon sinks and play a significant
role in mitigating climate change by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
5. Supporting livelihoods: Forests provide important resources such as timber, fuelwood,
and non-timber forest products that are essential for supporting the livelihoods of
millions of people worldwide.
6. Protecting soil: Forests help to prevent soil erosion, maintain soil fertility, and protect
against landslides and floods.
In conclusion, forests are essential for the health and well-being of human society, and their
protection and conservation are critical for achieving sustainable development.

6. Discuss the evolution of forest acts in India in the context of the rights of the forest
dwellers. Or
Explain the tussle between Forest Acts and forest dwellers in India. How was this sought
to be addressed through the Forest Rights Act, 2006?
The evolution of forest acts in India has been marked by a shift in focus from the conservation of
forests to the recognition and protection of the rights of forest dwellers. During the colonial
period, forests in India were considered as a valuable natural resource that needed to be
conserved and exploited for economic gains. This led to the enactment of various forest acts such
as the Indian Forest Act of 1865 and the Forest Act of 1927, which declared forests as state
property and gave the government exclusive control over forest resources.
The Forest Acts led to the displacement and marginalization of millions of forest-dwelling
communities who depended on forests for their livelihoods. These communities were denied
access to forest resources and were treated as encroachers and criminals. The Forest Acts did
not recognize the customary rights and practices of forest-dwelling communities and did not
provide for their participation in the conservation and management of forests.
The recognition of the rights of forest-dwelling communities began with the enactment of the
Forest Conservation Act of 1980, which recognized the role of forest-dwelling communities in
the conservation of forests. The act provided for the involvement of forest-dwelling communities
in the management of forests and recognized their right to use and access forest resources for
their livelihoods.
However, it was the enactment of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 that marked a significant shift in
the recognition and protection of the rights of forest-dwelling communities. The act recognized
the rights of forest-dwelling communities to use, manage and conserve forest resources, and
aimed to ensure their participation in the conservation and management of forests. The act
recognized three types of forest rights: individual forest rights, community forest rights, and
habitat rights, and provided for their recognition and protection.
The evolution of forest acts in India has been marked by a gradual shift towards the recognition
and protection of the rights of forest-dwelling communities. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
represents a significant milestone in this regard, as it recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling
communities to access and use forest resources, and promotes their participation in the
conservation and management of forests. The act has helped to address the historical injustices
faced by forest-dwelling communities, and has empowered them to participate in the
conservation and management of forests. However, the implementation of the act has faced
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several challenges, including lack of awareness among forest-dwelling communities about their
rights, inadequate resources for implementation, and resistance from vested interests.

2.2 Water
Covered Syllabus: Water: surface water and groundwater, competing demand for water -
drinking, industrial and agriculture.
7. Describe the total water resources of India divided into surface water and groundwater.
How much is replenished in terms of annual rainfall? How much of the rainfall can be
utilized?
India's total water resources include both surface water and groundwater. Surface water
resources refer to the water that is present in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other surface water
bodies, while groundwater resources refer to the water that is present underground in aquifers
(Aquifers are underground layers of rock or soil that hold and transmit water.).
As per the latest available data from the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, the total
usable water resources in India are estimated to be 1,120 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM), which
includes 690 BCM of surface water and 430 BCM of groundwater.
India receives an average annual rainfall of 1170 millimeters, leading to a total gross rainfall of
4000 BCM, which is the main source of replenishment for its water resources. This rainfall is
distributed unevenly across the country and varies from region to region, with some areas
receiving very high rainfall and others receiving very little.
However, not all of the rainfall can be utilized for various purposes due to several reasons such
as insufficient storage capacity, lack of proper management, and inadequate infrastructure. As
per the Central Water Commission, the utilizable water resources of India are estimated to be
around 690 BCM (out of the total 4000 BCM), which is equivalent to the surface water resources
of the country.
In summary, India's total water resources are estimated to be 1,120 BCM, which includes 690
BCM of surface water and 430 BCM of groundwater. The annual replenishment of these
resources comes from an average annual rainfall of 1170 millimeters, but the utilizable water
resources are only around 690 BCM.

8. Analyse the demand for water in India by domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors.
India is one of the world's most water-stressed countries, with limited water resources and a
rapidly growing population. The demand for water in India is primarily driven by three sectors:
domestic, industrial, and agricultural.
1. Domestic sector: The domestic sector includes household and municipal water use. The
domestic sector is the smallest water consumer in terms of volume but plays a critical
role in meeting the basic needs of people. According to the Central Water Commission
(CWC), the domestic sector's total water demand in India is estimated to be around 8%
of the total water demand. In urban areas, the demand for domestic water is much
higher, accounting for up to 50% of the total water demand.
2. Industrial sector: The industrial sector is the second-largest water consumer in India,
accounting for around 5% of the total water consumption. The demand for water in the
industrial sector is primarily driven by the manufacturing and mining industries.
Industries such as textiles, paper, and chemicals are significant water consumers. The

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industrial sector's water demand is expected to increase due to the growth of the
manufacturing sector and the increasing demand for energy.
3. Agricultural sector: The agricultural sector is the largest consumer of water in India,
accounting for around 80% of the total water consumption. Irrigation is the primary
source of water consumption in the agricultural sector, and it is estimated that around
60% of the water used for irrigation is groundwater. The demand for water in the
agricultural sector is expected to increase due to the growing population, increasing
urbanization, and changing dietary patterns.
In conclusion, the demand for water in India is driven by the domestic, industrial, and
agricultural sectors. The agricultural sector is the largest water consumer, followed by the
industrial and domestic sectors. Addressing the water crisis in India requires a comprehensive
approach that addresses the needs of all sectors while ensuring sustainable and equitable access
to water for all.

Water stressed and water scarce conditions


As per the Central Water Commission (CWC) in India, the definitions of water-stressed and
water-scarce conditions are as follows:
1. Water-stressed conditions: When per capita availability of water is below1700
cubic meters per year, a region is considered to be in a water-stressed condition. In
such conditions, water availability is not sufficient to meet the basic requirements
of the population and can lead to a shortage of water for agriculture, industry, and
other sectors.
2. Water-scarce conditions: When per capita availability of water falls below1000
cubic meters per year, a region is considered to be in a water-scarce condition. In
such conditions, the demand for water far exceeds the available supply, leading to
severe water scarcity and its adverse impact on various sectors of the economy and
society.

9. Discuss the water crisis being faced by India.Provide relevant examples and statistics.
India is currently facing a severe water crisis, particularly in many parts of the country where
water scarcity has become a major issue. Here are some examples and numbers that illustrate
the water crisis in India:
1. Overexploitation and depletion of groundwater: India is the largest user of
groundwater in the world, with around 230 billion cubic meters of groundwater
extracted annually for various uses such as irrigation, drinking water, and industrial
purposes. However, overexploitation and depletion of groundwater resources have led to
a significant decline in water levels in many parts of the country. As per the Central
Ground Water Board, around 60% of India's districts are currently facing a groundwater
crisis, with water levels declining at an alarming rate of 0.3 meters per year.
2. Erratic rainfall patterns: Climate change and erratic rainfall patterns have also
contributed to the worsening water situation in the country. In 2019, India received 10%
below-average rainfall during the monsoon season, which resulted in drought-like
conditions in many parts of the country. This affected agriculture, which is the largest
consumer of water in India, and led to crop failures and loss of livelihoods for farmers.
3. Water scarcity in urban areas: Rapid urbanization and population growth have put
immense pressure on water resources in urban areas. According to a report by the

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National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog), around 600 million people in
India are facing high to extreme water stress, and 21 major cities, including Delhi,
Chennai, and Hyderabad, are expected to run out of groundwater by 2020.
4. Poor water management practices: Poor management practices, lack of adequate
infrastructure, and inefficient use of water resources have also contributed to the water
crisis in India. For example, many farmers in India still use flood irrigation, which is an
inefficient technique that results in a significant amount of water wastage.
5. Impact on health and environment: The water crisis in India has also had significant
impacts on health and the environment. Lack of access to safe drinking water has led to
waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhea, which are major public
health concerns. Water pollution due to industrial and domestic waste has also
contaminated water resources, further exacerbating the water crisis.
In summary, India's water crisis is a complex issue that requires sustained efforts and a
comprehensive approach to ensure sustainable and equitable access to water for all. The
government and various stakeholders are taking steps to address the water crisis by promoting
water conservation, implementing efficient irrigation techniques, and improving the
management of water resources, but much more needs to be done to ensure water security in
the country.

10. Elaborate on the solutions to the water crisis in India.


The water crisis in India is a complex issue that requires sustained efforts and a comprehensive
approach to ensure sustainable and equitable access to water for all. Here are some solutions
that can be implemented to address the water crisis in India:
Good water management practices:
India receives adequate annual rainfall through the south-west monsoon. However, most regions
of the country are still water deficient mainly because of inefficient water management practices.
Rainwater harvesting should be encouraged on a large scale, especially, in cities where the
surface runoff of rainwater is very high.
Roof-top rainwater harvesting can also be utilised to recharge groundwater by digging
percolation pits around the house and filling it with gravel.
Indian cities need to learn from Cape Town of South Africa which when faced with the water
crisis in 2018 had announced “Day Zero“. During that day, water-taps in the city turned off =
people had to use communal water-taps to conserve water. Restrictions on water use per person
were also fixed.
Since water is a state subject in India state governments should take active measures and create
awareness for the minimal use of water.
Interlinking of rivers:
Interlinking of rivers is a topic that has been discussed and debated for several years as a
possible permanent solution to the water crisis in the country.
The 3 primary advantages mentioned in favour of the scheme are
(1) droughts will never occur
(2) there will be no more floods in the major rivers and
(3) an additional 30,000 MW of hydropower will be generated.
Coordination in aquifer usage:

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• There is an urgent need for coordination among users for aquifers.
• There should be laws and contracts for sharing of aquifers.
• Groundwater aquifer mapping has started only recently in India which is a welcome step.
River basin authority:
There should be a River Basin Authority for sharing information among states since most of the
rivers in India pass through different states.
Coordinated efforts among states for management of groundwater at a localized level.
Community-level management:
At the village level, there can be decentralized management of water at the community level.
Charging money for efficient use of water (like electricity).
For example- Water ATMs at Marathwada provide water @25 paisa per litre a day.
Good Cultivation practices:
Changing the cropping pattern, crop diversification and encouraging water use efficiency in
agriculture by moving towards food crops from cash crops.
Innovative farming practices like precision farming, zero budget natural farming, etc. could be
employed for efficient water utilisation.
Incentive-based water conservation in rural parts of the water-stressed regions is another
solution.

For example, if a particular level of groundwater level is maintained, higher MSP can be provided
to the farmers of that region.
MSP can also be provided based on crop’s water usage = Crops that consume a high amount of
water will get less MSP.
In summary, addressing the water crisis in India requires a multi-faceted approach that involves
adopting good water management practices, interlinking of rivers, coordination in acquifer
usage, establishing River basis authority, coordinating efforts among states, community level
management, charging money for water usage, good farming practices, and incentivizing water
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conservation. A sustained effort by the government, civil society, and other stakeholders is
needed to ensure sustainable and equitable access to water for all.

11.Write about the Water Resource Management in India.


Water resource management in India is a complex issue due to the country's diverse geography,
uneven distribution of rainfall, and increasing demand for water. India is a water-stressed
nation, with per capita availability of water declining steadily due to population growth and
climate change. In recent years, the Indian government has implemented various policies and
measures to address water resource management challenges.
The National Water Policy, which was last revised in 2012, provides guidelines for the
development and management of water resources in India. The policy emphasizes the need for a
comprehensive and integrated approach to water resource management, including conservation,
efficient use, and equitable distributionof water resources.
The Indian government has also launched several programs and initiatives to address water
scarcity and promote sustainable water resource management. These include the National Rural
Drinking Water Program, which aims to provide safe drinking water to all rural households, and
the National River Conservation Plan, which focuses on pollution control and restoration of
polluted rivers.
The government has also promoted the use of modern irrigation techniques and water-efficient
agricultural practicesthrough various schemes, such as the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana
and the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana. These initiatives aim to increase agricultural productivity
while minimizing water usage.
In addition to government initiatives, civil society organizations and NGOs have played a vital
role in promoting water conservation and sustainable management practices. The Jal Bhagirathi
Foundation, for instance, works with rural communities in Rajasthan to improve water
management and promote sustainable water use.
Despite these efforts, India continues to face significant water resource management challenges,
including groundwater depletion, inadequate water infrastructure, and increasing water demand.
Addressing these challenges will require sustained government and community efforts to
improve water governance, promote water conservation, and invest in water infrastructure.

12. What is rain water harvesting? How is rain water harvesting implemented? How can
India benefit from rainwater harvesting?
Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting, storing and using rainwater for various
purposes such as irrigation, drinking water, and groundwater recharge. It involves the collection
of rainwater from rooftops, surface runoff, and other catchment areas, and its storage in tanks or
underground reservoirs for later use.
Rainwater harvesting can be implemented in various ways, depending on the local conditions
and the purpose of the harvesting. Some common methods of rainwater harvesting include:
1. Rooftop rainwater harvesting: This involves collecting rainwater from rooftops using
gutters and downspouts, and storing it in tanks or underground cisterns.
2. Surface runoff harvesting: This involves collecting rainwater from paved or unpaved
surfaces such as roads, parking lots, and fields, and diverting it into storage tanks or
recharge pits.

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3. Groundwater recharge: This involves the direct injection of rainwater into the ground
to recharge aquifers and replenish groundwater resources.
India can benefit greatly from rainwater harvesting, especially given the country's high
dependence on monsoon rains for agriculture and drinking water. Some potential benefits of
rainwater harvesting in India include:
1. Increased water availability: Rainwater harvesting can help augment the availability of
water in areas that suffer from water scarcity or drought.
2. Improved groundwater recharge: By replenishing groundwater resources, rainwater
harvesting can help stabilize water tables and reduce the risk of groundwater depletion.
3. Reduced demand on municipal water supply: By using harvested rainwater for non-
potable uses such as irrigation and industrial processes, communities can reduce their
dependence on municipal water supplies.
4. Improved crop yields: By providing a reliable source of irrigation water, rainwater
harvesting can help improve crop yields and food security.
5. Reduced risk of flooding: By capturing and storing rainwater, communities can reduce
the risk of flooding and soil erosion caused by heavy rainfall events.
Overall, rainwater harvesting is a simple and cost-effective way to conserve water resources and
promote sustainable water management practices in India. With appropriate policies and
incentives, rainwater harvesting can be widely adopted across the country, benefiting both rural
and urban communities alike.

13. Describe the salient features of National Water Policy, 2012 of India.
The National Water Policy of India was last revised in 2012, and it provides guidelines for the
development and management of water resources in the country.
Some of the salient features of the National Water Policy, 2012 are:
1. Comprehensive and integrated approach: The policy emphasizes the need for a
comprehensive and integrated approach to water resource management, including
conservation, efficient use, and equitable distribution of water resources.
2. Participatory approach: The policy recognizes the importance of involving all
stakeholders in water management, including local communities, NGOs, and private
sector organizations.
3. Demand-side management: The policy emphasizes the need for demand-side
management measures, such as water conservation and efficient use of water, to reduce
the pressure on water resources.
4. River basin approach: The policy promotes a river basin approach to water
management, which involves planning and management of water resources at the river
basin level, rather than individual projects or schemes.
5. Water pricing: The policy emphasizes the need for appropriate water pricing
mechanisms, which reflect the true value of water and encourage efficient use of water.
6. Groundwater management: The policy recognizes the importance of groundwater
resources and emphasizes the need for sustainable management of groundwater,
including regulation of groundwater use, promotion of recharge, and prevention of over-
exploitation.

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7. Climate change adaptation: The policy recognizes the impact of climate change on
water resources and promotes measures for climate change adaptation, such as water
conservation, water use efficiency, and storage of excess water during monsoon periods.
8. Research and development: The policy emphasizes the need for research and
development in water management, including the development of new technologies and
best practices for sustainable water management.
Overall, the National Water Policy, 2012 provides a framework for the development and
management of water resources in India, which is based on the principles of equity,
sustainability, and participatory management. By promoting sustainable water management
practices, the policy aims to ensure that water resources are conserved and used efficiently for
the benefit of all stakeholders.

14. Write about the methods to boost efficiency in water utility and conservation.
Boosting efficiency in water utility and conservation is crucial to ensure sustainable
management of water resources, especially in the face of increasing demand and scarcity of
water in many parts of the world. Here are some methods that can be used to improve efficiency
in water utility and conservation:
1. Leak detection and repair: Water leaks in distribution systems can result in significant
loss of water and reduced efficiency. Regular monitoring and repair of leaks can help
reduce water loss and improve the efficiency of water distribution.
2. Water metering and billing: Accurate metering and billing of water consumption can
help identify areas of high consumption and encourage users to conserve water.
3. Water pricing: Appropriate water pricing mechanisms, such as tiered pricing, can
encourage efficient use of water and discourage wasteful consumption.
4. Demand-side management: Implementing demand-side management measures, such
as water conservation campaigns and water-efficient fixtures and appliances, can reduce
water consumption and improve efficiency.
5. Recycling and reuse: Implementing systems for recycling and reuse of wastewater can
help reduce demand for freshwater and improve efficiency in water management.
6. Rainwater harvesting: Harvesting and using rainwater can help augment the
availability of water and reduce demand for freshwater.
7. Smart water management: Using advanced technologies such as remote sensing,
Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence (AI) can help optimize water
management and improve efficiency.
8. Groundwater management: Regulating groundwater use and promoting recharge of
aquifers can help ensure sustainable use of groundwater resources and improve
efficiency.
9. Green infrastructure: Implementing green infrastructure such as rain gardens, green
roofs, and bioswales can help reduce stormwater runoff and recharge groundwater
resources.
10. Policy and regulatory framework: Developing and implementing effective policies and
regulations can help promote sustainable water management practices and improve
efficiency in water utility and conservation.
Overall, a combination of these methods can help improve the efficiency of water utility and
conservation, reduce wastage, and promote sustainable use of water resources.
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15. What is watershed? Highlight the importance of watershed in conserving the natural
resources.
A watershed is an area of land where all of the water that falls within it drains to a common
point, such as a river, lake, or ocean. It includes all of the land and water bodies, as well as the
plants, animals, and people that depend on them. Watersheds can vary in size from a few acres to
entire river basins.
Watersheds are essential for conserving natural resources because they are the source of many
of the resources we depend on, such as water, food, and energy. Here are some key ways in
which watersheds are important for conserving natural resources:
1. Water supply: Watersheds are the source of most of our freshwater resources, including
drinking water, irrigation water, and water for industrial and commercial uses.
Conserving and managing watersheds is essential to ensure a sustainable supply of water
for all uses.
2. Biodiversity: Watersheds are home to a wide range of plant and animal species, many of
which are unique to specific watersheds. Conserving watersheds is essential to protect
biodiversity and prevent the loss of species.
3. Soil conservation: Watersheds are essential for soil conservation because they regulate
the flow of water and prevent soil erosion. Conserving watersheds helps maintain soil
fertility and prevent soil degradation.
4. Climate regulation: Watersheds play an important role in regulating the climate by
storing and releasing water, regulating temperature, and absorbing carbon dioxide.
Conserving watersheds can help mitigate the impacts of climate change by reducing
carbon emissions and increasing resilience to extreme weather events.
5. Economic benefits: Watersheds provide a range of economic benefits, including fishing,
agriculture, forestry, and recreation. Conserving watersheds can help ensure sustainable
economic development and provide long-term benefits for local communities.
Overall, watersheds are essential for conserving natural resources and ensuring sustainable
development. By protecting and managing watersheds, we can ensure a sustainable supply of
water, protect biodiversity, maintain soil fertility, regulate the climate, and support economic
development.

16. India has many traditional water harvesting systems. List some of these traditional
water harvesting systems along with the areas in which they are found.
India has a rich heritage of traditional water harvesting systems that have been used for
centuries to capture and conserve rainwater. Here are some of the traditional water harvesting
systems found in different parts of India:
1. Rooftop rainwater harvesting: This system involves collecting rainwater from rooftops
and storing it in tanks for later use. This system is found in various parts of India,
including Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
2. Tankas: Tankas are underground tanks that are used to collect and store rainwater. This
system is found in Rajasthan and other parts of North India.
3. Johads: Johads are earthen dams that are built across small streams to conserve
rainwater. This system is found in Rajasthan, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.

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4. Khadins: Khadins are small earthen embankments that are built along the slopes of hills
to collect and conserve rainwater. This system is found in Rajasthan.
5. Eris: Eris are small earthen reservoirs that are used to collect and store rainwater. This
system is found in Tamil Nadu.
6. Kattas: Kattas are small check dams that are built across streams to store rainwater. This
system is found in Maharashtra.
7. Zing: Zing is a traditional water harvesting system used in the hilly regions of Meghalaya.
It involves building small earthen embankments to direct rainwater into natural
depressions, where it is stored for later use.
These traditional water harvesting systems are sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally
friendly, and they have played a significant role in meeting the water needs of rural communities
for centuries. The promotion and revival of these systems can help address the water crisis in
India and ensure sustainable and equitable access to water for all.

2.3 Land Resources


Covered Syllabus: Land resources: competing uses of land food, feed, fuel, and fibre.
Land is a ubiquitous resource which provides the requirements of the basic elements of the life
support system of our planet as a key provider of food, water, shelter and employment. The finite
nature of land resources poses major challenge for food, water and environmental security in a
farm - dependent economy like India.
• India has 2.4% of the World’s land area but supports 18% of the world’s population
indicating the excess pressure on land resources in the country.
• Total Land area: 328 million hectares (3.28 million km2)
• Distribution: Agriculture – 45% (142 million hectares); Forests – 24%; Barren &
Wastelands – 16%; Urban – 7.5%; Pasture & Grazing – 4.5%; Surface water – 3%

17. Write about the total land resources of India and their distribution based on different
uses that land is put to.
India has a total land area of approximately 3.28 million square kilometers, which is divided into
different land uses based on factors such as geography, climate, and population density.
The following are the different land resources and their distribution based on usage in India:
1. Agricultural land: India is predominantly an agricultural country, with approximately
60% of its total land area dedicated to agriculture. The agricultural land is mainly used
for cultivating crops such as wheat, rice, maize, and sugarcane. The states with the
largest agricultural land area are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
2. Forests: India has a total forest cover of around 24% of its total land area including tree
cover. The forests in India are distributed across the country, with the highest forest
cover in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.
3. Urban land: India has witnessed rapid urbanization in the last few decades, with the
urban land area increasing from 2.5% in 1901 to around 7.5% in 2011. The urban land is
mainly used for residential and commercial purposes, and the highest concentration of
urban areas is in the states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh.
4. Pasture and grazing land: India has a significant livestock population, and around 4.5%
of its total land area is used for pasture and grazing land. These lands are mainly found in

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the rural areas of the country and are used for grazing livestock such as cattle, sheep, and
goats.
5. Barren and wasteland: Approximately 17% of India's total land area is considered
barren or wasteland due to factors such as soil erosion, desertification, and salinity.
These lands are mainly found in the western and north-western parts of the country, and
efforts are being made to reclaim them for productive use.
In conclusion, India has a diverse range of land resources that are used for various purposes,
including agriculture, urbanization, and forestry. The distribution of land use is determined by
several factors, including geography, climate, and population density, among others.

18. Write a note on the competing uses of land in India for food, feed, fuel, and fibre.
India faces several challenges in managing its land resources, as there are competing uses for
different purposes, such as food, feed, fuel, and fibre.
1. Food: India is the second-most populous country in the world, and food security is a
significant concern. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for over 50% of the
Indian population, and around 60% of the total land area is dedicated to agriculture.
However, with increasing population pressure and land degradation, ensuring food
security remains a significant challenge.
2. Feed: India has a significant livestock population, and around 4.5% of the total land area
is used for pasture and grazing land. However, the demand for animal feed is increasing
with the growth of the dairy and meat industry, leading to the diversion of agricultural
land for fodder production.
3. Fuel: With the increasing demand for energy, there is a growing interest in using biofuels
as a renewable energy source. The production of biofuels requires land resources,
primarily for growing crops such as sugarcane, oilseeds, and jatropha. This has led to the
diversion of agricultural land for biofuel production, leading to concerns about food
security.
4. Fibre: India is one of the largest producers of cotton in the world, and cotton cultivation
requires significant land resources. The demand for cotton and other fibers for the textile
industry is increasing, leading to the expansion of cotton cultivation and other fiber
crops, leading to the conversion of forest and agricultural land.
In conclusion, India's land resources face competing uses for food, feed, fuel, and fiber, leading to
several challenges such as food security, land degradation, and environmental concerns.
Addressing these challenges requires sustainable land management practices that balance the
competing uses of land and promote inclusive and equitable development.

19. Discuss various threats to land resources in India.


India's land resources face several threats due to natural and human-induced factors, leading to
land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and environmental pollution. These threats have significant
implications for food security, livelihoods, and the environment.
Here are some of the major threats to land resources in India:
1. Land degradation: Soil erosion, desertification, and salinization are major forms of land
degradation that affect India's land resources. These processes are driven by natural
factors such as climate change and human-induced factors such as deforestation,
overgrazing, and unsustainable agricultural practices.

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2. Land use change: Rapid urbanization, infrastructure development, and industrialization
have led to the conversion of agricultural and forest land into urban and industrial areas.
This has significant implications for food security, biodiversity, and environmental
degradation.
3. Water scarcity: India faces significant water scarcity due to overexploitation of
groundwater resources, inadequate water management practices, and climate change.
This has implications for agriculture, which is the largest user of water resources in
India.
4. Mining and quarrying: India is rich in mineral resources, and mining and quarrying
activities have led to significant land degradation and environmental pollution. This has
implications for the health and livelihoods of communities living in mining areas.
5. Climate change: India is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, which include
increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts and
floods. These events have significant implications for agriculture, land degradation, and
biodiversity loss.
6. Wildlife habitat loss: India has rich biodiversity, and its forests are home to several
endangered species such as tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses. Habitat loss due to
deforestation and land use change poses a significant threat to wildlife populations.
In conclusion, India's land resources face several threats that have significant implications for
food security, livelihoods, and the environment. Addressing these threats requires sustainable
land management practices, improved water management, and measures to mitigate the impacts
of climate change. Protecting wildlife habitats and ensuring inclusive and equitable development
are also critical for addressing these threats.

20. Discuss the measures for improving the land resources in India.
Improving land resources in India requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the root
causes of land degradation, promotes sustainable land management practices, and enhances the
resilience of communities and ecosystems.
Improving the management of land resources is essential for promoting sustainable
development and addressing the challenges of food security, livelihoods, and environmental
sustainability. Here are some measures for improving the land resources in India:
1. Sustainable land management practices: The adoption of sustainable land
management practices such as conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and sustainable
grazing practices can improve soil health, reduce soil erosion, and enhance agricultural
productivity.
2. Land-use planning: The development of land-use plans at the regional and local levels
can help balance competing demands for land resources and promote equitable and
sustainable land use.
3. Watershed management: Watershed management practices such as rainwater
harvesting, soil and water conservation measures, and sustainable irrigation practices
can enhance water availability, reduce soil erosion, and improve agricultural
productivity.
4. Forest conservation and restoration: Forest conservation and restoration measures
such as afforestation, reforestation, and restoration of degraded forests can enhance
biodiversity, improve soil health, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

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5. Land tenure reforms: Land tenure reforms such as the recognition of community land
rights, land redistribution, and strengthening of land use regulations can promote
equitable land use and reduce land conflicts.
6. Use of technology: The use of technology such as remote sensing, GIS, and precision
agriculture can improve land-use planning, monitoring of land-use changes, and enhance
agricultural productivity.
7. Public awareness and participation: Raising public awareness about the importance of
sustainable land management practices and promoting community participation in land-
use planning and management can enhance the effectiveness of land management efforts.
In conclusion, improving the management of land resources in India requires a multi-sectoral
and multi-stakeholder approach that integrates sustainable land management practices,
watershed management, forest conservation and restoration, land tenure reforms, use of
technology, and public participation. These measures can enhance agricultural productivity,
promote biodiversity conservation, and mitigate the impacts of climate change while ensuring
equitable and sustainable development.

21. What is wasteland? What is the estimated area of wastelands in India?


The term "wasteland" generally refers to land that is unproductive, barren, or degraded and is
unsuitable for cultivation or other economic activities. It may include areas such as deserts,
drylands, rocky terrain, abandoned mines, or other areas where soil fertility, water availability,
or other conditions make it difficult to sustain life.
In India, the government defines wastelands as areas that are legally classified as such and are
unsuitable for cultivation or habitation. According to the latest available data by NRSC (National
Remote Sensing Centre) of ISRO the total wasteland area of the country was observed to be 17%
(5,57,665 sq. km) of the total area (as per the Wastelands Atlas, 2019).
However, it's important to note that the definition of wastelands is subjective and may vary
depending on factors such as ecological context, land use patterns, and social and economic
factors. Additionally, some areas that are classified as wastelands may have potential for
restoration or rehabilitation through appropriate interventions such as soil and water
conservation measures, afforestation, or other land management practices.

22. What is the need for the reclamation or improvement of wastelands in India?
There are several needs for the reclamation of wastelands in India:
1. Increase in the availability of cultivable land: India has a large population and limited
arable land. Developing wastelands can provide additional land for cultivation, which can
help increase agricultural productivity and food security.
2. Prevention of soil erosion: Wastelands are often prone to soil erosion, which can have
serious consequences for the environment and local communities. Developing these
areas can help prevent soil erosion and restore ecological balance.
3. Promotion of rural livelihoods: Developing wastelands can create employment
opportunities for rural communities and help promote sustainable livelihoods.
4. Promotion of biodiversity: Wastelands can be restored to support the growth of native
plants and animals, which can help promote biodiversity and ecosystem health.

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5. Mitigation of climate change: Developing wastelands can help mitigate the impacts of
climate change by increasing carbon sequestration, reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
and promoting sustainable land use practices.
6. Water conservation: Wastelands can be developed to improve water conservation and
water management practices. This can help increase water availability and improve the
sustainability of agricultural practices.
7. Soil health: Wasteland development can improve soil health and fertility, which can
increase agricultural productivity and promote sustainable land use practices.
Overall, the reclamation or improvement or development of wastelands in India is important for
promoting sustainable development, conserving natural resources, and improving the
livelihoods of rural communities.

23. Discuss the strategies for wasteland reclamation.


Wasteland reclamation involves a range of strategies aimed at restoring degraded land and
making it productive and sustainable. Some of the key strategies for wasteland reclamation are:
1. Soil and water conservation: This involves implementing measures to prevent soil
erosion and promote soil health. This may include techniques such as contour
bunding,terracing, and construction of check dams to slow down water runoff and trap
sediment. Other strategies may include rainwater harvesting, construction of small
ponds, and creation of water harvesting structures to improve water availability.
2. Afforestation and agroforestry: Planting trees and shrubs can help improve soil
fertility, prevent soil erosion, and provide a range of ecosystem services. Agroforestry,
which involves growing crops in combination with trees, can also be an effective way to
rehabilitate wastelands.
3. Organic farming: Organic farming practices can help improve soil health, prevent soil
erosion, and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This can lead to more
sustainable and healthier farming practices.
4. Livestock management: Sustainable livestock management practices can help improve
soil fertility, prevent soil erosion, and provide a source of income for rural communities.
This may involve grazing management, manure management, and provision of fodder
and water.
5. Micro-enterprises and ecotourism: Setting up small-scale enterprises such as
beekeeping, poultry farming, and horticulture can provide alternative livelihoods for rural
communities. Ecotourism can also provide an additional source of income while
promoting the conservation of natural resources.
6. Participatory approaches: Wasteland reclamation projects should involve local
communities in the planning and implementation process. This can help build local
ownership, promote sustainable practices, and ensure the long-term success of the
project.
7. Monitoring and evaluation: Monitoring and evaluation of the success of wasteland
reclamation projects is crucial to identify areas for improvement and ensure that the
benefits are sustained in the long term.
Overall, the success of wasteland reclamation strategies depends on a range of factors, including
ecological context, social and economic factors, and availability of resources. A holistic and

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participatory approach that considers these factors is essential for the long-term success of
wasteland reclamation projects.

2.4 Mining & Environment


24. What is meant by mineral resources? How they form? Write about different types of
mineral resources.
Mineral resources are naturally occurring substances that are extracted from the earth for
economic purposes. They are typically solid, inorganic, and have a crystalline structure. These
resources are used in a variety of industries, such as construction, manufacturing, energy
production, and agriculture.
Mineral resources are formed through a variety of geological processes. Some are formed
through igneous processes, such as the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Others are
formed through sedimentary processes, such as the accumulation and cementation of sediments.
Still, others are formed through metamorphic processes, such as the alteration of existing
minerals due to heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.
There are several types of mineral resources:
1. Metallic minerals: These include minerals that contain metal elements such as iron,
copper, gold, silver, and zinc. They are typically found in ores and are extracted through
mining and refining processes.
2. Non-metallic minerals: These include minerals that do not contain metal elements, such
as limestone, salt, gypsum, and clay. They are used in a variety of industries, such as
construction, agriculture, and manufacturing.
3. Fossil fuels: These include coal, oil, and natural gas, which are formed from the remains
of dead plants and animals that have been buried and compressed over millions of years.
They are used primarily for energy production.
4. Gemstones: These include minerals that are prized for their beauty and rarity, such as
diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires.
5. Industrial minerals: These include minerals that are used in industry, such as silica,
graphite, talc, and mica.
6. Rare earth elements: These include a group of 17 elements that are used in a variety of
high-tech applications, such as smartphones, wind turbines, and electric cars.
Overall, mineral resources are important for the functioning of modern society and the global
economy. However, their extraction and use can have significant environmental impacts, such as
land degradation, air and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is
important to manage these resources in a sustainable and responsible manner.

25. Give an account of the mineral resources of India.


India is a mineral-rich country with a wide variety of mineral resources. The country is home to a
large number of metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals, fossil fuels, and other valuable mineral
resources. Some of the major mineral resources of India are:
1. Coal: India is the world's third-largest producer and importer of coal. The country has
large reserves of coal, which are primarily found in the eastern and central parts of the
country. Coal is primarily used for power generation and industrial purposes.

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2. Iron ore: India is the world's fourth-largest producer of iron ore. The country has large
reserves of high-grade iron ore, which are primarily found in the states of Odisha,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Karnataka. Iron ore is primarily used for steel production.
3. Bauxite: Bauxite is primarily used for the production of aluminum. India is the world's
fifth-largest producer of bauxite. The country has large reserves of high-quality bauxite,
which are primarily found in the states of Odisha, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
4. Manganese: India is the world's sixth-largest producer of manganese. The country has
large reserves of high-quality manganese ore, which are primarily found in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha. Manganese is primarily used for the
production of steel and batteries.
5. Copper: India is a minor producer of copper, but the country has significant reserves of
the metal. Copper is primarily used for electrical and electronic applications.
6. Zinc: India is the world's second-largest producer of zinc. The country has large reserves
of high-grade zinc ore, which are primarily found in the states of Rajasthan and Andhra
Pradesh. Zinc is primarily used for the production of galvanized steel, batteries, and
other applications.
7. Gold: India is a minor producer of gold, but the country has significant reserves of the
metal. Gold is primarily used for jewelry and investment purposes.
8. Other minerals: India is also rich in other mineral resources, such as limestone,
dolomite, gypsum, phosphate, and chromite.
Overall, India's mineral resources play an important role in the country's economy and industrial
development. However, their extraction and use can have significant environmental and social
impacts, such as land degradation, air and water pollution, and displacement of local
communities. Therefore, it is important to manage these resources in a sustainable and
responsible manner.

26. Explain the impacts of mining activity on the environment.


Mining activity can have significant impacts on the environment, which can affect the health and
well-being of local communities and ecosystems.
Some of the key impacts of mining activity on the environment are:
1. Land degradation: Mining activity often involves the removal of large quantities of soil
and rock, which can result in the destruction and fragmentation of natural landscapes.
This can lead to soil erosion, loss of vegetation, and the disruption of wildlife populations.
2. Water pollution: Mining activity can result in the contamination of surface water and
groundwater with heavy metals, chemicals, and other pollutants. This can have harmful
effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health, as well as impact drinking water
supplies.
3. Air pollution: Mining activity can also result in the release of dust and other particulate
matter into the air, which can have harmful effects on human health and the
environment. Additionally, mining activity can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions,
which can contribute to climate change.
4. Habitat destruction: Mining activity can also result in the destruction of natural
habitats, which can lead to the displacement and loss of plant and animal species. This
can disrupt ecosystem functioning and have negative impacts on biodiversity.

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5. Human health impacts: Mining activity can also have negative impacts on the health of
local communities, especially those living near mining sites. This can include respiratory
problems, skin diseases, and other health issues related to exposure to mining-related
pollutants.
Overall, the impacts of mining activity on the environment can be significant and long-lasting. It
is important to manage mining activity in a sustainable and responsible manner, and to minimize
the environmental and social impacts of mining operations. This can be achieved through the
implementation of effective environmental management practices, such as the use of best
available technologies, environmental impact assessments, and community engagement and
consultation.

27. Suggest measures to minimize the negative impacts of mining.


There are several measures that can be taken to minimize the negative impacts of mining activity
on the environment and local communities.
Some of these measures are:
1. Implementing environmental impact assessments (EIAs): EIAs can help to identify
potential environmental and social impacts of mining activity and suggest ways to
mitigate or avoid them.
2. Implementing best available technologies: The use of best available technologies can
help to reduce the environmental impacts of mining activity, such as the use of low-
emission vehicles, dust suppression measures, and water recycling systems.
3. Reducing waste and minimizing resource use: Efforts should be made to reduce the
amount of waste generated during mining activity, and to minimize the use of non-
renewable resources, such as water and energy.
4. Restoring degraded land: Restoration of mined areas can help to mitigate the impacts of
mining activity on the environment and support the recovery of natural habitats and
ecosystems.
5. Engaging with local communities: Engagement with local communities can help to
ensure that their needs and concerns are taken into account during the mining process.
This can involve consultation, information sharing, and the provision of benefits and
compensation.
6. Monitoring and reporting: Regular monitoring and reporting can help to ensure that
mining activities are conducted in a responsible and sustainable manner, and that any
negative impacts are identified and addressed.
Overall, it is important to manage mining activity in a sustainable and responsible manner, and
to minimize the environmental and social impacts of mining operations. This can be achieved
through the implementation of effective environmental management practices, community
engagement and consultation, and monitoring and reporting.

2.5 Sustainability of Natural Resources


28. What is ‘Sustainability of natural resources’? Discuss the importance of sustainability
of natural resources.
The sustainability of natural resources refers to the ability to manage natural resources in a way
that ensures their availability for future generations.Sustainability involves using resources in a

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way that balances economic, social, and environmental factors and does not deplete or degrade
them over time.
Sustainability of natural resources is important for several reasons:
1. Meeting current and future needs: Natural resources are essential for human survival
and well-being. Sustaining natural resources ensures their availability for current and
future generations, ensuring that we can meet our needs for food, water, energy, and
other resources without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
2. Economic development: Natural resources provide the raw materials for economic
activities such as agriculture, forestry, and mining, and are essential for the production of
goods and services that sustain human life. Sustainable management of natural resources
can promote economic development and support livelihoods, particularly in rural areas.
3. Environmental protection: Natural resources are essential for maintaining the health
and productivity of ecosystems. Sustainable management of natural resources can help
to protect ecosystems, prevent habitat loss and degradation, and conserve biodiversity.
4. Climate change mitigation and adaptation: Natural resources play a critical role in
climate change mitigation and adaptation. Sustainable management of forests, for
example, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by storing carbon and providing
renewable energy sources. Conservation of wetlands and other ecosystems can help to
reduce the impacts of floods and droughts.
5. Social equity: Sustainable management of natural resources can promote social equity
by ensuring that benefits and costs are distributed fairly across society, particularly for
marginalized communities.
Overall, sustaining natural resources is essential for human well-being, economic development,
environmental protection, and social equity. It requires balancing economic, social, and
environmental factors and using resources in a way that does not deplete or degrade them over
time.

29. Suggest some measures for achieving sustainability of natural resources.


There are several measures that can be taken to achieve sustainability of natural resources:
1. Implementing sustainable land use practices: This includes practices such as
agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated land use planning, which can help to
maintain soil fertility, prevent erosion, and conserve water resources.
2. Promoting renewable energy sources: This includes increasing the use of solar, wind,
and hydropower, and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, which can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change.
3. Protecting and restoring ecosystems: This includes measures such as habitat
conservation, reforestation, and restoration of wetlands and other degraded ecosystems,
which can help to conserve biodiversity, support ecosystem services, and mitigate
climate change.
4. Reducing waste and promoting circular economy: This includes measures such as
reducing waste generation, promoting recycling and reuse, and implementing
sustainable waste management practices, which can help to conserve natural resources
and reduce environmental pollution.

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5. Implementing sustainable fisheries and aquaculture practices: This includes
measures such as regulating fishing practices, promoting sustainable aquaculture
practices, and conserving marine habitats, which can help to maintain fish stocks and
support the livelihoods of fishing communities.
6. Encouraging sustainable tourism practices: This includes measures such as
promoting responsible tourism practices, supporting sustainable tourism businesses,
and conserving natural and cultural heritage sites, which can help to promote economic
development while protecting natural and cultural resources.
7. Improving governance and policy frameworks: This includes measures such as
strengthening legal frameworks, improving governance structures, and promoting
stakeholder engagement and participation, which can help to ensure that natural
resources are managed in a sustainable and equitable manner.
Overall, achieving sustainability of natural resources requires a holistic and integrated approach
that balances economic, social, and environmental factors and ensures that natural resources are
managed in a way that meets the needs of current and future generations.

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Chapter 3: Eco-systems and Biodiversity
Syllbaus: Eco systems and Bio-diversity: Ecology and Eco-system; Food chains in Eco systems,
Typology of eco system; Bio diversity and its conservation, Types of Bio diversity, threat to Bio
diversity.
3.1 Ecology and Eco-system
1. Define ‘Ecology’. Explain the concept of ecology mentioning the types of ecological
studies.
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment. It is
concerned with understanding the distribution and abundance of living organisms, their
interactions with each other and with their environment, and how they are influenced by natural
and human-induced factors.
There are two main types of ecological studies that focus on different levels of ecological
organization:
1. Autecology is the study of individual organisms and their relationship to their environment. It
focuses on the behavior, physiology, and life history of a single species, and how these traits
interact with the physical and biological environment to determine the distribution and
abundance of the species. Autecology can also investigate the adaptations of a species to
different environmental conditions, such as temperature, water availability, and nutrient
availability.
2. Synecology, on the other hand, is the study of communities and their interactions with the
environment. It focuses on the interactions among different species in a community, such as
competition, predation, and mutualism, and how these interactions shape the structure and
function of the community. Synecology can also investigate how environmental factors, such as
temperature, precipitation, and disturbance, influence the composition and diversity of a
community.
Overall, autecology and synecology are complementary approaches to understanding ecological
systems, with autecology focusing on the individual level and synecology focusing on the
community level. Together, they provide a comprehensive understanding of how living
organisms interact with their environment and with each other, and how these interactions
shape the diversity, structure, and function of ecological systems.

2. Explain the Ecological Hierarchy.


The ecological hierarchy is a framework used to understand the organization of ecological systems,
from the smallest scale of individual organisms to
the largest scale of the biosphere. It consists of
several levels of organization, each of which
represents a different level of complexity and
integration of ecological systems.
The main levels of the ecological hierarchy, in
order from smallest to largest, are:
1. Individual: This level includes individual
organisms and their interactions with
their environment, such as their behavior,
physiology, and development.
2. Population: This level includes groups of

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individuals of the same species that interact with each other, such as through
reproduction, competition, and predation.
3. Community: This level includes all the populations of different species that interact with
each other in a particular ecosystem, such as a forest, grassland, or coral reef.
4. Ecosystem: This level includes the living organisms in a particular ecosystem, as well as
their non-living environment, such as the atmosphere, water, and soil.
5. Biome: This level includes all the ecosystems that share similar climatic and
environmental conditions, such as tropical rainforests, deserts, or tundra.
6. Biosphere: This level includes the entire planet and all the living organisms that inhabit
it, as well as the physical and chemical processes that support life.
The ecological hierarchy is important for understanding how ecological systems are organized,
and how they function at different levels of complexity.
It provides a framework for investigating ecological questions, from the molecular level of genes
and proteins, to the global scale of climate change and biogeochemical cycles. Understanding the
ecological hierarchy is essential for developing effective conservation and management
strategies that protect the diversity and integrity of ecological systems at all levels.

3. Define Ecosystem. What are the components of an Ecosystem?


An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microbes) interacting with
one another and their physical environment(such as soil, air, water, and sunlight).
These interactions involve the exchange of matter and energy, resulting in a complex network of
relationships among the ecosystem components.
The components of an ecosystem include:
1. Abiotic factors: These are non-living physical and chemical factors that influence the
environment of the ecosystem. Examples of abiotic factors include sunlight, temperature,
water, soil, and nutrients.
2. Producers: These are autotrophic organisms that convert energy from the sun into
organic matter through photosynthesis. Examples include plants, algae, and some
bacteria.
3. Consumers: These are heterotrophic organisms that obtain energy by consuming other
organisms. There are three types of consumers: herbivores (eat only plants), carnivores
(eat only other animals), and omnivores (eat both plants and animals).
4. Decomposers: These are saprotrophic organisms that break down dead organic matter
into simpler compounds, releasing nutrients back into the ecosystem. Examples include
fungi and bacteria.
5. Food chains and food webs: These are the interconnected relationships between
producers and consumers, where energy is transferred from one organism to another.
6. Biodiversity: This refers to the variety of living organisms present in an ecosystem.
Biodiversity is important for the functioning and stability of the ecosystem.
7. Biogeochemical cycles: These are the pathways through which matter (such as carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus) and energy flow through the ecosystem, being recycled and
reused.

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4. What are the functions of ecosystem?
Ecosystems provide a wide range of essential functions that are critical for the well-being and
survival of all living organisms, including humans. Some of the key functions of ecosystems
include:
1. Biodiversity: Ecosystems support a diverse array of plant and animal species, which
contribute to the overall health and resilience of the ecosystem. Biodiversity provides a
range of ecosystem services, such as pollination, pest control, and soil health, that are
critical for agriculture and human survival.
2. Nutrient cycling: Ecosystems play a crucial role in the cycling and recycling of nutrients,
such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, which are essential for the growth and
survival of plants and other organisms. Ecosystems help to regulate the distribution and
availability of nutrients, preventing nutrient loss and ensuring that they are available for
use by living organisms.
3. Water cycling: Ecosystems regulate the flow and quality of water, through processes
such as precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration. They help to maintain the balance
of water in the environment, providing water for drinking, irrigation, and other human
needs.
4. Climate regulation: Ecosystems help to regulate the Earth's climate by absorbing and
storing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, and by providing cooling through
evapotranspiration and shading. They play a crucial role in mitigating climate change and
maintaining stable climate patterns.
5. Soil formation: Ecosystems help to form and maintain healthy soils, through processes
such as decomposition, nutrient cycling, and erosion control. Healthy soils are essential
for agriculture and provide a habitat for a wide range of microorganisms and other
organisms.
Overall, the functions of ecosystems are interconnected and essential for the overall health and
well-being of the planet and all living organisms.

3.2 Food chains in Eco systems


5. What is food chain? Explain different types of food chains with suitable examples.
A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms that shows how energy and nutrients are
transferred from one organism to another in an ecosystem. The sequence starts with a producer,
usually a plant or an algae, which converts sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. Then,
the energy flows to a series of consumers that feed on each other, ending with a top predator.
There are three types of food chains:
1. Grazing food chain: In this type of food chain, the energy flows from plants to
herbivores to carnivores. The primary consumers, such as deer or cows, feed on the
producers (plants), and the secondary consumers, such as wolves or lions, feed on the
herbivores. Example: Grass → Beetle
→ Rat → Owl
2. Detritus food chain: In this type of
food chain, the energy flows from
dead organic matter, such as dead
leaves or animal carcasses, to
decomposers, such as bacteria and

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fungi, and then to detritivores, such as earthworms and termites, and finally to predators.
Example: Dead leaves → Bacteria → Earthworms → Birds
3. Parasitic food chain: In this type of food chain, the energy flows from one organism to
another through a parasite. The parasite feeds on a host, which may be a plant or an
animal. Example: Malaria parasite→ Mosquito → Human
It is important to note that food chains are interconnected, and they form a complex network of
relationships called a food web. In a food web, multiple food chains are interconnected, and
organisms can have multiple food sources, which increases their chances of survival.

6. Write a note on the significance of the food chains?


Food chains are a crucial part of any ecosystem, as they represent the flow of energy and
nutrients from one organism to another. A food chain is a series of organisms that are linked by
their feeding relationships, with each organism in the chain being eaten by the next organism in
the sequence.
The significance of food chains lies in their role in maintaining the balance of nature. Every living
organism in an ecosystem depends on other organisms for survival, and food chains provide a
mechanism for this interdependence. They help to regulate the populations of different species
by ensuring that no one species becomes too dominant or too scarce. For example, if the
population of a predator species in a food chain increases, it may lead to a decrease in the
population of its prey, which in turn may affect the next organism in the chain, and so on.
Food chains also play a vital role in the cycling of nutrients within an ecosystem. When one
organism dies, its body is broken down by decomposers like bacteria and fungi, and the
nutrients released are taken up by other organisms in the food chain. This ensures that the
nutrients are recycled and used by the ecosystem rather than being lost from the system.
Overall, food chains are an essential component of the functioning of ecosystems, and
understanding them is crucial for conservation and management of natural resources.

7. What is a food pyramid? What are the types of food pyramid?


A food pyramid (also called an ecological
pyramid) is a graphical representation of
the relationship between different
organisms in an ecosystem, based on
their trophic levels (i.e. their position in
a food chain) and the amount of energy
or biomass they represent.
There are three types of ecological
pyramids:
1. Pyramid of numbers: This type
of ecological pyramid represents
the number of individuals at each
trophic level in a food chain. It
shows that, in general, the number of organisms decreases as you move up the trophic
levels, as each successive level contains fewer individuals that are larger in size. However
in certain food chains such as parasitic food chains – the pyramid of numbers can be
inverted when the lower level contains less number of individuals than the higher level.

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For example, a single tree can support multiple insects each of those insects supporting
millions of microscopic parasites.
2. Pyramid of biomass: This type of ecological
pyramid represents the amount of living matter or
biomass at each trophic level in a food chain. It
shows that the biomass decreases as you move up
the trophic levels, as each successive level contains
less biomass that is more concentrated in energy.
3. Pyramid of energy: This type of ecological pyramid
represents the amount of energy that flows through
each trophic level in a food chain. It shows that the
amount of energy decreases as you move up the
trophic levels, as each successive level requires
more energy to sustain the organisms at that level.
Overall, ecological pyramids provide a visual representation of the energy transfer and
distribution within an ecosystem, highlighting the importance of each trophic level in sustaining
the overall health and balance of the ecosystem.

8. What is a bio-geochemical cycle? Write a note on the types of biogeochemical cycles.


A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical element or molecule moves through
both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of an ecosystem. These cycles involve
various biological, geological, and chemical processes that transform, transport, and recycle
nutrients and other essential elements required for life.
There are several types of biogeochemical cycles, including:
1. Carbon cycle: This cycle involves the movement of carbon through the Earth's
biosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere. Carbon is taken up by plants
through photosynthesis and returned to the atmosphere through respiration and decay.
It is also stored in soil, oceans, and rocks.
2. Nitrogen cycle: This cycle involves the movement of nitrogen through the atmosphere,
soil, and living organisms. Nitrogen is converted into various forms, including ammonia,
nitrate, and organic nitrogen, which are used by plants and animals. It is also converted
back into atmospheric nitrogen through processes such as denitrification.
3. Phosphorus cycle: This cycle involves the movement of phosphorus through the Earth's
crust, soil, water, and living organisms. Phosphorus is taken up by plants and animals
and returned to the soil through decay and excretion. It is also released into the ocean
through weathering and erosion.
4. Water cycle: This cycle involves the movement of water through the Earth's
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Water is evaporated from oceans and other
bodies of water, transported through the atmosphere, and precipitated back onto land
and water bodies.
5. Sulfur cycle: This cycle involves the movement of sulfur through the Earth's atmosphere,
soil, and living organisms. Sulfur is taken up by plants and animals and returned to the
soil through decay and excretion. It is also released into the atmosphere through volcanic
activity and combustion of fossil fuels.

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9. Explain the role that bio-geochemical cycles play in Ecosystems.
Biogeochemical cycles are essential for the functioning of ecosystems because they allow for the
recycling and redistribution of vital nutrients and elements required for life. These cycles
regulate the availability of nutrients, water, and energy within ecosystems and ensure the
sustainable use of resources.
Here are some of the roles that biogeochemical cycles play in ecosystems:
1. Nutrient cycling: Biogeochemical cycles allow for the recycling of nutrients such as
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, which are essential for plant growth and metabolism.
These cycles ensure that nutrients are continuously available to support the growth of
plants and other primary producers, which are the basis of all food webs.
2. Energy flow: Biogeochemical cycles also facilitate the flow of energy through
ecosystems. This occurs as organic matter is broken down and decomposed by
microorganisms, releasing energy that can be used by other organisms in the ecosystem.
3. Climate regulation: Biogeochemical cycles are closely linked to the regulation of
climate. For example, the carbon cycle plays a critical role in regulating the concentration
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is a key driver of global climate change.
4. Water quality: Biogeochemical cycles also play a crucial role in maintaining the quality
of water resources within ecosystems. For example, when the nitrogen and phosphorus
cycles are disrupted by human activities such as agriculture and wastewater discharge, it
can lead to eutrophication and harmful algal blooms in water bodies.
Overall, biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining the health and resilience of
ecosystems and are critical for sustaining life on Earth.

10. Write a note on the ecological productivity in ecosystem.


Ecological productivity is the rate at which organic matter is produced in an ecosystem through
photosynthesis by plants and other primary producers. It is a critical component of ecosystem
functioning because it drives the growth and survival of organisms at all trophic levels.
Here are some key aspects of ecological productivity in ecosystems:
1. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): GPP is the total amount of organic matter produced
by plants through photosynthesis. It represents the energy available to all organisms in
the ecosystem and is typically measured as the rate of carbon fixation per unit area per
unit time.
2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP): NPP is the amount of organic matter produced by
plants that is available for consumption by other organisms after accounting for
respiration by the plants themselves. It is the primary source of energy for all consumers
in the ecosystem, including herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
3. Secondary productivity: Secondary productivity is the rate at which organic matter is
produced by consumers in the ecosystem through their metabolism and growth. It is
dependent on the amount of NPP available to support the consumer population and the
efficiency with which energy is transferred between trophic levels.
4. Limiting factors: Ecological productivity is affected by a range of abiotic and biotic
factors, including temperature, light availability, nutrient availability, and species
interactions. For example, in aquatic ecosystems, nutrient availability can be a limiting
factor for primary productivity, while in terrestrial ecosystems, temperature and
precipitation are often the key drivers.

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5. Human impacts: Human activities can also have a significant impact on ecological
productivity in ecosystems. For example, deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and
pollution can all reduce NPP and disrupt the flow of energy through food webs.
Overall, ecological productivity is a critical aspect of ecosystem functioning, providing the
foundation for all life on Earth. Understanding the factors that affect productivity and the
consequences of human impacts on ecosystems is essential for maintaining the health and
sustainability of our planet.

11. What is meant by ecological succession? Discuss the types and significance of
ecological succession.
Ecological succession is the process by which an ecosystem changes over time as a result of both
biotic and abiotic factors. It involves the gradual replacement of one community of organisms by
another until a stable and self-sustaining community, known as a climax community, is
established.
There are two primary types of ecological succession:
1. Primary succession: Primary succession occurs in an area that has not previously
supported life, such as a newly formed volcanic island or a bare rock surface. The process
begins with the colonization of pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, which
gradually transform the environment by breaking down rock and soil and creating
organic matter. As the environment becomes more hospitable, larger and more complex
plant and animal communities become established, leading to the eventual development
of a climax community.
2. Secondary succession: Secondary succession occurs in an area that has been disturbed
or disrupted by natural or human-caused events, such as a wildfire, flood, or abandoned
agricultural land. In this case, the process begins with the re-establishment of species
that survived the disturbance, such as weeds and grasses. These species gradually
transform the environment and create conditions that are more suitable for the re-
establishment of other plant and animal communities. Over time, the ecosystem may
return to a state similar to its previous condition or develop a new climax community.
The significance of ecological succession lies in its ability to restore and maintain the health and
resilience of ecosystems. Succession plays a critical role in the recovery of ecosystems that have
been damaged or disrupted by natural or human-caused events. It also allows for the adaptation
of ecosystems to changing environmental conditions, such as climate change, and the
development of more diverse and stable communities of organisms.
Furthermore, succession can also have economic and cultural significance. For example,
secondary succession can lead to the re-establishment of valuable timber or agricultural lands,
while primary succession can create new habitats for ecotourism and recreation.
In summary, ecological succession is a natural process that allows ecosystems to adapt and
evolve over time. Understanding the factors that influence succession and its role in ecosystem
functioning is essential for effective ecosystem management and conservation.

3.3 Typology of Ecosystem


12. Discuss the classification of ecosystems.

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Ecosystems are classified based on several factors, including their physical characteristics,
dominant vegetation, and the types of organisms that inhabit them. Here are the primary ways in
which ecosystems are classified:
1. Terrestrial vs. Aquatic Ecosystems: The first broad classification of ecosystems is
based on whether they occur on land (terrestrial ecosystems) or in water (aquatic
ecosystems). Terrestrial ecosystems include forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra,
while aquatic ecosystems include oceans, freshwater rivers and lakes, wetlands, and
estuaries.
2. Biome-based classification: Biome-based classification categorizes ecosystems based
on their dominant vegetation and climate. The world's major biomes include tropical
rainforest, temperate forest, savanna, grassland, tundra, desert, and chaparral.
3. Ecotone-based classification: Ecotone-based classification categorizes ecosystems
based on their transitional zones. Ecotones are regions where two or more different
ecosystems meet, such as the boundary between a forest and grassland. Ecotones often
have a unique mix of organisms from both ecosystems, making them important for
biodiversity.
4. Succession-based classification: Succession-based classification categorizes
ecosystems based on their stage of ecological succession. The two primary types of
succession-based ecosystems are pioneer and climax ecosystems. Pioneer ecosystems
are characterized by the establishment of hardy, early colonizing species, such as lichens
and mosses, while climax ecosystems are characterized by a stable, self-sustaining
community of organisms that are adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions.
5. Anthropogenic classification: Anthropogenic classification categorizes ecosystems
based on the degree of human influence. This classification includes natural ecosystems,
which have not been significantly impacted by human activity, and human-modified
ecosystems, such as urban and agricultural ecosystems.
Each of these classification systems provides a different way of understanding and studying
ecosystems. The classification system used depends on the research question and the context in
which the ecosystem is being studied.

13. Describe the different types of terrestrial ecosystems.


Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems that occur on land and are characterized by their
dominant vegetation, climate, and soil type.
Here are the different types of terrestrial ecosystems:
1. Forest Ecosystems: Forests are ecosystems that are dominated by trees, which form the
uppermost layer of vegetation. Forest ecosystems can be divided into three categories:
tropical, temperate, and boreal. Tropical forests are found near the equator and are
characterized by high rainfall and high species diversity. Temperate forests are found in
areas with moderate rainfall and temperatures, while boreal forests are found in colder
areas with long winters.
2. Grassland Ecosystems: Grasslands are ecosystems that are dominated by grasses and
other herbaceous plants. Grasslands can be divided into two categories: temperate and
tropical. Temperate grasslands are found in areas with moderate rainfall and
temperatures, while tropical grasslands, also known as savannas, are found in areas with
seasonal rainfall.

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3. Desert Ecosystems: Deserts are ecosystems that are characterized by low precipitation
and extreme temperatures. They can be divided into four categories: hot and dry, semi-
arid, coastal, and cold.
4. Tundra Ecosystems: Tundra ecosystems are found in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions
and are characterized by low temperatures and short growing seasons. Tundra
ecosystems can be divided into two categories: arctic tundra and alpine tundra.
5. Chaparral Ecosystems: Chaparral ecosystems are found in areas with a Mediterranean
climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. They are dominated by
shrubs and are characterized by a high diversity of plant species.
6. Wetland Ecosystems: Wetland ecosystems are characterized by saturated or inundated
soils and are found in areas such as marshes, swamps, and bogs. They are important
habitats for a wide variety of plant and animal species.
Each of these terrestrial ecosystems has its own unique characteristics, and the plants and
animals that inhabit them are adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions.
Understanding the different types of terrestrial ecosystems is important for managing and
conserving these ecosystems and their biodiversity.

14. Describe the different types of aquatic ecosystems.


Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems that are characterized by the presence of water. They are
broadly classified into two categories based on the type of water they contain: freshwater
ecosystems and marine ecosystems.
1. Freshwater Ecosystems: Freshwater ecosystems include rivers, streams, ponds, lakes,
and wetlands. They are characterized by low salt content, which makes them different
from marine ecosystems.
• Freshwater ecosystems can be further divided into lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Lentic ecosystems are still or slow-moving bodies of water, such as ponds and
lakes, while lotic ecosystems are flowing bodies of water, such as rivers and
streams.
• Freshwater ecosystems are important for biodiversity and provide habitats for a
wide variety of aquatic plant and animal species.
2. Marine Ecosystems: Marine ecosystems are saltwater environments that include
oceans, estuaries, coral reefs, and open seas. They cover more than 70% of the earth's
surface and are characterized by high salt content.
• Marine ecosystems can be divided into the pelagic zone, which includes the open
ocean, and the benthic zone, which includes the ocean floor.
• Marine ecosystems are home to a diverse range of plant and animal species,
including coral, seaweed, fish, whales, and dolphins.
3. Estuarine Ecosystems: Estuarine ecosystems are transitional ecosystems that are
formed where freshwater rivers meet the sea. They are characterized by the mixing of
freshwater and saltwater and are home to a unique mix of plant and animal species that
are adapted to the changing salinity levels.
• Estuaries provide important habitats for fish, shellfish, and bird species, making
them critical for commercial and recreational fishing and bird watching.

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Aquatic ecosystems are important for regulating the earth's climate, supporting biodiversity, and
providing important resources such as food and water. They are also vulnerable to human
activities, such as pollution, overfishing, and climate change, making their conservation and
management critical for ensuring the long-term health of the planet.

3.4 Biodiversity
Covered Syllabus: Bio diversity and its conservation, Types of Bio diversity, threat to Bio diversity.
15. What is biodiversity? Trace the evolution of the concept of biodiversity.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the diversity of species, genetic
diversity, and ecosystem diversity. It encompasses all living organisms, from the smallest
bacteria to the largest animals, and their interactions with each other and their environment.
The concept of biodiversity has evolved over time. In the past, biodiversity was often measured
in terms of the number of species present in a particular area. However, as scientists began to
recognize the importance of genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity, the definition of
biodiversity expanded to include these aspects.
The term "biodiversity" was first coined in the mid-1980s by biologist Edward O. Wilson. Wilson
was concerned about the rapid loss of species due to human activities, such as habitat
destruction and pollution, and he saw biodiversity as a way to measure and conserve the
richness of life on Earth.
Since then, the concept of biodiversity has become increasingly important in conservation
biology and ecology. In 1992, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity was
established to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The convention
recognizes biodiversity as a vital resource for human well-being and emphasizes the importance
of protecting it for future generations.
Today, biodiversity is considered essential for maintaining the functioning of ecosystems and the
provision of ecosystem services, such as clean water, air, and food. It is also recognized as a key
indicator of the health of the planet and the potential impact of human activities on the
environment.
In conclusion, the concept of biodiversity has evolved over time, from a focus on species
diversity to a broader understanding that includes genetic and ecosystem diversity. This
evolution reflects a growing recognition of the importance of biodiversity for the health of the
planet and the well-being of humanity.

16. Describe different levels of Biodiversity.


Biodiversity can be described at different levels, including the following:
1. Species Diversity: Species diversity refers to the number of different species present in
a particular area or ecosystem. It is the most commonly used measure of biodiversity.
The higher the number of species, the greater the species diversity. High species diversity
is often associated with healthy and resilient ecosystems.
2. Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genes within a species.
This diversity can be observed in the physical traits, behavior, and adaptations of
individuals within a population. Genetic diversity is important for the survival and
evolution of a species. It enables populations to adapt to changing environmental
conditions, resist diseases, and maintain their genetic viability.

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3. Ecosystem Diversity: Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats, ecological
processes, and biological communities within an ecosystem. It includes the diversity of
landscapes, soil types, and hydrological regimes. Ecosystem diversity is important for the
functioning of ecosystems and the provision of ecosystem services, such as clean water,
air, and food.
4. Functional Diversity: Functional diversity refers to the diversity of biological traits and
functions within an ecosystem. It includes the diversity of ecological roles, such as
predator-prey relationships, pollination, nutrient cycling, and decomposition. Functional
diversity is important for the stability and resilience of ecosystems and the provision of
ecosystem services.
5. Phylogenetic Diversity: Phylogenetic diversity refers to the evolutionary history of a
group of organisms. It measures the degree of evolutionary relatedness between species
and the branching patterns of evolutionary lineages. Phylogenetic diversity is important
for understanding the patterns and processes of evolution and the conservation of
evolutionary heritage.
In conclusion, biodiversity can be classified into different levels, including species diversity,
genetic diversity, ecosystem diversity, functional diversity, and phylogenetic diversity.
Each level is important for maintaining the health and functioning of ecosystems and the
provision of ecosystem services. Understanding and protecting biodiversity at all levels is
essential for maintaining the health of the planet and ensuring a sustainable future for humanity.

17. What is the significance of biodiversity? Why is it important to maintain biodiversity?


Biodiversity is significant in a number of ways, both for the health of the planet and for human
well-being.
Here are some of the main reasons why biodiversity is important:
1. Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity supports a range of ecosystem services, including air
and water purification, soil fertility, pollination, and pest control. These services are
essential for the functioning of ecosystems and for human well-being.
2. Food Security: Biodiversity is also essential for food security, as it provides the raw
materials for agriculture and fisheries. Many of the world's staple crops, such as rice,
wheat, and maize, are derived from wild relatives that have been domesticated over
thousands of years.
3. Medicine: Many of the world's medicines are derived from natural sources, such as
plants and animals. Biodiversity is therefore an important source of potential new drugs
and treatments for human diseases.
4. Climate Regulation: Biodiversity also plays a key role in regulating the Earth's climate
by sequestering carbon in plants and soils and by regulating the water cycle.
5. Cultural and Aesthetic Value: Biodiversity also has cultural and aesthetic value,
providing inspiration for art, literature, and music, and contributing to spiritual and
recreational experiences.
Despite its importance, biodiversity is currently under threat due to a range of human activities,
such as habitat destruction, pollution, overexploitation, and climate change. Maintaining
biodiversity is therefore essential for ensuring the long-term health of the planet and for
securing a sustainable future for humanity.

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In conclusion, biodiversity is significant for a range of reasons, including ecosystem services,
food security, medicine, climate regulation, and cultural and aesthetic value. Maintaining
biodiversity is essential for the health of the planet and for human well-being, and it is therefore
important that we take action to protect and preserve the diversity of life on Earth.

18. Biodiversity is rapidly decreasing in the last few decades. In this context, write about
the various threats to biodiversity with examples.
Biodiversity is facing numerous threats due to human activities. Here are some of the main
threats to biodiversity with suitable examples:
1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Habitat loss and fragmentation occur when natural
habitats are destroyed or broken up into smaller fragments. This can occur due to human
activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture. For example, the
destruction of the Amazon rainforest for agricultural purposes is a major threat to the
biodiversity of the region.
2. Climate Change: Climate change is a major threat to biodiversity as it can alter the
distribution and abundance of species, and cause changes in ecosystem functioning. For
example, the warming of the oceans is leading to the loss of coral reefs, which are
important habitats for a range of marine species.
3. Pollution: Pollution can harm biodiversity by contaminating habitats and causing harm
to species. For example, the release of chemicals and pollutants into rivers and oceans
can harm fish and other aquatic species.
4. Overexploitation: Overexploitation occurs when species are harvested or used at a rate
that exceeds their natural rate of reproduction. For example, overfishing is a major threat
to the biodiversity of marine ecosystems.
5. Invasive Alien Species: Invasive Alien species can harm biodiversity by outcompeting
native species for resources and altering ecosystem functioning. For example, the
introduction of the Asian carp to the Great Lakes region of North America is threatening
native fish species.
6. Wildlife Trade: Wildlife trade can harm biodiversity by putting pressure on species that
are already threatened or endangered. For example, the demand for elephant ivory and
rhino horn is contributing to the decline of these species.
7. Disease: Disease outbreaks can harm biodiversity by reducing the population sizes of
species and altering ecosystem functioning. For example, the spread of Canine Distemper
Virus in lions in Gir forest of India led to massive deaths among them.
In conclusion, biodiversity faces a range of threats due to human activities, including habitat loss
and fragmentation, climate change, invasive species, wildlife trade, pollution, and disease. By
taking action to address these threats, we can work to protect and preserve the diversity of life
on Earth.

19. Discuss various methods of biodiversity conservation.


There are several methods of biodiversity conservation, including:
1. Habitat Conservation: One of the most effective ways to conserve biodiversity is to
protect the habitats where species live. This can be achieved through the establishment
of protected areas such as national parks, wildlife reserves, and forest reserves.

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2. Sustainable Use: Another approach to biodiversity conservation is to use natural
resources sustainably, so that they are not depleted over time. This includes practices
such as selective logging, sustainable fishing, and eco-tourism.
3. Species Recovery Programs: For critically endangered species, recovery programs can
be established to help rebuild populations. These programs often involve captive
breeding, habitat restoration, and predator control.
4. Legislation and Policy: National and international legislation and policy can also help to
conserve biodiversity. This includes laws protecting endangered species, regulating the
trade of wildlife, and requiring environmental impact assessments for development
projects.
5. Education and Awareness: Education and awareness-raising programs can also help to
promote biodiversity conservation by increasing public understanding and support for
conservation efforts.
6. Biotechnology: Advances in biotechnology can also be used to conserve biodiversity.
For example, seed banks can preserve the genetic diversity of plant species, and assisted
reproductive technologies can be used to help conserve endangered species.
In conclusion, there are many methods of biodiversity conservation, including habitat
conservation, sustainable use, species recovery programs, legislation and policy, Education and
awareness, and Biotechnology. By using these processes the Biodiversity of an ecosystem or a
planet as a whole can be preserved leading to a healthy planet and a sustainable future for
humanity.

20. What is biodiversity hotspot? Trace the evolution of the concept of biodiversity
hotspot.
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of
biodiversity and under threat from human activities. These regions contain a high proportion of
endemic species and have suffered significant habitat loss, making them important targets for
conservation efforts.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was first introduced in 1988 by Norman Myers, an English
environmentalist and biologist. Myers identified 10 regions in the world that met the criteria for
a biodiversity hotspot, including the Tropical Andes, the Mediterranean Basin, and the Eastern
Arc Mountains. He argued that these regions were important for conservation efforts because
they contained a high proportion of the world's plant and animal species, many of which were
endemic, and were under threat from human activities.
Since then, the concept of biodiversity hotspots has been refined and expanded. In 1990, Myers
and colleagues updated the list of hotspots to include 18 regions, and in 1999, Conservation
International further refined the criteria to include the requirement that a hotspot must have
lost at least 70% of its original habitat. Currently a total of 36 biodiversity hotspots are identified
in the world.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots has been widely adopted by conservation organizations and
governments around the world as a means of prioritizing conservation efforts. By focusing
resources on these regions, it is hoped that biodiversity loss can be slowed and species can be
protected from extinction. However, some critics have argued that the concept of hotspots is too
simplistic and ignores the value of biodiversity outside of these regions. Nevertheless, the idea of
biodiversity hotspots remains an important tool for conservation efforts today.

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21.What are the criteria to identify any region as a biodiversity hotspot?
The criteria to identify a region as a biodiversity hotspot are:
1. Species richness and Endemism: The region must have at least 1,500 species of
vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world's total) as endemics
2. Habitat loss & Threats: The region must be under threat, with less than 30% of its
original habitat remaining (it must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat), or it
must be experiencing high rates of habitat loss (e.g., more than 1% per year).
3. Irreplaceability: The species found in the region must be irreplaceable and have no
close relatives or substitutes elsewhere in the world.
4. Global significance: The region must have global significance for the conservation of
biodiversity, and its loss would have a significant impact on the world's biodiversity.
5. Scientific value: The region must have significant scientific value, such as unique
ecosystems or evolutionary processes.
These criteria were developed by Conservation International, a global nonprofit organization
that works to protect nature and its biodiversity. The criteria are used to identify biodiversity
hotspots around the world, which are areas that are prioritized for conservation efforts due to
their high levels of species richness, endemism, and threat.

22. Discuss briefly the biodiversity hotspots from India.


India shares four globally recognized biodiversity hotspots with other countries. These hotspots
are defined as regions with high levels of endemism and biodiversity that are under threat from
human activities. Here is a brief overview of the four hotspots:
1. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: This hotspot covers the southern part of India and Sri
Lanka, including the Western Ghats mountain range. It is home to over 7,000 plant
species, of which around 5,000 are endemic. The region is also home to several
endangered species such as the Lion-tailed Macaque and the Nilgiri Tahr.
2. Himalayas: This hotspot covers parts of India, Bhutan, Nepal, and China. It is home to
over 10,000 plant species, of which around 3,160 are endemic. The region is also home to
several endangered species such as the Snow Leopard and the Himalayan Musk Deer.
3. Indo-Burma: This hotspot covers parts of India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and
China. It is home to over 13,500 plant species, of which around 7,000 are endemic. The
region is also home to several endangered species such as the Asian Elephant and the
Burmese Star Tortoise.
4. Sundaland: This hotspot covers parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei, including the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Andaman and Nicobar islands of India fall under this
hotspot. It is home to over 25,000 plant species, including around 15,000 endemic
species. The region is also home to several endangered species such as the Bornean
Orangutan and the Sumatran Tiger.
All of these hotspots are important for biodiversity conservation and require protection from
human activities such as habitat destruction, overexploitation, and climate change.

23. Discuss the IUCN Classification system of wildlife.


The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is a global organization that works to
conserve nature and biodiversity. One of its most well-known contributions is the IUCN Red List

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of Threatened Species, which is a comprehensive classification system that assesses the risk of
extinction for species around the world. The IUCN Red List has become the world's most
authoritative source of information on the conservation status of species.

The IUCN classification system is based on a set of criteria that assess the extinction risk of a
species. The system categorizes species into eight categories, each with its own criteria for
assessment:
1. Extinct (EX): A species is considered extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the
last individual has died.
2. Extinct in the Wild (EW): A species is considered extinct in the wild when it only exists
in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range.
3. Critically Endangered (CR): A species is considered critically endangered when it faces
an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
4. Endangered (EN): A species is considered endangered when it faces a very high risk of
extinction in the wild.
5. Vulnerable (VU): A species is considered vulnerable when it faces a high risk of
extinction in the wild.
6. Near Threatened (NT): A species is considered near threatened when it is close to
qualifying for a threatened category, but does not currently meet the criteria.
7. Least Concern (LC): A species is considered least concern when it does not meet any of
the criteria for a threatened category.
8. Data Deficient (DD): A species is considered data deficient when there is not enough
information available to assess its extinction risk.
The IUCN classification system is widely used by conservation organizations, governments, and
researchers to prioritize conservation efforts and allocate resources to protect species at risk of
extinction. It has played a critical role in raising awareness about the extinction crisis and has
been instrumental in guiding conservation efforts around the world.

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24. Write briefly about different types of wildlife protected areas of India.
India has a vast network of wildlife protected areas that have been set up to conserve the
country's rich biodiversity. These protected areas are classified into several types based on their
management objectives, legal status, and ecological characteristics.
Here are some of the different types of wildlife protected areas in India:
1. National Parks: National parks are protected areas that are managed for the
conservation of wildlife and their habitats. They are strictly protected and are not
generally open to human habitation or activities. India has 104 national parks, including
famous ones like Kanha National Park, Jim Corbett National Park, and Bandhavgarh
National Park.
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries: Wildlife sanctuaries are areas where animals are protected from
hunting and poaching. They are less restrictive than national parks and may allow human
activities like tourism and research. India has over 550 wildlife sanctuaries, including
famous ones like Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary.
3. Conservation Reserves: Conservation reserves are areas that are set aside for the
conservation of wildlife and their habitats, but allow for sustainable use by local
communities. They are generally smaller than national parks or wildlife sanctuaries and
can be established on both public and private land.
4. Community Reserves: Community reserves are areas that are managed and protected
by local communities for the conservation of wildlife and their habitats. They are
established on community or privately owned land, and are often managed in
conjunction with local government agencies.
5. Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere reserves are large areas that are designated as
representative examples of the world's major ecosystems. They are established to
protect biodiversity, promote sustainable development, and provide opportunities for
scientific research and education. India has 18 biosphere reserves, including the famous
ones like Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, and Sundarbans
Biosphere Reserve.
All of these protected areas play an important role in conserving India's wildlife and ecosystems,
and provide opportunities for research, education, and ecotourism.

25. Compare and contrast between National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries are both protected areas in India that aim to conserve
wildlife and their habitats. However, there are some differences between the two:
Feature National Parks Wildlife Sanctuaries
Legal Status Established under the Wildlife Established under the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 Protection Act, 1972
Purpose To conserve natural landscapes To protect and conserve specific
and wildlife species wildlife species
Size Generally larger in size than Smaller in size than National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Accessibility Limited access and activities for Often open to visitors with
tourists restricted activities
Management Managed by the central Managed by the state government

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Authority government or state government
Core Area Yes No
Human Activity Limited human activity allowed Human activity is permitted but
regulated
Main Focus Conservation of natural ecosystems Conservation of specific wildlife
and biodiversity species
Examples Jim Corbett National Park, Kanha Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary,
National Park Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary

26.What is biosphere reserve? Write about its significance.


A biosphere reserve is a large area of land, coastal or marine environment that is designated by
the UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme as a site for testing and demonstrating
innovative approaches to the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development.
The main objective of a biosphere reserve is to promote the harmonious integration of
human activities with the conservation of natural resources.
The biosphere reserve concept recognizes that human activities can be compatible with
the conservation of biodiversity, and seeks to promote the sustainable use of natural resources.
Biosphere reserves are therefore designated as areas where conservation, development, and
scientific research are integrated to promote sustainability.
The zonation of a biosphere reserve refers to the division of the area into different zones
based on the level of protection and the degree of human use. The typical zonation of a biosphere
reserve includes three main zones:
1. Core zone: This is the area that is strictly protected, with no or limited human activity.
This zone is meant to conserve the natural habitats and ecosystems, and may include
areas that are important for the survival of threatened species.
2. Buffer zone: This zone surrounds the core area and allows for limited human activity
that is compatible with the conservation objectives of the biosphere reserve. Activities in
this zone may include sustainable forestry, agriculture, and eco-tourism.
3. Transition zone: This zone includes the surrounding areas where human settlements
and economic activities are present. It is intended to provide a framework for sustainable
development by promoting the use of natural resources in a way that is compatible with
conservation objectives.
Overall, biosphere reserves play a critical role in promoting the conservation of biodiversity,
while also contributing to sustainable development and the well-being of local communities.

27. Narrate the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity?


Urbanization can have significant impacts on biodiversity, both positive and negative. Some of
the negative impacts of urbanization on biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss: Urbanization often involves the conversion of natural habitats into built-up
areas, leading to the loss of biodiversity. As more and more land is developed for urban
use, the habitats of many plant and animal species are destroyed, leading to their decline
or disappearance.
2. Fragmentation of habitats: Even when natural habitats are not completely destroyed,
urbanization can lead to their fragmentation, which can isolate populations of plants and

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animals and reduce their genetic diversity. This can make them more vulnerable to
environmental changes and other threats.
3. Pollution: Urbanization can lead to increased levels of pollution, such as air and water
pollution, which can have negative impacts on biodiversity. For example, pollution can
harm plants and animals directly, or it can reduce the quality of their habitats and food
sources.
4. Introduction of invasive species: Urbanization can also introduce invasive species into
natural habitats, which can outcompete native species and cause their decline or
extinction.
5. Climate change: Urbanization can contribute to climate change through increased
emissions of greenhouse gases, which can have negative impacts on biodiversity. Climate
change can alter temperature and precipitation patterns, which can affect the
distribution and abundance of many plant and animal species.
Despite these negative impacts, urbanization can also have some positive impacts on
biodiversity, such as the creation of green spaces and wildlife corridors. These can provide
important habitats and resources for many plant and animal species, and help to mitigate some
of the negative impacts of urbanization on biodiversity.
Overall, the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity depend on a variety of factors, such as the
scale and intensity of urbanization, the nature of the surrounding landscape, and the level of
conservation measures in place to protect biodiversity.

28. Briefly explain the salient features of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 is a comprehensive legislation enacted by the Government of
India to protect and conserve wildlife and their habitats. Some of the salient features of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 include:
1. Prohibition on hunting: The act prohibits hunting of any wild animal listed in the
schedules of the act, thereby providing legal protection to a wide range of species from
being hunted or killed.
2. Protected areas: The act empowers the government to declare certain areas as national
parks, sanctuaries, and closed areas for the protection and conservation of wildlife and
their habitats. These protected areas serve as crucial habitats for various species of
wildlife.
3. Regulated trade: The act regulates the trade of wildlife and their derivatives through a
system of permits and licenses. It prohibits the trade of endangered species listed in the
schedules of the act, thereby curbing illegal trade and promoting conservation.
4. Conservation of habitats: The act recognizes the importance of protecting the habitats
of wildlife and empowers the government to take measures for the conservation of
forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems that are critical for wildlife survival.
5. Endangered species conservation: The act provides for the conservation of
endangered species by listing them in the schedules of the act and imposing strict
penalties for their hunting, killing, or trade.
6. Conservation authorities: The act establishes various authorities at the national, state,
and local levels, such as the National Board for Wildlife, State Wildlife Advisory Boards,
and Wildlife Wardens, to oversee the implementation of wildlife conservation measures
and ensure effective protection of wildlife.

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7. Penalties and punishments: The act prescribes stringent penalties, including fines and
imprisonment, for offenses such as hunting, poaching, trade, and destruction of wildlife
and their habitats, to deter illegal activities and promote conservation.
8. Community participation: The act recognizes the role of local communities in wildlife
conservation and encourages their participation in the management of protected areas
and conservation initiatives.
9. Conservation of migratory species: The act provides for the conservation of migratory
species of wildlife, such as birds and marine animals, by regulating their hunting, trade,
and habitat destruction.
10. Amendments and rules: The act has been amended over the years to strengthen its
provisions and address emerging conservation challenges. The government also issues
rules and guidelines under the act to provide detailed procedures for its implementation.

29. Write a brief note on the major international agreements to conserve biodiversity?
There are several major international agreements and conventions that have been established to
conserve biodiversity. Some of the most important ones are:
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): This is the most important global
agreement that was established in 1992 and has been ratified by 196 countries. The CBD
aims to conserve biodiversity, ensure its sustainable use, and promote the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
2. Nagoya Protocol: The Nagoya Protocol is a supplementary agreement to the CBD that
was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The protocol aims to ensure that the benefits
arising from the utilization of genetic resources are shared fairly and equitably between
the providers and users of these resources. It also promotes the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity.
3. Cartagena Protocol: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international agreement
under the CBD that aims to protect biodiversity from potential risks posed by living
modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. The protocol seeks to
ensure that the transboundary movement, handling, and use of LMOs are done safely,
taking into account the potential risks to human health and the environment
4. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES): This is an international agreement that was established in 1973 and has been
ratified by 183 countries. CITES aims to ensure that international trade in wild animals
and plants does not threaten their survival.
5. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: This is an international treaty that was established
in 1971 and has been ratified by 171 countries. The Ramsar Convention aims to conserve
and protect wetlands and their biodiversity.
6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This is an
international treaty that was established in 1992 and has been ratified by 197 countries.
The UNFCCC aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to
prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.
These agreements and conventions provide a framework for international cooperation and
action to conserve biodiversity and protect the natural world. They recognize the importance of
biodiversity for human well-being and the need to take action to protect it. The agreements also

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provide mechanisms for countries to work together to address global challenges such as climate
change and unsustainable use of natural resources.

30. What is Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? What are its objectives?
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a global agreement that was established in 1992
and has been ratified by 196 countries.
Its main objectives are to conserve biodiversity, ensure its sustainable use, and promote the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
The CBD recognizes that biodiversity is essential to the functioning of ecosystems and to human
well-being, and that its loss threatens the sustainability of life on Earth. The Convention calls on
all signatory countries to take action to protect biodiversity and to integrate conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources into their national development plans and policies.
The CBD has three main objectives:
1. Conservation of biodiversity: The CBD calls on countries to identify and protect
important ecosystems and species, and to develop and implement strategies for the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. Sustainable use of biodiversity: The CBD recognizes the importance of using
biodiversity in a sustainable way, and calls on countries to promote sustainable practices
in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, and forestry.
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits: The CBD acknowledges that the benefits arising
from the use of genetic resources should be shared in a fair and equitable way, and calls
on countries to establish legal frameworks to govern access to genetic resources and the
sharing of benefits arising from their use.
To achieve these objectives, the CBD encourages international cooperation and collaboration,
and provides a framework for countries to work together to address global challenges such as
climate change and the loss of biodiversity.

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Chapter 4: Pollution and Solid waste Management
Syllabus: Environment pollution and solid waste management, types of solid waste, factors
affecting solid waste generation, impact of solid waste, recycling and reuse.
4.1 Environmental Pollution
1. Write a note on environmental pollution.
Environmental pollution refers to the contamination of the natural environment by harmful
substances or excessive amounts of waste, which can have negative impacts on the health of living
organisms, the quality of air, water, and soil, and the overall balance of ecosystems.

Pollution can occur from a variety of sources, including industrial activities, transportation,
agricultural practices, and household waste.
• Air pollution, for example, is caused by the release of harmful chemicals and particles
into the atmosphere from sources such as factories, power plants, and vehicles. This can
lead to respiratory problems, allergies, and other health issues in humans and animals.
• Water pollution occurs when toxic substances, waste products, or chemicals are dumped
into bodies of water, making it unfit for human consumption and harming aquatic life.
• Soil pollution can also occur due to the disposal of hazardous waste, agricultural
chemicals, and other pollutants.
Environmental pollution can have severe consequences for the planet, including climate change,
loss of biodiversity, and the destruction of natural habitats. Addressing environmental pollution
requires a concerted effort from individuals, organizations, and governments to reduce
emissions, recycle waste, and adopt sustainable practices. By taking action to mitigate pollution,
we can help preserve the health and well-being of the planet and its inhabitants.

2. What is a pollutant? Write about the various types of pollutants.


A pollutant is any substance or agent that causes environmental pollution by contaminating the
air, water, or soil. Pollutants can be natural or human-made, and they can have harmful effects
on the environment and living organisms.

There are various types of pollutants, including:


1. Air pollutants: These are substances or particles released into the air that can have
harmful effects on human health, animals, and the environment. Examples include
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and ozone.
2. Water pollutants: These are substances that contaminate bodies of water such as lakes,
rivers, and oceans. Examples include oil spills, chemical waste, sewage, and fertilizers.
3. Soil pollutants: These are substances that contaminate the soil, making it unsuitable for
plant growth and potentially harmful to animals that consume plants grown in
contaminated soil. Examples include heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial waste.
4. Noise pollutants: Excessive noise can also be considered a pollutant, as it can cause
hearing loss, stress, and other health problems.
5. Thermal pollutants: Heat released from industrial processes or power plants can raise
water temperatures in rivers and lakes, harming aquatic life.
6. Radiation pollutants: These are substances that emit ionizing radiation, such as
radioactive waste from nuclear power plants or medical facilities.
7. Light pollutants: Excessive artificial lighting can also be considered a pollutant, as it can
disrupt natural habitats and ecosystems.

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In conclusion, pollutants are substances or agents that cause environmental pollution, and there
are various types of pollutants that can have harmful effects on the environment and living
organisms. It is essential to identify and control these pollutants to protect our planet and
promote sustainable living.

4.2 Air Pollution


3. What is air pollution? Describe the major air pollutants caused by human activities.
Air pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances in the air that can have negative
effects on human health and the environment. These substances, known as pollutants, can come
from natural sources or human activities.
Human activities are the primary source of many air pollutants. The major air pollutants caused
by human activities include:
1. Particulate matter (PM): These are tiny particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in
the air. They can be released by activities such as burning fossil fuels, wildfires, and
construction. PM can cause respiratory problems, heart disease, and other health issues.
2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): These are a group of gases that are produced when fossil fuels
are burned at high temperatures. They can contribute to the formation of smog and acid
rain and can cause respiratory problems.
3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2): This is a gas that is produced when fossil fuels containing sulfur
are burned. It can contribute to the formation of acid rain and can cause respiratory
problems.
4. Ozone (O3): This is a gas that is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight. Ozone can cause respiratory problems and can
damage crops and other vegetation.
5. Carbon monoxide (CO): This is a gas that is produced when fossil fuels are burned. It
can be deadly in high concentrations and can cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness in
lower concentrations.
6. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): These are chemicals that are emitted from
products such as paints, solvents, and cleaning agents. They can contribute to the
formation of smog and can cause respiratory problems.

Reducing the emission of these pollutants is critical to protecting public health and the
environment.

4. How can air pollutants be classified? Or What are the primary and secondary air
pollutants?
Air pollutants can be classified in different ways, but one common classification is based on their
origin and their effects on the environment and human health. Based on this classification, air
pollutants can be categorized into primary and secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from a source. Examples
include:
1. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from power plants and factories that burn coal or oil.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO) from vehicle exhaust.
3. Particulate matter (PM) from construction sites, unpaved roads, and wildfires.
4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) from vehicle exhaust and power plants.

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Secondary pollutants are those that form in the atmosphere through chemical reactions between
primary pollutants and other substances.
Examples include:
1. Ozone (O3), which forms when NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react
in the presence of sunlight.
2. Acid rain, which forms when SO2 and NOx react with water and other substances
in the atmosphere.
3. Smog, which forms when NOx, VOCs, and other pollutants react in the presence of
sunlight.

Both primary and secondary pollutants can have harmful effects on human health and the
environment. Therefore, it is important to reduce emissions of both types of pollutants through
regulations, policies, and individual actions.

5. Mention the health hazards from each of the pollutants.


Air pollution can cause a wide range of health problems, both short-term and long-term,
depending on the pollutant, its concentration, and the duration of exposure.

Here are some of the health hazards associated with major air pollutants:
1. Particulate matter (PM): Exposure to PM can cause respiratory problems such as
coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath, as well as heart disease, stroke, and lung
cancer. PM can also exacerbate existing health conditions such as asthma and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Exposure to NOx can cause respiratory problems, such as
coughing and wheezing, and can exacerbate asthma symptoms. NOx can also contribute
to the formation of ground-level ozone and particulate matter, which can have additional
health effects.
3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Exposure to SO2 can cause respiratory problems such as coughing
and wheezing, and can exacerbate asthma symptoms. SO2 can also contribute to the
formation of acid rain, which can damage crops and other vegetation.
4. Ozone (O3): Exposure to ozone can cause respiratory problems such as coughing,
wheezing, and shortness of breath. Ozone can also exacerbate existing health conditions
such as asthma and COPD, and can reduce lung function.
5. Carbon monoxide (CO): Exposure to high levels of CO can be deadly, causing headaches,
nausea, dizziness, confusion, and even death. Lower levels of exposure can cause fatigue,
headaches, and chest pain.
6. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Exposure to VOCs can cause respiratory
problems, such as coughing and wheezing, as well as headaches, dizziness, and nausea.
Some VOCs are also carcinogenic and can cause cancer.

Overall, air pollution can have serious health consequences, particularly for vulnerable
populations such as children, the elderly, and people with pre-existing health conditions.
Reducing air pollution can therefore have significant public health benefits.

6. Suggest measures to prevent or mitigate air pollution.


Preventing and mitigating air pollution requires a combination of individual actions, government
policies, and technological solutions.

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Here are some measures that can be taken to reduce air pollution:
1. Reduce car use: Walking, cycling, carpooling, or using public transport can reduce
the number of vehicles on the road and therefore reduce emissions from
transportation.
2. Use cleaner vehicles: Using electric or hybrid vehicles, or vehicles with high fuel
efficiency and low emissions, can reduce emissions from transportation.
3. Use energy-efficient appliances and lighting: Using energy-efficient appliances
and lighting can reduce emissions from power generation.
4. Reduce waste: Reducing, reusing, and recycling can reduce emissions from waste
disposal.
5. Use clean energy sources: Using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and
geothermal can reduce emissions from power generation.
6. Implement government policies: Governments can implement regulations and
policies such as emission standards, carbon taxes, and incentives for renewable
energy to reduce emissions from industries and power generation.
7. Support research and development: Investing in research and development of
clean technologies can help develop new solutions to reduce emissions and mitigate
air pollution.
8. Increase public awareness: Educating the public about the causes and effects of air
pollution can raise awareness and encourage individuals to take action to reduce
their own emissions.

Overall, preventing and mitigating air pollution requires a multi-pronged approach involving
individual actions, government policies, and technological solutions. By taking steps to reduce
emissions, we can protect public health and the environment.

7. What is Particulate Matter? Write about the sources and types of particulate matter.
Particulate matter (PM) refers to tiny particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air.
These particles can be made up of a variety of substances, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and
chemicals. PM is a major air pollutant and can have harmful effects on human health and the
environment.
Sources of particulate matter include both natural and human-made sources. Some examples of
sources of particulate matter are:
1. Natural sources: PM can come
from natural sources such as
dust storms, wildfires, and
volcanic eruptions.
2. Human-made sources: PM can
come from human-made sources
such as vehicle exhaust,
industrial processes,
construction sites, and burning
of fossil fuels.

Particulate matter can be classified into


different categories based on its size.
The size of the particles is important
because it determines how deeply they

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can penetrate into the lungs and how harmful they can be. Here are some types of particulate
matter based on their size:
1. PM10: Particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less. These particles can be
inhaled into the upper respiratory system and can cause respiratory problems.
2. PM2.5: Particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less. These particles are small
enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and can cause respiratory problems as well as
heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer.
3. Ultrafine particles: Particles with a diameter of 0.1 micrometers or less. These particles
can penetrate even deeper into the lungs and can be more harmful than larger particles.
Overall, particulate matter is a major air pollutant that can have serious health and
environmental consequences. By reducing emissions from human-made sources of particulate
matter, we can protect public health and the environment.

8. Discuss the health impacts of particulate matter. Also suggest the ways to minimize
particulate matter pollution.
Exposure to particulate matter (PM) can have a range of harmful health effects, depending on the
size of the particles and the duration and frequency of exposure.

Here are some potential health impacts of particulate matter:


1. Respiratory problems: PM can cause respiratory problems such as coughing, wheezing,
and shortness of breath. It can also exacerbate existing respiratory conditions such as
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
2. Cardiovascular problems: PM can increase the risk of cardiovascular problems such as
heart attack, stroke, and arrhythmia. It can also contribute to the development of
atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing of the arteries).
3. Cancer: Exposure to certain types of PM, such as diesel exhaust and some metals, can
increase the risk of lung cancer.
4. Reproductive problems: PM can affect reproductive health by reducing fertility and
increasing the risk of premature birth and low birth weight.

To minimize particulate matter pollution, we can take the following measures:


1. Reduce emissions from transportation: By reducing the number of vehicles on the
road, using public transport, or using cleaner vehicles, we can reduce emissions of
particulate matter from transportation.
2. Reduce emissions from industrial processes: By implementing emissions controls,
using cleaner technologies, and reducing waste and energy consumption, we can reduce
emissions of particulate matter from industrial processes.
3. Use clean energy sources: By using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and
geothermal, we can reduce emissions of particulate matter from power generation.
4. Support research and development: Investing in research and development of clean
technologies can help develop new solutions to reduce emissions and mitigate
particulate matter pollution.
5. Increase public awareness: Educating the public about the sources and effects of
particulate matter pollution can raise awareness and encourage individuals to take
action to reduce their own emissions.

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Overall, by taking measures to minimize particulate matter pollution, we can protect public
health and the environment.

9. What are the most common and hazardous pollutants in indoor air? What are their
impacts? Suggest measures to minimize indoor pollution.
The most common and hazardous pollutants in indoor air can vary depending on the location
and the activities taking place in the building.

However, some of the most common indoor air pollutants include:


1. Radon: A colorless, odorless gas that can seep into buildings from the ground. Prolonged
exposure to radon can increase the risk of lung cancer.
2. Carbon monoxide: A colorless, odorless gas that is produced by combustion. Exposure
to high levels of carbon monoxide can lead to headaches, nausea, and even death.
3. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Chemicals that are released into the air by
products such as paints, cleaning products, and furniture. Some VOCs can cause
respiratory problems, headaches, and other health issues.
4. Particulate matter: Tiny particles of dust, dirt, and other substances that can be inhaled
into the lungs. Prolonged exposure to particulate matter can cause respiratory problems
and other health issues.
5. Mold and mildew: Fungi that can grow in damp or humid environments. Exposure to
mold and mildew can cause allergic reactions, respiratory problems, and other health
issues.

Measures to minimize indoor pollution include:


1. Ventilation: Proper ventilation is essential to reduce the concentration of indoor
pollutants. Opening windows and using exhaust fans can help improve indoor air quality.
2. Air filters: Using air filters can help remove particulate matter and other pollutants from
indoor air. High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are especially effective at
removing small particles.
3. Avoid smoking indoors: Smoking indoors can release a range of harmful chemicals into
the air. Smoking should be avoided indoors to reduce the concentration of indoor
pollutants.
4. Use natural cleaning products: Natural cleaning products such as vinegar and baking
soda can be used instead of chemical cleaners to reduce the release of VOCs.
5. Maintain a clean and dry environment: Keeping the indoor environment clean and dry
can help prevent the growth of mold and mildew.
Overall, by taking measures to minimize indoor pollution, we can create a healthier indoor
environment and reduce the risk of health problems associated with indoor air pollution.

10. What is Acid rain? Explain how acid rains occur, their impacts, and the measures to
prevent acid rains.
Acid rain is a form of precipitation that is acidic, with a pH lower than 5.6. It is formed when
emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from human activities such as
burning fossil fuels react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere. These
emissions can be transported over long distances by the wind and can fall back to the earth's
surface as acid rain.

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The impacts of acid rain can be significant. It can damage crops, forests, and aquatic ecosystems
by reducing soil pH, releasing toxic metals, and harming fish and other aquatic organisms. Acid
rain can also corrode buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure, leading to increased
maintenance costs.

Measures to prevent acid rain:

1. Reducing emissions:
The primary way to
prevent acid rain is to
reduce emissions of
sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. This can
be done by using cleaner
fuels and technologies,
reducing energy
consumption, and
implementing emissions
controls on power plants
and other industrial sources.
2. Using alternative energy sources: Using renewable energy sources such as solar and
wind power can reduce the amount of fossil fuels burned and thereby reduce emissions
of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
3. Promoting energy efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, vehicles, and
appliances can reduce energy consumption and the associated emissions of pollutants.
4. Implementing international agreements: International agreements such as the Acid
Rain Program in the United States and the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution in Europe have been successful in reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides and thereby reducing the incidence of acid rain.
5. Supporting research and development: Investing in research and development of
cleaner technologies and alternative energy sources can help develop new solutions to
prevent acid rain.

Overall, by taking measures to prevent acid rain, we can protect the environment and human
health and reduce the economic costs associated with damage to infrastructure and natural
resources.

11. What is AQI (Air Quality Index)? Who monitors AQI in India? What is the contribution
of PM to AQI?
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a numerical scale used to measure the quality of air and provide
information about air pollution levels to the public. It is based on measurements of various air
pollutants, including particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, and carbon monoxide.

In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) monitors the AQI in various cities across the
country. The CPCB uses data from continuous air quality monitoring stations to calculate the AQI
and provides real-time air quality information to the public through various platforms, including
websites and mobile apps.

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Particulate matter (PM) is a significant contributor to the AQI in India. PM2.5, which are tiny
particles with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less, are especially harmful to human health as they
can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Exposure to high levels of PM2.5
can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular health problems.

In many Indian cities, high levels of PM2.5 are a significant contributor to the poor air quality
and high AQI readings. Measures to reduce PM emissions, such as promoting cleaner fuels,
implementing emissions controls on vehicles and industrial sources, and improving public
transportation and active transportation options, can help improve air quality and reduce the
AQI in India.

12. What does the term electrostatic precipitation refer to? Elaborate on how an
electrostatic precipitator works.
Electrostatic precipitation is a technology used to remove particulate matter (PM) from industrial
exhaust gases using an electrostatically charged surface. An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is the
device that uses this technology.

An electrostatic precipitator consists of a series of metal plates or tubes that are electrically
charged with a high voltage DC power supply. The plates are arranged parallel to each other, and
the exhaust gases are passed between them. As the gases pass through the plates, the particulate
matter becomes electrically charged and is attracted to the charged plates. The plates are
periodically cleaned by a process called rapping, where they are shaken to remove the
accumulated particulate matter.

The function of an electrostatic precipitator is to remove particulate matter from industrial


exhaust gases to reduce air pollution. It is commonly used in industries such as power plants,
cement plants, and steel mills, where large amounts of PM are generated. By removing the PM
from the exhaust gases, an ESP can help reduce emissions of harmful pollutants into the
atmosphere, improving air quality and protecting human health and the environment.

In summary, an electrostatic precipitator is a device that uses electrostatic precipitation


technology to remove particulate matter from industrial exhaust gases. The charged plates
attract and collect the particulate matter, reducing air pollution and protecting human health
and the environment.

13. Write about the evolution of the Bharat Stage (BS) Emission norms of India.
The Bharat Stage (BS) emission norms are a set of regulations implemented by the Indian
government to control the emissions of pollutants from vehicles with internal combustion
engines.

The BS norms are based on European emission standards and are progressively more stringent,
with each new stage setting stricter limits on the levels of pollutants allowed in vehicle exhaust
emissions.

The evolution of the Bharat Stage emission norms in India can be traced back to the year 2000
when the first BS-I norms were introduced for four-wheeler vehicles in Delhi. These standards
were equivalent to the Euro 1 emission standards and set limits on the levels of carbon

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monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) that could be emitted from
vehicles.

In 2005, the BS-II norms were introduced in Delhi, and subsequently in other metro cities, which
were equivalent to the Euro 2 standards. The BS-II norms further reduced the limits on CO, HC,
and NOx emissions and also introduced limits on the levels of particulate matter (PM) emissions.

In 2010, the BS-III norms were implemented, which were equivalent to the Euro 3 standards.
The BS-III norms introduced further reductions in the limits on CO, HC, and NOx emissions, as
well as stricter limits on PM emissions.

In 2017, the BS-IV norms were implemented across the country, which were equivalent to the
Euro 4 standards. The BS-IV norms reduced the limits on all major pollutants, including CO, HC,
NOx, and PM emissions.

In 2020, the BS-VI norms were implemented across the country, which are equivalent to the
Euro 6 standards. India skipped BS – V and went direct to BS – VI from BS – IV. The BS-VI norms
set the strictest limits on all major pollutants, including a significant reduction in the limit of
sulfur content in fuel, which has been reduced from 50 parts per million (ppm) to 10 ppm.

The evolution of the Bharat Stage emission norms shows the government's commitment to
reducing vehicle emissions and improving air quality in India. The implementation of the BS-VI
norms has resulted in a significant reduction in vehicle emissions and has helped improve air
quality in many cities across the country.

4.3 Water Pollution


14. Define Water Pollution and explain its causes.
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodiessuch as lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater,
and even drinking water by various pollutants.

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged into water bodies without proper
treatment, or when natural water sources are contaminated by chemicals, waste products, and
other harmful substances.

There are many causes of water pollution, some of which include:


1. Industrial and agricultural activities: Industries and agricultural practices often
discharge harmful chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, and other pollutants into water
bodies. These pollutants can be toxic to aquatic life and can cause long-term damage to
the ecosystem.
2. Domestic waste: Domestic sewage, human waste, and garbage are major sources of
water pollution. When these wastes are not properly treated, they can contaminate water
bodies and cause waterborne diseases.
3. Oil spills: Oil spills from offshore drilling, transportation, and storage can have
devastating effects on marine life and the environment. Oil spills can also contaminate
water sources and affect the health of people who rely on these sources for drinking
water.

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4. Improper disposal of hazardous waste: Hazardous waste from industries and
households can pose a significant threat to water quality if not disposed of properly.
These wastes can contain toxic chemicals that can pollute water sources.
5. Landfills: Landfills can contaminate groundwater sources when hazardous wastes, such
as batteries and electronic waste, are not properly disposed of.
6. Mining activities: Mining operations can discharge heavy metals, chemicals, and other
pollutants into water sources, leading to water pollution.

In summary, water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by pollutants, which can be
caused by a variety of factors such as industrial and agricultural activities, domestic waste, oil
spills, improper disposal of hazardous waste, landfills, and mining activities. These pollutants
can cause long-term damage to the ecosystem and pose a threat to human health.

15. Write in detail about the effects of water pollution.


Water pollution can have serious impacts on human health, aquatic life, and the environment.
The effects of water pollution can vary depending on the type and amount of pollutant and the
duration of exposure.

Some of the major effects of water pollution are:

1. Health problems: Water pollution can lead to a variety of health problems such as
gastrointestinal illnesses, skin diseases, reproductive problems, and neurological
disorders. Waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery are also common
in areas with high levels of water pollution.
2. Loss of biodiversity: Water pollution can have a devastating impact on aquatic life,
leading to the loss of biodiversity. Fish and other aquatic animals can die or become sick
when exposed to high levels of pollutants. This can disrupt the food chain and impact the
entire ecosystem.
3. Reduced recreational opportunities: Water pollution can make lakes, rivers, and
beaches unsafe for swimming and other recreational activities. This can lead to a loss of
tourism revenue and reduced quality of life for residents.
4. Economic impacts: Water pollution can have significant economic impacts, such as
decreased property values and increased healthcare costs. Industries that rely on clean
water sources, such as fishing and tourism, can also suffer.
5. Groundwater contamination: Water pollution can contaminate groundwater sources,
which can be a major source of drinking water. Contaminated groundwater can be
difficult and expensive to treat, and can cause serious health problems for those who
consume it.
6. Algal blooms: Water pollution can cause excessive growth of algae in water bodies,
leading to the formation of harmful algal blooms. These blooms can produce toxins that
are harmful to humans and animals, and can also lead to oxygen depletion in the water,
resulting in the death of aquatic life.
In summary, water pollution can have serious and far-reaching effects on human health, aquatic
life, and the environment. It is important to take measures to prevent water pollution and ensure
that our water sources remain clean and safe for all to use.

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16. Discuss the measures to deal with water pollution.
There are several measures that can be taken to prevent and control water pollution. Some of the
most effective measures are:
1. Proper waste disposal: One of the major causes of water pollution is improper waste
disposal. Municipalities and industries should implement proper waste management
systems that include collection, transportation, and disposal of waste in an
environmentally safe manner.
2. Reduce the use of chemicals: Chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial
chemicals can be highly toxic to aquatic life and humans. Reducing the use of these
chemicals and finding alternatives can help prevent water pollution.
3. Control soil erosion: Soil erosion is a major contributor to water pollution. Planting
trees and vegetation, using soil conservation techniques such as terracing and contour
plowing, and implementing erosion control measures such as riparian buffers can help
reduce soil erosion and prevent water pollution.
4. Constructing wastewater treatment plants: Wastewater treatment plants can remove
pollutants from wastewater before it is released into water bodies. Municipalities and
industries should ensure that their wastewater treatment plants are properly maintained
and functioning at optimal levels.
5. Encourage eco-friendly practices: Encouraging eco-friendly practices such as using
biodegradable products, conserving water, and reducing plastic waste can help prevent
water pollution.
6. Implement laws and regulations: Governments can implement laws and regulations to
prevent water pollution, such as regulating discharge limits for industries, imposing fines
for non-compliance, and setting up monitoring and reporting systems.
7. Raise public awareness: Raising public awareness about the importance of clean water
and the impact of water pollution can help encourage individuals and businesses to take
action to prevent water pollution.
In summary, preventing and controlling water pollution requires a multi-pronged approach that
involves the cooperation and efforts of individuals, businesses, industries, and governments. By
implementing these measures, we can ensure that our water sources remain clean and safe for
all to use.

17. Write in detail about the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted by the Indian Parliament in
1974 to prevent and control water pollution in India. The act was amended in 1988 to provide
more stringent measures for pollution control.
The key provisions of the act include:
1. Establishment of State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) to regulate and enforce the provisions of the act.
2. Prohibition of discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a prescribed limit.
3. Setting of water quality standards for various uses of water, such as drinking, bathing,
and industrial use.
4. Issuance of consent for the establishment and operation of industries that discharge
pollutants into water bodies.
5. Inspection of industries and establishments to ensure compliance with the provisions of
the act.

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6. Provision for penalties and prosecution for non-compliance with the provisions of the
act.
7. Power to SPCBs and CPCB to order the closure of industries that do not comply with the
provisions of the act.
The act has been successful in providing a framework for the prevention and control of water
pollution in India. However, there have been challenges in its implementation, such as
inadequate staff and resources for SPCBs and CPCB, lack of public awareness, and non-
compliance by industries.
To overcome these challenges, there have been efforts to strengthen the implementation of the
act, such as capacity building of SPCBs and CPCB, awareness campaigns, and increased use of
technology for monitoring and enforcement.
In conclusion, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act is a critical legislation that
provides a legal framework for the prevention and control of water pollution in India. Its
effective implementation requires a collaborative effort between the government, industries, and
the public.

18. Define Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and write its importance.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required by
microorganisms to decompose the organic matter present in a water sample. It is expressed in
milligrams of oxygen per liter of water (mg/L). The BOD test is conducted over a period of five
days, and hence it is also called the 5-day BOD test.
BOD is an important parameter in assessing the water quality, as it indicates the level of organic
pollution in the water. The higher the BOD value, the higher the level of organic pollution, and
hence the lower the water quality.
The significance of BOD lies in its ability to measure the level of organic pollution in water
bodies. Organic pollutants such as sewage, agricultural runoff, and industrial discharge can lead
to high BOD values, indicating a lower quality of water. High BOD levels can also result in the
depletion of dissolved oxygen in water, which can harm aquatic life and cause eutrophication.
Therefore, BOD serves as an important tool for the assessment and management of water
resources.
BOD is also used to design and monitor wastewater treatment plants. By measuring the BOD of
influent and effluent wastewater, the efficiency of the treatment plant can be evaluated, and the
required treatment process can be determined.
In conclusion, BOD is an important parameter in assessing water quality, and its measurement is
essential in the management and treatment of wastewater.

4.4 Soil Pollution


19. What is soil pollution? Write about the types of soil pollution.
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil by hazardous substances and pollutants, which
can harm soil fertility, plant growth, and human health. Soil pollution can occur due to various
human activities such as improper disposal of waste, use of pesticides and fertilizers, industrial
activities, and mining.
The types of soil pollution include:

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1. Chemical pollution: This type of soil pollution occurs due to the presence of harmful
chemicals and toxic substances in soil, such as heavy metals (lead, arsenic, mercury),
pesticides, fertilizers, and industrial waste.
2. Biological pollution: Soil can be contaminated with pathogens, bacteria, viruses, and
other harmful microorganisms due to the disposal of untreated sewage and animal
waste.
3. Physical pollution: This type of soil pollution occurs due to the physical alteration of
soil, such as compaction, erosion, and salinization, which can reduce soil fertility and
affect plant growth.
4. Thermal pollution: Soil can be polluted due to the discharge of hot water and waste
from industries, power plants, and other sources, which can raise the soil temperature
and affect soil quality.
5. Radioactive pollution: Soil can be contaminated with radioactive substances due to
nuclear accidents, nuclear waste disposal, and other sources, which can pose a serious
risk to human health and the environment.
In conclusion, soil pollution is a significant environmental issue that can affect soil fertility, plant
growth, and human health. Understanding the types and sources of soil pollution is essential in
developing strategies to prevent and control soil pollution.

20. Discuss briefly the major causes and impacts of soil pollution.
Soil pollution is caused by a variety of human activities, including industrial activities,
agricultural practices, and improper waste disposal. The major causes of soil pollution are:
1. Industrial activities: Industries release a variety of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and
other pollutants into the soil. These pollutants can persist in the soil for long periods and
can harm soil fertility and plant growth.
2. Agricultural practices: The use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers in agriculture
can lead to soil pollution. These chemicals can leach into the soil and contaminate
groundwater, affecting soil fertility and harming human health.
3. Improper waste disposal: Improper disposal of household waste, industrial waste, and
hazardous waste can lead to soil pollution. The pollutants from these wastes can seep
into the soil and contaminate it, affecting soil quality and human health.
The impacts of soil pollution can be severe and long-lasting. Some of the major impacts of soil
pollution are:
1. Reduced soil fertility: Soil pollution can lead to reduced soil fertility, making it difficult
for plants to grow and reducing crop yields.
2. Contamination of groundwater: Soil pollution can lead to the contamination of
groundwater, affecting the quality of drinking water and posing a risk to human health.
3. Harmful effects on human health: Exposure to polluted soil can lead to a variety of
health problems, including skin disorders, respiratory problems, and cancer.
4. Biodiversity loss: Soil pollution can harm soil organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and
insects, leading to a loss of biodiversity.
5. Climate change: Soil pollution can contribute to climate change by releasing greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere.

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In conclusion, soil pollution is a significant environmental problem that can have severe impacts
on soil quality, human health, and the environment. It is essential to take measures to prevent
soil pollution and remediate contaminated soils to protect the environment and human health.

21. What are the ways in which soil pollution can be prevented?
There are several ways in which soil pollution can be prevented:
1. Reduce the use of chemicals: Reducing the use of chemicals, such as fertilizers,
pesticides, and herbicides in agriculture can help prevent soil pollution.
2. Proper waste disposal: Proper disposal of household waste, industrial waste, and
hazardous waste can help prevent soil pollution. Recycling, composting, and incineration
are some of the ways to dispose of waste properly.
3. Controlling soil erosion: Soil erosion can lead to soil pollution. Measures such as
planting trees, shrubs, and grasses, using erosion control fabrics, and practicing crop
rotation can help control soil erosion.
4. Soil testing: Testing soil for pollutants can help identify contaminated areas and prevent
further pollution.
5. Remediation: Remediation is the process of cleaning up contaminated soil. Various
methods such as bioremediation, phytoremediation, and thermal desorption can be used
to remediate contaminated soils.
6. Education and awareness: Education and awareness programs can help raise public
awareness about soil pollution and its impacts. This can encourage individuals and
businesses to take steps to prevent soil pollution.
In conclusion, preventing soil pollution requires a combination of measures, including reducing
the use of chemicals, proper waste disposal, controlling soil erosion, soil testing, remediation,
and education and awareness. By taking these steps, we can protect soil quality, human health,
and the environment.

4.5 Other Pollutions


22. What is plastic pollution? What are the impacts of plastic pollution?
Plastic pollution is a form of environmental pollution that refers to the accumulation of plastic
materials in the environment, such as land, water, and air. Plastic is a non-biodegradable
material, meaning that it cannot decompose naturally, and it can persist in the environment for
hundreds of years. As a result, plastic waste can accumulate in the environment and cause a
range of negative impacts on ecosystems and human health.
The impacts of plastic pollution can be significant and far-reaching. Here are some examples:
1. Harm to marine life: Plastic waste can end up in the ocean, where it can harm marine
life. Fish, turtles, and other sea creatures can mistake plastic waste for food, which can
lead to ingestion and entanglement. This can cause injury, illness, and even death.
2. Damage to ecosystems: Plastic pollution can also harm entire ecosystems. For example,
plastic waste can block waterways and cause flooding, which can damage plants and
animals that live in and near those areas.
3. Human health risks: Plastic pollution can also pose risks to human health. Plastic waste
can release harmful chemicals into the environment, which can contaminate soil, water,

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and food. This can lead to a range of health problems, including cancer, birth defects, and
hormonal imbalances.
4. Economic costs: The economic costs of plastic pollution can also be significant. For
example, plastic waste can damage tourism, fishing, and other industries that rely on
healthy ecosystems.
Overall, plastic pollution is a major environmental challenge that requires urgent action to
address. This can include reducing plastic use, improving recycling programs, and promoting
sustainable practices.

23. Discuss the measures taken by the Government of India to handle plastic pollution.
Suggest some more measures to minimize it.
The Government of India has taken several measures to handle plastic pollution in the country.
Some of these measures include:
1. Ban on single-use plastics: The government has banned the manufacture, sale, and use
of single-use plastics in several states and cities across India. This includes items such as
plastic bags, straws, cups, and cutlery.
2. Extended Producer Responsibility: The government has implemented the concept of
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which makes producers responsible for the
collection and disposal of their products. This has led to an increase in plastic recycling
and waste management efforts.
3. Plastic waste management rules: In 2016, the government introduced the Plastic
Waste Management Rules, which focus on waste reduction, segregation, and recycling.
The rules also mandate the use of recycled plastic in certain products.
4. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) has also
contributed to efforts to tackle plastic pollution by promoting waste management and
cleanliness.
Some additional measures that could be taken to minimize plastic pollution in India include:
1. Awareness campaigns: The government could launch awareness campaigns to educate
people on the impacts of plastic pollution and the importance of reducing plastic use.
2. Incentives for eco-friendly alternatives: The government could provide incentives for
businesses and individuals to use eco-friendly alternatives to plastic products, such as
reusable bags and containers.
3. Enforcement of regulations: The government could increase enforcement of existing
regulations to ensure that plastic waste is properly managed and disposed of.
4. Innovative solutions: The government could support the development of innovative
solutions to plastic pollution, such as biodegradable plastics and sustainable packaging
materials.
5. Improved waste management infrastructure: The government could invest in
improving waste management infrastructure, such as waste collection and recycling
facilities, to ensure that plastic waste is properly managed and disposed of.
Overall, tackling plastic pollution requires a multifaceted approach that involves government
action, industry cooperation, and individual behavior change.

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24. What is noise or sound pollution? What are the various sources of noise pollution?
Noise or sound pollution refers to the excessive or disturbing noise levels in the environment
that can have a negative impact on human health and the quality of life. It is often caused by
various sources such as transportation, industrial activities, construction, and social events.
The various sources of noise pollution can be broadly categorized into the following types:
1. Transportation Noise: This is caused by the movement of vehicles such as cars, buses,
trains, and airplanes. The sound of their engines, horns, and brakes can contribute to
noise pollution.
2. Industrial Noise: This is caused by industrial activities such as factories, mills, and
construction sites. The noise generated by heavy machinery, equipment, and tools can
cause noise pollution.
3. Neighborhood Noise: This is caused by loud music, barking dogs, and other social
activities in residential areas.
4. Construction Noise: This is caused by construction activities such as drilling, blasting,
and excavation. The noise generated by heavy equipment and machinery can cause noise
pollution.
5. Recreational Noise: This is caused by outdoor activities such as concerts, sports events,
and festivals. The noise generated by loudspeakers and musical instruments can cause
noise pollution.
6. Natural Noise: This is caused by natural phenomena such as thunderstorms, waterfalls,
and earthquakes. While these are not typically considered noise pollution, they can still
have an impact on human health and the quality of life if they are too loud or frequent.

25. What are the impacts of sound pollution? How can it be minimized?
The impacts of sound pollution, also known as noise pollution, can be numerous and varied.
Some of the most significant effects include:
1. Health Effects: Exposure to excessive noise levels can cause a range of health problems,
including hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, anxiety, and sleep disturbance.
2. Environmental Effects: Noise pollution can have a negative impact on wildlife, causing
behavioral changes and even affecting their reproductive success.
3. Social Effects: Noise pollution can interfere with communication, disrupt social
activities, and decrease the overall quality of life for individuals living in affected areas.

Measures To minimize the impacts of sound pollution:


1. Noise Reduction Measures: These include using sound barriers, sound-absorbing
materials, and noise-reducing technologies to minimize the amount of noise that
reaches sensitive areas.
2. Noise Regulations: Governments can regulate the amount of noise allowed in
certain areas and enforce noise restrictions through zoning laws and noise
ordinances.
3. Personal Protective Measures: Individuals can protect themselves from noise
pollution by using earplugs, noise-cancelling headphones, and other hearing
protection devices.
4. Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about the negative impacts of noise
pollution can encourage individuals and organizations to take steps to minimize their
noise output.

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By implementing these measures, it is possible to reduce the impact of sound pollution and
promote healthier, more livable environments for everyone.

26. What is radioactive pollution? What are its impacts and suggest measures to prevent
or minimize radioactive pollution.
Radioactive pollution is the presence of radioactive substances in the environment, which can
cause harm to human health and the environment. These substances are produced by nuclear
power plants, nuclear weapons testing, and other industrial processes.
The impacts of radioactive pollution can be severe, including increased risk of cancer, birth
defects, and other health problems. It can also cause damage to the environment, including soil,
water, and wildlife.
Measures to prevent or minimize radioactive pollution:
1. Proper waste disposal: Radioactive waste should be properly stored, transported, and
disposed of to prevent contamination of the environment.
2. Radiation shielding: Protective shields can be used to reduce exposure to radiation in
nuclear facilities and during transportation.
3. Improved nuclear facility design: Improved designs for nuclear power plants and
other nuclear facilities can reduce the risk of accidents and limit the spread of radiation.
4. Increased regulation: Governments can enact regulations to limit the amount of
radioactive substances released into the environment and to enforce proper waste
disposal and storage.
5. Education and awareness: Education and awareness programs can help raise public
awareness about the risks of radioactive pollution and the importance of taking steps to
prevent it.
In conclusion, radioactive pollution can have severe impacts on human health and the
environment. To prevent or minimize radioactive pollution, proper waste disposal, radiation
shielding, improved facility design, increased regulation, and education and awareness are
necessary. By taking these steps, we can protect ourselves, our communities, and the
environment from the harmful effects of radioactive pollution.

27. What is thermal pollution? Write about its sources, impacts and the measures to
minimize it.
Thermal pollution is a type of environmental pollution that occurs when there is a significant
change in the temperature of natural water bodies or air, caused by human activities. This can
have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems and can also affect human health.
Sources of Thermal Pollution:
1. Industrial Activities: Many industries, such as power plants, chemical factories, and oil
refineries, release heated water into nearby water bodies as part of their cooling
processes.
2. Urbanization: The construction of buildings and roads in urban areas can result in the
replacement of green spaces with heat-absorbing surfaces such as asphalt, leading to the
urban heat island effect.
3. Deforestation: The removal of trees and vegetation from areas can reduce the cooling
effect of transpiration and increase the amount of heat absorbed by the ground surface.
Impacts of Thermal Pollution:

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1. Fish and Aquatic Life: Changes in water temperature can affect the oxygen levels in the
water, and many aquatic species are highly sensitive to changes in temperature. This can
lead to the death of fish and other aquatic organisms.
2. Human Health: Thermal pollution can affect human health by exacerbating respiratory
problems, causing heat exhaustion or heat stroke, and contributing to the spread of
diseases.
3. Climate Change: Thermal pollution contributes to global warming by releasing large
amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Measures to Minimize Thermal Pollution:
1. Use of Cooling Towers: Industries can use cooling towers to reduce the temperature of
the water used in their cooling processes before releasing it back into water bodies.
2. Vegetation Preservation: Preserving natural vegetation and planting trees in urban
areas can help to reduce the urban heat island effect.
3. Water Treatment: The use of water treatment technologies can help to reduce the
temperature of water before it is released back into water bodies.
4. Renewable Energy: The use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power
can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of thermal
pollution.
In conclusion, thermal pollution can have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems and human
health. By implementing measures to minimize thermal pollution, we can reduce its impact and
create healthier environments for all.

28. What is light pollution? Write about its sources, impacts, and the measures to
minimize it.
Light pollution is the excessive and unnecessary artificial light in the environment, which has
negative impacts on the natural environment, wildlife, and human health. It is caused by various
sources such as streetlights, commercial lighting, and outdoor advertising.
The impacts of light pollution are numerous. It disrupts the natural behavior of animals, birds,
and insects, and interferes with their migration and breeding patterns. It also affects human
health by disrupting the natural sleep-wake cycle, leading to insomnia and other sleep disorders.
Moreover, light pollution wastes a significant amount of energy and contributes to carbon
emissions, which further exacerbates climate change.

Measures to minimize light pollution:


1. Using shields and fixtures: Shields and fixtures can be installed on outdoor lighting to
direct light downwards and reduce light pollution. This approach helps to reduce glare
and spillage, as well as prevent unnecessary light from escaping into the sky.
2. Use of energy-efficient lighting: Energy-efficient lighting sources such as LED bulbs, are
designed to reduce energy consumption, cost and light pollution. They also have a longer
lifespan than traditional incandescent bulbs, resulting in reduced waste and cost.
3. Government regulations: Governments can enact regulations to limit outdoor lighting,
particularly at night, to reduce light pollution. This can include requirements for outdoor
lights to be turned off during certain hours or switching to energy-efficient lighting in
public spaces.

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4. Community awareness: Community awareness campaigns can be implemented to raise
awareness about light pollution and its impacts. This can include educational materials
and public events to educate individuals about the importance of reducing light pollution.
5. Sensible lighting: The most effective solution to minimize light pollution is to use
sensible lighting that is appropriate to the location and environment, which helps to
preserve the natural darkness of the night sky and minimize the impacts of artificial light.
In conclusion, light pollution is an environmental issue that affects the natural environment,
wildlife, and human health. To minimize light pollution, the use of shields and fixtures, energy-
efficient lighting, government regulations, community awareness, and sensible lighting are
necessary. By taking these steps, we can protect our natural environment, conserve energy, and
improve our overall quality of life.

29. Narrate the functions of State Pollution Control Board.


The State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) is a statutory body that is responsible for preventing
and controlling pollution in the respective state in India. The functions of the SPCB are outlined
in the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
Key functions of the SPCB:
1. Implementation of Pollution Control Laws: The SPCB is responsible for implementing
the provisions of the Water and Air Acts and enforcing the pollution control regulations.
2. Granting and Renewing of Licenses: The SPCB grants licenses to industries and other
establishments that have the potential to cause pollution, after assessing the
environmental impact of their activities. The board also renews these licenses after
periodic inspections.
3. Monitoring of Pollution: The SPCB is responsible for monitoring air and water quality
in their respective states to ensure that pollution levels are within permissible limits.
4. Enforcement of Environmental Standards: The SPCB sets and enforces environmental
standards for industries and other establishments that have the potential to cause
pollution.
5. Promotion of Pollution Control Technologies: The SPCB promotes the use of pollution
control technologies and techniques, including cleaner production methods and waste
minimization.
6. Public Awareness and Education: The SPCB conducts public awareness and education
programs to promote environmental awareness and encourage citizens to take action to
prevent pollution.
7. Collaboration with Other Agencies: The SPCB collaborates with other agencies, such as
the Central Pollution Control Board and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, to develop and implement pollution control strategies and policies.
In summary, the State Pollution Control Board plays a critical role in preventing and controlling
pollution in their respective states by implementing pollution control laws, monitoring pollution
levels, enforcing environmental standards, promoting pollution control technologies, conducting
public awareness programs, and collaborating with other agencies

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4.6 Solid Waste Management
Covered Syllabus: solid waste management, types of solid waste, factors affecting solid waste
generation, impact of solid waste, recycling and reuse.

30. What is solid waste? Discuss the different types of solid waste generated in India.
Solid waste refers to any non-liquid refuse or garbage generated by human activities that is no
longer useful and needs to be disposed of properly. It can include a wide range of materials, such
as household waste, industrial waste, construction waste, and hazardous waste.
In India, the types of solid waste generated can be broadly classified into the following
categories:
1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): MSW refers to the waste generated from households,
markets, offices, and other non-industrial sources. It includes items such as food waste,
paper, plastic, metal, glass, and textiles.
2. Industrial Waste: Industrial waste is generated from manufacturing and industrial
processes. It can include hazardous and non-hazardous waste, such as chemicals, toxic
materials, and electronic waste.
3. Electronic Waste (E-waste): E-waste refers to discarded electronic devices, such as
computers, mobile phones, televisions, and other electronic appliances.
4. Biomedical Waste: Biomedical waste includes waste generated from healthcare
facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, and laboratories. It can include infectious waste,
sharps waste, and chemical waste.
5. Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste: C&D waste includes waste generated from
construction sites and demolition activities. It includes materials such as concrete, bricks,
and wood.
6. Agricultural Waste: Agricultural waste includes waste generated from farms and
agricultural practices. It includes materials such as crop residue, animal waste, and farm
equipment.
The proper management and disposal of solid waste is crucial to prevent environmental
pollution and to protect public health. It is essential to segregate waste at the source, recycle and
reuse materials wherever possible, and dispose of waste in an environmentally sustainable
manner.

31. Explain the reasons behind the production of solid waste.


Solid waste generation is a major problem in most cities and urban areas. The factors
responsible for solid waste generation can be broadly classified into two categories: human
activities and natural factors.
1. Human Activities:
a. Population Growth: As the population of a city or urban area grows, so does the amount
of waste generated.
b. Urbanization: Rapid urbanization leads to the growth of cities, and the increase in
commercial and industrial activities generates more waste.
c. Consumption Patterns: The lifestyle and consumption patterns of people can also
contribute to the amount of waste generated. As people consume more packaged goods, the
amount of waste generated increases.

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d. Economic Development: Economic development leads to the growth of industries, which
in turn generates more waste.
e. Inefficient Waste Management Practices: Inefficient waste management practices, such
as lack of segregation at source, inadequate waste collection, and poor disposal practices, can
lead to an increase in solid waste generation.
2. Natural Factors:
a. Climate: Climate plays a role in solid waste generation. Areas with higher temperatures
and humidity may generate more waste due to the need for air conditioning and
refrigeration.
b. Geographical Location: The location of a city or urban area can also contribute to the
amount of waste generated. Cities located near industrial areas or ports may generate more
waste.
c. Topography: The topography of a city or urban area can also affect the amount of waste
generated. Cities with hilly terrain may generate more waste due to the difficulty in
transporting waste.
In summary, solid waste generation is influenced by a range of factors, including population
growth, urbanization, consumption patterns, economic development, climate, geographical
location, and topography. Understanding these factors is essential in developing effective waste
management strategies.

32. What is Biomedical waste? Discuss the impacts of biomedical waste.


Biomedical waste refers to any waste that contains infectious or potentially infectious materials,
such as blood, bodily fluids, or other potentially infectious materials, which may pose a risk of
transmission of diseases. Biomedical waste also includes materials that are contaminated with
radioisotopes or chemicals, such as medical laboratory waste.
The impacts of biomedical waste on human health and the environment can be severe. If
biomedical waste is not managed properly, it can lead to the transmission of diseases to
healthcare workers, waste handlers, and the general public. It can also lead to the contamination
of soil and groundwater, which can have long-lasting effects on the environment.
In addition to the health and environmental impacts, biomedical waste can also lead to a loss of
resources. Many of the materials used in the healthcare industry, such as plastics and metals, are
valuable resources that can be recycled and reused. If these materials are not properly managed,
they may be lost forever.
To minimize the impacts of biomedical waste, it is important to have proper management
systems in place. This includes segregation of waste at the source, proper handling,
transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste. The guidelines for the management of
biomedical waste are well established in India and must be followed strictly by healthcare
facilities and waste handlers to minimize the impacts of biomedical waste.

33. Describe how solid waste impacts humans, other living beings, and environment?
Improper disposal of solid waste can have several negative impacts on humans, other living
beings, and the environment. Some of the impacts of solid waste are:
1. Health hazards: Poor management of solid waste can result in the breeding of disease-
carrying pests, such as rats, flies, and mosquitoes, which can cause diseases like dengue,

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malaria, and cholera. Exposure to hazardous waste can also lead to respiratory and other
health problems.
2. Soil and water pollution: Improper disposal of solid waste can contaminate soil and
water sources, making them unfit for agricultural or human use. It can also lead to the
pollution of groundwater sources, causing long-term environmental damage.
3. Air pollution: Burning of solid waste can release harmful pollutants and toxins into the
air, leading to respiratory problems and other health issues.
4. Damage to wildlife: Improper disposal of solid waste can lead to ingestion of waste by
animals, leading to suffocation or choking, and can also cause entanglement in waste
materials.
5. Aesthetic damage: Improper disposal of solid waste can result in littering, causing
aesthetic damage to the environment, and creating an eyesore for tourists and visitors.
It is essential to manage and dispose of solid waste properly to minimize these impacts and
protect the environment and public health.

34. Critically discuss the various challenges and issues arising out of waste management
in Indian towns and cities.
Waste management in Indian towns and cities faces a range of challenges and issues. Some of the
most significant challenges are:
1. Lack of Infrastructure: One of the major challenges of waste management in India is the
lack of infrastructure, including inadequate waste collection and transportation facilities.
2. Inefficient Waste Collection: Inefficient waste collection, including poor segregation at
source, often results in the mixing of hazardous and non-hazardous waste, making it
difficult to recycle and dispose of waste safely.
3. Open Dumping: Open dumping is a common practice in many Indian cities, leading to
environmental pollution, health hazards, and the release of methane gas from
decomposing waste.
4. Limited Recycling: Despite the availability of recycling technologies, the recycling of
waste in India is still limited due to a lack of awareness and the absence of proper
infrastructure and investment.
5. Limited Public Participation: Public participation in waste management is low due to a
lack of awareness and limited incentives to participate in waste reduction programs.
6. Lack of Enforcement: Laws and regulations related to waste management are not
adequately enforced, leading to non-compliance by waste generators, transporters, and
disposal facilities.
7. Financial Sustainability: The cost of waste management is high, and the financial
sustainability of waste management systems in India remains a significant challenge.
To address these challenges and issues, there is a need for a comprehensive waste management
strategy that includes investment in infrastructure, waste segregation at source, public
awareness campaigns, and the enforcement of laws and regulations related to waste
management. Improving the financial sustainability of waste management systems, promoting
recycling and composting, and encouraging public participation in waste management programs
can also contribute to addressing these challenges. It is crucial that all stakeholders, including
the government, private sector, civil society, and citizens, work together to develop effective
waste management systems that are sustainable, environmentally sound, and socially equitable.

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35. Write a note on the various measures taken by the Government of India for efficient
solid waste management.
The Government of India has taken several measures to improve solid waste management in the
country. Some of these measures are:
1. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: This is a national campaign launched in 2014 to achieve the
vision of a 'Clean India' by October 2, 2019. It focuses on improving solid waste
management practices in urban and rural areas.
2. Solid Waste Management Rules: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC) revised the Solid Waste Management Rules in 2016 to include
provisions for better segregation, collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of
solid waste.
3. Waste-to-Energy (WtE) plants: The government has encouraged the setting up of
Waste-to-Energy (WtE) plants to convert solid waste into energy, which can be used to
generate electricity.
4. Swachh Survekshan: The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs conducts an annual
cleanliness survey of urban areas, known as Swachh Survekshan, to encourage cities to
improve their solid waste management practices.
5. Financial incentives: The government provides financial incentives to local bodies and
organizations for implementing efficient solid waste management practices, such as
segregation at source, door-to-door collection, and waste processing.
6. Public awareness campaigns: The government has launched several public awareness
campaigns to educate people about the importance of proper solid waste management
practices and encourage them to participate in such initiatives.
These measures have helped improve solid waste management practices in the country, but
there is still a long way to go. It is essential to continue implementing and improving these
measures to ensure efficient and sustainable solid waste management in India.

36. Write about the Salient features of Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules,
2016.
The Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2016 is a set of guidelines issued by the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, to regulate the
management of solid waste in the country. The salient features of the rules are as follows:
1. Segregation of waste: The rules mandate that waste should be segregated into three
categories - biodegradable, non-biodegradable, and domestic hazardous waste - at the
source of generation.
2. Responsibility of generators: The rules impose the responsibility of waste generation,
segregation, storage, and transportation on the generator, such as households,
commercial establishments, and industries.
3. Waste collection and transportation: The rules mandate that waste collection and
transportation should be carried out in a scientific and systematic manner, with the use
of suitable vehicles and equipment.
4. Disposal of waste: The rules prohibit the dumping of waste on roadsides, open spaces,
or water bodies, and require the disposal of waste in designated sites, such as landfills, or
waste-to-energy plants.

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5. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): The rules introduce the concept of EPR,
which makes the producers responsible for managing the waste generated by their
products, such as packaging waste.
6. Penalties and fines: The rules impose penalties and fines on individuals and entities for
non-compliance with the rules, such as improper waste disposal, non-segregation of
waste, and littering.
7. Promotion of recycling and reuse: The rules promote the recycling and reuse of waste
by mandating the use of recycled products in construction activities, and encouraging the
establishment of waste-to-energy plants and composting facilities.
Overall, the Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2016 aim to promote sustainable
waste management practices, reduce the amount of waste generated, and ensure the protection
of public health and the environment.

37. What are the various types of solid waste management methods?
There are several methods of solid waste management, which can be broadly classified into the
following categories:
1. Landfilling: This is the most commonly used method for disposing of solid waste. The
waste is buried in a designated landfill site, and the site is covered with soil once it is full.
2. Incineration: This method involves the burning of solid waste at high temperatures,
reducing it to ash and other byproducts.
3. Composting: Organic waste such as food and garden waste is decomposed naturally by
microorganisms, resulting in a nutrient-rich compost that can be used as a fertilizer.
4. Recycling: Waste materials such as plastic, paper, metal, and glass are sorted and
processed into new products.
5. Waste-to-energy (WtE): This method involves the conversion of solid waste into
energy, either through incineration or other processes.
6. Pyrolysis: This is a thermal treatment process in which solid waste is heated in the
absence of oxygen to produce fuel, gas, and char.
7. Plasma gasification: This method involves heating solid waste to high temperatures in a
low-oxygen environment, producing a synthetic gas that can be used as fuel.
The selection of the appropriate method for solid waste management depends on factors such as
the type of waste, its quantity, and its composition. The most effective approach is to adopt a
combination of these methods to achieve sustainable and efficient solid waste management.

38. Write a short note on Pyrolysis and Incineration.


Pyrolysis and incineration are two thermal processes used for waste management.
Pyrolysis is a process that involves heating waste materials in the absence of oxygen, resulting in
the decomposition of the waste into solid, liquid, and gaseous products. The process of pyrolysis
can be used to recover energy from waste, as the gases produced can be combusted to generate
heat or electricity. Pyrolysis is a promising technology for waste management as it can treat a
wide range of waste streams, including hazardous and non-hazardous wastes. Pyrolysis also has
the potential to recover valuable materials from waste, such as metals and other recyclable
materials.

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Incineration is a process that involves burning waste materials at high temperatures, typically
between 850°C and 1,200°C. Incineration is often used to treat hazardous waste, medical waste,
and municipal solid waste. The heat produced during incineration can be recovered and used to
generate electricity or heat. However, incineration also produces emissions, including ash,
particulate matter, and greenhouse gases. Therefore, incineration must be carefully managed to
ensure that emissions are controlled and minimized.
In summary, pyrolysis and incineration are thermal processes used for waste management.
Pyrolysis is a promising technology that can recover energy and valuable materials from waste,
while incineration is often used for hazardous waste and produces emissions that must be
carefully managed.

4.7 Recycling & Reuse


39. Define recycling and list its advantages/benefits.
Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new products or materials. It involves
collecting, sorting, processing, and remanufacturing waste into useful products.
The benefits of recycling are numerous, including:
1. Conservation of natural resources: Recycling reduces the need for new raw materials,
conserving natural resources such as water, timber, and minerals.
2. Energy conservation: Recycling requires less energy than producing new materials,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to energy conservation.
3. Reduced landfill waste: Recycling reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills,
reducing the need for new landfill sites.
4. Economic benefits: Recycling creates jobs in the collection, sorting, and processing of
waste materials, contributing to local economies.
5. Reduced environmental pollution: Recycling reduces environmental pollution by
reducing the amount of waste that is burned or dumped in landfills.
6. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Recycling reduces greenhouse gas emissions by
reducing the need for the production of new materials, which require energy and
contribute to emissions.
Overall, recycling is an essential component of sustainable waste management and plays a
critical role in conserving natural resources, reducing pollution, and promoting a circular
economy.

40. Write about the significance of reuse in solid waste management.


The significance of reuse in solid waste management lies in its potential to reduce the amount of
waste generated and the associated environmental impacts. Reuse is the process of using an item
again for its original purpose or for a new purpose without significant processing or
transformation. By reusing items, we can conserve resources and reduce the amount of waste
that needs to be disposed of in landfills or through other waste management methods.
There are several benefits to reusing items in solid waste management:
1. Conservation of Resources: Reusing items reduces the need for new resources to be
extracted, processed, and manufactured, thereby conserving natural resources such as
water, minerals, and energy.

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2. Reduction of Waste: Reusing items reduces the amount of waste generated, which helps
to reduce the burden on landfills and other waste management systems.
3. Reduced Environmental Impacts: By reducing the amount of waste generated, we can
also reduce the associated environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, air
and water pollution, and land degradation.
4. Economic Benefits: Reusing items can also have economic benefits, such as reducing the
cost of waste disposal and generating income through the sale of used items.
5. Promoting Sustainability: Reusing items promotes sustainable consumption patterns
and encourages individuals and businesses to consider the full lifecycle of products, from
production to disposal.
Therefore, reuse is an essential component of sustainable solid waste management. It not only
reduces waste but also conserves resources, reduces environmental impacts, and promotes
sustainable consumption patterns. Governments, businesses, and individuals must work
together to promote reuse through policies and programs that encourage the adoption of
sustainable practices in solid waste management.

41. What is electronic waste (e-waste)? Write about the challenges of e-waste to India.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to any electronic device or equipment that has reached the
end of its useful life and is discarded. Examples of e-waste include computers, mobile phones,
televisions, refrigerators, and other electronic devices. E-waste is a growing problem globally, as
the volume of discarded electronic devices continues to increase due to rapid technological
advancements and the high rate of consumerism.
India is one of the largest consumers of electronic devices in the world and, as a result, is facing
significant challenges related to e-waste. The following are some of the challenges of e-waste to
India:
1. High Volume of E-Waste: India generates a vast amount of e-waste due to its large
population and rapid economic growth. The volume of e-waste is expected to increase
further in the coming years.
2. Lack of Proper Disposal Infrastructure: India lacks adequate infrastructure for the
disposal and management of e-waste. Most e-waste is either dumped in landfills or
illegally exported to other countries, which can have significant environmental and
health impacts.
3. Health Risks: E-waste contains hazardous materials such as lead, mercury, and
cadmium, which can have severe health impacts on workers and communities involved
in handling e-waste.
4. Informal Sector: Most e-waste in India is managed by the informal sector, which lacks
proper training and protective gear to handle hazardous materials safely.
5. Lack of Awareness: Many individuals and businesses in India are not aware of the
environmental and health impacts of e-waste and do not take appropriate measures for
its disposal.
To address these challenges, India has implemented several measures to manage e-waste,
including the E-Waste Management Rules, 2016, which requires producers to take back and
recycle their products at the end of their useful life. However, effective implementation and
enforcement of these measures remain a challenge. Therefore, there is a need for a concerted

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effort from all stakeholders, including the government, businesses, and individuals, to manage e-
waste effectively and promote sustainable practices.

42. Write a note on the problems and opportunities associated with recycling of e-waste.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to discarded electronic devices such as computers,
smartphones, TVs, and other electronic gadgets. Recycling of e-waste presents both problems
and opportunities.

One of the main problems with e-waste recycling is the presence of toxic materials in the devices.
Many electronic devices contain toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and
brominated flame retardants, which can cause health problems if they are not handled properly.
If e-waste is not recycled correctly, these toxic substances can leach into the soil and water,
polluting the environment and posing a threat to human health.

Another challenge with e-waste recycling is that it requires specialized equipment and
processes. E-waste often contains a mix of materials such as metals, plastics, and glass, which
makes it difficult to recycle. The lack of proper recycling infrastructure and technology in many
countries also makes e-waste recycling a challenging task.

Despite these challenges, e-waste recycling also presents opportunities. The recycling of e-waste
can help to conserve natural resources by reducing the need for raw materials. It also helps to
reduce the amount of waste that goes into landfills and reduces the environmental impact of
electronic devices. Additionally, e-waste recycling can create job opportunities in the recycling
industry.

To maximize the benefits of e-waste recycling, it is important to address the challenges


associated with it. This can be done by implementing effective e-waste management systems,
promoting awareness and education about e-waste recycling, developing specialized
infrastructure and technology for e-waste recycling, and enforcing regulations to ensure the
proper handling and disposal of e-waste.

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Chapter 5: Global Environment Issues
Syllabus: Global Environment Issues: Climate Change, Global Warming and its impact,
Sustainable Development.
5.1 Global Environment Issues
1. Discuss the major global environmental issues the world faces today.
There are several major global environmental issues that the world faces today. Here are some of
the most pressing ones:
1. Climate change: Climate change refers to the long-term changes in the Earth's climate
system, primarily driven by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and
deforestation. The impacts of climate change are far-reaching, including rising sea levels,
extreme weather events, and changes in ecosystems and biodiversity.
2. Loss of biodiversity: Human activities such as habitat destruction, over-exploitation,
pollution, and climate change have caused a significant loss of biodiversity around the
world. This has resulted in the extinction of many plant and animal species and is a major
threat to the functioning of ecosystems and human well-being.
3. Deforestation: Deforestation, primarily driven by the expansion of agriculture and
logging, is a major environmental issue that affects ecosystems, biodiversity, and climate
change. Deforestation can lead to soil erosion, flooding, and loss of habitat for wildlife.
4. Water scarcity and pollution: Water scarcity and pollution are significant
environmental issues that affect many regions around the world. Climate change, over-
extraction, and pollution have resulted in the depletion of freshwater resources, while
contamination from industrial and agricultural activities can make water unsafe for
human consumption.
5. Air pollution: Air pollution, primarily caused by the burning of fossil fuels, is a major
environmental issue that contributes to climate change and has significant impacts on
human health.
6. Plastic pollution: Plastic pollution, caused by the accumulation of plastic waste in the
environment, is a growing environmental issue that has significant impacts on
ecosystems and human health.
Overall, these global environmental issues require urgent action from governments, businesses,
and individuals to address. This can include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting
biodiversity and ecosystems, promoting sustainable practices, and investing in renewable
energy and technology.

2. What is Ozone layer and what are its functions?


The ozone layer is a region in the Earth's stratosphere, located about 10 to 50 kilometers above
the Earth's surface, that contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) molecules. The ozone layer
plays an important role in protecting life on Earth by absorbing most of the harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun, which can cause skin cancer, cataracts, and other health problems.

The ozone layer functions primarily by absorbing and scattering incoming UV radiation from the
sun. This process converts the UV radiation into heat, which dissipates into the surrounding
atmosphere. Without the ozone layer, much of the UV radiation from the sun would reach the
Earth's surface, leading to a significant increase in skin cancer, cataracts, and other health
problems in humans and animals.
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In addition to protecting life on Earth from harmful UV radiation, the ozone layer also plays a
role in regulating the Earth's climate. Ozone is a greenhouse gas, and its presence in the
atmosphere contributes to the
greenhouse effect, which helps keep the
Earth's surface warm enough to support
life. However, too much ozone in the
lower atmosphere can lead to air
pollution and smog, which can have
negative effects on human health and
the environment.
Overall, the ozone layer is a crucial
component of the Earth's atmosphere
that protects life on Earth from harmful
UV radiation and helps regulate the
Earth's climate.

3. Write about Ozone hole and Ozone layer depletion including their causes and impacts.
What are the measures to deal with Ozone layer depletion?
Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning and reduction of the protective ozone layer in the
Earth's stratosphere, which can lead to an increase in harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching
the Earth's surface. The most well-known example of ozone layer depletion is the ozone hole
over Antarctica, which was first discovered in the 1980s.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion: The primary cause of ozone layer depletion is the release of
human-made chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other ozone-depleting
substances (ODSs), into the atmosphere. These chemicals are used in refrigeration, air
conditioning, aerosols, solvents, and other industrial and
consumer products. Once released into the atmosphere,
these chemicals rise to the stratosphere, where they
break down ozone molecules and reduce the ozone
layer's thickness and coverage.
Impacts of Ozone Layer Depletion: The depletion of
the ozone layer has several negative impacts on the
environment and human health, including:
1. Increased UV radiation exposure: Ozone
depletion allows more UV radiation to reach the
Earth's surface, increasing the risk of skin cancer,
cataracts, and other health problems in humans
and animals.
2. Reduced crop yields: Increased UV radiation
can also harm crops and reduce agricultural
productivity.

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3. Negative impact on marine ecosystems: Ozone depletion can also harm marine
ecosystems by reducing the growth and survival of phytoplankton, the base of the ocean
food chain.
4. Climate change: Ozone depletion can also contribute to climate change by altering the
atmospheric circulation and affecting the distribution of heat and energy in the Earth's
atmosphere.
Measures to Deal with Ozone Layer Depletion: The most effective measure to deal with ozone
layer depletion is to reduce the production and use of ODSs. The Montreal Protocol, an
international agreement signed in 1987, has been instrumental in reducing ODSs' production
and use worldwide. Under this agreement, countries have phased out the production and use of
ODSs, leading to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Other measures to deal with ozone
depletion include promoting the use of alternatives to ODSs and improving monitoring and
research on the ozone layer.
In conclusion, the depletion of the ozone layer is a serious environmental issue that has negative
impacts on human health, the environment, and the climate. It is crucial to continue taking
measures to reduce the production and use of ODSs and protect the ozone layer.

4. Discuss the Ocean Acidification including its causes and impacts.


Ocean acidification refers to the decrease in pH levels (thereby acidifying) of the ocean due to the
absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. The increase in CO2 levels in the
atmosphere due to human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, is the
primary cause of ocean acidification.
Causes of Ocean Acidification: When CO2 is absorbed by the ocean, it reacts with water
molecules to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which lowers the pH levels of seawater and makes it
more acidic. The carbonic acid can readily give out H+ ions leading to the increased acidity.
• CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
• H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-

Impacts of Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification has several negative impacts on marine
ecosystems, including:
1. Reduced growth and
survival of marine
organisms: The increased
acidity of seawater can make
it difficult for marine
organisms to build and
maintain their shells,
skeletons, and other hard
structures, which can reduce
their growth and survival.
• These shells are made
of calcium carbonate.
The H+ ions released
by carbonic acid react
with calcium carbonate and dissolve it in following chemical reaction thus
making life difficult for these shell forming organisms and corals.
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• CaCO3 + 2H+ -> Ca2+ + H2O + CO2
2. Impacts on food webs: Ocean acidification can also affect the food webs in marine
ecosystems, as changes in the growth and survival of certain organisms can have ripple
effects throughout the food chain.
3. Impacts on coral reefs: Coral reefs are particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification, as
increased acidity can make it difficult for corals to build and maintain their calcium
carbonate structures, leading to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

In conclusion, ocean acidification is a serious environmental issue that has negative impacts on
marine ecosystems and the services they provide. It is crucial to take measures to reduce CO2
emissions and promote sustainable practices to minimize ocean acidification's effects.

5. Suggest some measures to minimize ocean acidification.


Reducing CO2 emissions is the most effective measure to minimize ocean acidification. This can
be achieved through a variety of actions, such as reducing the use of fossil fuels, increasing
energy efficiency, promoting renewable energy, and reducing deforestation. Other measures to
minimize ocean acidification include:
1. Enhancing ocean monitoring: Improving monitoring and research on ocean
acidification can help scientists better understand its impacts and develop effective
strategies to mitigate its effects.
2. Promoting sustainable fishing practices: Promoting sustainable fishing practices can
help reduce the stress on marine ecosystems and improve their resilience to ocean
acidification.
3. Protecting and restoring marine ecosystems: Protecting and restoring marine
ecosystems, such as coral reefs, can help improve their resilience to ocean acidification
and promote biodiversity and ecosystem services.
4. Reducing pollution: Reducing pollution from sources such as agricultural runoff and
wastewater discharge can help reduce the stress on marine ecosystems and improve
their resilience to ocean acidification.

5.2 Climate Change


6. Discuss in detail about Climate change.
Climate change refers to the long-term alteration of the Earth's climate and weather patterns,
largely caused by human activities. These activities include burning fossil fuels, deforestation,
and industrialization, which have led to an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The
primary greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, which trap heat
from the sun in the Earth's atmosphere and cause the planet's temperature to rise.
The effects of climate change are widespread and far-reaching, with impacts on the environment,
economies, and societies. One of the most significant impacts is the melting of glaciers and ice
caps, leading to sea-level rise and increased coastal flooding. This can have devastating effects on
coastal communities, especially in low-lying areas, where flooding can cause damage to
infrastructure, homes, and livelihoods.

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Climate change also leads to more frequent and severe weather events, such as droughts,
heatwaves, hurricanes, and wildfires. These events can cause significant damage to crops,
forests, and infrastructure, leading to economic losses and displacement of people.
The impacts of climate change are not limited to the environment and economy but also affect
human health. The rise in temperature and more extreme weather events can lead to heat stress,
respiratory illnesses, and the spread of infectious diseases. Vulnerable populations, such as the
elderly, children, and low-income communities, are particularly at risk.
The global response to climate change includes both mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Mitigation strategies aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by transitioning to renewable
energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation. Adaptation strategies
focus on building resilience to the impacts of climate change, such as developing drought-
resistant crops, strengthening infrastructure, and improving disaster preparedness.
To address climate change, international cooperation is critical. The Paris Agreement, signed in
2015, is a global agreement to limit the rise in global temperature to well below 2 degrees
Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5
degrees Celsius. The agreement has been ratified by over 190 countries and is a significant step
towards addressing the global challenge of climate change.
In conclusion, climate change is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a coordinated
global effort to address. The impacts of climate change are significant and far-reaching, affecting
the environment, economy, society, and human health. It is essential to implement both
mitigation and adaptation strategies to address climate change and build a more resilient and
sustainable future.

7. Climate change is becoming the single largest threat to the world. How does this affect
India?
Climate change is a significant threat to India, as the country is already experiencing the impacts
of a changing climate. Here are some ways in which climate change affects India:
1. Extreme weather events: India is vulnerable to extreme weather events such as floods,
droughts, cyclones, and heatwaves, which have become more frequent and intense due to
climate change. These events can cause significant damage to infrastructure, agriculture,
and human lives.
2. Water scarcity: Climate change is causing changes in precipitation patterns, leading to
water scarcity in many regions of India. This has significant impacts on agriculture,
drinking water availability, and overall economic development.
3. Health impacts: Climate change is leading to an increase in vector-borne diseases such
as dengue and malaria, as well as heat-related illnesses. This has significant impacts on
public health and healthcare systems.
4. Biodiversity loss: Climate change is affecting ecosystems and biodiversity in India, with
species extinction and loss of habitat becoming more common. This has significant
impacts on agriculture, fisheries, and other industries that depend on natural resources.
5. Economic impacts: Climate change has significant economic impacts on India, with the
country's agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors being particularly vulnerable.
Climate change can also lead to increased costs associated with infrastructure damage,
disaster management, and healthcare.

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Overall, climate change is a significant threat to India, and urgent action is needed to mitigate its
impacts. This can include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting sustainable practices,
investing in renewable energy, and strengthening adaptation measures to build resilience to
climate change impacts.

8. Discuss the effects of climate change on agriculture.


Climate change has significant impacts on agriculture, affecting crop productivity, food security,
and rural livelihoods. Some of the effects of climate change on agriculture include:
1. Changes in temperature and precipitation: Climate change has led to changes in
temperature and precipitation patterns, resulting in more frequent and severe droughts,
floods, heatwaves, and other extreme weather events. These events can damage crops,
reduce yields, and affect the quality and nutritional value of food.
2. Soil degradation: Soil degradation is a significant problem associated with climate
change, caused by factors such as erosion, nutrient depletion, and salinization. This can
affect crop yields and quality, leading to food shortages and increasing the risk of hunger.
3. Pests and diseases: Climate change can increase the incidence and severity of pests and
diseases that affect crops. Higher temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns can lead
to the proliferation of pests and diseases, reducing crop yields and quality.
4. Water scarcity: Climate change has led to water scarcity, particularly in areas that rely
on rainfall for irrigation. This can lead to reduced crop yields and lower water availability
for drinking and other uses, affecting food security and livelihoods.
5. Food insecurity: Climate change has led to food insecurity in many parts of the world.
Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, along with other factors such as soil
degradation, pests and diseases, and water scarcity, have led to reduced crop yields and
increased food prices, affecting the availability and affordability of food.
6. Livelihoods: Agriculture is a significant source of income and livelihoods for many rural
communities. Climate change can affect the viability of agriculture as a livelihood source,
leading to poverty, migration, and social instability.
Adaptation and mitigation strategies are critical to addressing the impacts of climate change on
agriculture. These include practices such as crop diversification, soil conservation, water
conservation, and the development of drought-resistant crops. Investing in agricultural research
and technology can also help farmers adapt to changing weather patterns and improve crop
productivity and resilience. Additionally, efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can help
mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture by reducing the severity and frequency of
extreme weather events.

9. Explain various mitigation strategies to deal with Climate Change.


Mitigation strategies are actions that aim to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions,
thereby slowing down or limiting the extent of climate change. There are various mitigation
strategies available that can help in dealing with climate change. Here are some of the most
important ones:
1. Renewable energy: Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as
solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
These sources are sustainable, abundant, and emit little or no greenhouse gases, making
them an effective way to mitigate climate change.

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2. Energy efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in buildings, industry, and
transportation can reduce energy consumption, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and
save money. Strategies such as better insulation, efficient lighting and appliances, and
fuel-efficient vehicles can help achieve this.
3. Carbon capture and storage: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies capture
carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and other industrial facilities and store
them underground or in other geological formations. CCS can significantly reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from these sources and play a crucial role in mitigating climate
change.
4. Forest conservation: Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through photosynthesis. Deforestation, on the other hand, releases carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere. Protecting and restoring forests and other natural
ecosystems can, therefore, mitigate climate change.
5. Agricultural practices: Agricultural practices that reduce emissions from farming, such
as conservation tillage, improved fertilizer management, and the use of renewable
energy, can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These practices can also
increase the resilience of agricultural systems to the impacts of climate change.
6. Carbon pricing: Carbon pricing is a policy that puts a price on greenhouse gas emissions,
either through a carbon tax or a cap-and-trade system. This creates an economic
incentive for industries and individuals to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions,
thereby mitigating climate change.
7. Education and awareness: Education and awareness campaigns can help individuals
and communities understand the importance of mitigating climate change and encourage
them to adopt more sustainable behaviors and lifestyles.
In conclusion, implementing a combination of these mitigation strategies can help mitigate the
impacts of climate change and create a more sustainable future. It is essential to act quickly and
decisively to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit the extent of climate change.

10. Explain the salient features of National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) is a comprehensive plan developed by the
Government of India to address climate change and its impacts in the country. Here are some of
its salient features:
1. Mitigation: The plan includes measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, such as
promoting renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing emissions from
transportation.
2. Adaptation: The plan includes measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change, such
as improving water management, promoting climate-resilient agriculture, and
strengthening disaster management systems.
3. Technology: The plan emphasizes the need for technology development and transfer to
support climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. This includes promoting
research and development in areas such as renewable energy and energy efficiency.
4. Sustainable development: The plan recognizes the importance of sustainable
development, with a focus on promoting low-carbon growth, reducing poverty, and
improving livelihoods.

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5. Capacity building: The plan emphasizes the need for capacity building and awareness-
raising efforts to support the implementation of climate change mitigation and
adaptation measures.
6. International cooperation: The plan recognizes the importance of international
cooperation to address climate change, with a focus on promoting technology transfer,
capacity building, and finance.
Overall, the National Action Plan on Climate Change is a comprehensive plan that addresses the
challenges of climate change in India. It takes a holistic approach, incorporating measures to
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to the impacts of climate change, promote sustainable
development, and build capacity to implement climate change actions.

11. Discuss the major international agreements to minimize Climate Change. Comment on
their performance.
There have been several international agreements to minimize climate change, including:
1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This is an
international treaty signed in 1992 with the objective of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The
UNFCCC has since led to several other international agreements and initiatives, including
the Paris Agreement.
2. Kyoto Protocol: This was an international agreement reached in 1997 that set binding
targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions for developed countries. The Kyoto
Protocol was seen as a major step forward in international efforts to address climate
change, but its impact was limited due to the lack of participation from major emitters
such as the United States.
3. Paris Agreement: This is an international treaty signed in 2015 with the goal of limiting
global temperature rise to below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts
to limit the increase to 1.5°C. The Paris Agreement requires countries to submit
nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining their efforts to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
Overall, the performance of these international agreements has been mixed. While they have led
to some progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing global awareness of
climate change, they have been criticized for their lack of binding targets and enforcement
mechanisms. The Paris Agreement has been hailed as a significant step forward in international
efforts to address climate change, but its success will depend on the ability of countries to
implement their NDCs and increase their ambition over time.
Additionally, the withdrawal of the United States from the Paris Agreement under the Trump
administration has been seen as a major setback for international climate action. However, the
Biden administration has since rejoined the Paris Agreement and has signalled a renewed
commitment to addressing climate change at the international level.
Overall, while international agreements have been important in raising awareness of climate
change and spurring action, more ambitious targets and concrete actions are needed to
effectively address this global challenge.

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5.3 Global Warming and its impact
12. What is global warming? Explain its effects.
Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to
the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), released by human activities such as burning fossil
fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. These gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere,
causing the planet's temperature to rise. Here are some of the effects of global warming:
1. Rising sea levels: Global warming causes melting of glaciers and ice caps, resulting in
rising sea levels. This can lead to flooding, erosion, and loss of coastal habitats,
endangering wildlife and human settlements.
2. Changes in weather patterns: Global warming is causing changes in weather patterns,
resulting in more frequent and severe extreme weather events such as heatwaves,
droughts, floods, hurricanes, and cyclones. These events can cause significant damage to
ecosystems, infrastructure, and human health.
3. Loss of biodiversity: Global warming and climate change can lead to the extinction of
many plant and animal species, affecting biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. This
can have severe consequences for food security and human well-being.
4. Health impacts: Global warming can increase the incidence and severity of diseases,
such as asthma, allergies, and heat-related illnesses. The spread of diseases such as
malaria and dengue fever can also be exacerbated by changes in temperature and rainfall
patterns.
5. Economic impacts: Global warming can lead to significant economic impacts such as
reduced agricultural productivity, increased energy costs, and damage to infrastructure
and property.
6. Social impacts: Global
warming can also lead to
social impacts such as
migration and
displacement, especially
in vulnerable
communities such as low-
lying coastal areas, small
island states, and arctic
regions.
In conclusion, global warming
and climate change have
significant impacts on the
environment, economy, and
human well-being. It is crucial to
take collective action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit the extent of global warming
to prevent catastrophic impacts on our planet and society.

13. Write a note on Mitigation methods to address Global warming.


Mitigation methods are actions taken to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which are
responsible for global warming and climate change. Mitigation is essential to address the causes

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of global warming and limit its impacts. Here are some mitigation methods to address global
warming:
1. Energy efficiency: Improving energy efficiency
is an effective way to reduce GHG emissions.
This can include measures such as upgrading
buildings and appliances to be more energy-
efficient, using public transportation, and
reducing energy waste.
2. Renewable energy: Shifting to renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydro
power can significantly reduce GHG emissions.
This requires investment in renewable energy
infrastructure and policy support to promote
the use of renewable energy sources.
3. Carbon capture and storage (CCS): CCS is a
process that captures carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and industrial
processes and stores them underground. CCS has the potential to significantly reduce
GHG emissions in high-emitting sectors such as power generation and heavy industry.
4. Forest conservation: Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Conserving and restoring forests can help reduce GHG emissions by
maintaining and increasing carbon storage.
5. Agriculture and livestock management: Agriculture and livestock production are
significant sources of GHG emissions. Mitigation measures in this sector can include
promoting sustainable agricultural practices, reducing food waste, and shifting to plant-
based diets.
6. Carbon pricing: Carbon pricing is a policy tool that places a price on GHG emissions,
providing an economic incentive for individuals and businesses to reduce their
emissions. This can include measures such as carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems.
Overall, mitigation methods play a critical role in addressing global warming and limiting its
impacts. A combination of policies, investments, and individual actions is needed to reduce GHG
emissions and transition to a low-carbon economy.

14. What is Green House Effect? Explain how Green House Effect is contributing to Global
warming.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap
heat from the sun and keep the planet warm. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's
temperature would be too cold to support life. However, the excessive build-up of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide
(N2O), due to human activities is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect, leading to global
warming.
When sunlight enters the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by the Earth's surface, while
the rest is reflected back into space. The absorbed sunlight heats the Earth's surface, which then
emits infrared radiation back into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb
this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, including back to the Earth's surface,
trapping the heat and keeping the planet warm.

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However, the excessive build-up of greenhouse gases due to human activities is causing the
enhanced greenhouse effect. The burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas releases large
amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, contributing to the increase in atmospheric CO2
concentrations. Deforestation and other land-use
changes are also contributing to the increase in
atmospheric CO2 concentrations by reducing the
amount of carbon that can be absorbed by
forests and other vegetation.
Methane and N2O are also significant
greenhouse gases that contribute to global
warming. Methane is emitted from agriculture,
livestock, and fossil fuel production, while N2O is
emitted from agricultural soils and nitrogen
fertilizers.
The enhanced greenhouse effect is causing global
temperatures to rise, leading to climate change
and its associated impacts such as sea level rise,
increased frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events, and changes in ecosystems and
biodiversity. To address global warming, it is
essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
transitioning to a low-carbon economy,
promoting energy efficiency, and investing in
renewable energy and other mitigation measures.

15. What are the major Green House Gases? Discuss their sources and contribution to
global warming.
The major greenhouse gases responsible for global warming are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases.
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 is the most significant greenhouse gas, accounting for about
76% of total emissions. Its primary source is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
and gas, which releases CO2 into the atmosphere. Deforestation and other land-use
changes also contribute to atmospheric CO2 concentrations by reducing the amount of
carbon that can be absorbed by forests and other vegetation.
2. Methane (CH4): Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas, accounting for
about 16% of total emissions. Its primary sources are agriculture, livestock, and fossil
fuel production. In agriculture, methane is emitted from enteric fermentation in
livestock, rice cultivation, and manure management. Fossil fuel production, including oil
and gas extraction and coal mining, also releases methane.

3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O): N2O accounts for about 6% of total greenhouse gas emissions. Its
primary sources are agricultural soils and nitrogen fertilizers. N2O is also emitted from
fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, and some industrial processes.
4. Fluorinated Gases: Fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), are synthetic gases used in
refrigeration, air conditioning, and other industrial processes. They are potent

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greenhouse gases, with global warming potentials many times greater than CO2.
Although they are present in much smaller quantities than CO2, their impact on global
warming is significant.
Overall, the sources and contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming vary by gas.
However, the burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation is the primary source of
greenhouse gas emissions, with agriculture and land-use changes also contributing significantly.
To address global warming, it is essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by transitioning to
a low-carbon economy, promoting energy efficiency, and investing in renewable energy and
other mitigation measures.

5.4 Sustainable Development


16. What is sustainable development? Trace the evolution of the concept of sustainable
development.
Sustainable development is a concept that refers to the idea of meeting the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It
involves a balanced approach to economic, social, and environmental issues, with the aim of
achieving long-term sustainability.
The concept of sustainable development evolved in response to concerns about the negative
impacts of economic growth and industrialization on the environment and society. The term
"sustainable development" was first used in the 1980s, in the World Conservation Strategy
published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The concept gained
wider recognition in 1987, with the publication of the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, by
the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). The report
defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has been further
developed and refined. In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The
summit resulted in the adoption of Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action for sustainable
development, which included commitments to promote sustainable development at the national
and international levels.
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which
includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs aim to address the economic,
social, and environmental challenges facing the world, including poverty, hunger, climate change,
and environmental degradation, and to achieve sustainable development by 2030.
The evolution of the concept of sustainable development reflects a growing recognition of the
need to address environmental and social issues alongside economic growth. It also recognizes
the interdependence between economic, social, and environmental issues, and the need to find a
balance between these different aspects of development.

17. What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)? Briefly discuss the Sustainable
Development Goals.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 goals adopted by the United Nations in
2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The SDGs aim to address global
challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental degradation, and to
achieve sustainable development by 2030. The 17 SDGs are:
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1. No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture.
3. Good Health and Well-being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages.
4. Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote
lifelong learning opportunities for all.
5. Gender Equality: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6. Clean Water and Sanitation: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and
modern energy for all.
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth: Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all.
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure: Build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.
10. Reduced Inequalities: Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities: Make cities and human settlements inclusive,
safe, resilient, and sustainable.
12. Responsible Consumption and Production: Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns.
13. Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
14. Life Below Water: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources
for sustainable development.
15. Life on Land: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and biodiversity loss.
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective,
accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Partnerships for the Goals: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the
global partnership for sustainable development.
The SDGs are interconnected and address a range of economic, social, and environmental issues.
They provide a framework for countries to work towards sustainable development and to
ensure that development is inclusive and leaves no one behind. Achieving the SDGs requires
collaboration and partnership between governments, civil society, the private sector, and
individuals, and requires action at the local, national, and global levels.

18. Critically analyse the progress of India towards Sustainable Development Goals.
India has made progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), but
challenges remain in some areas. Here is a critical analysis of India's progress towards the SDGs:
1. No Poverty: India has made significant progress in reducing poverty. According to the
World Bank, the poverty rate in India fell from 21.6% in 2011 to 9.2% in 2020. However,

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inequality remains a challenge, with large disparities in income and access to basic
services.
2. Zero Hunger: India has made progress in reducing hunger, but malnutrition remains a
major challenge. According to the Global Hunger Index, India ranks 101 out of 116
countries. The government has launched several initiatives to improve food security and
nutrition, such as the National Food Security Act and the National Nutrition Mission.
3. Good Health and Well-being: India has made progress in improving health outcomes,
but challenges remain in areas such as maternal and child health, non-communicable
diseases, and access to healthcare. The government has launched several initiatives such
as Ayushman Bharat to improve access to healthcare.
4. Quality Education: India has made progress in improving access to education, but the
quality of education remains a challenge. The government has launched several
initiatives such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and the Right to Education Act to improve
access to education.
5. Gender Equality: India has made progress in improving gender equality, but challenges
remain in areas such as violence against women, discrimination in the workplace, and
unequal access to resources. The government has launched several initiatives such as the
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao campaign to improve gender equality.
6. Clean Water and Sanitation: India has made progress in improving access to clean
water and sanitation, but challenges remain in areas such as water quality and sanitation
in rural areas. The government has launched several initiatives such as the Swachh
Bharat Mission to improve access to sanitation.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy: India has made progress in expanding access to clean
energy, but challenges remain in areas such as the high cost of renewable energy and the
dominance of fossil fuels in the energy mix.
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth: India has made progress in promoting economic
growth and employment, but challenges remain in areas such as informal employment
and job creation in certain sectors.
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure: India has made progress in promoting
innovation and infrastructure development, but challenges remain in areas such as the
quality and sustainability of infrastructure and the need for more investment in research
and development.
10. Reduced Inequalities: India has made progress in reducing inequalities, but challenges
remain in areas such as caste-based discrimination, regional disparities, and unequal
access to resources.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities: India has made progress in promoting
sustainable urbanization, but challenges remain in areas such as air pollution, traffic
congestion, and inadequate infrastructure in urban areas.
12. Responsible Consumption and Production: India has made progress in promoting
sustainable consumption and production patterns, but challenges remain in areas such as
waste management and reducing the environmental impact of production processes.
13. Climate Action: India has made progress in promoting climate action, but challenges
remain in areas such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to a low-
carbon economy.

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14. Life Below Water: India has made progress in conserving marine biodiversity, but
challenges remain in areas such as overfishing, marine pollution, and unsustainable
coastal development.
15. Life on Land: India has made progress in conserving biodiversity and promoting
sustainable land use, but challenges remain in areas such as deforestation, land
degradation, and human-wildlife conflicts.
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: India has made progress in promoting peaceful
and inclusive societies and strengthening institutions, but challenges remain in areas
such as corruption, discrimination, and human.

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Part – III: General Science
For Group 1 Preliminary Test:
1. Concepts of General Science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry)
2. MCQs on General Science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry)
3. MCQs on Science and Technology
4. MCQs on Environmental Issues & Disaster Management

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Biology
1. Introduction
Biology is the science that deals with the study of different aspects of living beings like structure,
activities, organisation, evolution and interaction with the environment. The field of modern
biology is extensive and diverse, comprising numerous branches and sub-disciplines.
• At its core, biology acknowledges the cell as the fundamental unit of life and genes as the
building blocks of heredity. These components are responsible for driving the creation
and evolution of new species.
• The term ‘biology’ was first coined by Lamarck and Treviranus in 1802.

Fathers of Biology
• Aristotle is known as the father of Biology, Zoology, and Embryology
• Hippocrates is known as father of medicine
• Theophrastus is known as the father of Botany
• Linnaeus is known as father of Taxonomy (classification of organisms)

Important Terms of Biology


1. Anatomy: The study of the internal and external structures of organisms.
2. Biomedical Engineering: The application of engineering principles and techniques to
medicine and biology to improve healthcare and quality of life.
3. Biometrics: automated recognition and measurement of biological characteristics of
individuals, such as fingerprints, facial recognition, iris scans, or voice recognition
4. Biotechnology: The use of living organisms or their products for practical purposes, such
as improving crops, creating new medicines, or developing industrial processes.
5. Cytology: The study of cells, their structure, function, and behavior.
6. Cryobiology: The study of how living organisms and biological materials behave at low
temperatures, usually below freezing.
7. Clone: A genetically identical copy of a living organism, produced by asexual
reproduction.
8. Demographics/Demography: The study of the characteristics of human populations, such
as size, density, age, gender, and race.
9. Dendrochronology: The study of tree rings to determine past events, such as climate
changes or natural disasters.
10. Ecology: The study of how living organisms interact with each other and their
environment.
11. Evolution: The process of change in the inherited characteristics of populations of
organisms over time.
12. Eugenics: The study or practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population
through selective breeding or other means.
13. Ethnology: The scientific study of different races of humans.
14. Ethology: The scientific study of animal behavior.
15. Etiology: The study of the causes or origins of diseases.
16. Forensic Science: The application of scientific methods to solve crimes and legal disputes.

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17. Fermentation: The process by which microorganisms convert sugars into alcohol or
organic acids, used in the production of beer, wine, and other foods.
18. Genetics: The study of the inheritance and variation of genes in living organisms.
19. Genetic Engineering: The manipulation of genetic material to modify the characteristics
of an organism.
20. Gastroenterology: The study of the digestive system and its disorders.
21. Histology: The study of the structure and function of tissues in plants and animals.
22. Hydroponics: The cultivation of plants in nutrient-rich water without soil.
23. Monoecism: A type of plant that has separate male and female flowers on the same plant.
24. Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and their
effects on living organisms.
25. Molecular biology: The study of biological macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and
proteins, and their interactions in living organisms.
26. Morphology: The study of the form, shape, and size of organisms and their body parts
27. Mycology: The study of fungi, including their biology, genetics, and their uses in industry
and medicine.
28. Osmosis: The movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
29. Phytoplankton: Microscopic plant-like organisms that float on the surface of bodies of
water and form the base of the aquatic food chain.
30. Parasite: An organism that lives on or within another organism, known as the host, and
benefits at the expense of the host.
31. Serology: The study of blood serum and other bodily fluids, including their composition,
reactions, and functions.
32. Taxonomy: The study of identifying, naming, and classifying organisms into different
groups based on their characteristics, evolutionary relationships, and similarities and
differences in their genetic and physical traits.

Characteristics of Living Things


• Though it is difficult to define ‘living’, the living organisms have some unique
characteristics, which differentiate them from non-living organisms. These include
cellular structures, metabolism, nutrition, growth and development, reproduction,
sensitivity, and adaptation.
• Cells are the building blocks of living organisms, and they lack in non-living organisms.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism, which can be categorized
into two phases - anabolism (constructive) and catabolism (destructive). All living
organisms require nutrition for growth and development, and growth is the distinctive
feature of an organism. Reproduction is essential for the continuity of life. Organisms are
sensitive to environmental changes and can adapt to them.

Cell
• Cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Some
organisms are made up of single cell (unicellular) while, other organisms such as human
are made up of billions of cell (multicellular).
• All cells contain three basic structures, i.e. plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Plasma membrane: Outer most covering, of lipids (fats) and proteins.

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o Major functions are structural support, transport of nutrient or ions from
external environment to inside the cell.
• Cytoplasm: Gel-like fluid that fills the cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane. It
contains various structures called organelles, such as mitochondria, ribosomes, and the
endoplasmic reticulum, which perform different functions in the cell.
o The cytoplasm is the site of many cellular processes, including protein synthesis,
energy production, and cell division.
• Nucleus: It is the control center of the cell and contains the cell's genetic material, DNA,
in the form of chromosomes. Fluid inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.
• The cytoplasm and nucleoplasm in cumulative form inside the cell is called
protoplasm. It is called the physical basis of life. The non-living inclusions of a cell are
collectively called deutoplasm.

Cell Theory
• Cell theory was developed by M. Schleiden, a German botanist, and T. Schwann, a
British zoologist. Rudolf Virchow also made contributions to the theory.
• The main principles of cell theory are:
o All living things are made up of cells and their products
o Cells come from pre-existing cells
o Cells are the fundamental units of life
o Viruses do not follow this theory.
Basic Types of Cells
• There are two basic types of cells, i.e. prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are smaller, simpler, and Eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex, and
lack a true nucleus and other membrane- contain a true nucleus and various membrane-
bound organelles. bound organelles, such as mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
Their genetic material is usually in the form They also have multiple linear chromosomes
of a single circular chromosome in the enclosed within the nucleus.
cytoplasm.

Bacteria and archaea are examples of Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are examples
prokaryotic organisms. of Eukaryotic organisms

Difference between Plant and Animal Cells


• Plant cells and Animal cell differ in certain aspects though both are similar in many
fundamental ways.
Plant cell Animal cell
Plant cells are larger in size Generally smaller in size
Cell wall present Cell wall absent
Plastid present (membrane-bound organelles Plastid absent
including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and
leucoplasts)

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Centrosome absent Centrosome present
Vacuoles (large sacs filled with fluid) are Vacuoles are smaller in size
larger in size

Chromosome
• Chromosomes are DNA molecules that have condensed due to histone proteins. When
not condensed, they are called chromatids.
• During cell division, chromosomes appear as two identical chromatids attached at a
point called centromere. Telomeres are located at the ends of chromosomes.
Genes
• Genes are a segments of DNA that contain the instructions for making proteins, which
are essential for the growth, development, and functioning of living organisms.
Chromosomes consist of multiple genes, which serve as fundamental units of heredity in
living organisms. Genes regulate the transmission of genetic material from one
generation to the succeeding generation.
Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle refers to the series of events that occur in a cell leading to its growth,
duplication, and division into two daughter cells. The cell cycle consists of interphase,
which is divided into three stages (G1, S, and G2), and mitosis or meiosis, depending on
the type of cell division.
• During interphase, the cell grows and replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division.
In the G1 phase, the cell synthesizes RNA and proteins required for DNA replication,
while in the S phase, the cell replicates its DNA. In the G2 phase, the cell prepares for
mitosis or meiosis by synthesizing the proteins and organelles required for cell division.
Cell Division
• Cell division is of two types:
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis

Major differences between Mitosis and Meiosis


Mitosis Meiosis
Mitosis takes place within somatic cells (cells Meiosis takes place within gamete cells (sex
that make up the body). cells).

One single division of the mother cell results Two divisions of the mother cell result into
into two daughter cells. four meiotic products or haploid gametes.
A mitotic mother cell can either be haploid A meiotic mother cell is always diploid (having
(having only one set of chromosomes) or two sets of chromosomes)..
diploid.
The number of chromosomes per nucleus The meiotic products contain a haploid (n)
remains the same after division. number of chromosomes in contrast to the
(2n) number of chromosomes in mother cell.
The genotype of the daughter cells is identical Meiotic products differ in their genotype from
to that of the mother cells. the mother cell.

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After mitosis, each daughter cell has exactly After meiosis, each daughter cell has only half
same DNA strands. of the DNA strands.
There is no exchange of DNA (crossing-over) There is atleast one crossing-over or DNA
between chromosomes. exchange per homologous pair of
chromosomes.
Biomolecules
• Biomolecules are chemical compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
and phosphorus, that are found in all living organisms. They are the building blocks of life
and have important functions in living organisms.
• Even though there are thousands of different types of molecules in a cell, there are only few
basic classes of biomolecules.
Monomers and Polymers
• Major biomolecules are constructed in the form of polymers which are large chains of
monomers. A monomer is a single molecule that can be joined together with other identical
molecules to form a larger molecule called a polymer. Polymers are made up of repeating
units of monomers.
• For example, glucose is a monomer that can be joined together with other glucose molecules
to form a polymer called cellulose. Similarly, amino acids are monomers that can be joined
together to form proteins, which are polymers.
Monomer Polymer
Monosaccharide Polysaccharide (Sugar)
Amino acid Polypeptide (protein)
Nucleotide Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)

Lipids
• Lipids are one of the basic classes of biomolecules, which include neutral fats, oils, steroids,
and waxes, and share a common feature of being hydrophobic.
• Lipids have a number of vital functions in biological systems, including forming the structure
of membranes that surround cells and cell compartments, providing insulation against cold,
and storing concentrated energy.
Steroids
• Steroids are a type of lipid that functions both as hormones (such as the sex hormones
estrogen and testosterone) and as structural material (such as cholesterol, an integral part of
animal cell membranes).
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates, another class of biomolecules, are hydrates of carbon and occur as both
monomers and polymers. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
• Carbohydrates have many functions such as acting as precursors for building many
polymers, storing short-term energy, providing structural building materials, and serving as
molecular tags that allow recognition of specific cells and molecules.
Proteins
• Proteins are made up of amino acids and are considered polymers. They make up around
50% of the total weight of biomolecules in a cell, excluding water.

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• A lack of protein can lead to various disorders that are collectively called Protein Energy
Malnutrition (PEM), examples: Kwashiorkor and marasmus.
• Proteins perform a variety of functional roles including acting as enzymes, which accelerate
specific chemical reactions, structural materials like keratin found in hair and nails, and
specific binding molecules like antibodies that bind specifically to foreign substances
(antigens) to identify them to the body's immune system, and as hormones such as insulin
thatregulate sugar levels in blood.

Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are long molecules made up of subunits called nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a ring-shaped molecule called a nitrogenous base, a
five-carbon sugar called pentose, and one or more phosphate groups.
• There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.
o DNA is like a cellular database that stores a vast amount of information about all the
proteins in the body. There are five different types of DNA, These are A-type, B-type, C-
type, D-type and Z-type. Out ofwhich the B-type is the major one (found in humans) and Z-
type (zig-zag helix) is the most recent one.
o RNA, on the other hand, is required to convert the information stored in DNA into
proteins. Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material. RNA also includes tRNA
(transfer RNA), rRNA, and other forms.
• Some RNA molecules, called ribozymes, have catalytic abilities similar to those of protein
enzymes.

Difference between DNA & RNA


DNA RNA
Sugar is deoxyribose type Sugar is ribose type
It contains the bases Adenine (A), Thymine It contains Uracil (U) in place of Thymine (T);
(T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G); DNA is RNA is made up of AUGC;
made up of ATGC;
Its structure is double stranded Its structure is single stranded
Mainly found in nucleus It is found both in nucleus and cytoplasm

Enzymes
Enzymes are a special type of proteins. Enzymes serve as biological catalysts (reaction
accelerators) and operate in human cells with approximately 40,000 varying types. Each enzyme
is responsible for overseeing a specific chemical reaction and can enhance reaction rates by 10-
12 times at normal temperature. In addition to facilitating all metabolic reactions in cells
(including digestion, photosynthesis, and respiration), enzymes also act as receptors, promotors,
and membrane pumps.

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2. Classification of organisms
The classification of organisms is the process of organizing living
things into groups based on their characteristics and relationships.
• The classification system used today is called the Linnaean
classification system, named after the Swedish biologist Carl
Linnaeus, who developed the system in the 18th century.
• The Linnaean system is based on a hierarchical structure, with
the most general group at the top and the most specific group at
the bottom.
• The hierarchy consists of seven levels, from most general to
most specific: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus,
and Species. Organisms are classified into these groups based on
their physical and biological characteristics, including their
body structure, genetic makeup, and behavior.
• Each group is defined by a set of shared characteristics that
distinguish it from other groups. For example, all members of a
particular ‘species’ share the same basic physical characteristics
and can interbreed with one another to produce viable
offspring. In contrast, members of different species cannot
interbreed to produce viable offspring.
• Due to the limited scientific knowledge of the 18th century –
Linnaeus identified only 2 kingdoms: Plantae and Animalia
(Plants and Animals). Due to the disputed position of organisms
like bacteria, virus, fungi, and Euglena there was a need to
reconsider this classification. Sufficient changes were made to
this system over a period of time and with those changes it still
continues to be used widely (incorporating the below five
kingdom classification into itself). The basic scheme of
modern classification.
Five Kingdom Classification Domain, the highest level
• The Five Kingdom classification system was proposed by within life, is both new
American biologist Robert Whittaker in 1969 to categorize all and disputed.
living organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary
relationships.

Five Kingdom Classification of Whittaker


• The five kingdoms are:
1. Monera: This kingdom includes unicellular prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria and
blue-green algae. They are the simplest and most ancient forms of life and lack a true
nucleus and other organelles.
2. Protista: This kingdom includes unicellular and some multicellular eukaryotic organisms
that have a true nucleus and other organelles. Examples include protozoa, algae, and slime
molds.
3. Fungi: This kingdom includes multicellular eukaryotic organisms that have cell walls
made of chitin and obtain nutrients through absorption. Examples include mushrooms,
yeasts, and molds.

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Living World

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

4. Plantae: This kingdom includes multicellular eukaryotic organisms that have cell walls
made of cellulose and obtain nutrients through photosynthesis. Examples include
flowering plants, ferns, and mosses.

5. Animalia: This kingdom includes multicellular eukaryotic organisms that lack cell walls
and obtain nutrients through ingestion. Examples include mammals, birds, fish, and
insects.
• Latest system of classification is Six Kingdom System which divides Monera into
archaebacteria and eubacteria. This system is based on comparison of RNA (ribonucleic
acid) proposed by C Woose, O Kandler and MC Wheelis in 1990.
Binomial Nomenclature
Proposed by Linnaeus the scientific name of each organism is composed of two names, i.e. a
genus name and a species name. The genus name begins with a capital letter and species name
begins with a small letter.
Scientific Names of some Organisms
General Name Scientific Name
Man Homo sapiens
Cat Felis domestica
Dog Canis familliaris
Cow Bos indicus
Rice Oryza Sativa
Wheat Triticum aestivum

Micro-biology
Note: No need to memorize all of the below list at one go. You might recognize a few of them over a
period of time which would be sufficient to identify from MCQs in Preliminary Test.

Microorganism Use/Application
Lactobacillus Used in probiotics to promote digestive health
acidophilus
Saccharomyces Used in baking and brewing to ferment dough and produce alcohol
cerevisiae
Streptomyces Used in the production of antibiotics, including streptomycin and
tetracycline
Rhizobium Used in agriculture to fix nitrogen in the soil and promote plant

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growth
Trichoderma Used in the production of enzymes used in the textile, pulp, and
paper industries
Escherichia coli Used in molecular biology research as a model organism for genetic
studies
Bacillus thuringiensis Used as a natural pesticide to control insects
Aspergillus niger Used in the production of citric acid for the food and beverage
industry
Pseudomonas Used in bioremediation to break down pollutants and clean up
contaminated environments
Cyanobacteria Used in the production of biofuels, including ethanol and biodiesel
Trichoderma A fungus that is used to control fungal diseases in crops such as
harzianum tomatoes, cucumbers, and strawberries

3. Anatomy of Plants and Animals


Difference between Anatomy and Morphology
• Anatomy and morphology are related fields of study that deal with the structure and form
of living organisms, but they differ in their focus and approach.
Anatomy Morphology
Anatomy is the scientific study of the Morphology is the study of the form, shape,
physical structure and internal organization and size of organisms and their body parts,
of organisms, including their organs, tissues, as well as the variations and similarities
and systems. between different species.

Anatomy focuses on the study of the Morphology focuses on the analysis of the
internal and external structures of physical traits of organisms, their variations,
organisms, their location, and how they are and how they relate to each other in
connected. evolutionary terms.

Anatomy of Plants
• In plant anatomy, the study of various tissues is the major area to be focused. Tissue is a
group of cells having common origin and function.

Meristematic Tissues
• Meristematic tissues, also known as meristems, are types of tissues within plants that
contain cells that remain youthful and actively divide for the plant's entire life. These
meristematic cells are generally small and cube-shaped with large nuclei, small vacuoles,
and thin walls.
• There are two kinds of meristems: primary, which form early in the plant's life, and
secondary, which form later.

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o Primary meristems can be either apical, located at the tips of roots and stems, or
intercalary, situated between mature tissues.
o Secondary meristems, on the other hand, can be either vascular, located between
the xylem and phloem, or cork cambium, located on the outer side of the stem.

Permanent or Mature Tissues


• Meristematic tissue, upon cell division and differentiation, produces permanent tissue,
which defines the shape, size, and function of the plant. Unlike meristematic tissue,
permanent tissue can be categorized into three types.
• The first type is simple permanent tissue, which consists of cells of the same type and
appearance.
• There are three subtypes of simple permanent tissue: parenchymatous, which is made up of
thin-walled living cells and involved in storage and photosynthesis; collenchyma, which has
thick walls and provides mechanical support to the plant; and sclerenchyma, which has the
thickest walls and provides mechanical support to both plant organs and the plant itself.
• The second type of permanent tissue is complex permanent tissue, which is composed of
multiple cell types that perform similar functions.
• Xylem and phloem are two examples of complex permanent tissue. Xylem transports
water throughout the plant, while phloem transports food/sap.
• Third type of permanent tissue are special tissues, which are also called as secretory
tissue. They are involved in secretion of substances.
• There are two types of special tissue, i.e. glandular and laticiferous (latex secreting
tissue).

Wood
• Xylem is the primary component of wood. The inner, dense, durable, and darker part of the
wood is known as heartwood, while the outer portion is called sapwood.

Main Differences between Sapwood and Heartwood


Sapwood Heartwood
Sapwood represents the outward wood of Heartwood represents the central wood of
the plant. It is light in colour and lighter in the plant. It is dark in colour and heavier in
weight. weight.

Consists living cells. Living cells are absent.


Tannis, resins, gummy substances are not Tannins, resins and gummy substances are
deposited in tracheary elements (tracheary deposited in tracheary elements.
elements are specialized cells that form part
of the xylem tissue in plants).
Economically not important because of Economically very important because of
being easily attacked by pathogens and being resistant to pathogens and insects.
insects.
It is not durable. It is durable.

Growth Rings & Dendrochronology

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• In climates that have alternating seasons of favorable and unfavorable conditions for plant
growth, the size of xylem cells produced by the cambium (a type of meristematic tissue that
produces new xylem and phloem tissues) varies throughout the growing season, leading to
the formation of rings that display visible differences.
• If there is only one growing season per year, these rings are known as annual rings, and
counting them provides the age of the tree. Dendrochronology is the scientific study of
growth rings, which can be used to date past events and climates.

Anatomy of Animals
Types of Tissues
• There are four main types of animal tissues, namely epithelial, connective, nervous, and
muscular tissue.
• Embryonic tissue gives rise to three primary germ layers, namely ectoderm, endoderm, and
mesoderm.
• The ectoderm further develops into the skin and nervous system, while the mesoderm is
responsible for the formation of connective tissue, muscles, skeleton, kidney, circulatory, and
reproductive organs. The endoderm forms the gut, respiratory tract, glands, and urinary
bladder.

Tissue Function Types & Features


Epithelial covers and Squamous tissue comprises of thin and flat cells that
tissue lines the are present in the walls of blood vessels, lungs, etc. and
surfaces of allow for the diffusion of substances.
the body, Cuboidal tissue is composed of cells that are cube-
organs, and shaped and found in the tubules of the kidney,
cavities. performing functions such as secretion and absorption.
Columnar tissue is made up of elongated cells that are
found in the intestine and perform the functions of
secretion and absorption.
Connective provides Loose connective tissue is composed of cells and fibers
tissue support, that are arranged in a loose and scattered manner. It is
structure, and typically found beneath the skin and includes tissues
protection to such as areolar and adipose tissue.
organs and Dense connective tissue, on the other hand, comprises
tissues. of tightly packed cells and fibers. Specialized connective
tissue includes cartilage, bones, and blood.
Nervous responsible Neurons are the main cells of neural tissue and transmit
tissue for the signals from one body part to the other.
transmission
of signals and
the control of
bodily
functions.
Muscular responsible Skeletal muscles are connected to the bones, while
tissue for movement smooth muscles are located in various organs such as
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and blood vessels and intestines. Cardiac muscles, on the
contraction of other hand, are only present in the heart.
body parts.

Some Specialised Tissue Structures of Animals


1. Glands
• Our body's major secretory units are glands, which are composed of epithelial tissue.
• Depending on the number of cells involved in secretion, glands can either be unicellular, such
as goblet cells, or multicellular, where many cells work together to secrete substances. There
are two types of multicellular glands:
• Endocrineglands, which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. For example
thyroid gland, adrenal gland, and pituitary gland.
• Exocrineglands, which secrete substances through ducts. For example sweat glands,
mammary glands and salivary glands.

2. Blood
• The primary transport tissue in our body is blood. It is made up of a fluid called plasma, red
blood cells (RBCs) that carry hemoglobin, white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
• Plasma contains proteins, salts, and hormones.
• Blood coagulation is the process of converting blood into a gel-like substance within 3-10
minutes of exposure to air.
• Blood transfusion involves the safe transfer of blood through an intravenous line. In order
for blood transfusion to be successful, the donor's antigen must be compatible with the
recipient's antibody (more on this in Human Physiology).
Comparison between Plasma and Lymph
Plasma Lymph
It flows in blood vessels It flows in lymphatic vessels.
It is cell-free part of blood and takes It supplies nutrition to tissue devoid of
part in excretion, respiration, etc. blood supply.

3. Bone
• The hardest tissue in our body is bone, which consists of four parts.
• The periosteum is a thick and tough envelope that surrounds the bone, and the matrix is
composed of the protein ossein. The endosteum is present on the outer surface of the bone
marrow cavity, and the bone marrow itself is a soft, semisolid, and fatty neurovascular
tissue.
• There are two types of bone marrow:
o Red bone marrow, which is present in the spongy part of the bone
o Yellow bone marrow, which is present in the shaft of long bones.
• The primary function of bone is to provide support for various organs in our body. Bones are
strong and inelastic structures, and they are joined to skeletal muscles by fibrous tissues.
• Ligaments are elastic structures that provide considerable strength and permit normal
movements. Excessive pulling of ligaments can cause strain.

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4. Human Physiology
Human physiology is the study of the functions and mechanisms that operate within the human
body. From the smallest molecules to the most complex systems, human physiology delves into
the workings of the human organism and seeks to understand how it functions and responds to
its environment.

Digestive System
• Humans are classified as heterotrophic organisms since they rely on other organisms for
their food.
• A complete digestive system in humans acquires food from the environment and breaks it
down into smaller molecules that are then absorbed.
• Digestion without absorption is considered incomplete because the nutrients obtained from
digestion must reach the cells by crossing the cell barrier after entering the bloodstream.
This process is known as absorption.
• The digestive system begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down through
chewing and mixed with saliva that contains enzymes.
• The food then travels down the oesophagus to the stomach, where it is mixed with stomach
acid and digestive enzymes.
• The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption, where nutrients are absorbed
into the bloodstream through the intestinal wall.
• The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes, and any remaining waste is excreted
through the rectum and anus.
• The liver and pancreas also play important roles in digestion by producing enzymes and
hormones that help break down and absorb nutrients.

Human Digestive System

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Summary of Various Processes of Digestion
Region of Gland that Enzyme Substrate* Product
Digestion secrete
Mouth Salivary Glands Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose
Stomach Gastric Glands Pepsin Protein Peptides
Stomach Gastric Glands Gastric Lipase Fat Fatty Acids and
Glycerol
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Pancreatic Starch Maltose
Amylase
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Trypsin Protein Peptides
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Pancreatic Lipase Fat Fatty Acids and
Glycerol
Small Intestine Intestinal Glands Maltase Maltose Glucose
Small Intestine Intestinal Glands Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
Small Intestine Intestinal Glands Lactase Lactose Glucose and Galactose
Large Intestine Colon None None None
Rectum None None None
Anus None None None
*Substrate refers to the molecule upon which an enzyme acts

The Alimentary Canal


• The alimentary canal, also known as the digestive tract or gastrointestinal tract, is a long
tube-like structure that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes various organs such
as the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
• The primary function of the alimentary canal is to digest food, absorb nutrients, and
eliminate waste products from the body.
• The alimentary canal shows two basic types of movements during the process of digestion.
1. Mixing movements mixes juices with food.
2. Peristalsis help to move the food forward along alimentary canal.

Disorders of Digestive System


• Vomiting: Expulsion of food from mouth due to irritation in stomach.
• Diarrhoea: Infectious disease resulting in loose frequent bowel.
• Jaundice: Yellow colouration of skin and mucous membrane.
• Gall stone: Cholesterol crystalises to form gall stone in gallbladder.
• Constipation: Difficulty of defecation due to decreased mobility in large intestine.
• Appendicitis: Inflammation in appendix.

Respiration System
• The respiratory system in humans is responsible for the exchange of gases between the body
and the environment. It consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli, and lungs.
• Below is the brief explanation of each of these parts:

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• Trachea: The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a tube-like structure located in the
neck and chest of humans and
other air-breathing vertebrates. It
connects the larynx (voice box) to
the bronchi of the lungs, allowing
air to pass in and out of the lungs.
• Bronchi: Bronchi are the two
main branches of the trachea that
lead to the lungs.
• Bronchioles: Bronchioles are
small tubes that branch off from
the bronchi and continue to divide
into smaller tubes called terminal
bronchioles. These structures lack
cartilage and are surrounded by
smooth muscle, which can
contract or relax to adjust air flow
in the lungs.
• Alveoli: Alveoli are tiny sacs at
the end of the bronchioles where gas exchange Human Respiratory System
occurs. They are surrounded by a network of capillaries (small, thin-walled blood vessels)
and are lined with thin, delicate cells called pneumocytes. Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses
through the walls of the alveoli and into the capillaries, while carbon dioxide from the blood
diffuses out of the capillaries and into the alveoli to be exhaled out of the body.

The process of respiration can be divided into two parts:


1. External/Organ-level respiration: This involves the exchange of gases between the
atmosphere and the blood in the lungs.
• When we inhale, air enters through the nasal cavity or mouth and passes through the
pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi, eventually reaching the alveoli in the lungs.
• In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses from the air into the blood while carbon dioxide diffuses
from the blood into the air to be exhaled.
2. Internal/cellular respiration: This involves the exchange of gases between the blood and
the body's tissues.
• Oxygenated blood from the lungs is pumped by the heart to the body's tissues where
oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissues while carbon dioxide diffuses from the
tissues into the blood to be transported back to the lungs for exhalation.
The process of breathing is regulated by the respiratory center located in the brainstem, which
sends signals to the respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) to contract and
expand the lungs. The exchange of gases is also aided by the presence of surfactant in the alveoli,
which reduces the surface tension and prevents the alveoli from collapsing.
• The respiratory system also plays a role in the regulation of pH balance in the bb by
controlling the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood.

Aerobic & Anaerobic Respiration


Respiration can be either aerobic, i.e. in the presence of oxygen or anaerobic, i.e. in the absence
of oxygen.

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Characteristic Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Oxygen Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen
requirement
Final electron Oxygen Inorganic molecules or organic
acceptor compounds
Energy production Produces more ATP (up to 38 Produces less ATP (2 molecules of
molecules of ATP per glucose ATP per glucose molecule)
molecule) C6H12O6→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + (2 ATP molecules)
Energy (38 ATP molecules)
By-products Produces carbon dioxide and Produces lactic acid, ethanol, or
water as by-products other by-products
Efficiency More efficient Less efficient
Examples Occurs in mitochondria of all cells. Occurs in some bacteria, yeast, and
muscle cells

ATP
• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is a molecule that is considered as the energy currency of
the cell. It is made up of three components: a nitrogen-containing base (adenine), a five-
carbon sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The chemical formula for ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) is C10H16N5O13P3.
• When ATP is broken down into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate,
energy is released. This energy is used for a variety of cellular activities, such as muscle
contraction, nerve impulses, active transport of molecules across cell membranes, and the
synthesis of macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids.
• ATP can be replenished through cellular respiration. Glucose and other nutrients are broken
down through a series of chemical reactions that ultimately produce ATP. This process
occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Oxygen Transport
• The process of oxygen transport begins as the atmospheric air enters the alveoli where the
exchange of respiratory gases takes place via diffusion. Inhaled air contains a higher partial
pressure of oxygen (100 mmHg) than the blood vessels (40 mmHg), which causes oxygen to
diffuse into the blood vessels.
• Majority of the oxygen (98.5%) in the blood is transported with the help of the respiratory
pigment hemoglobin present in red blood cells. Each molecule of hemoglobin can carry up to
four oxygen molecules.

Carbon Dioxide Transport


• Only 1% of carbon dioxide is transported by dissolving in the plasma, while 23% is carried
by carbamino-hemoglobin and 70% is transported as bicarbonates.

Disorders of Respiratory System

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• Asthma: Caused by various inflammatory stimuli or blockage of air way resulting in
coughing, difficulty in breathing, etc.
• Pneumonia: Acute infection or inflammation of alveoli.
• Tuberculosis: Inflammation of lungs or pleural membrane. The symptoms are fatigue,
weight loss, fever, coughing, etc.

Transportation System
• The transportation system in the human body involves the circulation of blood through
blood vessels and the movement of various substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, and waste products to and from different parts of the body.
• The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood to the arteries which then transport it to the
capillaries (small, thin-walled blood vessels), where oxygen and nutrients diffuse into the
tissues. The deoxygenated blood is then carried by the veins back to the heart, where it is
pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Apart from blood, other bodily fluids also transport various substances. Lymphaticvessels
carry lymph, a fluid
containing immune cells and
waste products, throughout
the body. Hormones are also
transported through the
bloodstream to regulate
different bodily functions.
• Human beings possess a
closed circulatory system
where blood flows through a
network of blood vessels.
This is different from an open
circulatory system where
blood flows in open spaces.
• The heart is the pumping
organ that works in a
rhythmic cyclic manner, with
systole (decrease in volume)
and diastole (increase in volume). The human heart beat consists of both of these and lasts
for 0.8 seconds.
• Blood is a connective tissue made up of plasma and blood cells, such as red blood cells (RBC)
and white blood cells (WBC). Platelets are another type of blood cell that checks for blood
leakage and coagulation during injury.
• Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood against the wall of the blood vessel. The
pressure is high in tubes that carry blood to body parts (systolic pressure) and low in tubes
that carry blood to the heart (diastolic pressure). The average blood pressure value is 120-
80mm of Hg.
• Blood vessels are the tubes that carry blood, and they are called arteries (except pulmonary
artery) when carrying blood to body parts and veins (except pulmonary vein) when carrying
blood towards the heart.

Cardiovascular Diseases or Transport System Diseases:

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• Arteriosclerosis refers to the hardening of arteries caused by the development of plaques
and calcification in their walls.
• Atherosclerosis is the accumulation of cholesterol in the walls of arteries, leading to their
narrowing and obstruction of blood flow.
• Heart attack occurs when there is a sudden reduction in blood supply to the heart, which
causes damage to the heart muscles.
• Angina pectoris is a medical condition characterized by pain in the chest, which is caused by
insufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscles.

Excretion System
• The excretory system in humans is responsible for removing waste products and excess
materials from the body. It consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that filter blood, removing waste products and excess
water to produce urine.
• The ureters are tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder, which stores the urine until it
is eliminated through the urethra.
• The urethra is a tube that carries urine out of the body.
• The urinary system also plays a role in regulating blood pressure, maintaining the balance of
electrolytes in the body, and producing hormones that regulate the production of red blood
cells.
• Nitrogen in the form of urea is the waste product of human being which is excreted by the
dedicated excretory system.

Disorders of the Excretion System


• Crystals of salts found in urine can sometimes
solidify and precipitate, leading to severe pain and
blockage of ureters (known as Kidney stones).
• Diabetes insipidus may occur when there is
insufficient secretion of ADH (antidiuretic
hormone).
• Uremia, the presence of an excess amount of urea
in the blood
Dialysis
• In cases where an individual's kidney is damaged or
diseased, a process called dialysis is used to
artificially clean their blood. This involves the use of
a machine called a haemodialyser, which functions
as an artificial kidney to filter the blood.

Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is a collection of glands that
secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which act
as chemical messengers to regulate various
physiological processes in the body.
• The major glands of the endocrine system include
the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid

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gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads (ovaries and testes).
• These glands secrete hormones that control growth and development, metabolism,
reproductive functions, stress response, and many other bodily functions.
• The endocrine system works in conjunction with the nervous system to maintain
homeostasis (maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body) in the body.

Disorders of Endocrine System


• The endocrine system can be affected by various disorders, which can result in an
overproduction or underproduction of hormones, or the development of abnormal growths
or tumors on the endocrine glands.
Some common endocrine disorders include:
• Diabetes mellitus: a condition in which the body is unable to properly regulate blood sugar
levels, usually due to insufficient production of insulin by the pancreas.
• Hypothyroidism: a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too little thyroid
hormone, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance.
• Hyperthyroidism: a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid
hormone, leading to symptoms such as weight loss, anxiety, and heat intolerance.
• Addison's disease: a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough
cortisol and aldosterone, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and low blood
pressure.
• Cushing's syndrome: a condition in which the adrenal glands produce too much cortisol,
leading to symptoms such as weight gain, muscle weakness, and high blood pressure.
• Acromegaly: a condition in which the pituitary gland produces too much growth
hormone, leading to abnormal growth of bones and tissues.

Major Glands and Hormones in Endocrine System


Gland Hormones Produced Functions
Pituitary gland Growth hormone, prolactin, Regulates growth, metabolism,
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), reproductive functions, stress
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), response, milk production,
luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle- water balance, and blood
stimulating hormone (FSH), oxytocin, pressure
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Thyroid gland Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), Regulates metabolism, growth,
calcitonin and development, and helps
maintain calcium balance
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Regulates calcium and
gland phosphate balance in the body
Adrenal gland Cortisol, aldosterone, adrenaline, Regulates metabolism, blood
noradrenaline pressure, salt and water
balance, and stress response
Pancreas Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin Regulates blood glucose levels
and metabolism
Gonads Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone Regulate reproductive
(ovaries and functions, secondary sex
testes) characteristics, and bone health

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Skeletal System
• The human skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilage, and other connective tissues
that provide the body with structural support and protection for internal organs. It also plays
a vital role in movement, as bones act as levers that muscles can pull against to generate
motion.
• There are 206 bones in the adult human body, which are divided into two main categories:
axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
• The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, and ribcage, which protect the brain, spinal
cord, and vital organs such as the heart and lungs.
• The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs, pelvis, and shoulder
girdle, which provide support and facilitate movement.
• Bones are living tissues that undergo constant remodeling throughout life. They are
composed of collagen, minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, and bone cells that
regulate bone growth and repair. Cartilage, which is a flexible connective tissue, covers the
ends of bones at joints to facilitate smooth movement and absorb shock.
• The skeletal system also has several other functions, including the storage of minerals such
as calcium and phosphorus, the production of blood cells in the bone marrow, and the
regulation of acid-base balance in the body.

Disorders of Skeletal System


• The skeletal system can be affected by a range of disorders, which can affect the bones, joints,
and surrounding tissues. Some common skeletal system disorders include:
• Osteoporosis: a condition in which bones become weak and brittle, making them more
susceptible to fractures.
• Osteoarthritis: a degenerative joint disease that causes the breakdown of cartilage in joints,
leading to pain, stiffness, and reduced mobility.
• Rheumatoid arthritis: an autoimmune disorder that causes inflammation in joints, leading
to pain, swelling, and deformity.
• Scoliosis: a curvature of the spine that can cause uneven shoulders, hips, and a visible
deformity of the back.
• Fractures: a break in the bone due to trauma, falls, or other injuries.

Nervous System
• The nervous system is a complex network of cells and tissues that coordinate and
regulate the activities of the body.
• It is composed of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
• The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which receive, interpret, and process
sensory information from the body and generate appropriate responses.
• The PNS consists of all the other nerves in the body including Motor neurons and
Sensory neurons that transmit signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.
• Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. They are specialized
cells that can transmit electrical and chemical signals, allowing for communication within
the nervous system. Glial cells are also present in the nervous system and provide
support and protection to neurons.

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• The nervous system is responsible for a wide range of functions, including sensory
perception, movement, cognition, and emotional regulation.

Brain functions

Part of Brain Function


Cerebral Responsible for consciousness, sensation, perception, thought, and
Cortex memory. It is also involved in voluntary movement, language, and
problem-solving.
Cerebellum Coordinates and regulates movement and balance. It is also involved in
motor learning and cognitive functions such as attention and language.
Brainstem Regulates basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate,
and blood pressure. It also contains nuclei that are involved in sleep,
consciousness, and pain processing.
Thalamus Acts as a relay station for sensory information, directing it to the
appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex for processing.
Hypothalamus Regulates autonomic functions such as temperature, hunger, thirst, and
sleep. It is also involved in controlling the release of hormones from the
pituitary gland.
Hippocampus Plays a key role in memory formation and spatial navigation.
Amygdala Involved in processing emotions such as fear, anxiety, and aggression.
Basal Ganglia Regulates voluntary movement and is involved in motor learning,
cognition, and emotion. It also plays a role in addiction and motivation.

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Diseases of the Nervous System
1. Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and
Huntington's disease, which involve the progressive degeneration of neurons and can lead to
cognitive impairment, movement disorders, and other symptoms.
2. Stroke, which occurs when blood flow to the brain is disrupted, leading to damage or death
of brain cells. Symptoms can include paralysis, speech impairment, and cognitive deficits.
3. Multiple sclerosis, which is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks
the myelin sheath that surrounds and protects neurons, leading to symptoms such as muscle
weakness, numbness, and impaired coordination.
4. Epilepsy, which involves recurrent seizures caused by abnormal electrical activity in the
brain.
5. Migraines, which are severe headaches that can be accompanied by visual disturbances,
nausea, and sensitivity to light and sound.
6. Infections of the nervous system, such as meningitis and encephalitis, which can be caused
by bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens and can lead to inflammation and damage to the
brain and spinal cord.

ABO Blood Group System


• The ABO blood group system is a way of classifying human blood into different groups based
on the presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens, on the surface of red blood
cells.
• There are four main blood groups in the ABO system: A, B, AB, and O. These blood groups are
determined by the presence or absence of two types of antigens: A antigen and B antigen.
• Carl Landsteiner is credited with the discovery of different blood groups based on the
presence or absence of antigens on the surface of red blood cells and antibodies in the
plasma.
Blood Group Antigen Antibody Donor Groups
A A Anti-b A and O
B B Anti-a B and O
AB Both A & B None A, B, and AB
O O anti-a and anti-b O
• In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a third antigen, called the Rh factor, which can be
present or absent on red blood cells. Blood that contains the Rh factor is called Rh-positive
(Rh+), while blood that does not contain the Rh factor is called Rh-negative (Rh-).
• The ABO blood group system is important in blood transfusions and organ transplants, as
people with certain blood groups may only be able to receive blood or organs from donors
with compatible blood groups. For example, people with the A blood group can receive blood
from donors with the A or O blood group, but not from donors with the B or AB blood group.
• Similarly, people with the AB blood group can receive blood from donors with any blood
group, while people with the O blood group can only receive blood from donors with the O
blood group.
• From the above given groups AB is known as the universal recipient and O is known as
universal donor.

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5. Nutrition in Plants & Animals
• Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food to sustain life.
Plants and animals have different methods of obtaining nutrition.
• In plants, nutrition involves the process of photosynthesis, where they produce their own
food (hence plants are called autotrophs) using sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water.
• The food produced is in the form of glucose, which is used to generate energy through
cellular respiration.
• Animals, on the other hand, cannot produce their own food and must obtain it from external
sources (hence animals are called heterotrophs).
• Animals have different modes of nutrition such as herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
Herbivores primarily consume plant-based foods, while carnivores feed on other animals.
Omnivores consume both plant and animal-based foods.
• Once the food is ingested, it is broken down into smaller components through the process of
digestion, and the nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. The nutrients are then
transported to the cells where they are used to generate energy through cellular respiration.
• Overall, nutrition plays a vital role in the survival and growth of both plants and animals.

Mineral Nutrition in Plants


• Plants take in minerals in the form of ions from the soil and utilize them to form important
biomolecules.
• Certain elements are vital for normal growth, development, and reproduction of the plant
and cannot be replaced. These elements directly participate in the plant's metabolism, and if
they are missing, the plant will not be able to complete its life cycle or produce seeds.
Therefore, they are referred to as essential elements.
• The essential elements are divided into two groups:
• Macroelements (C, H, O, N, S, P, K, Mg, and Ca)
• Microelements (Zn, Cu, Mn (Manganese), Fe, B (Boron), Cl, and Mo (Molybdenum) )

Nitrogen Metabolism
• Nitrogen is a crucial macronutrient required for the production of proteins and nucleic acid.
• The process of biological nitrogen
fixation is essential for plants to obtain
nitrogen, and it occurs in the roots of
leguminous plants through a symbiotic
relationship with Rhizobium bacteria.
• The steps involved in this process include
ammonification, which converts dead
organic matter into ammonia through
microbial decomposition, and
nitrification, which converts NH4
(ammonia) and nitrites (NO2-) into
nitrates (NO3-) through the action of
nitrifying bacteria, Nitrosomonas.
• The process of denitrification involves
certain denitrifying bacteria such as
Pseudomonas that act on dead organic
matter of plant and animal origin, decay them, and release N2 back into the atmosphere.
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Animal Nutrition
• Animal nutrition is heterotrophic, meaning organisms obtain nutrients from other sources.
Nutrients are substances that provide nourishment to the body. The various categories of
nutrients found in animals are:
• Carbohydrates: These energy-yielding substances are also known as saccharides and
include glucose, fructose, and starch, among others.
• Proteins: These serve as structural materials in the human body and are composed of amino
acids, such as keratin, renin, and trypsin.
• Lipids: These substances serve both structural and energy-giving functions in the body and
are formed by the fusion of fatty acids.
• Vitamins: The term "vitamin" comes from the Latin words "vita," meaning life, and "amine,"
referring to an organic chemical nitrogen-containing molecule. In 1912, Polish biochemist
Casimir Funk isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex B, which he
named "vitamin."
• Vitamins have various biochemical functions, such as acting as hormones (e.g.,
vitamin D), antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E), mediators of cell signaling, and regulators
of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g., vitamin A). The largest number of
vitamins (e.g., B-complex vitamins) serve as precursors for coenzymes.

Vitamins Chemical Name Solubility Deficiency Disease


Vitamin A Retinoids (Retinol Fat Night blindness, dry skin, increased infections
and Carotenoids)
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Water Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Water Ariboflavinosis, sore throat, cracked lips
Vitamin B3 Niacin Water Pellagra, skin rash, gastrointestinal upset
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic Acid Water Paresthesia, muscle cramps
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Water Anemia, depression, confusion
Vitamin B7 Biotin Water Dermatitis, enteritis, alopecia
Vitamin B9 Folic Acid Water Birth defects such as Neural tube defects
(deficiency during pregnancy causes it), anemia
Vitamin B12 Cynocobalamin Water Pernicious anemia, fatigue, weakness
Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid Water Scurvy, bleeding gums, weakened immune
system
Vitamin D Calciferol Fat Rickets, osteomalacia
Vitamin E Tocopherol Fat Hemolytic anemia, muscle weakness
Vitamin K Phylloquinone Fat Hemorrhage, bruising, bleeding

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6. Plant Physiology
Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert
light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as
glucose.
• During photosynthesis, chlorophyll pigments in the chloroplasts of plant cells absorb
light energy, which is then used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and
oxygen.
• This process is divided into two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-
independent reactions, also known as the Calvin cycle.
• The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and
involve the absorption of light energy to produce ATP and NADPH, which are then used
in the light-independent reactions to synthesize glucose.
• The basic chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy →
C6H12O6 + 6O2
In this equation, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are combined in the presence of
light energy to produce glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2).

Respiration in Plants
• After photosynthesis, the food material produced by plants is broken down inside cells
using a process called cellular respiration.
• This process takes place in mitochondria and involves the basic reaction of breaking
down glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
• The energy released through this process is then used by the plant to create other
molecules that the cell needs.

Transportation in Plants
• Leaves are responsible for preparing food, while roots absorb water in plants. Once food
and water are prepared and absorbed respectively, they are transported to other parts of
the plant by the plant's transport system.
• The transport system of plants is made up of xylem and phloem.
• Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, while phloem
distributes food from the leaves to the roots.
• The xylem tissues, such as vessels and tracheids, are interconnected in the root, stem,
and leaves through photosynthesis and transpiration. This interconnectedness causes a
shortage of water at the leaves, creating a demand for water and resulting in the
movement of water from the roots to the leaves. This upward motion of water is called
transpiration in plants.
• In addition to photosynthetic products, phloem distributes various other important food
materials from the leaves to the entire plant body, particularly to the storing organs such
as roots and fruits.

Excretion in Plants
• During various life processes, plants release different types of waste products. These
waste products can be in the form of gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, which are

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excreted through stomata (small openings, or pores, on the surface of leaves, stems) and
lenticels (specialized pores found on the surface of woody stems and roots of some
plants).
• Plants can also excrete liquid waste products, such as excess water released through
transpiration. In addition, plants can get rid of solid waste products by dropping their
leaves.
• However, some of these waste products can be useful to humans, such as essential oils,
gums, and natural rubber, which are excreted by plants as beneficial waste products.

Plant Growth and Development


• Plant growth and development is a complex process that involves various stages and
factors.
• The primary stages of plant growth include seed germination, vegetative growth, and
reproductive growth. During vegetative growth, the plant produces stems, leaves, and
roots. The reproductive growth stage involves the formation of flowers, fruits, and seeds.
• Plant growth and development are influenced by various external and internal factors,
including environmental conditions such as light, temperature, water, and nutrients, as
well as hormones, genetics, and developmental processes.
• Plant hormones, including auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and
ethylene, play a critical role in regulating plant growth and development. These
hormones control various processes such as cell division and elongation, tissue
differentiation, and responses to environmental stimuli.
Different Plant Hormones & Their functions
Hormones Typical Activities Location in Plant
Auxins Promote cell elongation, root initiation, Apical meristem (refers to the region
apical dominance, phototropism, located at the tip or apex of a plant organ,
gravitropism, and fruit development such as the shoot or root), young leaves,
developing seeds, and root meristem
Gibberellins Promote stem elongation, leaf expansion, Shoot and root apical meristem, young
seed germination, and fruit development leaves, developing seeds, and developing
fruits
Cytokinins Promote cell division, delay senescence, Root tips, developing seeds, and fruits
and promote axillary bud growth
Abscisic Promotes seed dormancy, closes stomata Mature leaves, root caps, and developing
acid during water stress, and inhibits growth seeds
Ethylene Promotes fruit ripening, leaf and flower Ripening fruits, senescing leaves, and
senescence, and abscission (process by nodes of stems and roots
which plants shed or drop their leaves,
fruits, or flowers)
Salicylic Regulate plant defense against pathogens Infected leaves, root tips, and developing
acid and stress, and promote flowering flowers
Photoperiodism
• Plants need to be exposed to light periodically in order to trigger the process of
flowering.

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• Depending on the critical exposure period of light, they can be categorized into Long Day
Plants (LDP), Short Day Plants (SDP), Day Neutral Plants (DNP), and Vernalisation Plants.
• LDPs require a prolonged exposure to light that exceeds a specific critical duration, such
as spinach and sugar beet. SDPs require light exposure for a period shorter than a well-
defined critical duration, such as Xanthium and Dahlia. DNP, on the other hand, do not
require any specific duration of light to flower, such as Tomato and Cotton.
• Finally, for some plants, flowering is dependent on exposure to low temperature, either
qualitatively or quantitatively, and this process is called vernalisation. For example,
applying a chilling treatment to certain wheat varieties can reduce the vegetative growth
period and induce early flowering.

7. Reproduction in Plants and Animals


Reproduction is an essential characteristic of every living organism, as it is the process by which
new individuals are produced from existing ones.
• Sexual and asexual reproduction are the two primary forms of reproduction, through
which offspring are created with distinct genetic characteristics.
• Asexual reproduction does not require the production or combination of gametes.
Sexual reproduction, however, involves the creation and union of gametes.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Animals


• Both plants and animals have evolved various methods of asexual reproduction to
propagate and ensure their survival. This mode of reproduction typically occurs in
favourable conditions.
• In plants, asexual reproduction can occur through different mechanisms, such as
vegetative propagation, apomixes, and fragmentation.
• Vegetative propagation involves the growth and development of new plants
from vegetative organs such as roots, stems, or leaves. Examples: Potatoes,
strawberries, and spider plants.
• Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction where seeds are produced without
fertilization, resulting in genetically identical offspring. Examples: Citrus and
dandelion.
• Fragmentation involves the detachment of a part of the parent plant and its
subsequent growth into a new individual. Example: Spirogyra, a type of green
algae, reproduces through fragmentation.
• In animals, asexual reproduction can occur through different mechanisms such as
budding, fission, and fragmentation.
• Budding involves the growth of a new individual from a small outgrowth or bud
on the parent's body. Examples: Hydras and corals
• Fission is the splitting of the parent organism into two or more parts, each of
which develops into a new individual. Examples: Some species of flatworms and
sea anemones
• Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where the parent organism
breaks into fragments, with each fragment growing into a new individual.
Examples: Starfish and sea cucumbers.

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Advantages & Disadvantages
Asexual reproduction in both plants and animals has advantages such as the production of
numerous offspring in a short time, minimal genetic variation, and the ability to colonize
new habitats rapidly. However, it also has disadvantages such as the lack of genetic diversity,
which can reduce the offspring's ability to adapt to changing environments.

Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is a biological process in which two individuals contribute genetic
material to produce offspring with a unique combination of genetic traits. Both plants
and animals have evolved various mechanisms of sexual reproduction, which are crucial
for genetic diversity and adaptation.
• In plants, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes, which are produced by
specialized structures called flowers. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male
to the female reproductive structures, resulting in fertilization and the production of
seeds.
• Examples of sexually reproducing plants include apple trees, sunflowers, and
wheat.
• In animals, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of sperm and egg cells, which are
produced by the male and female reproductive systems, respectively. The fertilized egg
develops into an embryo, which eventually grows into a new individual. Sexual
reproduction in animals can involve internal or external fertilization, depending on the
species.
• Examples of sexually reproducing animals include humans, dogs, and birds.

Advantages & Disadvantages


• Sexual reproduction offers advantages such as increased genetic diversity and the
generation of new genetic traits while also allowing for the elimination of harmful
mutations.
• There are also disadvantages such as the energy cost of finding a mate, reduced
reproductive output (lower number of offspring), and an increased risk of sexually
transmitted diseases.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants (Angiosperms)


Plants that reproduce sexually, specifically angiosperms, go through different phases after
sprouting from seeds, including the vegetative and reproductive phases. Plant hormones such as
auxin, gibberellin, and abscisic acid play crucial roles during these phases.
• Flowers are the reproductive structures in plants, with bisexualflowers containing both
male and female reproductive organs, and unisexualflowers containing only one of
these organs.
• Stamen and carpel are the male and female reproductive organs of a flower, respectively
(See the below figure).
• The stamen is the male reproductive organ and typically consists of a filament and an
anther. The filament is a long, slender structure that supports the anther, which produces
and releases pollen.
• The carpel, on the other hand, is the female reproductive organ and usually consists of
three parts: the stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is the sticky structure at the top of
the carpel that receives pollen, while the style is a long tube-like structure that connects

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the stigma to the ovary. The ovary
contains one or more ovules, which
contain the female reproductive cells.
After pollination occurs, the ovules are
fertilized, and seeds are produced
within the ovary.

Sexual reproduction in humans


Sexual reproduction in humans involves the
fusion of a sperm cell from a male and an egg
cell from a female, which creates a zygote that
will develop into a fetus.
• This process requires the mating of a
male and a female, where the male's
sperm is deposited into the female's
reproductive system through sexual intercourse. The sperm then travels through the
female's reproductive system until it reaches the egg, which is usually located in the
fallopian tube.
• Fertilization occurs when the sperm penetrates the egg and their genetic material
combines to form a zygote. The zygote undergoes several stages of cell division,
eventually forming an embryo that implants in the lining of the uterus. The embryo then
develops into a fetus over a period of about nine months, until it is ready for birth.

8. Genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. It encompasses a
wide range of topics, from the molecular structure and function of DNA and other genetic
materials to the patterns of inheritance of traits in populations.
• Geneticists study how genes are passed from one generation to the next, and how they
influence traits and characteristics of organisms. They also investigate the interactions
between genes and the environment, and how these interactions can shape the
development and evolution of species.
• Advances in genetics have led to the development of many new fields, including
genomics, epigenetics, and genetic engineering, which have far-reaching implications for
fields such as medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.
• Gregor Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics. He worked on pea plants and
postulated some laws. These laws become the basic laws of genetics and called as
Mendel’s law of genetics/inheritance.

Mendel's laws of genetics


Understanding the below terms helps in understanding Mendel’s laws:
• Gene: A gene is a unit of heredity that is responsible for the expression of a particular
trait.
• For example, the gene that controls flower color in pea plants determines
whether the flowers will be purple or white.
• Allele: An allele is a variant form of a gene.
• For example, the gene that controls flower color in pea plants has two alleles: one
for purple flowers and one for white flowers.

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Mendel's laws of genetics are the basic principles of heredity that explain the patterns of
inheritance of traits in organisms. They are as follows:
1. Law of Dominance: This law states that in a heterozygous individual (an individual with
two different alleles for a particular trait), only one allele will be expressed, and that
allele is called the dominant allele, while the other allele is called the recessive allele and
will not be expressed in the phenotype (i.e., observable physiological traits of an
organism).
• This means that when a dominant allele is present, it will mask the effect of the
recessive allele. However, the recessive allele will still be present in the genotype
and may be passed on to the offspring.
2. Law of Segregation: This law states that an organism has two alleles for each gene, one
inherited from each parent. These alleles segregate during gamete formation, with each
gamete carrying only one allele for each gene. Thus, each offspring receives one allele
from each parent.
3. Law of Independent Assortment: This law states that the inheritance of one gene is
independent of the inheritance of another gene. In other words, the segregation of alleles
for one gene does not affect the segregation of alleles for another gene.

Definition of terms mentioned above:


• Dominant: A dominant allele is an allele that is expressed in the phenotype of an
organism, even when present in only one copy.
• For example, the allele for purple flowers is dominant over the allele for white
flowers in pea plants.
• Recessive: A recessive allele is an allele that is expressed in the phenotype of an
organism only when present in two copies.
• For example, the allele for white flowers is recessive to the allele for purple
flowers in pea plants.
• Homozygous: An organism is homozygous for a particular gene if it has two identical
alleles for that gene.
• For example, an organism with two copies of the purple flower allele is
homozygous for flower color.
• Heterozygous: An organism is heterozygous for a particular gene if it has two different
alleles for that gene.
• For example, an organism with one copy of the purple flower allele and one copy
of the white flower allele is heterozygous for flower color.
• Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism, which includes all of its inherited
genetic information (all alleles it received from parents) stored in the DNA of an
organism's cells.
• Phenotype, on the other hand, refers to the observable traits and characteristics of an
organism, which result from the interaction between its genotype and the environment.
Phenotypic traits can include physical features, such as eye color or height, as well as
behavioral traits, such as aggression or intelligence.
• The phenotype can be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, and
can vary widely among individuals with the same genotype.

DNA, Gene, and Chromosome

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In genetics DNA, genes, and chromosomes play a central role and they are all related to each
other. Here's a brief explanation of each term and their relationship:
1. DNA: DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid. It is a long, double-stranded helical
molecule that contains the genetic instructions for the development and function of all
living organisms. The DNA molecule consists of four nucleotide bases - Adenine (A),
Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and
Cytosine (C). These bases pair up
in a specific way (A with T, and
G with C) to form the "rungs" of
the DNA ladder. The sequence of
these bases encodes the genetic
information necessary for the
development and function of an
organism.
2. Gene: A gene is a functional unit
of DNA that contains the
instructions for the development
and function of a particular trait
or characteristic. It is a segment
of DNA that codes for a specific
protein or RNA molecule. Each
gene has a specific location on a
chromosome and can exist in
different forms or alleles.
3. Chromosome: A chromosome is
a structure made up of DNA
and proteins that carries genetic
information in the nucleus of a
cell. Chromosomes are a way
that lengthy DNA molecules are DNA, Gene, Chromosome inside a Nucleus of a cell
wound around histone
proteins so as to compactly package the DNA into the tiny cell nucleus. Chromosomes
come in pairs, and each individual has two copies of each chromosome, one inherited
from each parent. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (total 46 chromosomes).
The relationship between DNA, genes, and chromosomes is that genes are segments of DNA that
are located on chromosomes. Chromosomes carry multiple genes, and the sequence of
nucleotides in a gene encodes the genetic information necessary for the development and
function of an organism. Thus, DNA forms genes, genes form chromosomes, and chromosomes
carry the genetic information that determines an organism's traits and characteristics.

Working of the Gene (Central Dogma)


The working of a gene involves several steps, starting from the DNA sequence to the expression
of a protein. This is also called the Central Dogma first proposed by Francis Crick who co-
discovered the DNA structure along with James Watson.
1. DNA replication: The genetic information in DNA is replicated before cell division,
ensuring that each daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic information.
2. DNA sequence: The gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotides that contain the genetic
information required to produce a protein.
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3. Transcription: The DNA sequence of the gene is transcribed (a copy of one strand is
made) into a complementary RNA sequence by the enzyme RNA polymerase. This
process occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic
cells.
4. RNA processing: The RNA transcript is then processed, which involves the removal of
introns (non-coding regions) and splicing together of exons (coding regions). The
processed RNA is known as messenger RNA (mRNA).
5. Translation: The mRNA is
then transported out of the
nucleus and into the
cytoplasm where it binds to
ribosomes. The ribosomes
translate the mRNA sequence
into a specific sequence of
amino acids, which ultimately
determines the structure and
function of the protein.
6. Protein folding: After
translation, the protein is
synthesized as a linear chain of
amino acids, which then folds
into a specific three-
dimensional shape, Working of Genes from Transcription to
determined by the sequence of
Translation
amino acids.
7. Protein function: The protein
carries out its function based
on its shape, which may
involve interacting with other proteins, DNA, or other molecules.
The expression of genes is regulated by a complex network of regulatory elements that control
when and where a gene is transcribed. Mutations in the DNA sequence of a gene can affect the
structure and function of the protein it encodes, leading to changes in the phenotype (observable
characteristics) of an organism.

Sex Determination in Humans


Humans have 46 chromosomes, with 44
of them occurring in pairs called
autosomes, while the remaining two
chromosomes are sex chromosomes.
• In females, both sex
chromosomes are identical and
are designated as X
chromosomes (XX), while in
males, the two sex
chromosomes are different and
are designated as X and Y chromosomes.

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• During reproduction, females produce gametes that contain 22 autosomes and one X
chromosome, whereas males produce two types of gametes or sperms - one with 22
autosomes and an X chromosome and the other with 22 autosomes and a Y chromosome.
• Depending on which type of sperm fertilizes the egg – the offspring is determined to be
either a female (if it’s the X chromosome containing sperm) or male (if it’s the Y
chromosome containing sperm)

Genetic Disorders

Genetic Disorder Symptoms


Down Syndrome Intellectual disability, developmental delays, characteristic facial features
(flat face, upward slanting eyes, small ears), heart defects, hearing and
vision problems
Cystic Fibrosis Difficulty breathing, chronic cough, frequent lung infections, poor growth,
digestive problems
Huntington's Progressive loss of muscle control and coordination, cognitive decline,
Disease mood changes, involuntary movements, speech difficulties
Sickle Cell Anemia (low red blood cell count), episodes of pain, increased risk of
Anemia infections, delayed growth and puberty, vision problems, strokes
Tay-Sachs Progressive neurodegeneration, intellectual disability, seizures, blindness,
Disease deafness, decreased muscle tone
Hemophilia Excessive bleeding and bruising, joint pain and swelling, frequent
nosebleeds
Muscular Progressive muscle weakness and wasting, difficulty walking and
Dystrophy standing, respiratory problems, heart problems

Evolution
Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over time in response to
changes in their environment. Evolution is driven by a combination of natural selection,
genetic drift, and gene flow.
• Natural selection is the process by which individuals with advantageous traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to their offspring. This can lead to
the evolution of new species over time.
• Genetic drift refers to the random changes in allele frequencies that occur in small
populations due to chance events. Over time, genetic drift can lead to the fixation of
certain alleles and the loss of others, leading to genetic divergence and speciation.
• Gene flow is the movement of genes between populations through migration or other
means. This can increase genetic diversity within populations and can counteract the
effects of genetic drift and natural selection.
• Evolution is also influenced by genetic mutations, which are random changes in the
DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can introduce new traits into a
population, which can then be acted upon by natural selection or other evolutionary
forces.

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• One of the most important consequences of biological evolution is the diversity of life on
Earth. Through the process of evolution, organisms have adapted to a wide range of
environments and have developed a variety of physical and behavioral traits that allow
them to survive and thrive. The study of evolution has practical applications in fields
such as medicine, agriculture, and conservation, as it allows us to better understand and
address issues related to disease, food production, and biodiversity conservation.

Note: For latest happenings such as CRISPR in genetics and in biology as a field refer to the
Biotechnology part of Science and Technology Section.

Biology MCQs
Exercise - I 1. The skin is one of the excretory
1. Regarding the immune system of the organs in the human body.
human body, consider the following 2. The adrenal glands are located on the
statements: top of the kidneys.
1. Leucocytes or white blood cells are 3. Protein digestion in the intestine
irregularly shaped, nucleated cells produces ammonia, which is
that lack hemoglobin and are converted into urea in the liver.
colorless. Which of the statements given above
2. White blood cells have a shorter life is/are correct?
span than red blood cells. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
3. Monocytes are primarily involved in (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
phagocytosis and degradation of
necrotic material in the human body. 4. Erythroblastosis Foetalis is a condition
Which of the statements given above where the second baby of a couple may
is/are not correct? die in the womb of the mother due to
(a) None (b) 1 and 2 only Rhesus (Rh) incompatibility. Which of the
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 following blood type combinations of
parents is most likely?
2. Numerous variants of Influenza A virus (a) Father having Rh+ and Mother having
have been identified thus far. What could Rh-
be the potential causes for the existence (b) Father having Rh+ and Mother having
of such a large number of strains of this Rh+
virus? (c) Father having Rh- and Mother having
1. Influenza viruses have the ability to Rh-
exchange genetic material via (d) Father having Rh- and Mother having
reassortment. Rh+
2. It is a non-segmented DNA virus.
3. It is prone to frequent mutations. 5. This organ has various supportive
Which of the above statements is/are functions within the human body. It
correct? serves as an immune system filter for
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only blood, recycles old red blood cells, and
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only stores platelets and white blood cells. In
addition, it aids in the fight against certain
3. Consider the following statements about types of bacteria responsible for
excretory organs: pneumonia and meningitis. Although it
can differ in size and shape among

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individuals, it is typically shaped like a 3. In humans, mitochondrial DNA is
fist. solely passed down from the mother.
Which organ is being described in the Which of the above statements is/are
passage? correct?
(a) Liver (b) Heart (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) Spleen (d) Pancreas (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only

6. Which of the statements below accurately 9. Which of these disease groups are all
describe the human brain? attributed to viruses?
1. The human brain is the largest brain (a) Common cold, influenza, typhoid,
in relation to body size when cholera
compared to all other vertebrates. (b) Influenza, AIDS, kala-azar, chicken pox
2. The occipital lobe, located at the back (c) Kala-azar, tuberculosis, anthrax, small
of the skull, is responsible for visual pox
processing. (d) Influenza, dengue, chikungunya, polio
3. Sound and language are processed by
the temporal lobe. 10. Which of the following illnesses or
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only infections are instances of zoonotic
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only infections?
1. West Nile virus
7. Consider the following statements 2. Brucellosis
relating to the human eye: 3. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
1. The sclera, which is the outermost 4. Nipah virus
layer of the eye, provides its 5. Blastomycosis
predominantly white color. Select the correct answer using the code
2. During eye transplantation given below:
procedures, only the retina and iris (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
are typically transplanted. (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
3. The iris is a dark, muscular diaphragm (c) 2, 4 and 5 only
that regulates the size of the pupil. (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
4. The cornea is primarily responsible
for refracting or bending light in the 11. Which of the statements below is
human eye. inaccurate regarding disease-causing
Which of the above statements are microorganisms?
correct? (a) Infection refers to the invasion and
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only proliferation of harmful microorganisms
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only in an individual.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) Parasites include both protozoa and
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 worms.
(c) A virus is unable to reproduce outside
of a host cell.
8. Consider the following statements:
(d) In order to survive for an extended
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is period, a pathogen must quickly kill every
exclusively located within the nucleus host it infects.
of a human cell.
2. Defective genes on the X chromosome
12. Which of the following statements
within human cells can lead to
accurately defines "Flavonoids"?
mitochondrial diseases.

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(a) They are a group of pulsars that emit
gamma-ray radiation. 16. Regarding Plant and Animal cells, which
(b) They are malicious software that aim of the following statements is/are
to corrupt a host device's hard drive. correct?
(c) They are a set of plant metabolites 1. Centrioles are typically present in
that provide health advantages to the animal cells but generally absent in
human body. plant cells.
(d) They are a kind of cyanobacteria that 2. Carbohydrates are stored in plants in
can endure harsh environmental the form of starch and in animals in
conditions. the form of glycogen.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
13. Candida Auris, a multidrug-resistant (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
pathogen that poses a severe worldwide
danger to human health, was recently
17. Consider the following statements about
discovered for the first time in the
Biomolecules :
environment of which region of India?
1. Carbohydrates are linear chains
(a) Western Himalayas
connected by peptide bonds
(b) Hills of Southern India
(c) Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2. Insulin in human body is a fibrous
(d) Tropical rain forests of Northeast protein
India 3. Triglycerides is a type of fat found in
butter
14. The state of Odisha has recently reported Select the correct answer using the code
its initial occurrence of 'Harlequin given below :
ichthyosis.' Evaluate the following (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
statements concerning the illness: (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. It is transferred from one individual
to another by the same mosquito that 18. Consider the following statements:
transmits dengue. 1. Eukaryotic cell has a free-floating
2. It predominantly affects the growth of genetic material with the absence of a
the skin in humans. nucleus.
Which of the statements given above 2. Prokaryotes can live with or without
is/are correct? oxygen while eukaryotes live only with
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only oxygen.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Which of the statements given above
is/are correct ?
15. Which of the following statements (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
regarding a bacteriophage is/are correct? (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. It is a virus that can integrate its own
DNA into the DNA of another
19. Which of the following structures are
bacterium.
present in animal cells?
2. It hijacks the host bacterium's cellular
1. Cell Wall
machinery to produce the
2. Mitochondria
bacteriophage’s own proteins.
3. Ribosomes
3. Bacteriophages cannot infect and Which of the above statements is/are
replicate in human cells. correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only mitochondria, also known as
mitochondrial DNA.
20. With reference to DNA, consider the 3. Viruses can have either DNA or RNA
following statements. as their genetic material, but some
1. DNA, which stands for viruses only have RNA.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is a hereditary Which of the above statements is/are
material found in all living things. correct?
2. While most DNA is located in the cell (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
nucleus, also known as nuclear DNA, a (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
small amount of DNA can be found in

Exercise – I Key

1. a 2. b 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. d 7. b 8. d 9. d 10. a
11. d 12. c 13. c 14. b 15. d 16. c 17. c 18. d 19. c 20. d

Explanations

1. White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are colorless because they lack hemoglobin, and
they are irregularly shaped, nucleated cells. They are heterogeneous in nature, and the
normal concentration of white blood cells in the blood varies from 4,000 to 10,000 per
microliter. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
Red blood cells, on the other hand, have a biconcave disc structure. Leucocytes are generally
short-lived, that is for about 13 to 20 days. But the RBCs have an average
life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen (the graveyard of RBCs).
So, Statement 2 is correct.
The two main categories of white blood cells are granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while
lymphocytes and monocytes are agranulocytes. Monocytes are involved in phagocytosis and
degradation of necrotic material, while eosinophils are associated with allergic and
hypersensitivity reactions. Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
Therefore, the correct answer is (b) 1 and 2 only.

2. The first and third statements are correct. The presence of numerous strains of Influenza A
virus is due to its constant mutation. One of the causes for the virus's constant mutation is
the process of reassortment, where influenza viruses swap gene segments. This genetic
exchange is possible because of the segmented nature of the viral genome, and it happens
when two different influenza viruses infect a single cell. Reassortment is akin to viral sex.
The second statement is incorrect. Influenza A virus does not have an unsegmented DNA
genome, as it is an RNA virus with a segmented genome, comprising eight distinct strands.
This makes its replication prone to errors or mutations, resulting in what is known as
"antigenic drift." This process leads to minor but ongoing mutations in surface proteins,
necessitating the frequent updating of flu vaccines.

3. The skin serves as an excretory organ in the human body, as it helps to eliminate some
harmful elements and waste through sweat. Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.

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The adrenal glands play a crucial role in the body's response to stress, producing hormones
that trigger physiological adaptations (body's fight-or-flight response) to changes in the
external environment. These glands are positioned on the top of each kidney. Hence,
Statement 2 is correct.
During protein digestion in the intestine, ammonia (NH3) is produced by bacteria. This
ammonia is then processed in the liver, where it is converted into urea, which is a waste
product that is eventually excreted in urine by the kidneys. Therefore, Statement 3 is correct.

4. The Rh factor is a molecule present on the surface of red blood cells in some individuals.
Blood is considered Rh-positive if red blood cells have the Rh factor, and Rh-negative if they
do not.
An Rh-negative person, when exposed to Rh-positive blood, may develop specific antibodies
against the Rh antigens. Therefore, Rh grouping should be matched during blood
transfusions. A special case of Rh incompatibility occurs between the Rh-negative blood of a
pregnant mother and the Rh-positive blood of the fetus.
Rh antigens of the fetus do not get exposed to the Rh-negative blood of the mother during the
first pregnancy, as the two types of blood are well separated by the placenta. However,
during the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of the mother's blood being
exposed to small amounts of the Rh-positive blood from the fetus. In such cases, the mother
may start producing antibodies against Rh antigens in her blood.
In subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the Rh-negative mother can cross into the
blood of the Rh-positive fetus and destroy the fetal red blood cells. This can be fatal to the
fetus or cause severe anemia and jaundice in the baby, a condition known as erythroblastosis
fetalis. This can be prevented by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately
after the delivery of the first child.
Erythroblastosis fetalis typically occurs when a woman with Rh-negative blood is
impregnated by a man with Rh-positive blood, and conceives a fetus with Rh-positive blood.
Therefore, option (a) is correct.

5. The lymphatic system's most massive organ is the spleen. It plays a crucial role in
maintaining the body's fluid balance, but one can survive without it. Positioned in the left
upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the ribcage and above the stomach, it acts as a blood
purifier. The spleen regulates the number of red blood cells and blood storage and assists in
combating infections. If the spleen recognizes potentially harmful bacteria, viruses, or other
microorganisms in the bloodstream, it produces white blood cells known as lymphocytes,
along with the lymph nodes. These cells serve as defenders against intruders, generating
antibodies that destroy foreign microorganisms and prevent infections from spreading.

6. Statement 1 is correct. The human brain is larger in relation to body size than any other
mammal brains, and weighs about 1.5 kilograms, making up about 2 percent of a human's
body weight. The cerebrum makes up 85 percent of the brain's weight and contains about 86
billion neurons and billions of nerve fibers. The cerebral cortex is greatly enlarged in human
brains and is considered the seat of complex thought. The brain is divided into three
sections: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The largest part of the human brain is the
cerebrum, which is divided into two hemispheres.

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Statements 2 and 3 are correct. The occipital lobe processes visual information, the temporal
lobe processes sound and language, and the parietal lobe integrates input from different
senses and is important for spatial orientation and navigation.

7. Statement 1 is correct. The sclera, which is the white part of the eye surrounding the cornea,
covers more than 80% of the eyeball's surface area. In individuals with liver failure, the
sclera begins to turn yellow, a
condition known as jaundice.
Statement 2 is incorrect. During an eye
transplant, only the cornea is
transplanted. The retina is a thin layer
of tissue that lines the back of the eye
and converts light into neural signals
for visual recognition by the brain.
Statement 3 is correct. The iris, which
is the colored part of the eye, helps
regulate the amount of light entering
the eye. In bright light, the iris
contracts to reduce the amount of light
that enters the eye, thereby protecting
the retina.
Statement 4 is correct. The cornea is the eye's outermost lens and serves as a window that
focuses and controls the entry of light into the eye. By focusing light onto the retina, a clear
image of the object is formed.

8. Statement 1 is incorrect. While most of the DNA is found in the cell nucleus, some DNA is also
present in the mitochondria, which is called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Statement 2 is incorrect. Mitochondrial diseases are caused by faulty mitochondrial DNA, not
faulty genes on the X-chromosome. Certain disorders caused by mtDNA dysfunction include
diabetes, respiratory disorders, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's
disease, etc. Currently, there is no cure for mitochondrial diseases.
Statement 3 is correct. Mitochondria are structures in each cell that convert molecules into
energy, and each contains a small amount of DNA. Since only egg cells contribute
mitochondria to the developing embryo, only females can pass on mitochondrial mutations
to their children.

9. Option d is correct. Viruses can cause various diseases, including the common cold, influenza,
dengue fever, AIDS, chickenpox, smallpox, Chikungunya, Ebola, polio, and many others.

10. Zoonotic diseases are diseases transmitted from animals to humans. The following
statements are correct:
West Nile fever is a zoonosis caused by a virus transmitted by infected mosquitoes;
Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria and people can contract it through
contact with infected animals or their products;
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a virus transmitted between animals and
people;

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Nipah is an example of a zoonotic disease caused by a virus transmitted from animals to
humans;
Blastomycosis, however, is not a zoonotic disease, as it is caused by a fungus found in the
environment, and not spread between people or animals.

11. Statement a is correct. An infection occurs when pathogenic microorganisms invade and
multiply in an individual or population, while a disease occurs when the infection causes
damage to the individual's vital functions or systems. Not all infections result in disease.
Statement b is correct. The agents that cause disease can be classified into five groups:
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and helminths (worms). Protozoa and worms are
commonly grouped together as parasites and are the subject of parasitology.
Statement c is correct. Intracellular pathogens need to invade host cells to replicate. These
pathogens can be further divided into those that replicate freely in the cell, such as viruses
and some bacteria, and those that replicate in cellular vesicles, such as mycobacteria.
Because viruses are obligate intracellular pathogens, they require the machinery and
metabolism of a host cell to replicate.
Statement d is incorrect. It is not advantageous for the long-term survival of a pathogen to
rapidly kill every host it infects or be wiped out by the immune response before infecting
another individual. Therefore, killing every host it infects is not beneficial for the pathogen's
long-term survival.

12. Flavonoids are plant metabolites that are found in various fruits and vegetables and are
believed to offer health benefits by means of cell signalling pathways and antioxidant effects.
They are important antioxidants and are associated with several positive effects on health,
including anti-viral, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic properties. Flavonoids
are present in most fruits, vegetables, and herbs, and can also be found in other food sources
such as dry beans, grains, red wine, green tea, and black tea.

13. Candida Auris, also known as C. auris, is a pathogen that is resistant to multiple drugs and is
considered a serious threat to global health. Recently, it has been identified in the
environment off the coast of the South Andaman district in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, marking the first time it has been found in the environment. Candida Auris was
initially discovered in a patient in Japan in 2009, and has since emerged in over 40 countries
on five continents over the past decade. While this fungus is mostly found in tropical
marshes and marine environments, it has also been detected outside of hospital settings.

14. Statement 1 is incorrect because Harlequin ichthyosis is a genetic disorder caused by


mutations in the ABCA12 gene inherited from parents. The ABCA12 protein plays a crucial
role in transporting fats in cells that make up the outermost layer of skin.
Statement 2 is correct. Harlequin ichthyosis is a severe genetic disorder that affects the skin,
creating large diamond-shaped plates across the body that are separated by deep cracks
(fissures). The skin becomes dry and scaly, resembling fish skin, which is why the term
"ichthyosis" is derived from "ikthus," the Greek word for fish. Severe mutations in the
ABCA12 gene lead to the absence or partial production of the ABCA12 protein, which results
in the lack of lipid transport and affects skin development to varying degrees, depending on
the severity of the mutation.

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15. A bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria, and the term "bacteriophage" means
"bacteria eater." Bacteriophages are composed of a small piece of DNA surrounded by a
protein coat and are not bacteria themselves. Therefore, Statement 1 is not correct.
After infecting a bacterium, the bacteriophage takes over the host bacterium's cellular
machinery to prevent it from producing bacterial components and instead forces the cell to
produce viral components. So, Statement 2 is correct.
Bacteriophages are specific to bacterial cells and cannot infect and replicate in human cells.
Although bacteriophages are an important part of the human microbiome, their ability to
replicate in human cells is yet to be found, and research is ongoing. So, Statement 3 is correct.

16. Animal cells possess centrioles, which are barrel-shaped organelles found near the nuclear
envelope in the cytoplasm. Centrioles play a key role in organizing microtubules, which serve
as the cell's skeletal system. In contrast, plant
cells have cell walls, plastids, and a large
central vacuole that are absent in animal cells,
but they lack centrioles, which are absent in
almost all plant cells. Therefore, statement 1 is
correct.
Carbohydrates are a major source of energy
for both animals and plants. Plants synthesize
carbohydrates using light energy from the Sun
during the process of photosynthesis. In
contrast, animals consume plants or other
animals to obtain carbohydrates. Plants store carbohydrates as starch, while animals store
them as glycogen. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

17. Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are linked by peptide bonds. Carbohydrates are
macromolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a 2:1 ratio of Hydrogen to
Oxygen atoms, and they are linked by glycosidic bonds. Therefore, Statement 1 is not correct.
Fibrous proteins, such as keratin and myosin, have a fiber-like structure due to hydrogen and
disulfide bonds and are generally insoluble in water. Globular proteins, such as insulin, are
more soluble and have a spherical shape. Therefore, Statement 2 is not correct.
Triglycerides, also known as neutral fats, are essential for energy storage and are mainly
found in vegetable oils and animal fats. Therefore, Statement 3 is correct.

18. The term "Eukaryotic" means: eu = true, karyon = nucleus, as they possess a well-organized
nucleus enclosed by a nuclear envelope. The DNA is enclosed in a nuclear membrane,
forming a nucleus. Therefore, Statement 1 is incorrect.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are capable of performing both aerobic (oxygen-requiring) and
anaerobic (non-oxygen-based) metabolism. As a result, both types of organisms can live with
or without oxygen. Hence, Statement 2 is also incorrect.

19. Plant cells possess both a cell wall and a cell membrane, with the cell wall surrounding the
cell membrane, resulting in a unique rectangular shape. Animal cells, on the other hand, only
possess a cell membrane and lack a cell wall. Mitochondria and Ribosomes are present in
both plant and animal cells. Mitochondria are organelles bound by a membrane that generate
the majority of the chemical energy required to fuel cellular reactions. This chemical energy

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is stored in adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a small molecule. Ribosomes are composed of
RNA and associated proteins and are responsible for protein synthesis, which is necessary
for various cellular functions like chemical processes and repairing damage. Ribosomes can
be found floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

20. Statement 1 is correct in stating that DNA is the chemical compound that carries genetic
instructions in all living things. This molecule is composed of two strands that twist around
one another to form a structure known as a double helix. Each strand contains alternating
sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. DNA is made up of 23 pairs of chromosomes and
provides information for constructing an entire organism and its proteins. The DNA code is
composed of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
The second statement is also correct. Nuclear DNA can be inherited from both parents,
whereas mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from the mother. Furthermore, nuclear DNA
has a lower mutation rate than mitochondrial DNA.
Statement 3 is correct. Most viruses contain either RNA or DNA as their genetic material. The
nucleic acid can be single- or double-stranded. The entire infectious viral particle, called a
virion, is made up of the nucleic acid and an outer protein shell. The simplest viruses only
encode enough RNA or DNA to produce four proteins.

Exercise - II 3. When discussing the origins of life on


1. Which of the following statements Earth, the following statements should be
correctly defines the term C-peptide? taken into consideration:
(a) A substance that forms in human 1. Prokaryotes, a type of single-celled
blood samples containing antibodies organism, were the first life forms to
against hepatitis B virus. emerge on Earth.
(b) A byproduct that is generated during 2. The second atmosphere of Earth was
the production and secretion of the formed due to volcanic eruptions that
hormone insulin in the body. occurred in its early stages.
(c) A monoclonal antibody utilized to 3. Blue-green algae played a role in
treat mild to moderate cases of COVID-19. reducing the levels of carbon dioxide
(d) A substance employed in modifying a and increasing the amount of oxygen
gene product. in the atmosphere.
Which of the above statements is/are
2. Consider the below statements about correct?
various types of fats: (a) 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
1. Unsaturated fats, which are (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
predominantly present in plants, are
considered healthy for the body. 4. Consider the following statements about
2. Saturated fat is present in the avian influenza:
majority of animal-based foods. 1. H1N1 is the predominant strain of
3. Trans fats, a type of saturated fat, are avian influenza.
linked to a higher risk of heart attacks. 2. The transmission of avian influenza
Which of the above statements is/are virus from one human to another is
correct? very rare.
(a) 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only Which of the statements given above
(c) 1 and 2 only (d)1, 2 and 3 only is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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1. Phenotype denotes the observable
5. Which of the following statements about traits of an organism, while Genotype
stem cells is incorrect? refers to its genetic makeup.
(a) Embryonic stem cells are capable of 2. While Phenotype can be inherited to
differentiating into any type of cell in the some extent, Genotype itself is not
body. transmitted during the process of
(b) Stem cells in the bone marrow have reproduction.
the potential to generate red blood cells, Which of the statements given above
white blood cells, and platelets. is/are correct?
(c) Somatic stem cells persist in our (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
bodies throughout our lives. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) Induced Pluripotent stem cells are
generated by genetically altering 9. Which of the following statements about
embryonic stem cells to produce adult Chlorophyll is incorrect?
cells. (a) Chlorophyll is found in all types of
algae.
6. Which of the following statements about (b) Chlorophyll can be present in leaves of
cell potency is correct? the plant that are not green.
(a) Pluripotency is only present in the (c) The process of Carbon fertilization can
early cells of fertilized eggs. stimulate the production of chlorophyll in
(b) Totipotent cells are spores in sexual plants.
reproduction and zygotes in asexual (d) Chlorophyll is located in the
reproduction. cytoplasm of plant cells.
(c) A totipotent cell has the capability of
differentiating into any cell type. 10. Consider the following statements
(d) Pluripotent cells can differentiate into describing different processes related to
a placenta. food:
1. Ingestion refers to the breakdown of
7. Which of the following statements about complex food molecules into simpler
disease-causing microorganisms is components.
incorrect? 2. Egestion is the process of taking food
(a) Infection refers to the introduction into the body.
and proliferation of harmful 3. Digestion is the process of breaking
microorganisms within an organism. down food molecules into absorbable
(b) Protozoa and worms are both nutrients in the digestive tract.
classified as parasites and can cause Which of the above statements is/are
disease in humans. correct?
(c) Viruses require a host cell to replicate (a) 3 only (b) 1 and 3 only
and cannot do so on their own. (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
(d) A pathogen that intends to survive for
a long period of time must necessarily kill 11. Consider the following statements
its host quickly. pertaining to African Swine Fever (ASF):
1. ASF is a serious viral illness that
8. Consider the following statements about impacts both domesticated and wild
the distinction between Phenotype and pigs.
Genotype of an organism: 2. ASF is a type of zoonotic disease, but
it does not pose a lethal threat to
humans.

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3. There have not been any reported 2. The gall bladder releases bile in the
instances of ASF outbreaks in India. human body.
Which of the above statements is/are 3. The pancreas is a dual-function organ
correct? serving both exocrine and endocrine
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only functions in the human body.
(c) 1 and 2 only (d)1, 2 and 3 only 4. The liver is the only organ in the
human body capable of self-
12. Which of the following options represent regeneration.
types of white blood cells (WBCs)? Which of the above statements are
1. Neutrophils correct?
2. Lymphocytes (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
3. Erythrocytes (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
4. Basophils
Which of the above statements are 16. Which of the following statements
correct? regarding Vitamin A is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only 1. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 primarily found in dairy foods.
2. Night blindness, a condition affecting
13. Consider the following statements about the retina, is an early sign of Vitamin
antimicrobial resistance: A deficiency.
1. Poor water quality and sanitation can 3. Vitamin A deficiency can weaken the
contribute to antimicrobial resistance. immune system and increase
2. Antimicrobial resistance can reduce vulnerability to diseases such as
our ability to treat common infections. COVID-19.
3. Antimicrobial resistance can affect (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
people of all ages, although the elderly (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
may be more vulnerable.
Which of the above statements is/are 17. Which of the following microbes are
correct? useful for human beings?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
1. Lactobacillus
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
2. Aspergillus niger
14. Identify the correct statement regarding a 3. Streptococcus Thermophilus
helminth infection, which was recently in Select the correct answer using the code
the news: given below.
(a) The infection is caused by sneezing. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(b) There are currently no active cases of (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
the infection in India.
(c) Infected children may experience 18. Regarding human genetics, what are the
nutritional and physical impairment. differences between RNA and DNA?
(d) There are no effective medicines to 1. In contrast to DNA, RNA is capable of
control the disease at present. undergoing mutations.
2. In terms of chemistry, DNA is less
15. Consider the accuracy of the following reactive and more structurally stable
statements regarding human organs: compared to RNA.
1. The heart is the largest gland in the Which of the statements given above
human body. is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only

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(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
20. Which of the following diseases are
19. The following statements are about Kala- caused by viruses?
Azar. Choose the correct statement(s): 1. Hepatitis C
1. Kala-Azar is a neglected tropical 2. Chickenpox
disease (NTD). 3. Common cold
2. The Western and Southern regions of 4. Malaria
India are the areas where it is mostly Choose the correct answer from options
prevalent. below.
3. Infected female sand-flies transmit it (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
to humans. (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Which of the above statements is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
Exercise – II Key

1. b 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. d 8. a 9. d 10. a
11. a 12. a 13. d 14. c 15. b 16. d 17. d 18. b 19. c 20. c

Explanations

1. C-peptide is a substance that is produced when insulin is synthesized and released in the
body. The amount of C-peptide in blood is an indicator of the amount of insulin being
produced. In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesized as a prohormone, which
contains an additional stretch called the C peptide. This C peptide is absent in the mature
insulin, as it is removed during maturation. Typically, high levels of C-peptide in the blood
indicate high levels of insulin production and vice versa.

2. Statement 1 is correct. Beneficial unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are
mainly found in plant-based foods, including vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds. They can help
improve blood cholesterol levels, reduce inflammation, stabilize heart rhythms, and provide
other benefits.
Statement 2 is correct. Saturated fat is solid at room temperature and is mostly found in
animal-based foods, such as milk, cheese, and meat. Poultry and fish contain less saturated
fat than red meat. Tropical oils like coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter are also high in
saturated fat.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Trans-fats or trans-fatty acids (TFAs) are unsaturated fatty acids
that can come from natural or industrial sources. Consumption of TFAs is linked to a higher
risk of heart attacks and death from coronary heart disease. It can increase the levels of bad
(LDL) cholesterol and decrease the levels of good (HDL) cholesterol. TFAs are also associated
with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes, and they have negative effects on the
brain and nervous system.

3. Statement 1 is correct. Prokaryotes were the earliest life forms on Earth, which used carbon
compounds to generate their own energy. Other organisms slowly evolved to use the Sun's
energy and other compounds to generate energy.

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Statement 2 is correct. Early volcanic eruptions led to the formation of Earth's second
atmosphere which led to modern atmosphere. Volcanoes released gases like carbon dioxide
into the air. They also released water vapor that cooled to form the oceans. Volcanoes are
also responsible for creating land, which is essential for many life forms.
Statement 3 is correct. Photosynthetic organisms, such as blue-green algae, converted
atmospheric carbon dioxide into marine sediments, reducing the carbon dioxide content of
the atmosphere and producing oxygen. The production of oxygen resulted in the formation
of the ozone UV shield as a by-product.

4. Statement 1 is incorrect. Avian influenza or bird flu is a viral infection that is primarily found
in birds, but it can also infect humans and other animals. The H5N1 strain is the most
common cause of severe respiratory disease in birds, but other strains such as H7 and H8 can
also cause infection. Swine flu is caused by the H1N1 virus strain.
Statement 2 is correct. Most cases of H5N1 infection in humans have been linked to close
contact with infected live or dead birds or environments contaminated with H5N1. Although
the virus is not highly infectious to humans, there have been rare instances of human-to-
human transmission.

5. Option a is correct. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized
cell types and form every organ and tissue in the body. There are different types of stem
cells, including embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent and can give rise to any cell type
in the body, and tissue-specific or adult stem cells, which generate cells specific to the tissue
or organ in which they are found.
Option b is correct. Blood-forming stem cells in the bone marrow can produce red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Option c is correct. Adult or somatic stem cells are tissue-specific and can generate different
cell types for the specific tissue or organ in which they live. They replace lost cells due to
normal repair, disease, or injury and are found in various tissues throughout life, such as the
umbilical cord, placenta, bone marrow, muscle, brain, fat tissue, skin, and gut.
Option d is incorrect. Induced Pluripotent stem cells are produced in the lab by converting
adult cells (tissue-specific) into cells that behave like embryonic stem cells.

6. Option a is incorrect. It is not pluripotency that is present in the early stages of the fertized
eggs but totipotency.
Option b is incorrect as zygotes are produced during sexual reproduction and spores are the
result of asexual reproduction.
Option c is correct. A single totipotent cell has the potential to develop into an entire
organism, including all the specialized cells and the placental support structure needed for
fetal development.
Option d is incorrect. Pluripotency refers to the ability of a cell to differentiate into the three
primary germ cell layers of the early embryo and therefore into all cells of the adult body, but
not into extra-embryonic tissues like the placenta.

Totipotent Pluripotent Multi-potent

Relative High Medium Low


Potency
Cell types Differentiate Differentiate into cells Differentiate into

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capable of into any from any of the three a limited range of
generating cell type germ layers cell
types
Terminology Toti = Whole Pluri = Many Multi = Several
Found Early cells of fertilised Inner mass cells of the In many tissues
egg blastocyst

7. Option a is correct. Microorganisms of different types cause different diseases. Infection


refers to the entry and proliferation of disease-causing microorganisms in an individual or
population. Disease occurs when the infection causes harm to the vital functions or systems
of an individual. However, an infection may not always lead to disease.
Option b is correct. The agents responsible for causing diseases can be classified into five
categories: viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and helminths (worms). Protozoa and worms
are usually studied together as parasites, and this field of study is called parasitology.
Option c is correct. Intracellular pathogens are those that need to invade host cells to
reproduce. Such pathogens can be divided further into those that freely reproduce in the cell,
such as certain bacteria and viruses, and those, such as mycobacteria, that replicate in
cellular vesicles.
Option d is incorrect. Rapidly killing every host it infects is no better for the long-term
survival of a pathogen than being wiped out by the immune response before it has had time
to infect another individual.

8. Statement 1 is true as phenotype refers to the observable physical appearance of an


organism, while genotype refers to the genetic composition of an individual that is
responsible for these traits. Phenotype includes visible characteristics such as hair color, eye
color, skin color, height, and weight, whereas genotype contains the genes responsible for
these traits.
Statement 2 is incorrect as genotype is inherited from the parents to the offspring as one of
the two alleles during the reproduction process. The hereditary traits of an organism may or
may not be expressed in the next generation. The same genotype produces the same
phenotype in a particular environment, but phenotype is not inherited, rather it is an
expression of the genotype that appears outside the body as physical appearance.

9. Option a is correct. Chlorophyll gives algae their green colour and is present in all algae.
However, some algae have other pigments that mask the green chlorophyll, leading to
different colour variations.
Option b is correct. Leaves that appear to be a colour other than green still contain
chlorophyll. The presence of other pigments masks the green colour, but photosynthesis still
takes place in these leaves.
Option c is correct. Plants respond to higher concentrations of CO2 by increasing their rates
of photosynthesis, leading to higher productivity. This has been used in some greenhouse
crops, such as tomatoes and bell peppers, where they are grown in a carbon dioxide-
enriched atmosphere to increase yields.
Option d is incorrect. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments, not the
cytoplasm.

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10. Statement 1 is incorrect. Complex components of food such as carbohydrates need to be
broken down into simpler substances before they can be used. This process is called
digestion not ingestion.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Taking food into the body through the mouth is called ingestion.
This process can also involve microorganisms absorbing food.
Statement 3 is correct. Breaking down of complex molecules into nutrients in called
digestion.
Egestion: The large intestine is shorter and wider than the small intestine, about 1.5 meters
in length. Its function is to absorb water and salts from undigested food material. The
remaining waste forms semi-solid faeces which are egested through the anus from time to
time.

11. Statement 1 is correct. ASF is a viral disease that affects both wild and domestic pigs and is
characterized by acute hemorrhagic fever. It has a nearly 100% case fatality rate and can be
transmitted through direct contact with infected pigs or through contaminated material and
biological vectors like ticks.
Statement 2 is incorrect. African Swine Fever is not a disease that affects humans, but it can
be catastrophic for pigs. It is a non-zoonotic disease, and currently, there is no effective
treatment or vaccine available.
Statement 3 is incorrect. The current outbreak of African Swine Fever in India, specifically in
Assam, is not the first time the disease has been reported in the country.

12. Option 1, 2, and 4 are correct. Leukocytes or White Blood Cells play a crucial role in the
immune system, as they help fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that
invade the body. They are colorless due to the lack of haemoglobin and originate in the bone
marrow, but circulate throughout the bloodstream. There are five major types of white blood
cells: neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes, and basophils.
Option 3 is incorrect. Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells (RBC) are the most abundant cells in
the blood and are formed in the red bone marrow in adults.

13. Statement 1 is correct: Insufficient clean water and sanitation, as well as poor infection
prevention and control, can facilitate the transmission of microbes, which can lead to
antimicrobial resistance.
Statement 2 is correct: The development and spread of drug-resistant pathogens with new
resistance mechanisms contribute to antimicrobial resistance, which poses a threat to our
ability to treat common infections.
Statement 3 is correct: Antibiotic resistance can affect people at any point in their lives, as
well as the healthcare, veterinary, and agricultural industries. Antimicrobial resistance is
therefore a critical global public health concern.

14. a. Incorrect. Helminth infections are caused by parasitic worms and can be transmitted
through soil. Hence called STH – Soil Transmitted Helminths.
b. Incorrect. India has the highest number of STH-infected children in the world, with 64% of
them under 14 years of age.
c. Correct. Helminth infections can cause a range of symptoms, including diarrhoea,
malnutrition, weakness, impaired growth, and physical development in infected children.

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d. Incorrect. There are effective medicines available to control the disease, such as
albendazole and mebendazole, which are recommended by the WHO for their effectiveness,
affordability, and ease of administration.

15. Statement 1 is incorrect. The liver is the largest gland in the body and weighs about 1.2 to 1.5
kg in an adult human, situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm, and has
two lobes. The average weight of the heart is 250-300 gm and it is not a gland (glands
produce harmones).
Statement 2 is correct. The liver is responsible for the production of a digestive fluid known
as bile, which is released into the gallbladder, a small, pear-shaped organ located just below
the liver in the upper right side of the abdomen.
Statement 3 is correct. The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine organ. It has the dual
function of secreting hormones into the blood (endocrine) and secreting enzymes through
ducts (exocrine).
Statement 4 is correct. The liver is the only organ in the human body that can regenerate.
After the diseased portion of the liver is removed, fibrinogen and blood platelets accumulate
in the remaining liver, triggering the earliest stages of regeneration.

16. Statement 1 is correct. Vitamin A is a group of fat-soluble retinoids, which include retinol,
retinal, and retinyl esters. Preformed Vitamin A can be found in high concentrations in liver
and fish oils, as well as in milk and eggs.
Statement 2 is correct. Vitamin A deficiency can result in night blindness. Vitamin A, also
known as retinol, aids in the conversion of nerve impulses to images in the retina.
Statement 3 is also correct as Vitamin A is involved in various bodily functions such as
immune function, vision, reproduction, and cellular communication.
In addition, vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Vitamins A, D, E,
and K are fat-soluble, while Vitamin C and all B vitamins are water-soluble.

17. Microbes cause a large number of diseases in human beings. They also cause diseases in
animals and plants. But all microbes are not harmful; several microbes are useful to man in
diverse ways.
Micro-organisms such as Lactobacillus and others commonly called lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
grow in milk and convert it to curd. Hence option 1 is correct.
Aspergillus niger is a fungal microbe of great industrial importance. This mold is used
extensively in the production of citric acid and in the production of several enzymes such as
amylases, pectinases, and proteases. Hence option 2 is correct.
Streptococcus thermophilus (S. thermophilus) is a type of probiotic ("good" bacteria) found
in the digestive tract. It produces lactic acid in the gut. "Good" bacteria such as S.
thermophilus can help break down food, absorb nutrients, and fight off "bad" organisms that
might cause diseases. Hence option 3 is correct.

18. Statement 1 is incorrect. Both DNA and RNA are capable of undergoing mutations. In fact,
RNA is often more prone to mutations due to its instability, which can lead to faster evolution
in certain organisms, such as viruses with RNA genomes.
Statement 2 is correct. RNA contains a 2'-OH group on each nucleotide, which makes it more
reactive and less stable than DNA. RNA is also known to be catalytic, which makes it even
more reactive. In contrast, DNA lacks this 2'-OH group and is chemically more stable than
RNA.

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19. Statement 1 is true. Kala azar is a dangerous neglected tropical disease (NTD) that is endemic
in 76 countries. Kala-azar, also known as visceral leishmaniasis (VL), is a tropical disease that
is characterized by irregular fever, weight loss, anaemia, and swelling of the spleen and liver.
It is caused by a protozoan Leishmania parasite.
Statement 2 is incorrect because in India, Kala azar is endemic to Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar
Pradesh, and West Bengal – that is predominantly the eastern part of the country.
Statement 3 is correct, indicating that Kala azar is transmitted to humans by the bite of
infected female sand-flies. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that globally,
about 7 to 10 lakh new cases of Kala azar occur annually.

20. Statements 1 and 2 are correct as Hepatitis C and Chickenpox are viral infections. Statement
3 is also correct as the common cold is mostly caused by various types of viruses, with
rhinovirus being the most common one. However, statement 4 is incorrect as Malaria is
caused by protozoa and not viruses.

Exercise – III (c) Elephant foot (d) Blastomycosis

1. Which of the following statements are 4. Consider the following statements about
true? virus:
1. Prokaryotes lack a nuclear 1. It is metabolically inactive when
membrane. outside the host cell
2. Are all eukaryotes multicellular 2. It can infect various types of cells
organisms. except bacteria
Which of the statements given above 3. All Coronaviruses are RNA viruses.
is/are correct? Which of the above statements is/are
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
2. How does noise pollution impact human
health negatively? Select all that apply:
1. Hypertension 5. How can bacteria be beneficial?
2. Hearing disability 1. Treating sewage
3. Sleeping disorders 2. Manufacturing medications
4. Anxiety 3. Enhancing soil productivity
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only 4. Developing vaccines
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Select the correct answer using the code
given below:
3. This contagious fungal infection is also (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
known as tinea pedis or ringworm of the (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
foot. It affects the skin on the feet, and it
thrives in a warm and moist environment. 6. Consider the following statements about
Additionally, it can spread to the toenails harmones.
and the hands. 1. Hormones play a crucial role in the
Which disease is being referred to in the physical and psychological changes
passage above? that occur during adolescence.
2. The pituitary gland is responsible for
(a) Mycetoma (b) Athlete’s foot
secreting many hormones, but it is not

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the sole source of all hormones in the (a) Bacteria (b) Virus
body. (c) Fungi (d) Algae
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? 11. Which of the following statements about
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only the ABO blood group system is correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) People with the A blood group have
both A and B antigens on their red
7. Consider the following organisms with blood cells.
their respective mode of nutrition: (b) People with the B blood group have
Organism Mode of only the A antigen on their red blood
Nutrition cells.
(c) People with the AB blood group have
1. Mushroom Saprotrophic
neither A nor B antigens on their red
2.Insectivorous parasitic
blood cells.
plants
(d) People with the O blood group have
3. Algae Autotrophic
both A and B antigens on their red
Which of the pairs given above is/are blood cells.
correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only 12. Which of the following can not be a blood
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
group of progeny born to parents having
A and AB blood groups?
8. Consider the following statements
relating to 'Bile': 1. A
1. It has a vital role in breaking down 2. AB
fats during digestion. 3. O
2. It is produced by the Gallbladder. Select the correct answer using the code
3. It helps neutralize the acidic food given below.
content that travels from the stomach. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above statements is/are (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only 13. The widespread adoption of Single cell
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only proteins (SCP) as protein supplements in
human diets has restrictions. What are
these constraints?
9. Consider the statements below: 1. The presence of a high concentration
1. Methanogens are bacteria that of nucleic acid in some microbial
produce methane by aerobic action on biomass can result in gastrointestinal
cellulose. problems or kidney stones.
2. Biogas consists primarily of methane, 2. The cultivation of microorganisms has
among other gases. a significantly greater carbon
3. Methanogens are essential to the diet footprint than agricultural food
of livestock. production.
Which of the above statements is/are 3. Some microorganisms can generate
correct? toxic substances that may be harmful
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only to human health.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only Which of the above statements is/are
correct?
10. Which microorganism is considered non- (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
living?
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 324
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
14. Consider the following statements: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. Cord blood is the blood that is found in (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
the nervous tissues of the spinal cord.
2. Cord blood can be collected in order to 18. This type of connective tissue is very
extract hematopoietic stem cells which elastic and has considerable strength.
can be used to treat certain diseases. Two bones can be connected to each
Which of the statements given above other by this type of connective tissue.
is/are correct? They help to hold things in place in the
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only body.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Which of the following connective tissue is
being described in the passage?
15. With reference to the Lipids in Human (a) Tendon (b) Ligament
Body, consider the following statements : (c) Cartilage (d) Areolar tissue
1. Pancreas secretes lipase enzyme which
converts fat into fatty acid. 19. Consider the following pairs:
2. Saturated fat consists of a double bond Enzyme : Produced by
between carbon.
1. Pepsin : Pancreas
3. Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
that is produced in the liver is a major 2. Lipase : Stomach
cause of heart attack in human beings. 3. Lactase : Intestine
Which of the statements given above Which of the pairs given above is/are
is/are correct? correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

16. Which of the following statements 20. With reference to the coagulation of blood
accurately defines the term "Cytokine in human beings, consider the following
storm"? statements:
(a) An atypical increase in sea levels 1. Haemostasis leads to cessation of
during a cyclone. bleeding from a blood vessel which is
(b) Excessive production of particular the first stage of wound healing.
signaling proteins that can be detrimental 2. Haemophilia is a genetic disorder in
to the body. which the blood does not clot properly.
(c) A swarm of locusts that causes Which of the statements given above
significant damage to crops. is/are correct?
(d) A sudden surge in the prices of (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
essential goods. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

17. Consider the following statements,


regarding the proteins:
1. Proteins are linear chains of amino
acids linked by peptide bonds.
2. Collagen is the most abundant
protein in the human body.

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Exercise – III Key

1. a 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. b
11. d 12. c 13. d 14. b 15. c 16. b 17. c 18. b 19. b 20. c

Explanations

1. Statement 1 is correct, as prokaryotic cells are characterized by the absence of a nuclear


membrane and the presence of nuclear material. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria and
blue-green algae.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Eukaryotes can be either unicellular or multicellular and include
animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Eukaryotic cells have a well-organized nucleus with a
nuclear membrane.

2. Excessive noise in the surroundings is referred to as noise pollution and may result in
various health problems, such as hypertension (high blood pressure) (statement 1 is
correct), hearing disability (temporary or permanent impairment of hearing due to
continuous exposure to loud sound) (statement 2 is correct), sleeping disorders (statement 3
is correct), and anxiety (statement 4 is correct).

3. Option a is incorrect as it describes mycetoma, a disease caused by certain types of bacteria


and fungi found in soil and water. These microorganisms may enter the body through a
break in the skin and cause firm, debilitating masses under the skin.
Option b is correct as it describes athlete’s foot, a fungal infection that affects the upper layer
of the skin of the foot, caused by Trichophyton fungus that thrives in warm, moist, and
irritated environments, such as swimming pools and showers.
Option c is incorrect. Elephantiasis is a parasitic infection caused by worms that spreads
through mosquitoes and causes swelling of body parts such as the scrotum, legs, or breasts.
Option d is incorrect. Blastomycosis is a fungal infection caused by Blastomyces fungus found
in moist soil and decomposing matter, and it can be contracted by breathing in the
microscopic fungal spores from the air.

4. Statement 1 correctly describes viruses as obligate intracellular parasites, requiring a host


cell for replication, and being metabolically inactive outside of a host cell.
Statement 2 is incorrect because viruses have been found to infect all types of cells including
humans, animals, plants, bacteria, yeast, archaea, and protozoans. For example,
bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria.
Statement 3 is correct and specifies that coronavirus is an RNA virus that contains
ribonucleic acid as its genetic material instead of deoxyribonucleic acid. All viruses have
either DNA or RNA as their nucleic acid, but not both, and are enclosed by a protein coat.
Some viruses may also have an envelope of fat and protein molecules, and outside of the host
cell, a virus particle is called a virion.

5. Statement 1 is true as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are utilized in sewage treatment plants
to reduce organic matter and biological oxygen demand, thus making treated sewage water
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suitable for natural water bodies. Microorganisms can also clean up the environment by
breaking down harmful substances.
Statement 2 is correct, with antibiotics being produced from bacteria and fungi, and used to
treat various diseases.
Statement 3 is correct, as certain bacteria can increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from
the atmosphere.
Statement 4 is also correct, with vaccines being created from microorganisms to prevent
diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox, and hepatitis. Antigens from the pathogens
trigger an immune response in the body.

6. Adolescence changes are caused by hormones, as stated in statement 1. At puberty, boys


start producing testosterone, causing the growth of facial hair. Girls begin to produce
estrogen, which leads to breast development, as well as milk-secreting glands. These
hormones are controlled by the pituitary gland.
Statement 2 is also correct. Although the pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that produces
hormones, it is not the only gland that produces hormones. Hormones are secreted by
various glands and sent to different tissues in the body via the bloodstream, affecting many
aspects of life. Hormonal imbalances can lead to diseases.

7. Pair 1 is correct. Mushroom is a type of fungus that belongs to the category of Saprotrophs,
which means that it derives its nutrition from dead and decaying organic matter.
Pair 2 is incorrect. Insectivorous plants are partial heterotrophs and they are not examples of
parasitic nutrition in plants. Parasitic plants depend on other living organisms for their
nutrition because they cannot photosynthesize. On the other hand, insectivorous plants can
photosynthesize, but they lack sufficient nitrogen. They consume insects to fulfill their
nitrogen requirement.
Pair 3 is correct. Both plants and algae are autotrophs, which means they are capable of
making their own food from simple substances. Algae contain chlorophyll and can also
prepare their food by photosynthesis.

8. Statement 1 is correct. Bile is a complex fluid composed of water, electrolytes, and organic
molecules, such as bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids, and bilirubin. It moves through the
biliary tract and flows into the small intestine. Bile acids are vital for digesting and absorbing
fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Most vertebrates' liver secretes bile to aid in the digestion of lipids
in the small intestine. In humans, the liver secretes bile, which is then stored and
concentrated in the gallbladder.
Statement 3 is correct. Food coming from the stomach is acidic, and the pancreatic enzyme
requires an alkaline environment to function. Bile helps in this process. Bile salts break down
large fat globules into smaller ones, making enzyme action more effective.

9. Statement 1 is incorrect. Methanogens are microorganisms that produce methane via


anaerobic respiration, not aerobic respiration. They grow on cellulosic material and, in
addition to methane, produce some Carbon dioxide and Hydrogen gas. Methanobacterium is
one such microbe. Methanogens belong to the domain archaea, which is distinct from
bacteria. Both archaea and bacteria are prokaryotic organisms.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 327
Statement 2 is correct. Biogas is a gas mixture mainly composed of methane, produced by
microbial activity, and can be used as fuel.
Statement 3 is correct. Methanogens like Methanobacterium are present in the rumen of
cattle, which is a part of their stomach. The food of cattle contains a lot of cellulosic material,
which these microbes break down, playing an important role in the nutrition of cattle. As a
result, the excreta of cattle (dung) is rich in these microbes and can be used for the
generation of biogas, also known as gobar gas. These Methanogens are also found in the
anaerobic sludge during sewage treatment

10. Living organisms are defined as those that possess the ability to reproduce, and thus,
bacteria, algae, and fungi are all considered living beings due to their reproductive
capabilities. However, viruses are not considered alive by scientists because they lack several
properties associated with living organisms. Specifically, they are incapable of reproduction
without the aid of a host cell, and they do not use the standard cell division method for
replication. As a result, viruses are considered non-living entities.

11. People with the O blood group have neither A nor B antigens on their red blood cells.

12. Inheritance in ABO Blood Group System:


There are four main blood groups in the ABO system: A, B, AB, and O. Each person inherits
one allele (or version) of the ABO gene from each parent, giving them a total of two alleles.
The A and B alleles are codominant, meaning that if a person inherits one A allele and one B
allele, both antigens will be present on their red
blood cells.
The O allele is recessive, meaning that it is only
expressed if a person inherits two copies of the
O allele. Therefore, if a person inherits one A or
B allele and one O allele, they will have the A or
B blood group, respectively. If a person inherits
two O alleles, they will have the O blood group.
The inheritance of blood groups follows a
predictable pattern, with each parent randomly
passing on one of their two alleles to their child.
For example, if both parents have the AB blood group, they can only pass on an A or a B allele
to their child, resulting in a child with either the A or B or AB blood group but not O group.
In none of the above cases, children have O blood group. Hence option (c) is the correct
answer.
Below table indicates the possible child blood groups based on parent’s blood groups.

13. Edible unicellular microorganisms are referred to as Single-cell proteins (SCP), which are
increasingly utilized as protein supplements in human diets. However, their large-scale
adoption is subject to certain limitations.
Statement 1 is correct. Microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast that grow rapidly have a
high concentration of nucleic acid. The ingestion of such biomass causes an increase in
plasma uric acid levels, which can lead to gastrointestinal problems or kidney stones.

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Additionally, similar to plant cells, the cell wall of some microorganisms, including yeast and
algae, contains indigestible components such as cellulose.
Statement 2 is correct. Microbial cultivation has a considerably lower carbon footprint than
agricultural food production. Furthermore, microbial cultivation does not necessitate fertile
soil, resulting in no competition with agriculture.
Statement 3 is correct. Certain microorganisms may generate toxic substances such as
mycotoxins or cyanotoxins. Additionally, some yeast and fungal proteins are deficient in
methionine, which is an essential amino acid in humans.

14. Statement 1 is incorrect. Cord blood is not found in the nervous tissues of the spinal cord.
Instead, it refers to the blood that remains in the umbilical cord and placenta after childbirth.
Cord blood banking involves the collection, processing, and cryopreservation of cord blood
stem cells and other immune cells for potential medical purposes.
Statement 2 is correct. Hematopoietic stem cells, which are present in cord blood, have the
ability to differentiate into various blood cell types and can be used to treat certain diseases.
Cord blood can be collected after childbirth, and its stem cells can be extracted and stored for
possible future use in medical treatments.

15. The secretion of the enzyme lipase by the pancreas is crucial for digesting and absorbing
dietary fats. Lipase breaks down triglycerides (fats) into free fatty acids and glycerol.
Additionally, lipase plays a critical role in the mechanism of certain cholesterol-lowering
medications. So, Statement 1 is correct.
A fatty acid is a molecule made up of a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a long hydrocarbon
chain. When every carbon atom in the hydrocarbon chain is bonded to as many hydrogen
atoms as possible, it is called a saturated fatty acid. If a fatty acid has one or more double
bonds in its hydrocarbon chain, it is called an unsaturated fatty acid. Monounsaturated fatty
acids have one double bond, while polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double
bonds. So, Statement 2 is not correct.
The liver produces very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol, which is released into
the bloodstream to provide body tissues with triglycerides. VLDL cholesterol is considered
"bad" because it can cause plaque buildup in the arteries, leading to a condition called
atherosclerosis. Plaque can harden and narrow arteries, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich
blood to the body. This can cause heart disease and other conditions. So, Statement 3 is
correct.

16. When an immune response activated by the body to combat an infection becomes severe, it
is referred to as a cytokine storm. Cells release signaling proteins called cytokines, and
during a cytokine storm, an excessive amount of cytokines is rapidly released into the
bloodstream. Although cytokines typically regulate immune responses, in this scenario, they
can be detrimental and may even result in death. The overproduction of immune cells is a
hallmark of a cytokine storm, which can be hazardous since an abundance of immune cells
may attack not only infected but also healthy tissues.

17. Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other
body part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the
hemoglobin that carries oxygen in the blood.

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Within a protein, multiple amino acids are linearly linked together by peptide bonds, thereby
forming a long chain. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body, found in the bones, muscles, skin,
and tendons. It is an essential component of connective tissue and plays a crucial role in
holding the body’s cells together. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

18. Connective tissue (also called fibrous tissue) is one of the four primary types of animal tissue,
along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
Connective tissues support and connect different tissues and organs of the body. They are
widely distributed in every part of the body.
A ligament is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches bone to bone, and usually serves to
hold structures together and keep them stable. This tissue is very elastic. It has considerable
strength. Hence option (b) is the correct answer.
A tendon is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. A tendon serves to move
the bone.
Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels and
nerves and in the bone marrow. It fills the space inside the organs and supports internal
organs.
Cartilage is a strong, flexible connective tissue that protects the joints and bones. It acts as a
shock absorber in the body. Cartilage at the end of your bones reduces friction and prevents
them from rubbing together at the joints.

19. The digestion in stomach is taken care of by the gastric glands present in the wall of the
stomach. These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and
mucus. Pepsin in gastric juice digests proteins such as those in meat, eggs, seeds, or dairy
products. The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the
enzyme pepsin. Hence option 1 is not correct.
The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic
enzymes to act. The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to
digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for
the digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats.
Lipase enzymes are produced by a number of different glands and organs in the body,
including the pancreas, liver, and stomach. Hence option 2 is correct.
Lactase is an enzyme found in the mammalian small intestine that digests lactose, which is a
sugar found in milk. Hence option 3 is correct.

20. Hemostasis is the physiological process by which the body stops bleeding at the site of an
injury, such as a cut or a wound. It involves a complex series of events that work together to
form a blood clot to prevent further blood loss. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Haemophilia is the main blood clotting disorder. It is characterised by excessive bleeding. It
is due to the absence of some of the factors required in the blood clotting cascade. Hence,
statement 2 is correct.
Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot inside the blood vessel. It blocks the flow of
blood. Thrombosis can occur in arteries as well as veins. Arterial thrombosis affects the
blood supply and leads to the damage of tissue.

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Physics
1. Mechanics
Mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of motion and its causes. It
encompasses the study of the motion of objects under the influence of various forces and the
interaction between objects.
• Mechanics can be divided into two main branches: classical mechanics and quantum
mechanics.
• Classical mechanics deals with the motion of objects that are much larger than atoms
and obey the laws of Newtonian physics, while quantum mechanics deals with the
motion of particles at the atomic and subatomic level.
• Some of the key concepts in mechanics include force, velocity, acceleration, momentum,
energy, and torque.
Mechanics plays an important role in many areas of physics and engineering, including the
design of structures, machines, and vehicles, as well as in the development of theories of gravity
and the behavior of matter at the atomic level.

Physical Quantities
Physical quantities are properties of objects or phenomena that can be measured or quantified.
These can include properties like length, mass, time, temperature, and electric charge. In physics,
we often use standard systems of units to measure physical quantities, such as the International
System of Units (SI).

Fundamental Quantities
The SI system defines seven fundamental quantities, also known as base units, which are used as
the basis for measuring all other physical quantities. These fundamental quantities and their
respective SI units are:
1. Length - meter (m)
2. Mass - kilogram (kg)
3. Time - second (s)
4. Electric current - ampere (A)
5. Temperature - Kelvin (K)
6. Amount of substance - mole (mol)
7. Luminous intensity - candela (cd)

Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are physical quantities that can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
quantities using mathematical equations or relationships. For example, velocity is a derived
quantity because it can be expressed as the ratio of distance (length) to time. Other examples of
derived quantities include acceleration, force, energy, power, and pressure.

Here is a table of some common derived quantities and their corresponding SI units:
Derived Quantity Symbol SI Unit

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Velocity v m/s
Acceleration a m/s²
Force F kg·m/s²
Energy E J
Power P W
Pressure P Pa
It is worth noting that the SI system is not the only system of units used in physics, and there are
other systems that define different fundamental quantities and units. However, the SI system is
widely used and recognized internationally as the standard system of units in science and
engineering.

Scalar and Vector Quantities


In physics, there are two types of physical quantities: scalar and vector quantities.
Scalar quantities are those physical quantities that can be described completely by a single
numerical value or magnitude, without any reference to direction.
• Examples of scalar quantities include mass, speed, time, temperature, energy, and
distance.
• For example, the mass of an object is a scalar quantity, as it can be described completely
by a single numerical value, such as 2 kilograms.
Vector quantities, on the other hand, are physical quantities that require both magnitude and
direction to be fully described.
• Examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and
momentum.
• For example, velocity is a vector quantity because it requires both magnitude (speed)
and direction to be fully described, such as 30 meters per second eastward.
• Vector quantities can be represented graphically using arrows, where the length of the
arrow represents the magnitude of the quantity, and the direction of the arrow
represents the direction of the quantity.
• It is important to distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, as they behave
differently in mathematical operations and equations.
o Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted simply by adding or subtracting
their numerical values, while vector quantities require vector addition and
subtraction, which takes into account both magnitude and direction.

Dimensions of Physical quantity


The dimensions of a physical quantity refer to the combination of base units that are used to
express that quantity. In other words, they are the way in which a physical quantity is
quantitatively expressed or measured.
• For example, length is a physical quantity that can be expressed in units such as meters
(m), centimeters (cm), or feet (ft). The dimensions of length are therefore given as [L],
where the square brackets indicate that the dimension refers to the units in which the
quantity is expressed.
• Similarly, mass is a physical quantity that can be expressed in units such as kilograms
(kg), grams (g), or pounds (lb), and its dimensions are given as [M].
Each of the seven fundamental physical quantities in the International System of Units (SI) has
its own set of dimensions. These fundamental quantities and their dimensions are:

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1. Length - [L]
2. Mass - [M]
3. Time - [T]
4. Electric current - [I]
5. Temperature - [θ]
6. Amount of substance - [N]
7. Luminous intensity - [J]
Derived physical quantities, such as force, velocity, and acceleration, have dimensions that are
based on the fundamental quantities.
• For example, velocity (v) is length [L] divided by time [T] hence v=LT -1 (L/T=LT-1);
acceleration (a) is velocity (v) divided by time [T] hence a = v/T = LT-1/T=LT-2
• Force is expressed as the product of mass and acceleration (F = ma) so its dimensions are
[MLT-2]
• It is important to note that the dimensions of a physical quantity are not the same as its
units. Units are simply a way of expressing a quantity in a specific scale or system, while
dimensions refer to the fundamental properties of the quantity itself.
• Understanding the dimensions of physical quantities is important for developing
mathematical relationships between different physical quantities and for ensuring that
units are used correctly in calculations.

Kinematics
Kinematics is a branch of classical mechanics that deals with the motion of objects without
considering the forces that cause the motion. It is concerned with describing the position,
velocity, and acceleration of objects as they move through space and time. In other words,
kinematics describes how objects move, but not why they move.
• Kinematics is important in many areas of science and engineering, including physics,
astronomy, biomechanics, and robotics.
• The study of kinematics involves the use of mathematical equations and graphs to
describe and analyze motion.

Rest and Motion


Rest and motion are used to describe the state of an object in relation to its surroundings.
• An object is said to be at rest if it is not changing its position with respect to its
surroundings.
• An object is said to be in motion if it is changing its position with respect to its
surroundings. Motion can be either uniform or non-uniform, depending on whether the
object is moving at a constant speed or changing speed over time.

Distance and Displacement


Distance and Displacement: Distance and displacement both describe the position of an object,
but in slightly different ways.
• Distance is a scalar quantity that describes the total length of the path traveled by an
object between its initial and final positions, without regard to direction. Distance is
always positive and is measured in units of length, such as meters (m) or kilometers
(km).

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• Displacement, on the other hand, is a vector quantity that describes the change in
position of an object from its initial position to its final position, taking into account both
the magnitude and direction of the change. Displacement is always measured in units of
length, such as meters (m) or kilometers (km), and can be either positive or negative,
depending on the direction of the change in position.
To illustrate the difference between distance and displacement, consider the following example:
A person walks 10 meters to the east, then turns around and walks 10 meters to the west. The
distance traveled by the person is 20 meters, as this is the total length of the path traveled.
However, the displacement of the person is zero, as the person has returned to their initial
position and there has been no change in position with respect to their surroundings.

Speed
Speed is a scalar quantity that describes the rate at which an object moves, taking into account
only the magnitude of the motion, not the direction. Speed is measured in meters per second
(m/s) or other units of length per time. The average speed of an object over a given time period
can be calculated using the following equation:
average speed = total distance traveled / total time taken
where distance is the total distance traveled by the object, and time is the duration of the motion.
It is important to note that speed does not take into account changes in direction, only changes in
magnitude of the motion. For example, a car traveling at 60 km/h to the east and then turning to
travel at 60 km/h to the north will have the same speed, but a different velocity (magnitude and
direction of motion).

Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity that describes the rate at which an object changes its position over
time, taking into account both the magnitude (speed) and direction of the object's motion. The
average velocity of an object over a given time period can be calculated using the following
equation:
average velocity = change in displacement / change in time
where displacement is the change in position of the object, and time is the duration of the
motion.

Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity that describes the rate at which an object changes its velocity
over time, taking into account both the magnitude and direction of the change. The average
acceleration of an object over a given time period can be calculated using the following equation:
average acceleration = change in velocity / change in time
where velocity is the change in velocity of the object, and time is the duration of the motion.
• It is important to note that acceleration can be positive or negative, depending on the
direction of the change in velocity. Positive acceleration means that the object is speeding
up, while negative acceleration means that the object is slowing down.

Force

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Force is a vector quantity that describes the interaction between two objects, which can cause a
change in the motion of one or both objects. The magnitude of a force is measured in Newtons
(N) and its direction is indicated by the direction of the force. The relationship between force,
mass, and acceleration is given by Newton's Second Law of Motion: force = mass x acceleration
where mass is the mass of the object, and acceleration is the acceleration caused by the force.
It is important to note that forces can be balanced or unbalanced. Balanced forces cancel each
other out and do not cause a change in motion, while unbalanced forces cause a change in
motion, such as accelerating or decelerating an object.

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces


Centripetal force and centrifugal force are two concepts that are often misunderstood, as they
are often used interchangeably. However, they are actually opposite forces that act on an object
moving in a circular path.
Centripetal force is a force that acts on an object moving in a circular path, directed towards the
center of the circle. It is the force that keeps the object moving in the circular path. Centripetal
force is not a separate force, but rather it is the net force acting on an object that is required to
keep it moving in a circular path.
• Some examples of centripetal force include the force of tension in a string that is
swinging a ball in a circle, the force of gravity that keeps planets in orbit around the sun,
and the force of friction that allows a car to turn a corner.
On the other hand, centrifugal force is an apparent force that seems to push an object away
from the center of a circle, but it is not actually a force at all. Centrifugal force is simply the
tendency of an object moving in a circular path to continue moving in a straight line, due to its
inertia.
• An example of the application of centrifugal force is the operation of a washing machine.
The clothes inside the washing machine move in a circular path due to the rotation of the
drum, and the centrifugal force pushes the clothes towards the outer edge of the drum,
where the force of gravity pulls them back down towards the center.
In summary, centripetal force is a real force that acts towards the center of a circle to keep an
object moving in a circular path, while centrifugal force is an apparent force that is actually
the result of the object's inertia.

Newton’s Laws of Motion


Newton's Laws of Motion are a set of three fundamental laws that describe the behavior of
objects in motion. They were first described by the famous physicist Sir Isaac Newton in the
17th century and are still widely used today to understand and predict the motion of objects in
our everyday world.
1. Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia): An object at rest remains at rest, and
an object in motion remains in motion with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a
net external force.
• In other words, objects tend to maintain their state of motion or rest unless an
external force is applied.
• For example, when a car is parked, it remains stationary until a force is applied to
move it. Similarly, when a ball is rolling on a smooth surface, it continues to roll
with a constant speed and direction until friction or another force acts upon it.

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2. Newton's Second Law of Motion (Law of Force and Acceleration): The acceleration of
an object is directly proportional to the force applied to it and inversely proportional to
its mass.
• The formula for this law is F=ma, where F is the net force applied, m is the mass
of the object, and a is the acceleration produced.
• For example, when a person pushes a shopping cart, the acceleration it
experiences is directly proportional to the force applied to the cart. Similarly,
when a heavier object and a lighter object are subjected to the same force, the
lighter object will experience a greater acceleration.
3. Newton's Third Law of Motion (Law of Action and Reaction): For every action, there
is an equal and opposite reaction.
• This means that if an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B will exert
an equal and opposite force on object A.
• For example, when a person jumps off a diving board, their feet push down on the
board, and the board pushes back up on their feet with an equal and opposite
force, causing the person to launch into the air.
Overall, Newton's Laws of Motion provide a foundation for understanding the behavior of
objects in motion and have countless applications in everyday life, as well as in fields such as
physics, engineering, and aerospace.

Work
Work is a measure of energy transfer that occurs when a force is applied to an object and the
object is displaced in the direction of the force. Work (W) is represented mathematically as the
product of the force (F) and the displacement (d) of the object in the direction of the force.
This can be expressed as: W = Fdcos()
where W is the work done, F is the force applied, d is the displacement of the object, and is the
angle betweenthe force and the displacement vectors.
Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in units of joules (J), which is equivalent to a newton-
meter (N*m).
• It's important to note that work is only done when there is a displacement of the object in
the direction of the force. If the object doesn't move, or if it moves perpendicular to the
force, no work is done.
• Work can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of the force and
displacement.
o Positive work is done when the force and displacement are in the same direction,
while negative work is done when the force and displacement are in opposite
directions.
o For example, if you push a box across a table with a force of 10 newtons over a
distance of 2 meters, and the angle between the force and displacement vectors is
zero (meaning they are in the same direction), then the work done on the box is:
W = 10 N * 2 m * cos(0) = 20 J
o This means that 20 joules of energy were transferred from you to the box as you
pushed it across the table.

Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
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• Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa with the help of some mechanical
device.

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object.
• It is given by the formula KE = (1/2)mv2, where m is the mass of the object and v is its
velocity.
• This means that the kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and its velocity.

Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy that an object possesses due to its position or its configuration.
• It is given by the formula PE = mgh, where m is the mass of the object, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height of the object above some reference point.
• This means that the potential energy of an object depends on its mass, the strength of
gravity, and its height above the ground.

Different Forms of Energy


There are various forms of energy in the universe. Here are some of the major types:
1. Thermal Energy: This is the energy that is associated with the temperature of an object. It
is a form of kinetic energy, as it is due to the motion of atoms and molecules.
2. Electrical Energy: This is the energy that is associated with the movement of electrons. It
is a form of potential energy, as it is due to the configuration of charges.
3. Chemical Energy: This is the energy that is stored in the bonds between atoms and
molecules. When these bonds are broken, energy is released.
4. Nuclear Energy: This is the energy that is stored in the nucleus of an atom. When the
nucleus is split or combined with another nucleus, energy is released.
5. Light Energy: This is the energy that is carried by photons, which are particles of light. It
is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
6. Mechanical Energy: This is the energy that is associated with the motion and position of
an object. It includes both kinetic and potential energy.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation


Einstein's famous mass-energy relation, also known as the equivalence of mass and energy,
states that mass and energy are interchangeable and that a certain amount of mass is equivalent
to a certain amount of energy.
• This relation is expressed mathematically by the equation: E = mc2
o where E is the energy, m is the mass, and c is the speed of light.
• This equation shows that even a small amount of mass can be converted into an
enormous amount of energy, as the speed of light is a very large number (c = 3*108
meters per second approximately).
• The mass-energy relation was first proposed by Einstein in 1905 as part of his theory of
special relativity. It was later refined in his theory of general relativity, which provided
a deeper understanding of the nature of space and time.
• The mass-energy relation is the basis for many important concepts in physics, including
particle physics, nuclear physics, and astrophysics. It is also used in everyday

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applications, such as in the development of nuclear power and in medical imaging
techniques such as PET scans.

Conservative & Non-conservative Forces


Forces can be categorized as conservative or non-conservative depending on whether or not
they conserve mechanical energy.
• Conservative forces are those that conservemechanical energy. This means that the work
done by a conservative force on an object is independent of the path taken by the object.
o Examples of conservative forces include gravity and electrostatic forces.
o When an object is moved in a gravitational or electrostatic field, the work done by
these forces depends only on the initial and final positions of the object, and not on
the path taken to get there.
• Non-conservative forces are those that do not conserve mechanical energy. This means
that the work done by a non-conservative force on an object depends on the path taken by
the object.
o Examples of non-conservative forces include friction, air resistance, and tension in a
rope.
o When an object is moved in the presence of these forces, the work done by the force
depends on the path taken by the object. The amount of work done by a non-
conservative force also depends on the speed and acceleration of the object.
• One key difference between conservative and non-conservative forces is that conservative
forces are non-dissipative while conservative forces are dissipative.
• In practical terms, the conservation of mechanical energy by conservative forces is useful for
predicting the motion of objects. For example, if an object is dropped from a certain height,
its final velocity can be predicted based on its initial height and the conservation of
mechanical energy due to gravity, which is a conservative force. On the other hand, the work
done by non-conservative forces like air resistance or friction will cause the object to lose
mechanical energy, making it harder to predict the object's motion accurately.

The law of conservation of energy


The law of conservation of energy is a fundamental principle in physics that states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. This means that the
total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant over time. Energy can be transferred
from one object to another, or converted from one form to another, but the total amount of
energy remains constant.
• In other words, the law of conservation of energy implies that the energy of a closed system
is always conserved, and the sum of all forms of energy (kinetic, potential, thermal,
electromagnetic, etc.) in the system remains constant.
• This law applies to all physical systems, from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest
galaxies in the universe.
• The law of conservation of energy is extremely important in physics and has many practical
applications. It is used to predict the behavior of physical systems, to design and optimize
energy systems, and to understand the fundamental principles of the universe.

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Gravitation
Gravitation is the force of attraction that exists between any two objects in the universe, due to
their masses.
• The force of gravitation is what keeps planets in orbit around the sun, and what causes
objects to fall to the ground when dropped.

Newton’s Law of Gravity


Newton's law of gravity is a fundamental law of physics that describes the relationship between
the masses of two objects and the force of attraction that exists between them.
• The law states that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a
force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• This can be expressed mathematically as:F = G * (m1 * m2) / r2
where F is the force of gravity between the two objects, m1 and m2 are their masses, r is
the distance between them, and G is the gravitational constant (G = 6.67 × 10−11 N-m2
kg-2.).
• This means that as the distance between two objects decreases, the force of attraction
between them increases, and as their masses increase, the force of attraction also
increases.
• The gravitational force between two objects is always attractive, which means it always
pulls the objects towards each other.
Newton's law of gravity helps explain many phenomena in the universe, from the motion of
planets in their orbits to the behavior of galaxies.

Acceleration due to Gravity


Acceleration due to gravity, denoted as 'g', is the constant rate of acceleration that a freely falling
object experiences as a result of the Earth's gravitational pull.
• It is calculated using the formula GM/R², where M represents the mass of the Earth, and
R represents its radius. Although the value of 'g' may vary slightly at different locations, it
is approximately equal to 9.8 meters per second squared near the Earth's surface.
• Despite being a fundamental force of nature, gravitational force is the weakest among
them, with an estimated strength that is 1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and
1038 times smaller than nuclear force.

Escape Velocity
• Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object needs to achieve in order to escape the
gravitational pull of a massive body, such as a planet, without being pulled back.
• The formula for calculating the escape velocity from the surface of a planet is given by:v =
√(2GM / r)
where v is the escape velocity, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the planet,
and r is the distance from the center of the planet to the object's starting point.
• For Earth, the mass (M) is approximately 5.97 x 1024 kg, and the radius (r) is
approximately 6,371 km. Using these values and the gravitational constant (G = 6.674 x
10-11 Nm^2/kg^2), we can calculate the escape velocity:
v = √(2 x 6.674 x 10^-11 x 5.97 x 10^24 / 6,371,000)

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v = √(1.19 x 10^8)
v = 10,936 m/s
• Therefore, an object on the surface of the Earth would need to achieve a speed of
approximately 10,936 meters per second (or about 39,373 km/h) in order to escape the
Earth's gravitational pull.

Mass and Weight


Mass and weight are two concepts that are often used interchangeably, but they actually have
different meanings.
Mass is a fundamental physical quantity that represents the amount of matter in an object. It is a
scalar quantity, meaning it has only magnitude and no direction, and is usually measured in units
such as kilograms (kg) or grams (g).
• The mass of an object is constant, meaning it remains the same regardless of its location
or environment.
Weight, on the other hand, is a measure of the force exerted on an object due to gravity. It is a
vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction, and is usually measured in units
such as newtons (N).
• The weight of an object depends on its mass and the strength of the gravitational field it
is in.
• The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the whole weight of the body
appears to act.
On the surface of the Earth, the weight of an object is proportional to its mass, with a constant
proportionality factor of approximately 9.8 N/kg.

Satellites
• A satellite is an object that orbits around a planet or other celestial body. Satellites can be
natural, like the moon orbiting around the Earth, or artificial, like a communication
satellite launched into orbit around the Earth.

Geostationary satellite
• A geostationary satellite is a type of artificial satellite that orbits the Earth at a fixed
position above the equator, in a circular orbit at an altitude of approximately 36,000
km.
• These satellites are designed to remain fixed relative to a specific location on the Earth's
surface and are used for a variety of purposes such as telecommunications, weather
forecasting, and navigation.
Polar satellite
• A polar satellite is another type of artificial satellite that orbits the Earth in a north-
south direction, passing over the Earth's poles as it orbits.
• These satellites are placed in orbits that are at a much lower altitude compared to
geostationary satellites, typically around 800 km, and are used for applications such as
remote sensing, climate monitoring, and scientific research.
• While geostationary satellites remain fixed above the equator, polar satellites orbit
around the Earth and provide coverage of the entire globe over a period of time. Both
types of satellites have their own advantages and are used for specific purposes.

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2. Electricity and Magnetism
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that studies the interaction between electrically charged
particles and their associated magnetic fields.
• It is one of the four fundamental forces of nature, along with gravity, strong nuclear
force, and weak nuclear force.
• Electromagnetism is responsible for a wide range of phenomena, including the behavior
of electrically charged particles, the production and propagation of electromagnetic
waves (such as light), and the operation of electrical devices.

Electricity
• Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the movement of charged particles, such as
electrons or ions.
• It is a fundamental force of nature that plays a crucial role in our daily lives, powering
everything from light bulbs and electronic devices to cars and factories.
• Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, such as a wire.
• It can be generated by a variety of sources, including batteries, generators, and power
plants.

Electric Charge
• Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that determines how it interacts with
electric and magnetic fields.
• All matter is made up of atoms, which are composed of positively charged protons,
negatively charged electrons, and neutral neutrons.
• Electric charge can be either positive or negative, depending on whether there is an
excess of protons or electrons in an object.
• Electric charge is quantized, meaning it can only exist in discrete amounts. The smallest
unit of electric charge is the charge of a single electron, which is equal in magnitude to
the charge of a proton but opposite in sign.
• The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (C).
• Electric charge can be transferred from one object to another through a process known
as charging. There are two ways in which an object can be charged: by gaining or losing
electrons. When an object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged, and when it
loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
• How two electric charges interact with each other is given by Coulomb’s Law.

Coulomb's Law
• Coulomb's Law is a fundamental law of electrostatics that describes the interaction
between electric charges.
• It states that the force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• Mathematically, Coulomb's Law is expressed as: F = kq1q2/r2
where F is the electrostatic force between the two charges, q1 and q2 are the
magnitudes of the charges, r is the distance between them, and k is the Coulomb
constant.

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The Electric Field
• An electric field is a physical field that surrounds an electric charge or a collection of
charges and exerts a force on other charges placed within the field. In other words, an
electric field is a region in space where an electrically charged object or particle
experiences an electrical force.
• The electric field is a vector field. It is defined as the force per unit charge that would
be experienced by a small test charge if placed in the field.
• The electric field is represented by the symbol E and its units are volts per meter
(V/m).

Electric field lines


• Electric field lines are a visual
representation of the electric field.
They are drawn as continuous lines
that indicate the direction and
strength of the electric field at every
point in space.
• The electric field lines always point
away from positive charges and
towards negative charges, and their
density represents the strength of the
electric field. The closer the lines are
to each other, the stronger the electric field. Electric Field Lines
• Electric field lines can also be used to determine the direction of the electric field at
any point in space.

Electric Potential
• Electric potential, also known as voltage, is the measure of the electric potential energy
per unit charge in an electric circuit. It is the energy required to move an electric charge
between two points in an electric field.
• The unit of electric potential is the volt (V). Electric potential difference, or voltage
difference, between two points is the difference in electric potential between them and is
measured in volts.

Electric Current
• Electric Current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, such as a wire. It is
measured in amperes (A) and is defined as the amount of charge that flows through a
conductor per unit time.
• Electric Current (I) = q/t where q is the amount of charge, t is the time period.
• The direction of current flow is from the point of higher electric potential to the point of
lower electric potential.

Resistance & Conductance


• Resistance is a property of a material that determines how much it resists the flow of
electric current. It is measured in ohms (Ω) and is defined as the ratio of voltage to
current.
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• A material with high resistance will impede the flow of current, while a material with low
resistance will allow current to flow more easily.
• The resistance of a material depends on factors such as its composition, temperature, and
physical dimensions.
• Electrical conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistance and is a measure of a
material's ability to conduct electric current. The unit of electrical conductance is the
siemens (S) and is defined as one ampere per volt.
• 1 siemens (S) is equal to 1/ohm (Ω⁻¹)
• A material with high conductance will allow electric current to flow easily through it,
while a material with low conductance will impede the flow of current.

Power
• Electric power refers to the amount of electrical energy generated or used up within a
given period of time. It is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
• The formula to calculate electric power is P = VI, where P represents power, V represents
voltage, and I represents current.
• The unit of power is the watt, which is equivalent to one joule per second (J/s).
• Another commonly used unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is
the amount of energy used by a 1-kilowatt appliance for one hour. 1 kWh is equal to 3.6 ×
10^6 joules (J).

Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's law is a fundamental principle in electronics that relates the three concepts of
electric potential, electric current, and resistance.
• It states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the voltage across it and inversely proportional to its resistance.
• The equation for Ohm's law is: I = V/R
where I is the electric current, V is the electric potential difference or voltage, and R is the
resistance of the conductor.

Electrical Conductivity & Resistivity


• Electrical conductivity is a measure of a material's ability to conduct an electric current.
It is defined as the ratio of the current density to the electric field strength, and is
typically expressed in units of Siemens per meter (S/m) or mho per meter (℧/m).
• Resistivity, on the other hand, is a measure of a material's opposition to the flow of
electric current and is the reciprocal of electrical conductivity. The unit of resistivity
is the ohm-meter (Ω·m) and is defined as the resistance of a material of unit length and
unit cross-sectional area.
• A material with high resistivity will impede the flow of current, while a material with low
resistivity will allow current to flow more easily.

Types of Materials
Materials can be classified based on their electrical conductivity, which is a measure of their
ability to conduct electric current.

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1. Conductors are materials that have a high electrical conductivity and allow electric
current to flow easily through them.
• Metals such as copper, aluminum, and silver are excellent conductors of
electricity. Other examples of conductors include saltwater, graphite, and plasma.
• In conductors, the outermost electrons of the atoms are loosely bound and are
able to move freely through the material.
2. Insulators have low electrical conductivity and do not allow electric current to flow
easily through them.
• Examples of insulators include rubber, glass, plastic, and air.
• In insulators, the outermost electrons of the atoms are tightly bound to the
nucleus and are not able to move freely through the material.
3. Semiconductors are materials that have intermediate electrical conductivity, which can
be controlled by adding impurities to the material through a process called doping.
• Silicon and germanium are the most common semiconductor materials.
• In semiconductors, the outermost electrons are not tightly bound to the nucleus
and are able to move through the material with the application of an electric field.
This property of semiconductors makes them useful in the manufacture of
electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.
Understanding the properties of these different types of materials is important in the design and
manufacture of electrical and electronic devices.

Electric Dipole
• An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite electric charges separated by a small
distance.
• The strength of an electric dipole is measured by its dipole moment, which is defined as
the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between them.
• Electric dipoles are important in many areas of physics, including electromagnetism and
quantum mechanics.
• Electric dipoles have a number of important properties. They create an electric field that
varies with distance, and this field can be used to exert forces on other charges. They also
have a magnetic moment, which allows them to interact with magnetic fields.
Additionally, electric dipoles can be used to create polar molecules, which have
important applications in chemistry and biology.
Capacitor
• A capacitor is an electrical device that stores electric charge.
• It consists of two conductive plates separated by a non-conductive material, or dielectric.
When a voltage is applied to the plates, charge accumulates on them, creating an electric
field between them. The amount of charge that a capacitor can store is determined by its
capacitance, which is measured in farads (F).
• Capacitors have many practical applications in electronics and electrical engineering.
They can be used to filter out unwanted signals, store energy, and provide a source of
electrical power. Capacitors are also used in many types of sensors and transducers, and
they are a fundamental component in the design of electronic circuits.

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Kirchhoff's laws
• Kirchhoff's current law asserts that the total current flowing into and out of a point
(junction) in an electric circuit is equal to zero, which is rooted in the principle ofcharge
conservation.
• Kirchhoff's voltage law asserts that the sum of all potential differences along a closed
loop in a circuit is zero, which is based on the principle of energy conservation.

Electric Cell
• An electric cell is a mechanism that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy.
The operation of electric cells is founded on the chemical effect of electric current.
• There are two categories of electric cells.
1. Primary cells, such as Voltaic, Daniell, and Leclanche cells, cannot be recharged
2. Secondary cells like acid and alkali accumulators can be recharged repeatedly.

EMF of a Cell
• The emf (electromotive force) of a cell refers to the amount of work done by the cell to
move a positive charge from one terminal of the cell to the other.
• It is not an actual force, but rather a measure of the energy supplied by the cell to the
circuit. In other words, emf is the work done by the cell per unit charge and is measured
in volts.

Joule’s Law of Heating


• Applying a potential difference (V) across a conductor with resistance (R) results in the
flow of electric current (I) through the conductor. The current has the ability to cause
three effects: heating, magnetic, and chemical effects.
• The amount of heat (H) produced in a conductor in time (t) can be calculated using
Joule's law of heating
o Heat (H) = V*I*t = IR*I*t = I2Rt = V2t/R
• Devices such as electric bulbs, kettles, and heaters work on the principle of the heating
effect of electric current.
• Fuses made of tin, lead, and alloy (63% + 37%) are used to safeguard domestic
appliances against sudden changes in electricity. These fuses should have high resistance
and low melting points and are always connected in series.

Chemical Effect of Electric Current


• Electrolysis is a process that occurs when an electric current is run through an acidic or
basic solution (called electrolyte). During electrolysis, the solution breaks down into its
positive and negative ions, and these ions collect at the respective electrodes.
• The positively charged ions are attracted to the negative electrode, also known as the
cathode, while the negatively charged ions are attracted to the positive electrode, known
as the anode. This separation of ions is a chemical effect of the electric current.
• Electroplating, on the other hand, is the process of depositing a layer of expensive metal
onto a base metal by means of electrolysis. The base metal is made the cathode, while the
metal to be plated is made the anode, and an electric current is run through the solution.

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The metal ions from the plating metal are attracted to the base metal, where they are
deposited as a thin layer.

Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis


1. Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis state that the total amount of substance deposited
at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the amount of electric
charge that passes through the electrolyte. In other words, the more charge that passes
through the electrolyte, the more substance will be deposited at the electrode.
• This relationship can be expressed mathematically as m = Zq, where m is the total
mass of substance deposited, q is the total charge passed through the electrolyte,
and Z is the electrochemical equivalent of the substance deposited.
• The electrochemical equivalent is a constant value that depends on the substance
being deposited.
• Alternatively, the equation can be expressed as m = ZIt, where I is the electric
current and t is the time that the current flows through the electrolyte.
2. Faraday's Second Law of Electrolysis states that if the same electric current flows
through different electrolytes for the same amount of time, the mass of substance that is
liberated at the electrodes is directly proportional to the chemical equivalent of the
substance.
• The chemical equivalent of a substance is defined as the amount of the substance
that is equivalent to one mole of hydrogen ions that are discharged during the
electrolysis process. In other words, it represents the number of electrons that
are required to reduce one mole of the substance.
• This relationship can be expressed mathematically as m ∝ E or m1 = E1/m2 = E2,
where m is the mass of substance liberated, E is the chemical equivalent of the
substance, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to different substances being
compared.
Domestic Electrification
• The distribution system provides two terminals to the houses, which are known as live
and neutral. The neutral terminal is connected to the earth at the local substation.
• Additionally, a third terminal, known as earth, is introduced in the building for safety
purposes.
Magnet & Magnetism
A material that can attract iron objects is known as a magnet.
• Magnetite or lodestone, an iron ore, is a natural magnet.
• An artificial magnet is one that is prepared artificially, such as a bar magnet or a horse-
shoe magnet.
• A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself in the North-South direction, with like
magnetic poles repelling and unlike poles attracting each other.
• An electromagnet is a current-carrying coil that contains a soft iron core, and it is used in
various devices such as electric bells, telegraph receivers, telephone diaphragms,
transformers, dynamos, etc.
• Permanent magnets are made of steel, while temporary magnets or electromagnets are
made of soft iron.

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o Steel cannot be easily magnetized, but once magnetized, it cannot be easily
demagnetized. Soft iron, on the other hand, can be easily magnetized or
demagnetized.

Magnet Properties
• Attractive property: Magnets can attract small magnetic materials like iron, nickel,
cobalt, and steel. The attraction is strongest at the poles, where unlike poles attract and
like poles repel.
• Directive property: A magnet when freely suspended, aligns itself in the approximate
North-South direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
• Magnetic poles exist in pairs: If a magnet is cut into two equal pieces transverse to its
length, the North and South poles of the magnet will not be separated.

Magnetic Substances
There are three types of magnetic substances: Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic.
Paramagnetic Substances:
• Substances that are weakly magnetized in the direction of a magnetic field when
placed in a strong magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
• Examples of paramagnetic substances are aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese,
solutions of salts of iron, nickel, and oxygen.
• These substances are attracted towards a strong magnetic field in a non-uniform
magnetic field.
• The magnetism of these substances decreases as the temperature increases.
Diamagnetic Substances:
• Substances that are weakly magnetized in the opposite direction of a magnetic field
when placed in a strong magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
• Examples of diamagnetic substances are gold, silver, zinc, copper, mercury, water,
alcohol, air, and hydrogen.
• These substances are attracted towards a weak magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic
field.
• The magnetism produced in these substances does not change with an increase or
decrease in temperature.
Ferromagnetic Substances:
• Substances that are strongly magnetized in the direction of a magnetic field when
placed in it are called ferromagnetic substances.
• Examples of ferromagnetic substances are iron, nickel, and cobalt.
• The magnetism produced in these substances decreases with an increase in temperature,
and at a specific temperature called Curie temperature they lose their magnetic
properties.
• At the Curie temperature, a paramagnetic substance becomes diamagnetic.
• The Curie temperature for iron is 770°C, and for nickel, it is 358°C.

The Magnetic Effect of Electric Current


• The magnetic effect of electric current refers to the creation of a magnetic field around a
conductor when an electric current flows through it. H.C. Oersted discovered this
relationship between electricity and magnetism in 1820.
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• A magnet at rest produces a magnetic field around it while an electric charge at rest
produces an electric field around it.
• A current carrying conductor has a magnetic field and not an electric field around it. On
the other hand, a charge moving with a uniform velocity has an electric as well as a
magnetic field around it.
• Devices such as burglar alarms, microphones, speakers, car horns, and electric bells, as
well as A.C. generators, D.C. motors, and transformers, are based on the magnetic
effect of electric current.
A.C. generator or dynamo
• An A.C. generator or dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by
rotating a closed coil in a magnetic field based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
Electromagnetic induction
• Whenever the magnetic flux linked with an electric circuit changes, an EMF is induced in
the circuit. The direction of induced EMF is given by Fleming’s Right Hand rule.
D.C. motor
• A D.C. motor converts direct current energy into mechanical energy of rotation by
rotating a coil in a magnetic field.
• It is based on the fact that when a coil carrying current is held in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque, which rotates the coil. (When the coil is rotated then EMF is
induced in it (AC Generator depends on this); when an EMF is applied in the coil by
passing current it is rotated in the magnetic field (DC Motor depends on this)!)
Transformers
• Transformers transform a low alternating voltage of high current into a high alternating
voltage of low current and vice versa without changing the frequency or power. It works
based on the principle of mutual induction.
• A step-up transformer is a device that increases the voltage of an alternating current. It
works by having more turns of wire in the secondary coil than the primary coil, which
creates a larger magnetic field and induces a higher voltage.
• A step-down transformer is a device that decreases the voltage of an alternating current.
It works by having fewer turns of wire in the secondary coil than the primary coil, which
creates a smaller magnetic field and induces a lower voltage.
• Transformer ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary winding to the
number of turns in the primary winding of a transformer. The transformer ratio can be
expressed as V2/V1, where V1 is the primary voltage and V2 is the secondary voltage.
Earth’s Magnetism
• The Earth possesses its own magnetic field that resembles a magnetic dipole located at
its center, and the magnetic North and South poles are located near the geographic North
and South poles, respectively.
• This field diverts charged particles from space towards the poles, which helps to protect
living organisms from severe harm.
• Magnetic compasses utilize a magnetic needle that always points in the North-South
direction.
• A neutral point is a location in a magnetic region where the net magnetic field is zero.

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3. Atomic & Nuclear Physics
Atom
• An atom is the basic building block of matter, consisting of a nucleus of positively
charged protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
• It is the smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.
All matter in the universe is made up of atoms.

Structure of the Atomic Nucleus


• The structure of an atom (size of about 10-10 m) is composed of a nucleus that is
positively charged and very small, with a size of about 10-15 m, and surrounded by
electrons moving in different shells.
• The nucleus itself contains nucleons, which are protons and neutrons, and the total
number of nucleons in the nucleus is known as the mass number (A). The radius of the
nucleus is related to the mass number, and can be expressed as R = R0 A 1/3, where R0 is a
constant value of 1.25 × 10-15 m.

Electron
• Sir J.J. Thomson discovered the electron (e-) in 1897 while examining the characteristics
of cathode rays.
• The electron is a negatively charged particle with an e/m ratio of 1.76x108 c/g.
• Robert Millikan used the oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron as -
1.6x10-19C.
• Electron has a definite mass and is about 2000 times lighter than the lightest atom –
Hydrogen

Proton
• The proton (p+) was discovered by Rutherford in 1909 during his gold foil alpha-
particle scattering experiment.
• Protons are positively charged particles with a charge of +1.6x10-19 C (which is the same
magnitude as an electron).
• The atomic number of an element corresponds to the number of protons in its nucleus.

Neutron
• In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron (n).
• The neutron is an uncharged particle with a mass of 1.674x10-24 gm (equal to that of
proton).
• The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus.
Summary of Important Sub-atomic Particles
Particle Discoverer Charge Mass Relative
Mass*
Electron J.J. Thomson -1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Proton Ernest Rutherford +1 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Neutron James Chadwick 0 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Meson Yukawa Hideki 0 2.2 x 10^-28 kg 274

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Positron Carl Anderson +1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Neutrino Theorized: Wolfgang 0 < 3 x 10^-36 kg <0.04
Pauli (1930);
Discovered: Cowan &
Reines (1956)
*Relative Mass is given to enable student to appreciate the relative masses of different particles;
it is not a technical term.

Photoelectric Effect
• The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metal when light of
suitable frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect.
• The ejected electrons are called photoelectrons and the current produced due to
emitted electrons is called photocurrent.
• The energy of the electrons emitted in the photoelectric effect is directly proportional to
the frequency of the incident light.
• Photoelectric effect was first explained by Einstein in 1905

Radioactivity
• The spontaneous process by which a nucleus changes its state with the emission of α, β,
or γ-rays is called radioactivity.Radioactivity is not influenced by temperature, pressure,
electric or magnetic fields.
• The activity of a radioactive substance is the number of decays per unit time.
o Activity A = Nλ where λ is the decay constant, and N is the number of
radioactive nuclei
• The period during which the activity of a radioactive substance decreases to half its
initial value is known as the half-life.
o T1/2 = ln(2) / λ = 0.693/ λ where T1/2 is the half-life, ln is the natural
logarithm, and λ is the decay constant.

Properties of α, β, or γ-rays
Alpha particle (α)
• Alpha particles are positively charged particles consisting of two protons and two
neutrons (He2+).
• The mass of alpha particles is equal to the mass of a helium nucleus (they are doubly
ionized helium).
• Alpha particles can be deflected in both magnetic and electric fields.
• The velocity of alpha particles is much less than the velocity of light, approximately
1/10th of the speed of light.
• Alpha particles have the lowest penetrating power compared to beta and gamma
particles. Their penetrating power is 1/100th of beta particles and 1/10,000th of gamma
rays.

Beta particle (β)


• Beta particles (i.e., β-) are negatively charged electrons. Positively charged beta
particles are called positrons (β+).

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• Beta particles can be deflected in both magnetic and electric fields.
• The velocity of beta particles varies between 0.01c and 0.99c, where c is the velocity of
light. Beta particles' mass is relativistic, which means its velocity is comparable to that of
light.
• Beta particles have both ionization and penetration power. They have less ionization
power than alpha particles and more penetration power than alpha particles but less
than gamma rays.

Gamma radiation (γ)


• Gamma radiation is similar to X-rays in that they are electromagnetic waves.
• Gamma rays are charge-less particles and, therefore, cannot be deflected in electric
and magnetic fields.
• The velocity of gamma particles is equal to the velocity of light.
• Gamma rays have less ionization power than alpha and beta particles but more
penetration power than both.
• When a gamma photon strikes a nucleus, it produces a phenomenon known as pair
production where β-particles and their antiparticles are produced: γ-rays → β- + β+

Most common uses of radioactive isotopes:


Isotope Use
Carbon-14 Dating archaeological and geological specimens
Iodine-131 Medical diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disease
Cobalt-60 Medical radiation therapy for cancer treatment
Technetium-99m Medical imaging for bone, heart, and lung function
Strontium-90 Power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators
Uranium-235 Fuel for nuclear power plants
Plutonium-239 Fuel for nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons
Americium-241 Smoke detectors and industrial gauges
Tracers Tracking the movement of chemicals in biological systems

Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves are a type of wave that consists of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields (in a sine wave or sinusoidal wave) which move through space at the
speed of light. They are produced by the motion of electrically charged particles and do
not require a medium for their propagation.
• Electromagnetic waves include a wide range of frequencies, ranging from radio waves
with the lowest frequencies to gamma rays with the highest frequencies.
• They exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties and play a significant role in
many areas of modern technology and science.
• The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is represented by the equation c =
1/√(ε0 μ0), where ε0 represents the permittivity of free space, and μ0 represents the
permeability of free space.

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Devices Based on Electromagnetic Radiations
1. Microwave Oven - Uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range to
heat food quickly and efficiently.
2. X-Ray Machine - Uses high-energy electromagnetic radiation to create images of bones
and internal organs.
3. Radio - Uses electromagnetic waves in the radio frequency range to transmit and receive
signals for communication.
4. Laser - Uses focused electromagnetic radiation in the visible or near-infrared range to
produce a highly concentrated beam of light for various applications.
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Machine - Uses a strong magnetic field and radio
waves in the radio frequency range to produce detailed images of internal body
structures.
6. Infrared Camera - Uses electromagnetic radiation in the infrared range to detect and
measure heat radiation for various applications.
7. Television - Uses electromagnetic waves in the radio frequency range to transmit and
receive images and sound for entertainment purposes.

X-rays
X-rays are a type of electromagnetic waves. In 1885, a German scientist named Prof. Roentgen
discovered X-rays.
• X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons are suddenly stopped on a metal with a
high atomic number.
Properties of X-rays:
(i) X-rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields,
(ii) they travel at the speed of light,
(iii) they carry no electric charge,
(iv) they exhibit both particle and wave nature,
(v) they are invisible.

Applications of X-rays
X-rays have a wide range of applications in various fields. Here are a few examples:
1. Medical imaging: X-rays are commonly used for medical imaging to visualize bones and
soft tissues. X-ray images are used to diagnose and monitor a range of medical conditions
such as fractures, tumors, infections, and lung diseases.
2. Industrial radiography: X-rays are used to inspect the integrity and quality of materials in
manufacturing and industrial processes.
3. Airport security: X-rays are used in airport security scanners to detect prohibited items
such as weapons and explosives hidden in luggage.
4. Astronomy: X-rays are used in astronomy to study high-energy phenomena such as black
holes, supernovae, and quasars.
5. Non-destructive testing: X-rays can be used to inspect and test the structural integrity of
materials and components without damaging them.
6. Forensics: X-rays are used in forensic investigations to examine and identify bones, teeth,
and other skeletal remains.

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Nuclear Forces
• Nuclear forces are the strongest fundamental forces in nature. They are 100 times
stronger than electrostatic force and1038 times stronger than gravitational force.
• Nuclear forces are the attractive forces that bind protons and neutrons together in the
atomic nucleus.
• The nuclear force acts only over very short distances
• The strong nuclear force is mediated by the exchange of particles called mesons, such as
pions and rho mesons.
• The nuclear force is responsible for the stability of the atomic nucleus, and the amount of
binding energy in the nucleus determines whether a nucleus is stable or unstable.

Nuclear Binding Energy


• Nuclear binding energy refers to the energy necessary to separate the constituent
nucleons of a nucleus and move them to an infinite distance. It is the energy that holds
the nucleons together within the nucleus.
• The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses of its
constituent nucleons is known as mass defect.
• The average energy required to remove a nucleon from the nucleus is called the binding
energy per nucleon.
• The amount of binding energy in the nucleus determines whether a nucleus is stable or
unstable.

Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission
• Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two smaller nuclei,
typically by bombarding it with neutrons. This process releases a large amount of energy
in the form of radiation and is used in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons
(Atom bombs).
• One example of a nuclear fission reaction is: U-235 + n → Ba-141 + Kr-92 + 3n
o In this reaction, uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, causing it to split into barium-
141, krypton-92, and three neutrons.
• In above reaction more neutrons are released than consumed. If these released neutrons
strike other Uranium nuclei, they can cause them to undergo fission as well, creating a
chain reaction that releases a large amount of energy. This is called Nuclear Chain
Reaction.
o This chain reaction is the basis for nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons.

Nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
This process also releases a large amount of energy and is the process that powers the
sun and other stars. Scientists are trying to replicate this process on Earth to create a
source of clean and virtually unlimited energy.
• One example of a nuclear fusion reaction is: 2H + 3H → 4He + n + energy

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o In this reaction, two hydrogen nuclei (deuterium) combine with three hydrogen
nuclei (tritium) to form one helium nucleus, one neutron, and release a large
amount of energy.
o Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of nuclear fusion.

Components of a Nuclear Reactor


1. Fuel rods: Contain the nuclear fuel that undergoes fission to generate heat. Examples
include Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239.
2. Moderator: Slows down the fast neutrons produced in fission to facilitate further
reactions. Examples include Heavy water, Graphite
3. Control rods: Absorb neutrons to regulate the rate of the nuclear reaction. Examples
include Boron, Cadmium
4. Coolant: Transfers the heat produced by fission to a heat exchanger to produce steam for
generating electricity. Examples include Water, Liquid metal
5. Reactor vessel: Encloses the fuel, moderator, and coolant, and maintains the required
pressure and temperature.

Note: Nuclear power in India and other aspects are covered in Chapter 5: Energy Resources in Part
– I of this book.

4. Universe & Solar System


Universe
• The universe is the entirety of all matter, energy, and space. It includes everything that
exists, from the smallest subatomic particle to the largest structures such as galaxies and
clusters of galaxies.
• The universe encompasses all physical laws and the forces that govern them.

Solar System
• Solar System is a collection of the Sun and all the objects revolving around it.
• The Sun is a medium sized star which emits energy due to the process of nuclear fusion.
• The photosphere, the innermost part of the sun, appears as a bright disk, and is a denser
mixture of gases and vapors. The outermost part, known as the chromosphere, is a
rarefied mixture of gases and vapors located above the photosphere.

Planets
• A planet is a celestial body that orbits a star, is spherical in shape due to its own gravity,
and has cleared its orbit of other debris or objects.
• The eight planets in our solar system, in order of their distance from the sun, are:

1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars


5. Jupiter 6. Saturn 7. Uranus 8. Neptune

• In addition to the eight planets, our solar system also includes dwarf planets, such as
Pluto, as well as numerous asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies.

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Facts about Planets
• The four planets nearest the sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are called terrestrial
planets. These planets have well defined surface of rocks and soil.
• The four planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called jovian planets.These
planets do not have a solid surface.
• The smallest planet in our solar system is Mercury while the largest planet in our solar
system is Jupiter.
• Jupiter has the largest number of moons in our solar system.
• Mars is known as the "Red Planet".
• Venus is known as the "evening star" or "morning star" depending on its position. It is
the closest planet to the Earth. It is also the hottest planet in our solar system.
• Neptune has the strongest winds in our solar system.
• Jupiter has the shortest day in our solar system.
• Uranus has a tilted axis that causes it to rotate on its side.
• Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun in our solar system.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion


Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion describe the behavior of planets in orbit around the sun.
According to these laws,
1. The first rule states that all planets follow elliptical orbits with the sun located at one of
the foci of the ellipse.
2. The second rule states that the areal velocity of a planet moving around the sun remains
constant.
3. The third rule states that the square of the time required for a planet to complete one
revolution around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of
its elliptical orbit.
• This can be expressed as the equation T2 ∝ a3, where T represents the time
period and a represents the semi-major axis of the orbit.

Asteroids & Meteoroids


• Asteroids are small rocky or metallic objects that orbit the sun, mostly found in the
asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. They can range in size from a few meters to
hundreds of kilometers in diameter.
• The largest asteroid is Ceres. NASA sent a mission OSIRIS-REx to asteroid Bennu to land
on it and return some sample from it.
• Meteoroids, on the other hand, are small pieces of debris that come from comets or
asteroids. When a meteoroid enters the Earth's atmosphere, it creates a streak of light
called a meteor or shooting star. If a meteoroid survives entry and lands on the Earth's
surface, it is then called a meteorite.

Comets
• Comets are small celestial bodies composed of rock, dust, and ice. When they come close
to the Sun, the heat causes the ice to vaporize and create a glowing coma or atmosphere
around the nucleus.
• Comets also have a long tail that points away from the Sun due to the solar wind.

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Black Hole
• A black hole is a region in space where the gravitational pull is so strong that nothing, not
even light, can escape from it.
• They are formed from the remnants of massive stars that have collapsed under their own
gravity. Black holes are invisible, but their presence can be inferred from their effect on
nearby matter.

Galaxy
• A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system that consists of stars, stellar
remnants, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and dark matter.
• There are an estimated 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe, and they come in
a variety of shapes and sizes, including spiral, elliptical, and irregular.
• The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our solar system. It has 250 billion stars in it.

Nebula
• A nebula is a vast cloud of gas and dust in space, primarily made up of hydrogen and
helium.
• Nebulae are often the birthplace of stars, as the gas and dust can collapse under gravity
to form new stars.
• They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and can be seen in the night sky as faint,
glowing patches.

Constellation
• A constellation is a group of stars that forms a recognizable pattern or shape as viewed
from Earth.
• These patterns were given names by ancient civilizations and used for navigation and
storytelling.
• There are 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.

The Big-Bang Theory


• The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted scientific explanation for the origin of
the universe.
• It proposes that the universe began as a singularity, an infinitely small and dense point,
which expanded rapidly about 13.8 billion years ago, resulting in the creation of matter,
energy, and space.
• The theory is supported by various observations and evidence, including the cosmic
microwave background radiation, the abundance of light elements, and the large-scale
structure of the universe.

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5. Optics
Light
• Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye.
• It travels through space in straight lines and at a constant speed of approximately 3*10 8
meters per second in a vacuum.
• Light plays a fundamental role in many areas of science, including optics, quantum
mechanics, and relativity.

Wave – Particle Duality


• Light has both wave-like and particle-like characteristics, known as wave-particle
duality.
• In some experiments, light behaves like a transverse wave with properties such as
diffraction and interference.
• In other experiments, light behaves like a particle with properties such as momentum
and energy and exhibits Photoelectric effect and Compton effect that can be explained
only by its particle nature.
• This duality is explained by the Maxwell Planck’s Quantum Theory of light, which
proposes that light exists as both waves and particles simultaneously, and the behavior
observed depends on the measurement made.

Luminous and Non-luminous Objects


• Luminous objects are those that emit their own light, such as the Sun, light bulbs, and
fireflies.
• Non-luminous objects, on the other hand, do not emit their own light but can be seen
because they reflect light from a luminous object, such as the Moon, books, and chairs.

Image, Virtual Image, and Real Image


• An image is a visual representation of an object formed by light rays.
• A real image is an image that is formed by the actual convergence of light rays and can
be projected onto a screen. A real image is always inverted.
• A virtual image is an image that appears to be formed by the apparent intersection of
light rays, but the rays do not actually converge at the image position. Virtual images are
erect cannot be projected on a screen.

Properties of Light
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
• Rectilinear propagation of light refers to the tendency of light to travel in straight lines
through a homogeneous and transparent medium, such as air or a vacuum.
• Astronomical distances are measured in light years because light travels in a straight
line.
• If an opaque object is placed between a source of light and a screen, a shadow of the
object appears on the screen. The type of shadow obtained depends on the type of light
source used.
o If the light source is a point source, the shadow obtained is a region of total
darkness known as the umbra. However, if the light source is an extended

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source, the umbra is surrounded by a region of partial darkness known as the
penumbra.
• During a solar eclipse, the moon comes between the sun and the earth, resulting in the
shadow of the moon falling on the earth and causing the sun to be invisible at earth.
• During a lunar eclipse, the earth comes between the sun and the moon, causing the
shadow of the earth to fall on the moon and making the moon not visible from earth as it
is no longer being illuminated by sunlight.

Reflection of Light
• Reflection of light is the process by which light bounces off a smooth surface (such as a
mirror) and changes direction, without penetrating the surface or being absorbed by it.

Laws of Reflection
• The first law of reflection is "the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection" ∠i =
∠r
• The second law of reflection is "the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane."

Refraction of Light
• Refraction of light occurs when light rays are
deflected from their original path as they pass
from one transparent medium to another.
• When light travels from a denser medium to a
rarer medium, it moves away from the normal,
and when it travels from a rarer medium to a
denser medium, it moves towards the normal.
• This is due to the fact that the speed of light is
different in different media.
Reflection and Refraction
• During refraction, the speed and wavelength of
light change, while its frequency remains constant.
• Refractive Index: The ratio of speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of light in any
medium (v) is called refractive index of the medium.
o Refractive index of a medium (μ) = c/v
• Relative Refractive Index: The refractive index of second medium with respect to first
medium
o 1μ2 = μ2/ μ1 = v1/v2 = Height of object/Height of image

Laws of Refraction
• The first law of refraction, also known as Snell's law, states that the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair of
media.
o Sin i/Sin r = 1μ2 (Constant) = μ2/ μ1
• The second law of refraction states that the incident ray, the refracted ray, and the
normal to the surface of the interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

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Refraction effects
Below effects are due to refraction of light:
1. A pencil appearing bent in a glass of water.
2. The apparent displacement of an object in a swimming pool (say a coin appearing at
lesser deepth) due to the refraction of light by water.
3. The magnification of objects seen through a magnifying glass.
4. The sun seems to appear two minutes before the actual sunrise and two minutes after
the actual sunset, and the twinkling of stars is observable due to the phenomenon of
atmospheric refraction (due to different densities of atmospheric layers).

Critical Angle & Total Internal Reflection


• The critical angle (C) is the angle of incidence in a
denser medium where the angle of refraction in a
rarer medium becomes 90°.
o Refractive Index of denser medium (μ) =
1/Sin C
• Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when a
light ray travelling from a denser medium towards
a rarer medium is incident at an interface at an
angle of incidence greater than the critical angle,
causing the light rays to be reflected back into the denser medium.
• In the image here the light ray with two arrow marks is total internally reflected as its
angle of incidence is greater than Critical angle.

Phenomenon due to Total Internal Reflection of light


• Mirage: Total internal reflection of light causes a virtual image of water to appear on the
road, creating an illusion of a lake in the desert.
• Diamond sparkles: Total internal reflection of light inside a diamond produces a
sparkling effect, enhancing the diamond's beauty.
• Optical fibers: Total internal reflection allows light to travel through the core of the fiber,
enabling high-speed communication.

Mirros
• A mirror is a flat or curved surface that reflects light and forms an image.

Plain Mirror
• A plane mirror is a flat, smooth, and highly
reflective surface typically cut from a plain glass.

Properties of Image Formed by a Plane Mirror


• The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual,
erect, and the same size as the object.
• It is located at the same distance behind the
mirror as the object is in front of it.

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• It is laterally inverted, meaning that the left and right sides of the object appear
reversed in the image.
• When the mirror is rotated, the reflected light ray rotates twice as much.
• If two mirrors are parallel, an infinite number of images are formed.

Spherical Mirror
• A spherical mirror is a mirror with a curved surface, where the reflecting surface is
shaped like a portion of a sphere.
Spherical Mirrors are of two types:
• Concave mirror is a part of a hollow glass sphere, having outer surface silvered and
reflection takes place at inner (concave) surface.
• Convex mirror is a part of a hollow glass sphere, having inner surface silvered and
reflection takes place at outer (convex) surface.

Applications of Spherical Mirrors


• Concave mirrors are utilized in torches, searchlights, and vehicle headlights to generate
strong parallel beams of light. They are also utilized as shaving mirrors and by dentists
to view magnified images of patients' teeth.
• Convex mirrors are employed as rear-view mirrors in vehicles and also in reflective
lamps that are installed along roads.

Lenses
• A lens is an optical device that refracts (bends) light rays, causing them to converge or
diverge.
• It is typically made of a transparent material, such as glass or plastic, and has one or
more curved surfaces.
• Lenses are used in a variety of optical instruments, including cameras, telescopes,
microscopes, and eyeglasses.
• There are two main types of lenses: convex (or converging) lenses and concave (or
diverging) lenses.
1. Convex lenses bulge outwards in the center and are thicker at the center than at the
edges.
• They converge the light rays and bring them together to form a real or virtual
image.
• Examples of convex lenses include a magnifying glass, a camera lens, and the
lenses in eyeglasses used to correct farsightedness.
2. Concave lenses are thinner in the center than at the edges, and they diverge the light
rays.
• They spread the light out and make objects appear smaller.
• Examples of concave lenses include those used in some eyeglasses to correct
nearsightedness and the lenses used in projectors to create a larger image on a
screen.

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Dispersion of Light
• When white light is directed towards a glass prism, it undergoes a process known as
"dispersion," in which it separates into seven different colors: violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange, and red (VIBGYOR).
• The glass prism refracts different colors of light at different angles, resulting in the colors
separating from each other. The refractive index of glass is highest for violet light and
lowest for red light. As a result, violet light undergoes the greatest deviation, while red
light undergoes the least deviation.

Rainbow
• After a rainfall, when sunlight is present, a circular rainbow consisting of seven different
colors can be observed in the sky, opposite to the sun's position.
• The formation of a rainbow occurs due to the dispersion of sunlight by water droplets
that are suspended in the air. Within each water droplet, the sunlight undergoes
dispersion and then internal reflection, which results in the creation of a rainbow.

Colour of Objects
• When light comes into contact with an object, only a portion of it is reflected. The
reflected light determines the color of the object.
• For example, when white light is shone on a rose, it appears red because the rose reflects
only the red portion of the light and absorbs all other colors. However, if the same rose is
viewed in green light, it appears black because it absorbs the green light and reflects no
color.
• Red, green, and blue are primary colors, meaning they cannot be produced by mixing
other colors.
• When two primary colors are mixed, the resulting colors are called secondary colors.
o For instance, yellow, magenta, and cyan are secondary colors.
• When primary and secondary colors are combined to produce white light, they are
referred to as complementary colors.
o For example, when red and cyan are mixed, they produce white light. Similarly,
red and magenta, green and magenta, and blue and yellow also produce white
light when mixed together.

Human Eye
• The human eye is an optical device that produces a real image of objects on the retina.
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• The retina consists of hundreds of thousands of cone and rod cells, which are sensitive to
the colors and intensities of light,
respectively.
• The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length
of the eye lens, which is a convex lens
made of a jelly-like material. This ability of
the eye to adjust its focus is known as the
power of accommodation.
• The iris is a colored diaphragm that
controls the size of the pupil and the
amount of light entering the eye.
• The near point is the closest distance
from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly, and the distance from the eye to the
near point is called the least distance of distinct vision (D). For a healthy eye, D is 25 cm.
• The far point is the farthest distance from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly.

Vision impairments or defects


• Myopia or short-sightedness is a condition where a person can see nearby objects
clearly, but distant objects appear blurry. This defect is caused by the far point of the eye
shifting from infinity to a closer distance.
o It can be corrected by using a concave lens with the appropriate power.
• Hypermetropia or long-sightedness is a condition where a person can see distant
objects clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry. This defect is caused by the near point
of the eye shifting away from the eye.
o It can be corrected by using a convex lens with the appropriate power.
• Astigmatism is another defect where a person is unable to focus on both horizontal and
vertical lines at the same distance simultaneously.
o This defect can be corrected by using cylindrical lenses of the appropriate
strength.
• Colour blindness is a defect where a person cannot distinguish between certain colours
due to the absence of cone cells that are sensitive to those colours.
o Unfortunately, this defect cannot be corrected.
• Cataract is a defect where an opaque, white membrane develops on the cornea, leading
to partial or complete loss of vision.
o It can be corrected through surgery to remove the membrane.

Scattering of Light
• When light passes through a medium containing suspended particles with sizes
comparable to the wavelength of light, it scatters in different directions. This is known as
the scattering of light.
o As a result, red light, which has the longest wavelength, is scattered the least, and
violet light, which has the shortest wavelength, is scattered the most.
• Red is used for danger signals because it is scattered the least, making it visible from a
far distance.
• The sky appears blue because blue light is scattered the most by the atmosphere and
enters our eyes.

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• Clouds appear white because they consist of large water droplets and dust particles
that scatter all colors of light equally.
• When sunlight enters space, there is no atmosphere to scatter the light, so the sky
appears black to astronauts.
• During noon, the light from the sun has to travel through a shorter distance of the earth's
atmosphere which makes it appear white as only a small amount of blue and violet colors
are scattered. However, near the horizon, most of the blue, green light and shorter
wavelengths are scattered resulting in the sun appearing reddish during sunrise and
sunset.

The Tyndall effect


• The Tyndall effect is a phenomenon that occurs when a beam of sunlight enters a room
filled with dust or smoke through a window. The path of the beam becomes visible
because the light is scattered by the particles of dust or smoke, causing the Tyndall effect.

Interference and Diffraction of Light


• Light is an electromagnetic wave composed of electric and magnetic vectors that vibrate.
• When waves overlap, the redistribution of energy is referred to as interference of light
waves.
o Constructive interference occurs when interference takes place at points of
maximum intensity, whereas destructiveinterference occurs at points of minimum
intensity.
o The bending of a light wave around the corners of an obstacle or aperture is referred to as
diffraction of light.

Polarisation
• Polarization is the process of confining the electric vectors of light to a single direction.
o In unpolarized light, the electric vectors are present in all possible directions in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of the light's propagation.
• Polaroids are thin, large sheets of crystalline polarizing material that can be used to
polarize light. They are commonly found in sunglasses, automobile windshields, train
window panes, and camera lenses.
Doppler’s Effect of Light
• The Doppler effect in light refers to the change in the apparent frequency of light that is
observed when there is relative motion between the source of light and the observer.
• The observed frequency differs from the actual frequency of the light emitted from the
source.
o The light that is received from stars and galaxies shows red shift, which suggests
that the universe is expanding.
o The speed of an automobile can be determined by measuring the Doppler shift
in the electromagnetic wave reflected from the vehicle.

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6. Waves
• A wave refers to a perturbation or disturbance that propagates through a medium,
transferring energy from one location to another without causing any physical
displacement of the medium itself.

Types of Waves
There are two types of waves: mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
• Mechanical waves require a medium, such as air, water, or solid material, for their
propagation. Examples of mechanical waves include sound waves and water waves.
• Electromagnetic waves, on the other hand, do not require a medium for their
propagation. Examples of electromagnetic waves include light waves, radio waves, and X-
rays.

Nature of Waves
• The nature of waves can be categorized into two types: transverse waves and
longitudinal waves.
• A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles
to the direction of wave propagation.
• In a transverse wave, the crest is the position of maximum displacement in the upward
direction, while the trough is the position of
maximum displacement in the downward
direction.
• Light wave are an example of transverse waves
• A longitudinal wave, on the other hand, is a wave
in which the particles of the medium vibrate in the
same direction as the wave is propagating.
• In a longitudinal wave, the density and pressure of the medium vary, with some points
experiencing maximum compression (called compressions) and other points
experiencing minimum pressure (called rarefactions).
• Sound wave are an example of longitudinal waves.
• Longitudinal waves can be produced in solids, liquids, and gases, while transverse waves
can be produced in solids and on the surface of a liquid, but not in the interior of a liquid
or in a gas.

Definitions Related to Waves


• The wavelength (λ) refers to the distance
between two points in a wave that are in the
same phase of vibration.
• The time period (T) is the duration it takes to
complete one vibration, while the frequency () of the wave refers to the number of
vibrations completed in one second.
Frequency = 1/Time Period (T)

Superposition and Interference of Waves

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• The principle of superposition states that multiple progressive waves can travel
through a medium simultaneously without impacting each other's motion. As a result,
the total displacement of each particle in the medium at any given moment is equal to the
vector sum of the individual displacements.
• When two waves of the same frequency travel in the same direction through the medium,
the intensity of the resulting wave due to their superposition at a given point is not the
simple sum of the intensities of the two individual waves. This effect is known as
interference.

Sound
• Sound is a type of energy that gives rise to the sensation of hearing and is created by
objects that vibrate.
• These waves are longitudinal and mechanical in nature, requiring a medium to propagate
and are unable to travel through a vacuum.
• There are three categories of sound waves based on their frequency: infrasonicwaves
with frequencies between 0 to 20 Hz, audiblewaves with frequencies between 20 Hz to
20000 Hz, and ultrasonic waves with frequencies greater than 20000 Hz.

Propagation of Sound

• When an object vibrates, it causes the particles of the surrounding medium to vibrate as
well. However, these particles do not travel directly from the vibrating object to the ear.
• The particle in contact with the vibrating object is initially displaced from its equilibrium
position and then exerts a force on the adjacent particle, causing it to be displaced from
its position of rest. The first particle then returns to its original position, and this process
continues throughout the medium until the sound reaches the ear.

Speed of Sound
• When sound waves transition from one medium to another, their wavelength and speed
changes but their frequency remains constant.
• The speed of sound varies depending on the medium it travels through, such as air,
water, or iron. Generally, the speed of sound in solids (vs) is greater than that in liquids,
and the speed of sound in liquids(vl) is greater than that in gases (vg). Therefore, vs> vl>
vg.
• Sound cannot be heard on the surface of the moon or in outer space because there is no
air to transmit the waves.
• The speed of sound in air increases with an increase in temperature.
• Sound waves travel faster in humid air than in dry air.
• Compared to the speed of light, the speed of sound in air is much slower. As a result,
during the rainy season, the flash of lightning is seen first, and the sound of thunder is
heard later.

Shock Waves
• Shock waves are formed when an object travels at a speed faster than the speed of sound
in air, creating a cone-shaped disturbance that expands continuously.

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• These waves are capable of carrying significant amounts of energy and can cause damage
to structures such as buildings and window panes.
• Shock waves are also responsible for the creation of the Mach number, which is the ratio
of the source's speed to the speed of sound in air.

Properties of Sound Wave


Reflection
• The phenomenon in which sound bounces back when it hits a hard surface is known as
sound reflection. The laws of light reflection also apply to the reflection of sound waves.
• The functioning of devices such as megaphones, soundboards, and ear trumpets is based
on sound reflection.
• When sound waves are reflected and repeated, it creates an echo. The persistence of
sound in the human ear is around one-tenth of a second. The minimum distance required
to hear an echo after reflection from a surface is approximately 17 meters.
• Soundproof rooms are constructed using two layers of walls with a vacuum in between
them.
• Reverberation occurs when sound waves reflect multiple times.
• Proper consideration of sound absorption and reflection is necessary while designing
auditoriums for speeches or musical concerts.
• The time taken for reverberant sound to reduce its intensity by a factor of 106 is known
as reverberation time.
Refraction
• Refraction occurs when a sound wave moves from one mechanical medium to another
and deviates from its original path due to differences in the speed of sound between the
two media.
Diffraction
• Diffraction, on the other hand, is the bending of sound waves around edges when they
spread through a homogeneous medium that originates from a vibrating source. This
causes the sound waves to diffract widely, enabling one to hear another person's voice
clearly.

Doppler’s Effect
• The Doppler effect refers to the apparent change in the frequency of a sound source due
to the relative motion between the source and observer.
• Various applications of the Doppler effect include its use by police to detect speeding
vehicles, at airports for aircraft guidance, and for studying the heart beats and blood flow
in different parts of the body.
• Additionally, astrophysicists use the Doppler effect to measure the velocities of planets
and stars.

SONAR
• SONAR, which stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging, is a technology used to measure
the depth of the sea and to locate enemy submarines and shipwrecks.

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• A SONAR system works by transmitting pulses of ultrasonic sound waves at a frequency
of around 50,000 Hz from a transmitter, and then receiving the reflected sound waves
with a receiver.

Human Voice box


• The human voice is produced by the larynx or voice box, located at the upper end of the
windpipe.
• Within the voice box, two vocal cords are stretched across in a way that leaves a narrow
slit between them for the passage of air. When air is forced through this slit, the vocal
cords vibrate, resulting in sound.
• The tightness or looseness of the vocal
cords can be controlled by muscles
attached to them, which affects the type
and quality of the voice produced.
• In men, the vocal cords are about 20mm
long, while in women, they are about 5mm
shorter. Children have much shorter vocal
cords, which explains why their voices
sound different from adults.

Human Ear
• The ear is an incredibly sensitive organ in our body that allows us to hear.
• The outer part of the ear is shaped like a funnel, which helps to funnel sound waves
towards a thin membrane at the end of a canal, known as the eardrum. The eardrum is
similar to a stretched rubber sheet, which vibrates when sound waves reach it. These
vibrations are then passed on to the inner ear, where the signal is transmitted to the
brain. In this way, we are able to hear sounds.

7. Properties of Matter
Matter
• Matter refers to anything that has mass and takes upspace. Matter is made up of
fundamental particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are organized into
atoms and molecules.
• Matter can exist in different states such as solid, liquid, and gas, depending on the
arrangement of its particles and the temperature and pressure conditions.
• Matter is the building block of everything around us, from the stars in the sky to the
computer or phone you are using to read this answer.

Solid
• A solid is a state of matter that has a definite shape and volume.
• Solids are characterized by closely packed atoms or molecules (interatomic &
intermolecular spaces are minimum) that vibrate around fixed positions.
Properties of Solid
Some properties of Solid are given below

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Elasticity
• Elasticity refers to the ability of a body to return to its original shape after the deforming
force is removed.
• Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost perfectly elastic matters.

Plasticity
• Plasticity describes the opposite of Elasticity where a body is unable to regain its original
shape after the removal of the deforming force.
Strain
• Strain is the fractional change in configuration, including length, volume, and shape.
Strain has no unit.
• Longitudinal strain = change in length/length = ΔL/L
• Volume strain = change in volume/volume = ΔV/V
• Shearing strain = θ = change in angle

Stress
• Stress is the internal restoring force per unit area of cross-section of a deformed body,
with two types of stress: normal and tangential stress.
• The limit of elasticity of a material body is the maximum deforming force that it can
withstand and still retain its elastic properties.

Hooke’s Law
• The strain produced in a body is directly proportional to the stress applied to it within
the limit of elasticity
• Strain α Stress or Stress/Strain = constant (E) where, constant E is called modulus of
elasticity.

Elastic Limit
• The Elastic Limit refers to the maximum stress and strain that a wire can endure without
experiencing permanent deformation. When the stretching/deforming force is removed,
the wire returns to its original length.

Elastic Fatigue
• Elastic fatigue refers to the phenomenon where an elastic body becomes less elastic over
time when subjected to repeated alternating deforming forces.
• This can result in structures such as bridges becoming less elastic and eventually
deemed unsafe after extended use.

Plastic Behaviour
• Plastic Behaviour occurs when a wire is stretched beyond its Elastic Limit and the strain
increases rapidly. When the stretching force is removed, the wire does not return to its
original length, and a permanent increase in length occurs.

Fracture Point
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• If the deformation continues beyond the plastic behavior, the wire eventually breaks at a
point called the Fracture Point.

Ductile and Brittle Materials


• The material is referred to as ductile if significant deformation occurs between the
Elastic Limit and the Fracture Point. However, if the wire breaks immediately after
crossing the Elastic Limit, it is classified as brittle.
• These concepts are important in the study of materials science and engineering as they
affect the properties and behavior of materials under various conditions.

Fluids
• Fluids are substances that can flow and take on the shape of their container. They include
both liquids and gases and are characterized by their ability to deform under applied
shear stress.
• Fluids play a crucial role in many physical processes, including hydraulics, aerodynamics,
and fluid mechanics, and have numerous applications in engineering, physics, and
everyday life.

Fluid Density
• Ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its density. It is a scalar quantity expressed
in Kg/m3 units in SI system.
• Density (d) = Mass (m)/Volume (V)
• Relative Density of a solid = Weight of the body in air/Weight of the same volume of
water at 40 C. = Weight of the body in Air/Loss in weight of the body in water
• Relative Density of a Liquid = Density of the Liquid/Density of water at 40 C.
= Loss in weight of a solid in liquid/Loss in weight of the same solid in water
• Density of water is maximum at 40C. Water being dipolar can dissolve more number of
substances than any other liquid.
• Hydrometer is an instrument that is used to measure the density and relative density of
liquid.

Fluid Pressure
• Fluid pressure refers to the force per unit area exerted by a fluid, such as a gas or a liquid,
on the surface of an object or a container that is in contact with it.
• The pressure of a fluid is typically caused by the constant collisions between the
molecules of the fluid and the surfaces that they come into contact with.
• The pressure of a fluid is typically measured in units of pascals (Pa; 1Pa = 1
Newton/meter2), pounds per square inch (psi), or atmospheres (atm), depending on the
context.
• In general, the pressure of a fluid increases with depth or height, as well as with the
density of the fluid.
• Fluid Pressure (P) = Force (F)/Area (A)
• Pressure exerted by a liquid column is given by P = h ρg
o where, h = height of liquid column, ρ = density of liquid, g = acceleration due to
gravity.

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Atmospheric Pressure
• The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called atmospheric pressure.
• The value of atmospheric pressure on the earth at sea level is nearly 1. 013×105 Nm−2 or
Pascal or 1 atm.
• Other units of atmospheric pressure are torr & bar
o 1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column
o 1 bar = 105 Pa

Pascal’s Law
• Pascal's law states that the pressure exerted on a confined fluid at any point is
transmitted equally and without reduction in all directions throughout the liquid.
• This principle forms the basis for various applications such as hydraulic lifts, hydraulic
presses, and hydraulic brakes.

Buoyancy
• When an object is immersed, either partially or fully, in a liquid, it experiences an upward
force known as buoyant force or upthrust. This phenomenon is referred to as buoyancy.
• The magnitude of buoyant force is equivalent to the weight of the liquid that is displaced
by the submerged portion of the object.
• The centre of buoyancy, which is the point of application of the buoyant force, is located
at the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid.

Archimedes’ Principle
1. When an object is partially or completely submerged in a fluid, the buoyant force (Fb)
exerted on it is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object:
• Fb = ρVg
o where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the volume of the displaced fluid,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
2. The weight of the object (W) in air is reduced by an amount equal to the buoyant force
(Fb) when the object is submerged in the fluid:
• W' = W – Fb
o where W' is the weight of the object in the fluid, and W is its weight in air.
3. The specific gravity (SG) of an object, which is the ratio of its density to the density of the
fluid, can be calculated using the equation:
• SG = ρobject / ρfluid
o where ρobject is the density of the object, and ρfluid is the density of the fluid.
• The specific gravity of an object determines whether it will float or sink in the
fluid.

Laws of Floatation
• According to the Law of Floatation, a body will float in a fluid if its weight is equivalent to
the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the immersed portion of the body.
• For a body in a floating state, the centre of gravity (g) and the centre of buoyancy (B)
must be located on the same straight line.

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• Additionally, the volume and density of a body, denoted by V1 and ρ1, respectively, can be
used to determine the volume V2 that is submerged in a fluid of density ρ2 using the
formula V2/V1 = ρ1/ ρ2

Water – Ice Density:


• Ice and large icebergs float on the surface of water because their density is lower than
that of water.
• Comparatively, it is easier to swim in seawater than in river water because the density of
seawater is greater than that of river water, resulting in a greater buoyant force in
seawater.

Surface Tension
• Surface tension is a characteristic of liquids that causes them to minimize their free
surface area (free surface area = surface area openly exposed outside).
• It is defined as the force acting perpendicularly per unit length on an imaginary line
drawn at the surface of the liquid, measured in newtons per meter.
• The minimum surface area of a given amount of liquid is achieved when it forms a
spherical shape, which is why raindrops and other small liquid bodies tend to take on a
spherical form.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension
• An increase in temperature leads to a decrease in surface tension.
• The surface tension of a liquid reduces if the soluble impurities are less soluble in it.
Conversely, if the impurities are highly soluble in the liquid, its surface tension increases.

Applications of Surface tension


• Adding soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl, etc., to water lowers its surface tension.
Conversely, adding salt to water increases its surface tension.
• When oil spreads over the surface of water, the surface tension of the water decreases.
• Pouring kerosene oil over water reduces its surface tension, causing a mosquito sitting
on the water surface to dip into it.
• Antiseptics like dettol, which have low surface tension, reach the tiny cracks of wounds
and eliminate germs and bacteria.
• The surface tension of soap solution in water is less than that of pure water, making it a
more effective cleaner of greasy stains on clothes.

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces


• Cohesive forces are the intermolecular forces that hold similar molecules together,
resulting in the formation of a cohesive and distinct surface.
• For example, the cohesive forces between water molecules enable the formation of
droplets.
• Adhesive forces are the intermolecular forces that hold different molecules together.
These forces occur when the molecules of a liquid are attracted to the molecules of a
solid.
• For example, the adhesive forces between water molecules and the glass surface of a test
tube cause the water to rise in the tube.

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Physics MCQs
Exercise - I 4. With reference to the Singularity and
1. Consider the following statements with Event Horizon of a Black hole, consider
reference to nuclear fission: the following statements:
1. Nuclear fission produces more waste 1. The Singularity is a location in the
than nuclear fusion. Centre of a black hole which contains a
2. Atom bomb works on the principle of huge mass in an infinitely small space.
nuclear fission. 2. The Event Horizon is the boundary
3. The energy released in nuclear fission defining the region of space around a
reactions is millions of times greater black hole from which nothing can escape.
than the energy released in chemical 3. Within the Event Horizon, the escape
reactions. velocity is less than the speed of light.
Which of the statements given above Which of the statements given above are
is/are correct? correct?
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 3 only a) 1 and 2 only b) 1 and 3 only
b) 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3 c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3

2. Which of the following statements about 5. With reference to Large Hadron Collider
the Coronal Hole is incorrect? (LHC), consider the following statements:
a) These are regions on the Sun’s surface 1. It is built to study particles that are the
from where solar winds flow out into smallest known building blocks of all
space. things.
b) They can be the cause of geomagnetic 2. Liquid Argon is used in Large Hadron
storms on Earth. Collider to keep its components cool.
c) They usually appear darker than their 3. ATLAS is the largest general purpose
surroundings due to their lower particle detector experiment at the LHC.
temperatures. Which of the statements given above
d) These are easily visible to human eyes, is/are correct?
without using any visual aid. a) 1 only b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Which of the following is/are cited by the
scientists as evidence/evidences for the 6. Which of the following statements about
continued expansion of universe? (UPSC dark energy is/are incorrect?
PRELIMS 2012) 1. According to Einstein's Theory of
1. Detection of microwaves in space Relativity, empty space can have its
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in own energy.
space 2. The expansion of the universe will be
3. Movement of asteroids in space decelerated as more space comes into
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in existence and energy gets diluted.
space 3. The effect of gravity supports the
Select the correct answer using the codes effect of dark energy in the expansion
given below: of the universe.
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only Choose the correct option from below.
c) 1, 3 and 4 d) None a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3

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1. Silicon and Germanium are commonly
7. Which of the following statements about used in microprocessor
electromagnetic waves is correct? manufacturing.
1. All electromagnetic waves travel at 2. Superconductors achieve zero
the same speed in a vacuum. resistivity due to the absence of free
2. Electromagnetic waves can propagate electrons.
through solid materials. 3. Superconductivity can be achieved at
3. Infrared radiation can be utilized for room temperature.
relieving muscle pain and tension. a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
Choose the correct option from below. c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2, and 3
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 11. Which of the following statements
regarding Sunspots is/are true?
8. Consider the following statements: 1. An increase in the number of
1. When a star in a distant galaxy rotates Sunspots leads to a larger geo-tail
in a direction away from Earth, area than normal Sunspot activity.
redshift occurs in the electromagnetic 2. An increase in the number of
radiation emitted by the star. Sunspots results in a decrease in the
2. Doppler effect is used by traffic police temperature of the Sun's corona.
to measure the speed of vehicles and 3. Sunspots represent areas with higher
check for over-speeding. magnetic pressure.
3. Volcanoes, earthquakes, and ocean Select the correct statement(s) from the
waves produce infrasonic sound options below:
waves. a) 2 only b) 1 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above c) 1 and 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3
is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only 12. Which type of radiation is used in
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 computed tomography?
a) X-rays only
9. Which of the following statements about b) Gamma rays only
Light Interferometer Gravitational c) X-rays and beta rays
Observatory (LIGO) is/are correct? d) X-rays and magnetic resonance
1. LIGO helped to prove the general
theory of relativity using lasers. 13. Which of the following statements are
2. LIGO operates in vacuum chambers correct?
like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). 1. Pure water is a good conductor of
3. The collision of two black holes can electricity.
produce gravitational waves. 2. Water is amphoteric in nature.
4. Only multiple objects can produce
3. Water contracts on heating between
gravitational waves.
0°C and 4°C.
a) 1 only b)2 and 3 only
a) 2 and 3 only b) 1 and 3 only
c) 1, 2, and 3 only d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
c) 2 only d) 1 only
10. Which of the following statements are
true?

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14. What are the potential consequences if of the liquid is less than atmospheric
Earth switches places with Mars? pressure.
1. It may result in the extinction of some 3. Evaporation is a ‘bulk phenomenon’
living organisms. which involves transition of the liquid
2. The length of a day on Earth may particles into gaseous particles.
increase. Which of the statements given above
3. The orbital period of the planet is/are correct?
around the sun may increase. a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
Choose the correct option based on the c) 2 only d) None
given code:
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only 18. An artificial satellite orbiting around the
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2, and 3 Earth does not fall down. This is so
because the attraction of Earth
15. Arrange the following particles in a) does not exist at such distance
increasing order of size. b) is neutralized by the attraction of the
1. Atoms moon
2. Quarks c) provides the necessary speed for its
3. Hadrons steady motion
Select the correct answer using the code d) provides the necessary acceleration for
given below. its motion
a) 1-2-3 b) 2-3-1
c) 1-3-2 d) 3-2-1 19. Consider the following statements:
1. Light is affected by gravity.
16. Consider the following statements 2. The Universe is constantly expanding.
regarding the Singularity Theory about 3. Matter warps its surrounding space-
the black hole: time.
1. Inside a black hole, matter is Which of the above is/are the
compressed down to an infinitely tiny prediction(s) of Albert Einstein's General
point. Theory of Relativity, often discussed in
2. All conceptions of time and space media?
completely break down at the center of a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only
the black hole. c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Sun is a massive star and can turn into
a black hole at end of the life cycle. 20. Which of the following statements are
Which of the statements given above are correct with respect to Sound?
correct ? 1. Sound travels faster in cold air than
a) 1 and 2 only b) 1 and 3 only warm air
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Sound travels faster in solid medium
than
17. Consider the following statements: the gaseous medium.
1. Boiling is the ‘surface phenomenon’ 3. Sound travels faster in dry air than in
involving change of liquid state to vapour humid air.
state. 4. Sound travels farther in cold weather
2. The boiling point of a liquid is the than in hot weather.
temperature at which the vapor pressure

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5. Hitting the source with greater force b) 2,4 and 5 only
produces a louder sound. c) 2,3,4 and 5 only
Select the correct answer using the code d) 1,2,4 and 5 only
given below:
a) 1 and 2 only
Exercise – I Key

1. d 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. d 8. d 9. c 10. d
11. d 12. a 13. a 14. c 15. b 16. a 17. d 18. d 19. d 20. b

Explanations

1. Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or smaller nuclei.
The fission process often produces gamma photons and releases a very large amount of
energy.
Nuclear Fusion occurs when two atoms slam together to form a heavier atom, like when two
hydrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom. While Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun,
Nuclear Fission reaction does not occur normally in nature.
Nuclear fission produces more radioactive waste than nuclear fusion because very few
radioactive particles are produced in the case of nuclear fusion. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear fission. Hence statement 2 is correct.
The energy released by fission is a million times greater than that released in chemical
reactions; but lower than the energy released by nuclear fusion. Hence statement 3 is correct.

2. Option a is correct: Coronal holes are regions on the sun’s surface from where fast solar wind
gushes out into space.
Option b is correct: These fast solar wind streams sometimes interact with earth’s magnetic
field, creating what’s called a geomagnetic storm. This can expose satellites to radiation and
interfere with communications signals.
Option c is correct: Because they contain little solar material, they have lower temperatures
and thus appear much darker than their surroundings.
Option d is incorrect: Coronal holes appear as dark areas in the solar corona in extreme
ultraviolet (EUV) and soft x-ray solar images. The phenomenon is typically invisible to the
human eyes.

3. Statement 1 is correct: The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is thought to be leftover


radiation from the Big Bang. The detection of microwaves in space is an evidence for the
continued expansion of universe.
Statement 2 is correct: The redshift phenomenon refers to the apparent shift in the
wavelength of light emitted by objects in space, such as stars and galaxies, towards the red
end of the spectrum. It happens as a consequence of the Doppler effect. This shift occurs
because the objects are moving away from us, causing their light to be stretched out,
resulting in a longer wavelength.
Redshift is a fundamental concept in cosmology, and it provides important information about
the expansion of the universe. In fact, the discovery of the redshift of light from distant

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galaxies by astronomers in the early 20th century led to the realization that the universe is
expanding. This discovery eventually led to the development of the Big Bang theory, which
explains the origin and evolution of the universe.
Statement 3 and 4 are incorrect: Movement of asteroids in space and occurrence of
supernova explosions in space code are not evidences of continued expansion of universe.

4. Statement 1 is correct: Singularity: It is the one-dimensional point or a small ring in the


Centre of a black hole which contains a huge mass in an
infinitely small space, where density and gravity become
infinite and space-time curves infinitely. It is a tiny
volume with very high density.
Statement 2 is correct: The event horizon: It is the "point
of no return" around the black hole. It is not a physical
surface, but a boundary defining the region of space
around a black hole from which nothing (not even light)
can escape.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Within the event horizon, the
escape velocity (vescape) exceeds the speed of the light
(c) and an object is trapped forever if it falls within the
region defined by event horizon. Outside the event
horizon, vescape < c and the objects are able to escape.

5. Statement 1 is correct: The Large Hadron Collider is a giant, complex machine built to study
particles that are the smallest known building blocks of all things. It is a 27-km-long track-
loop buried deep underground and located at the Swiss-French border. It is the world’s
largest and most powerful particle accelerator.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The LHC uses liquid helium to keep its critical components ultracold
(colder than interstellar space). Since the LHC’s powerful electromagnets carry almost as
much current as a bolt of lightning, they must be kept chilled.
Statement 3 is correct: ATLAS is the largest general-purpose particle detector experiment at
the LHC. ATLAS is one of two general-purpose detectors at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
It investigates a wide range of physics, from the search for the Higgs boson to extra
dimensions and particles that could make up dark matter.
In 2012, scientists using LHC’s experiments had announced to the world the discovery of the
Higgs boson or the ‘God Particle’.

6. Statement 1 is correct. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, empty space can have its
own energy, which is a property of space itself.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Dark energy is a form of energy that exists in space and is not
diluted as space expands. Therefore, as more space comes into existence, more energy-of-
space appears, causing the universe to expand faster and faster.
Statement 3 is also incorrect. Although gravity is an attractive force that can slow down the
expansion of the universe, the effect of dark energy counteracts this force, causing the
universe to expand at an accelerating rate.

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7. Statement 1 and 2 are correct as electromagnetic waves do not require any medium for
propagation and travel at the same velocity, which is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Statement 3 is also true as infrared radiation has various uses, including being used in
physiotherapy to alleviate muscle pain and tension, taking photographs of distant objects in
fog or mist, and studying molecular structure through its absorption spectrum.

8. Redshift and blueshift are used by astronomers to determine the distance of an object from
Earth. When an object moves away from us (Earth), the sound or light waves emitted by the
object are stretched out, resulting in a lower pitch and a shift towards the red end of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which has longer wavelengths. This is known as redshift.
Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.
The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of a wave as observed by an observer moving
relative to the source of the wave. It is used in radar guns by traffic police to measure the
speed of moving vehicles. If a vehicle is moving towards the radar device, the frequency of
the reflected wave increases, and if it is moving away, the frequency decreases, allowing the
police to determine the speed of the vehicle. Therefore, Statement 2 is correct.
Infrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies below the range of audible sound,
typically below 20 Hz. Volcanoes, earthquakes, ocean waves, and meteorites are some
natural sources of infrasound. Therefore, Statement 3 is correct.

9. LIGO is a detector that uses lasers to detect gravitational waves. These waves were first
predicted by Albert Einstein in his general theory of relativity, which states that massive
accelerating objects such as black holes or neutron stars orbiting each other would disrupt
space-time, causing "waves" of distorted space to radiate from the source. These ripples
travel at the speed of light and carry valuable information about the nature of gravity itself.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
LIGO operates in a vacuum chamber, similar to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in
Switzerland, to minimize interference from air molecules and other particles. Therefore,
statement 2 is correct.
The collision of two black holes is a violent event that produces massive ripples through the
fabric of space-time, known as gravitational waves, which travel at the speed of light.
Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
Gravitational waves can be produced by any object with mass that accelerates, including
single objects like humans, cars, and airplanes. Therefore, statement 4 is incorrect.

10. Semiconductors such as Silicon and Germanium are materials with conductivity between
conductors and non-conductors that are commonly used in microprocessor manufacturing
for various devices.
Superconductors are materials that exhibit superconductivity, a state in which there is no
electrical resistance. Unlike in conductors such as copper, where free electrons move
randomly and collide with other particles, offering resistance to the current flow, in a
superconductor, all the electrons align themselves in a particular direction and move
coherently without obstruction, resulting in zero resistance. This property makes
superconducting materials highly efficient for use in electrical appliances.
The critical temperature for superconductivity is usually below zero degrees Celsius, making
it difficult to achieve. However, recent research has shown that nanosized films and pellets

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made of silver nanoparticles embedded in a gold matrix can exhibit superconductivity at
room temperature and pressure. Therefore, Statements 1, 2, and 3 are correct.

11. The Sun's magnetic fields interact with Earth's magnetic fields to create Geo tails (refer to the
image below; a type of blowing back of earth’s magnetic
field). Sunspots have a magnetic field about 2,500 times
stronger than Earth's, resulting in a more compressed
magnetic field of Earth side facing the sun and
increased area of the Geo tail on the other side of the
Earth. This confirms Statement 1. Sunspots also have a
high magnetic pressure and cause the temperature of
the Sun's corona to decrease due to the concentrated
magnetic field preventing the flow of hot gas from the
Sun's interior. Therefore, Statements 2 and 3 are true.

12. Computed tomography (CT) imaging uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the
body. Therefore, option (a) is correct. Beta rays and magnetic resonance are not used in CT
imaging, so options (c) and (d) are incorrect. Gamma rays can be emitted during radioactive
decay, but they are not used in CT imaging. Therefore, option (b) is also incorrect.

13. Distilled or pure water is free of salts and is not a good conductor of electricity. Water needs
to have dissolved ions to conduct electricity. Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
Water is amphoteric in nature, meaning it can act as both an acid and a base. This is because
the water molecule contains hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms that can donate and accept
protons. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Water has an anomalous behavior when it comes to its density. Unlike other liquids, the
volume of water decreases when heated from room temperature to 4°C, after which it
increases. Therefore, water contracts on heating between 0°C and 4°C. Hence, statement 3 is
correct.

14. If Earth and Mars swap positions, Mars would experience a significant increase in
temperature, which could melt the polar caps and release gases from the soil, resulting in a
warmer, more Earth-like climate. However, the opposite would happen to Earth, where the
intensity of sunlight would reduce, and the planet would freeze over, causing most living
organisms to go extinct. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
Assuming that Earth's rotation time equals Mars's current rotation time (24.6 hours), the
length of a day on Earth would increase, not decrease, making statement 2 incorrect.
When Earth occupies Mars's position, the planet's orbital period around the sun would
increase since Mars's orbital period is around 687 days. Thus, statement 3 is correct.

15. A quark is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks
combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons
and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.
An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. An atom consists of
a central nucleus that is surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons. The

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nucleus is positively charged and contains one or more relatively heavy particles known as
protons and neutrons.
Thus, atoms consist of hadrons and hadrons are made up of quarks. Hence option (b) is the
correct answer.

16. According to the Singularity theory, the center of a black hole is an ultimate no man's land
where matter is squeezed into an infinitely small point, and the concepts of space and time
cease to exist. Therefore, Statements 1 and 2 are correct.
Our Sun is an average-sized star that is not large enough to turn into a black hole at the end
of its life cycle. For the Sun to become a black hole, it would need to be about 20 times more
massive. Stars that are born with this size or greater can end their lives as black holes after
exploding into a supernova and collapsing back into a black hole. A white dwarf, not a black
hole, is the end stage of the Sun's life cycle. Therefore, Statement 3 is incorrect.

17. Statement 1 is incorrect: The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon (Not surface
phenomenon). Particles from the bulk (Not only from the surface) of the liquid gain enough
energy to change into the vapour state.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure. The vapor pressure is the pressure
exerted by the molecules of a substance in the gas phase, in equilibrium with the molecules
in the liquid phase. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic energy of its
molecules also increases, and more of the molecules gain enough energy to escape the
surface of the liquid and become a gas.
When the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric pressure, the liquid starts to
boil. At this point, bubbles of vapor form within the liquid and rise to the surface.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Evaporation is a form of vaporisation that happens on the surface of
liquids (not a bulk phenomenon) and it involves the transition of the liquid particles into the
gaseous phase. The liquid particles will generally escape and enter the surrounding air as a
gas when a molecule near the surface consumes enough energy to overcome the vapour
pressure.

18. An artificial satellite orbiting around the Earth does not fall down. This is because the
attraction of Earth i.e., gravity provides the necessary acceleration for its motion. Satellites
don’t fall from the sky because they are orbiting the Earth. Even when satellites are
thousands of kilo meters away, Earth’s gravity still attracts them.
Gravity, combined with the satellite’s momentum from its launch into space - cause the
satellite go into orbit above Earth, instead of falling back down to the ground.

19. Statement 1 is correct. According to Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, Light will
be affected the same way as matter is affected by gravity.
Statement 2 is correct. Based on this theory, Hubble found that distant galaxies move away
faster than those that are relatively nearby and the universe is indeed expanding.
Statement 3 is correct. According to this theory, gravity is caused by a warping of space and
time. Gravity is the curvature of the universe, caused by massive bodies, which determines
the path that objects travel.

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20. Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears. Sound is
produced by vibrating objects. The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium
through which it travels.
Option 1 is incorrect: Sound moves faster in warm air than the cold air. The speed of sound in
a medium depends on the temperature of the medium. Higher the temperature, faster the
speed of sound.
Option 2 is correct: Sound travels faster in solids than gases. The speed of sound depends on
the density of the medium. Higher the density, faster the sound travels. The velocity of sound
decreases as it moves from solid to gaseous state.
Option 3 is incorrect: Sound travels faster in humid air than dry air as particles are packed
more densely in humid air than the dry air.
Option 4 is correct: Sound travels farther in cold weather than in hot weather. It is because
sound moves faster in warm air than colder air, which leads to wave bending away from the
warm air and back towards the ground. This stops the wave. That's why sound is able to
travel farther in chilly weather.
Option 5 is correct: Hitting the source with greater force produces a louder sound. The
loudness or softness of a sound is determined basically by its amplitude. The amplitude of
the sound wave depends upon the force with which an object is made to vibrate. Higher the
amplitude louder the voice.

Exercise - II
1. Which of the following statements best 3. With reference to various occurrences in
describes the reason for the absence of daily life, consider the following pairs:
any twinkling effect in the planets? Optical Phenomenon: Examples
a) They reflect the light emitted from the 1. Reflection: Stars seen as glowing in the
Sun. sky
b) They are smaller in size than the stars. 2. Diffraction: Halo around Sun
c) They are closer to the Earth compared 3. Refraction: Rainbow formation in the
to stars. sky
d) They are revolving around the sun. Which of the pairs given above is/are
matched correctly?
2. With reference to Plasma, consider the a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
following statements: c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
1. It is a state of matter that is made up of
only neutral atoms and molecules of 4. With reference to Newton’s laws of
different elements. motion, consider the following pairs:
2. It is referred as "super solid particles" Law of Motion: Witnessed in
as it has definite shape and volume. 1. Newton’s first Law: Weightlifter
3. It has properties of conducting struggling to stand straight with the
electricity and emitting light. increasing amount of weight.
Which of the statements given above 2. Newton’s second Law: The impact of
is/are correct? moving
a) 1 and 3 only b) 3 only truck on walls is bigger than that of cycle
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1 only moving at the same speed.

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3. Newton’s third Law: The initial jerk we 2. In myopia, the eyeball
get when bus suddenly starts/stops becomes elongated.
How many pairs above is/are 3. A concave lens is used to correct
correctlymatched? this defect.
a) None of the pairs Which of the statements given above
b) Only one pair is/are correct?
c) Only two pairs a) 1 and 3 only b) 1 only
d) All the three pairs c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only

5. Regarding the Raman effect, which of the 8. Which of the following statements are
following statements is/are true? true?
1. The Raman effect involves the 1. Capillary action can cause liquids to
scattering of light by molecules of a flow against gravity or magnetic
medium that have been excited to fields.
different energy levels. This is a weak 2. Adding a solute to a solvent may
effect. increase surface tension due to solute
2. Raman spectroscopy is used to depletion at the interface.
identify illegal drugs without a) 1 only b) 1 and 2
damaging their packaging materials. c) 2 only d) None
a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 9. Which of the following statements about
the Higgs Boson particle are true?
6. Consider the following pairs: 1. All matter particles acquire mass only
Lens/Mirror: Use in contact with Higgs field.
1. Concave lens : Spy holes in the 2. If the Higgs field disappeared
doors suddenly, all matter would collapse
2. Convex lens : Magnifying due to dispersion of massless
glass electrons at the speed of light.
3. Concave mirror : Solar 3. Bose-Einstein Condensate is the fifth
furnace state of matter formed when elements
4. Convex mirror : Rear-view are superheated.
mirrors a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
How many pairs given above are c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
correctly matched?
a) Only one pair 10. Which statements are correct about
b) Only two pairs gravity and electromagnetic force?
1. Gravity is always attractive while
c) Only three pairs
electromagnetic force is always
d) All four pairs repulsive.
2. The gravitational force is the force of
7. Consider the following statements with mutual attraction between any two
reference to myopia: objects by virtue of their masses.
1. A person with myopia cannot see 3. Electromagnetic force can act over
nearby objects clearly. large distances without any medium

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and is enormously strong compared c) Temperature of the universe
to gravity. increased with the expansion of
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only universe.
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only d) According to the theory, the universe
continues to expand to the present
11. Which of the following actions involves day.
Newton's third law of motion?
1. Launching of a rocket 15. Consider the following statements with
2. Swimming reference to neutrino:
3. Firing of a gun 1. Neutrinos are chargeless particles.
Select the correct answer using the code 2. Neutrinos assist in the detection of
given below. mineral and oil deposits deep inside
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only the earth.
c) 1 and 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3 3. They cannot be generated artificially.
Which of the statements given above
12. Honey flows slower than water because is/are correct?
a) Honey has a higher viscosity than a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
water. c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
b) Honey has a lower melting point than
water. 16. “India-based Neutrino observatory (INO)”
c) Honey has higher surface tension than is proposed to be built in a deep
water. underground cave in the Bodi West Hills
d) Honey has a lower density than water. of Tamil Nadu. Which of the following
is/are the correct reasons for building the
13. Ernest Rutherford designed an observatory underground?
experiment where fast-moving alpha (α)- 1. It helps to reduce the background
particles were made to fall on a thin gold noise from other particles that are
foil. Rutherford's gold foil experiment is present in the atmosphere.
associated with 2. The underground observatory
preserves the physical properties of
a) The discovery of electron neutrinos as they are affected by
b) The discovery of proton atmospheric matter.
c) The discovery of neutron 3. Neutrinos require vacuum-like
d) The nuclear model of atom condition so that they can be
effectively detected.
14. With reference to the Big Bang Theory, Select the correct answer using the codes
which of the following statements is not given below:
correct? a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
a) According to this theory, all matter c) 1 and 3 only d) 3 only
forming the universe existed in one
place. 17. Which one of the following is the reason
b) During the process, energy was why food cooks faster in a pressure
converted into matter. cooker?
a) Heat cannot escape from the cooker.

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b) The increased pressure increases the 2. As temperature increases, the speed
boiling point of water. of sound increases.
c) The boiling point of water decreases Which of the statements given above
in the closed system. is/are correct?
d) Convection currents are set inside the a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
cooker. c) 2 only d) None

18. Light can be described both as a wave and 20. Consider the following statements with
as a particle. Which of the following reference to dark energy:
phenomena illustrates the particle nature 1. Dark energy was discovered and
of light? proven by Albert Einstein.
a) Interference 2. It is believed that more than 60% of
b) Polarisation the universe’s total mass-energy
content is dark energy.
c) Diffraction
Which of the statements given above is/are
d) Photoelectric effect
correct?
a) 1 only b) 2 only
19. Consider the following statements
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
regarding the speed of sound:
1. The speed of sound decreases as it
moves from solid to liquid medium.

Exercise – II Key

1. c 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. c 6. d 7. c 8. b 9. a 10. c
11. d 12. a 13. d 14. c 15. a 16. a 17. b 18. d 19. b 20. b

Explanations
1. Stars emit their own light and they twinkle due to the atmospheric refraction of light. Stars
are very far away from the earth.
Option a is incorrect: Planets reflect light emitted from the Sun. This statement does not
substantiate the reason that why the planets do not twinkle.
Option b is incorrect: Planets do not twinkle because they appear larger in size than the stars
as they are relatively closer to earth.
Option c is correct: Planets are closer to the Earth compared to the distant stars. Hence, the
shift due to atmospheric refraction is smaller. Thus, due to the closeness of planets to the
earth, planet do not twinkle.
Option d is incorrect: Though the planets are revolving around the sun, but this is not the
right reason for the absence of any twinkling effect in the planets.

2. The three classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. In the 20th century, however,
increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the
identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal
conditions. But now scientists are agreeing on five states of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma
and Bose Einstein Condensate.

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Statement 1 is incorrect: Plasma consists of super energetic and super excited particles.
Plasma is a state of matter that is similar to a gas, but it is made up of ions and free electrons,
instead of neutral atoms or molecules. It is called the fourth state of matter after solids,
liquids and gases. The plasma is a highly ionized gas that is in equilibrium between the
positive ions and the negative electrons.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Plasmas are often described as "super liquid particles" because they
are composed of charged particles that are in motion and can flow like a liquid. However,
they do not have the same properties as a liquid, such as a defined shape or volume.
Statement 3 is correct: Plasmas have their unique properties, such as they conduct
electricity, they emit light, they can be magnetized and they can generate electric and
magnetic fields. They have various applications in industry and research, such as in plasma
cutting, welding, and display technology.

3. Pair 1 is correct: The stars emit certain light rays into the space that will gradually come into
the earth’s atmosphere; it will act as incident light that hits the earth’s surroundings and
strikes back again to them, leading to the shining property of stars.
Pair 2 is correct: In meteorological terms, the term corona describes the ring of light around
the sun or the moon that is formed when the sunlight or moonlight gets diffracted by small
water vapours or ice crystals.
Pair 3 is correct: Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from one
medium to another.
Common Examples of refraction of light are Twinkling of stars in a clear sky and Rainbow
formation in the sky. In sky light entering a water droplet is refracted. It is then reflected by
the back of the droplet. As this reflected light leaves the droplet, it is refracted again, at
multiple angles. And thus, rainbow is formed.

4. Newton's laws of motion are three basic laws that describe the relationship between the
motion of an object and the forces acting on it.
Pair 1 is incorrect: Same weightlifter struggling to stand straight with increasing load of
weight was explained by Newton’s third law. The first law of motion is also known as the law
of inertia. It states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or uniform
motion until and unless a net external force acts on it.
Pair 2 is correct: The Second law of motion states that the force acting on the body is equal to
the product of its mass and acceleration i.e., F=ma where f is force, m is mass and a is
acceleration. The impact produced by the objects depends on their mass and velocity
(acceleration). Given the same velocity, the damage caused by the truck is bigger than the
cycle because of the higher mass of the truck.
Pair 3 is incorrect: The initial jerk we get when the bus suddenly starts/stops is because of
inertia (resistance to change) i.e., Newton's first law. Newton’s third law of motion states that
to every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. It refers to the situation when
one body exerts a force on another body. The force exerted by heavy weight on weightlifters
makes it difficult for him/her to stand straight with heavier weight.

5. C.V. Raman discovered that when monochromatic light passes through a substance, it is
scattered and produces additional frequencies other than the incident frequency. This is

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known as the Raman effect. The scattering of light by colloidal particles is called the Tyndall
effect. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Raman spectroscopy is widely used in various fields of science. It can classify substances
based on their molecular structure and analyze their chemical composition. It is used to
identify the contents of drugs within their packaging without causing damage, determine
drug authenticity, and identify street drugs.
Hence, statement 2 is correct.

6. Concave mirror: A spherical mirror, whose


reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces
towards the center of the sphere, is called a
concave mirror. Concave mirrors are commonly
used in torches, searchlights, and vehicle
headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light.
They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a
larger image of the face. Dentists use concave
mirrors to see large images of the teeth of
patients. Large concave mirrors are used to
concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces. Hence pair 3 is correctly matched.
Convex mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called a
convex mirror. Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles.
These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic behind
him/her to facilitate safe driving. Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an
erect, though diminished, image. Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved
outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view a much larger area than would be
possible with a plane mirror. Hence pair 4 is correctly matched.
Convex Lens: A lens that has two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a
double convex lens. It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker in the middle as compared
to the edges. Convex lens converges light rays. Convex lenses are used to:
o Correct farsightedness.
o Magnifying glasses
o Multijunction solar cell
o Microscope
o Hence pair 2 is correctly matched.
Concave Lens: A lens that is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards is called a
double concave lens or simply called a concave lens. It is thicker at the edges than at the
middle. Such lenses diverge light rays. So it is also called diverging lenses. Concave lenses are
used to:
o Correct Nearsightedness.
o Peepholes
o Flashlight
o Camera
o Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.

7. Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly. Hence statement 1 is not correct.

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A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity. Such a person may see clearly
up to a distance of a few meters.
In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the
retina itself. This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power. Hence
statement 3 is correct.
A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back onto the retina and thus the
defect is corrected.
This defect may arise due to excessive curvature of the eye lens, or elongation of the eyeball.
Hence statement 2 is correct.

8. Capillary action is the phenomenon of liquids rising or falling in narrow tubes or porous
materials due to the adhesive and cohesive forces of the liquid molecules. It can cause liquids
to flow against gravity or magnetic fields. Hence, statement 1 is true.
Surface tension is the force per unit length acting on the surface of a liquid due to the
potential energy of the molecules. Completely soluble substances may increase surface
tension due to solute depletion at the interface, causing repulsion of solutes from the
interface. Therefore, statement 2 is true.

9. The Higgs field is an energy field that exists throughout the universe and interacts with other
particles through the Higgs boson. It gives mass to all other particles in the universe, except
massless particles. Thus, statement 1 is true.
If the Higgs field disappeared, all matter particles would lose their mass and collapse,
including electrons, which would disperse at the speed of light. Hence, statement 2 is also
correct.
Bose-Einstein Condensate is not the fifth state of matter formed when elements are
superheated, but a state of matter that is formed when a group of atoms or subatomic
particles are cooled to absolute zero. Therefore, statement 3 is incorrect.

10. Gravity is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects in the universe by virtue of
their masses. Gravity is always attractive, unlike electromagnetic force, which can be either
attractive or repulsive, depending on the charges of the interacting particles. Hence
statement 1 is wrong while statement 2 is correct.
Electromagnetic force is a combination of electrostatic and magnetic forces. It is very strong
compared to the gravitational force and can act over large distances without any medium.
Electromagnetic waves can travel not only through air and solid materials but also through
the vacuum of space, without the need for a medium to propagate. Hence statement 3 is
correct.

11. The third law of motion or Newton's third law of motion states that when one exerts a force
on another object, the second object instantly exerts a force back on the first. These two
forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. These forces act on different
objects and never on the same object.
Launching a rocket relies on Newton’s Third Law of Motion. The rocket engine produces hot
exhaust gases which flow out of the back of the engine. In reaction, a thrusting force is
produced in the opposite reaction. Hence option 1 is correct.

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When a fish swims, it pushes the water with its fins in opposite direction to which it wants to
move. Hence option 2 is correct.
When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal and
opposite reaction force on the gun. This results in the recoil of the gun. Since the gun has a
much greater mass than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is much less than the
acceleration of the bullet. Hence option 3 is correct.

12. Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or movement of
neighboring portions relative to one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow.
The viscosity of honey lies between 2000 and 10,000 centipoise (cP) and the viscosity of
water lies between 1 cP (centipoise). Hence option (a) is the correct answer.
Honey while more viscous than water, doesn't have higher surface tension than water.
Mosquitoes are able to stand on water but slowly sink into honey.

13. The atomic model also called as ‘Nuclear Model’ was devised by Ernest Rutherford who was
an English physicist. Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are
arranged within an atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for this. In this experiment,
fast- moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom.
Rutherford's atomic model, nuclear atom, or planetary model of the atom, provides a
description of the structure of atoms. The model described the atom as a tiny, dense,
positively charged core called a nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around
which the light, negative constituents, called electrons, circulate at some distance, much like
planets revolving around the Sun.
Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897. J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube
experiment discovered the subatomic particle the electron.Eugene Goldstein discovered
positive particles by using a tube filled with hydrogen gas. The positive particle was named
the proton.
British physicist Sir James Chadwick discovered neutrons in the year 1932.Hence option (d)
is the correct answer.

14. The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory.
In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny
ball” (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature, and infinite
density.
At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now
generally accepted that the event of the big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the
present.
As it grew, some energy was converted into matter. There was particularly rapid expansion
within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion slowed down.
As the universe expanded, both the density and temperature dropped. Hence option (c) is the
correct answer (incorrect statement).
The expansion of the universe means an increase in space between the galaxies. The
expansion continues even to the present day.

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15. Neutrinos are fundamental particles created in a wide variety of nuclear processes. The
neutrino is also a tiny elementary particle, but it is not part of the atom. Such particles are
also found to exist in nature.
Neutrino has a very tiny mass, no charge, and spin half. It interacts very weakly with other
matter particles. So weakly that every second trillion of neutrinos fall on us and pass through
our bodies unnoticed. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Neutrinos change the way they spin depending on how far they have traveled and how much
matter they have passed through. If the properties are studied thoroughly and suitable
detectors built, they can reveal the presence of minerals and oil deposits. Hence statement 2
is correct.
The process of fission inside the nuclear reactor leads to the birth of neutrinos through beta
decay. Hence statement 3 is not correct.

16. India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is a proposed particle physics research mega
project. The objective of the project was to study neutrinos in a 1,200-metre-deep cave. The
project is proposed to be set up near Bodi West hills in in Theni district in Tamil Nadu. The
project is handled by the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
Statement 1 is correct: The INO needs to be underground in order to reduce background
noise and increase the sensitivity of the detector. The rock layer of over 1 km in all directions
shields the detector from other cosmic rays. Since neutrinos can easily pass through
anything, they will reach the detector while the other particles will be filtered out by the rock
in the mountain.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The underground observatory does not preserve the physical
properties of neutrinos as they are not affected by atmospheric matter.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Neutrinos do not require vacuum-like conditions to react with other
atoms and it can be detected in underground as well as in the atmosphere.

17. The boiling point of water decreases with a decrease in pressure and increases with an
increase in pressure. Food is cooked in less time in a pressure cooker because the pressure
increases inside the cooker which also increases the boiling point of water (the boiling point
of water now becomes 120 degrees C as opposed to 100 degrees C attained in open vessels).
More heat is required to reach the boiling point which is sufficient to cook food in a reduced
time.Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

18. Light can be described both as a wave and as a particle. The key difference between the wave
and particle nature of light is that the wave nature of light explains that light can behave as
an electromagnetic wave, whereas the particle nature of light explains that light consists of
particles called photons.
The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of interference, diffraction, and
polarization. On the other hand, in the photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve
energy and momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of a bunch of particles –
the photon.
Photo-electric effect:
• The emission of free electrons from a metal surface when light is shone on it, is called
photoemission or the photoelectric effect. This effect led to the conclusion that light is

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made up of packets or quantum of energy. This strongly supported the particle nature of
light and these particles were named photons. Hence option (d) is the correct answer.

19. Speed of sound is in general proportional to the density of the medium (not applicable to
gases). Hence statement 1 is correct.
The speed of sound in a medium depends on the temperature of the medium. In any medium,
as we increase the temperature the speed of sound increases.. Hence statement 2 is correct.

20. Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that is believed to permeate all of space and
accelerate the expansion of the universe. It is called "dark" because it is not directly
observable, and its nature and properties are not well understood.
The existence of dark energy was first proposed in the late 1990s by astronomers who were
studying the brightness and distance of supernovae, which are exploding stars. Hence
statement 1 is not correct.
The scientists in 1990s found that the rate of expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather
than slowing down as expected. One possible explanation for this acceleration is the
presence of dark energy.
Roughly 68% of the universe’s energy-mass content is estimated to be dark energy. Hence
statement 2 is correct.

Exercise - III
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. Which of the following best describes (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2
dark matter?
(a) A type of energy that permeates all of 3. With reference to battery energy storage,
space how do sodium-ion batteries differ from
(b) Matter that emits no light or lithium- ion batteries?
electromagnetic radiation and is difficult 1. Sodium-ion batteries have lower
to detect energy density than lithium-ion
(c) Matter that absorbs light and batteries.
electromagnetic radiation, making it 2. In cold environments, sodium-ion
invisible to telescopes batteries are less efficient as compared
(d) A type of antimatter that is attracted to lithium-ion batteries.
to matter and creates a repulsive force 3. The abundance of raw materials
required to make sodium-ion batteries
2. Consider the following statements with makes them cheaper compared to their
reference to sound waves: lithium counterparts.
1. Sound is an electromagnetic wave Select the correct answer using the code
that can travel both with and given below.
without a material medium. (a) 3 only (b) 2 only
2. Sound waves are longitudinal waves (b) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
in which particles oscillate to and
fro about their mean position. 4. With reference to the domestic electric
Which of the statements given above circuit, consider the following statements:
is/are correct?

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1. The earth wire is used as a safety 2. Advanced nanotechnology, including
measure for appliances that have a the detection of cancer.
metallic body. 3. Analysis of drugs.
2. The potential difference between the Select the appropriate response using the
live wire and neutral wire in our given codes:
country is 220 V. (a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
3. In our homes, electrical devices are (c) Only 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, and 3
always connected in series.
Which of the statements given above 8. Which of the following statements are
is/are correct? correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 only 1. Planets within their respective
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only galaxies always have a higher lithium
content than their stars.
5. Which of the following may be the 2. The Earth has a higher lithium
possible causes of overloading in the content than the Sun.
circuits? 3. As stars evolve, they have a tendency
1. When the live wire and the neutral to destroy lithium.
wire come into direct contact (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
2. When there is an accidental hike in (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
the supply voltage
3. When too many appliances are 9. The term 'Ceres' has been in the news
connected to a single socket recently in the context of space research.
Select the correct answer using the code Which of the following statements about
given below. 'Ceres' is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only 1. It is an icy exoplanet.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. It is located in the asteroid belt.
Choose the correct answer using the code
6. Which of the events listed below are below:
linked to the occurrence of "Solar (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
Minimum"? (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Decrease in the number of sunspots
and solar flares. 10. The third unit of the Kakrapar Atomic
2. Decline in the strength of the sun's Power Project (KAPP-3) has recently
magnetic field. achieved its first criticality. Which of the
3. Absence of total solar eclipses. following statement(s) is/are true
Choose the appropriate response using regarding this unit?
the code provided: 1. It is the biggest indigenous variant of
(a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 the Fast Breeder Reactor in India.
(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, and 3 2. It is the first nuclear power project
situated in Northeast India.
7. In which of the following areas does Select the appropriate answer using the
"Raman Spectroscopy" have potential code below:
applications? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. Monitoring and ensuring quality in (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
industrial food processing.

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11. Assume that some advanced technology (d) Tyndall Effect
allows us to use ‘electron gas with ultra-
high mobility’ in the manufacturing of 15. Which of the following pairs correctly
electronic devices. Then, which of the matches the disease with the lens used to
following will be the result? correct it?
1. Data storage and memory of the device 1. Myopia: Concave lens
might increase. 2. Hypermetropia: Cylindrical lens
2. The device would not require any input 3. Astigmatism: Convex lens
energy to operate. Choose the correct answer from options
Select the correct answer using the code below:
given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
16. Which of the following options best
12. ‘Orphaned moons' are the moons that defines the term ‘Milankovitch cycle’?
initially formed around large planets but
(a) It refers to the circadian rhythms that
have become detached from their
govern our sleep patterns.
planetary parent and are no longer bound
(b) It refers to the annual animal
to it. Another name for such moons is
migrations across the globe using Earth’s
tidally detached exomoons.
magnetic field.
Which of the following is being referred (c) It refers to the water circulation in the
to in this passage? deep oceans affecting fish population near
(a) Exoplanet (b) Dwarf planet coastal areas.
(c) Ploonet (d) Red Dwarf star (d) It refers to how the tilt of the Earth,
the shape of its orbit, and the direction of
13. Which of the following statements about its axis collectively influence its climate.
Sonar and Lidar are correct?
1. Sonar measures the direction of 17. Which of the following statements is/are
underwater objects using ultrasonic true?
waves. 1. Wolf-Rayet stars are low luminosity
2. Lidar uses pulsed lasers to measure stars and are among the hottest stars.
variable distances to the Earth. 2. Supernovae cannot be linked to a
3. Lidar can be used in emergency specific star.
operations during fog and snow. 3. Neutron stars are formed as a result
of the collapse of a massive star.
Choose the correct answer from options Choose the correct answer from options
below. below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) All of the above (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only

14. What is the term used to describe the


splitting of incoming white light by a 18. The theory proposes that the laws of
prism into its constituent seven colors? physics are the same for all non-
(a) Refraction accelerating observers and that the speed
(b) Dispersion of light within a vacuum is constant
(c) Total internal reflection regardless of an observer's velocity.

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What concept is described in the given 2. The outermost layer of the Sun's
paragraph? atmosphere is known as the Corona.
(a) Theory of Special Relativity 3. Sunspots are dark regions that appear
(b) Big-Bang Theory on the photosphere of the Sun.
(c) Quantum Theory of Matter 4. The Heliosphere is a large bubble that
(d) String Theory surrounds the Sun and the solar
system.
Choose the correct answer from options
19. A new soft ionization method using below.
Nanosheets made from molybdenum (a) All (b) Only 2, 3, and 4
disulphide has been discovered by some (c) Only 2 and 4 (d) Only 3 and 4
scientists. What are the potential 22. Consider the following statements.
applications of this nanosheet? 1. All forms of electromagnetic radiation
1. Production of electricity reach the Earth's surface.
2. Detection of contaminants in drinking 2. As one moves from gamma rays to
water radio waves in the electromagnetic
3. Detection of alcohol in breath spectrum, the wavelength increases.
Choose the correct option from the above: 3. Radio waves can penetrate through
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only water and metal.
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the above statements is/are
20. How do satellites benefit from launching correct?
near the Equator on the eastern coast? (a) 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
1. Satellites get an initial boost (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
equivalent to the velocity of Earth's
surface.
2. Satellites take advantage of Earth's 23. “It is a star that is in its last stages of
rotational angular momentum. evolution, in which the hydrogen fuel at
3. If there is a failure, the satellite does its core is depleted and nuclear reactions
not fall on the heavily populated land. move outwards into its atmosphere,
Select the appropriate answer using the causing the star to expand and cool,
following code: turning much redder. Over time, the star
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only will transform into a new celestial body
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 that is more than 400 times its original
size.”
21. Which of the following statements is/are Identify the celestial body being
true? described in the passage above:
1. The Sun produces most of its energy (a) Red dwarf (b) Black hole
through nuclear fusion. (c) Neutron star (d) Red giant

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Exercise – III Key

1. b 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. d 8. c 9. b 10. d
11. a 12. c 13. a 14. b 15. a 16. d 17. c 18. a 19. d 20. d
21. a 22. a 23. d

Explanations
1. Dark matter is a type of matter that doesn't emit, absorb, or reflect light or any other form of
electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to telescopes and other instruments that detect
light. It's called "dark" because it can't be seen directly, but its presence is inferred from its
gravitational effects on visible matter, such as stars and galaxies.
Dark energy, on the other hand, is a mysterious form of energy that permeates all of space
and is causing the universe to expand at an accelerating rate. Unlike dark matter, dark energy
doesn't cluster around galaxies or other structures but appears to be evenly distributed
throughout space.
Roughly 68% of the universe’s mass-energy content is estimated to be dark energy. Dark
matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the
universe. Together dark energy and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass-energy
content.

2. Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a material
medium like air, water, steel, etc., for its propagation. It cannot travel through a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves differ from mechanical waves in that they do not require a medium to
propagate. This means that electromagnetic waves can travel not only through the air and
solid materials but also through the vacuum. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
In longitudinal waves, particles do not move from one place to another but they simply
oscillate back and forth about their position of rest. This is exactly how a sound wave
propagates, hence sound waves are longitudinal waves. Hence statement 2 is correct.
A transverse wave is one in which the individual particles of the medium move about their
mean positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

3. Sodium-based battery technology might soon be a viable alternative to lithium-based ones.


Sodium-ion batteries are rechargeable batteries which require sodium ion movement
between electrodes whereas Lithium-ion batteries use lithium compound as electrode
material.
Sodium batteries earlier required three times the volume of lithium needed to produce the
same amount of energy as they have a lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries.
Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Sodium-ion batteries offer better performance and can operate in a wider temperature range
especially colder environments as compared to Lithium-ion batteries. Hence, statement 2 is
not correct.
Sodium-ion batteries are cheaper to produce than their lithium counterparts because of the
abundance of sodium as raw materials. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

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4. The metallic body of the appliances at home is connected to the earth wire, which provides a
low-resistance conducting path for the current. Thus, it ensures that any leakage of current
to the metallic body of the appliance keeps its potential to that of the earth, and the user may
not get a severe electric shock. Hence statement 1 is correct.
In our country, the potential difference between the live wire and the earth wire is 220 V.
Hence statement 2 is correct.
Home appliances are connected in parallel to each other. The reasons why different electrical
appliances in a domestic circuit are connected in parallel are: All the appliances get their
rated voltage so that they function efficiently. All the components can have their independent
switch to control them. If one appliance gets faulty, it doesn't affect the other appliances.
Hence statement 3 is not correct.

5. Overloading in the circuits: If suddenly the voltage in a circuit increases, it carries more
current than usual. This situation is called overloading.
The electric fuse is an important component of all domestic circuits. A fuse in a circuit
prevents damage to the appliances and the circuit due to overloading.
Overloading can occur when the live wire and the neutral wire come into direct contact.
(This occurs when the insulation of wires is damaged or there is a fault in the appliance.) In
such a situation, the current in the circuit abruptly increases. This is called short-circuiting.
Hence option 1 is correct.
Overloading can also occur due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage. Hence option 2 is
correct.
Sometimes overloading is caused by connecting too many appliances to a single socket.
Hence option 3 is correct.

6. Exp. Statement 1 is correct. The term "Solar Minimum" refers to the period in the 11-year
solar cycle when solar activity is at its lowest. This results in a reduction of sunspots and
solar flares, which can sometimes be absent for several consecutive days.
Statement 2 is correct as well. During the Solar Minimum phase, the sun's magnetic field
weakens, resulting in less protection from cosmic rays. This may pose health hazards to
astronauts who travel in space.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Solar minimum does not imply that a total solar eclipse will not
occur. Nonetheless, during a total solar eclipse, it is possible to visually observe the Sun's
position in its cycle without the aid of a telescope.

7. Statement 1 is correct. Raman spectroscopy is a technique used to measure the intensity and
wavelength of light that is inelastically scattered from molecules. The Raman scattered light
has wavelengths that differ from the incident light due to molecular vibrations. Raman
spectrometer has great potential for use in applications such as monitoring and ensuring the
quality of industrial food processing, ensuring food safety in agricultural plant production,
and inspecting pharmaceutical products.
Statement 2 is correct.. Raman spectroscopy has a variety of uses in advanced
nanotechnology, such as detecting cancer, analyzing various substances in forensic science,
and identifying and characterizing the original and decayed compounds in art and
archaeological objects.

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Statement 3 is correct. Raman spectroscopy is a valuable tool in drug analysis due to its ease
of use, minimal sample handling, and the significant differences in scattering strength
between packaging materials, tablet excipients, and active drug components.
Other fields where Raman spectroscopy is useful include biotechnology, mineralogy,
environmental monitoring, food and beverages, medical and clinical chemistry, diagnostics,
pharmaceuticals, material science, surface analysis, and others.

8. Statement 1 is incorrect as planets generally have more lithium content than their stars.
Stars tend to destroy lithium as they evolve into red giants. However, some stars are lithium-
rich due to the production of lithium in the Red Clump stage.
Statement 2 is correct as Earth has more lithium content than the Sun.
Statement 3 is correct as stars tend to destroy lithium as they evolve into red giants through
low-temperature nuclear burning.

9. Statement 1 is incorrect. Ceres is not an icy exoplanet. It is actually a dwarf planet located in
the inner solar system.
Statement 2 is correct. It is the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
According to the data collected by NASA’s Dawn spacecraft, dwarf planet Ceres reportedly
has salty water underground. These findings have given Ceres the status of an ocean world
as it has a big reservoir of salty water underneath its frigid surface.
With a diameter of 940 km, Ceres is both the largest of the asteroids and the only recognized
dwarf planet inside Neptune’s orbit. Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt rounded by
its own gravity.

10. Statement 1 is incorrect. The recently unveiled nuclear reactor at Kakrapar, Gujarat is the
largest indigenously developed variant of the Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
with a capacity of 700 MW. India's nuclear reactor fleet mainly consists of PHWRs that use
natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as a moderator.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The new reactor is located in Kakrapar, Gujarat. Additional
information: Achieving criticality is the first step towards power production in a nuclear
reactor. It happens when each fission event releases enough neutrons to sustain a
continuous chain reaction.

11. Statement 1 is correct. Scientists at the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST) in
Mohali, Punjab have developed an electron gas with ultra-high mobility that can speed up the
transfer of quantum information and signals between different parts of a device, thereby
increasing data storage and memory.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The high mobility of the electron gas would reduce the collision
between electrons during their flow, resulting in low resistance and minimal energy
dissipation in the form of heat. This means that such devices do not heat up easily and
require less input energy to operate.

12. A Ploonet is a moon that has broken free from the gravitational pull of its planet. In contrast,
a dwarf planet is a celestial body that orbits a star and has enough mass to be nearly
spherical but has not cleared its orbit of other debris. Examples of dwarf planets include

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Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris, which are all located in the outer solar system
except for Ceres, which is located in the asteroid belt.
An exoplanet is a planet that exists outside of our solar system and orbits a star other than
our sun. Lastly, a dwarf star is a small-sized star that has low luminosity, with important
subclasses including white dwarfs and red dwarfs.

13. The term SONAR is an abbreviation for "SOund Navigation And Ranging." It is a device that
utilizes ultrasonic waves to gauge the distance, direction, and speed of submerged objects.
Hence Statement 1 is correct.
Lidar, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote sensing method that uses
light in the form of a pulsed laser to determine ranges (variable distances) to the Earth.
These light pulses, when combined with other data collected by the airborne system,
produce precise, three-dimensional information about the shape of the Earth and its surface
features. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Lidar does not work well in fog, rain, snow, or dusty weather. It also
has difficulty detecting glass walls or doors.

14. Refraction is the phenomenon of bending of light, sound or waves as they pass through one
transparent medium to another. This phenomenon has led to the development of various
optical instruments such as lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms and even rainbows.
Dispersion refers to the splitting of white light into its constituent colors, which occurs when
white light passes through a prism. The colors of the spectrum are in order: violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of light back into the medium when light
travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium, and the angle of incidence is greater
than a certain limiting angle called the critical angle.
The Tyndall effect, also known as Tyndall phenomenon, is the scattering of a beam of light by
a medium that contains small suspended particles like smoke or dust. This effect makes
visible a beam of light entering a window and is named after John Tyndall, a 19th-century
British physicist who studied it extensively.

15. Pair 1 is correctly matched. Myopia, or nearsightedness, is a condition in which close objects
appear clearly but distant objects are blurry. It can be corrected using a concave lens, which
diverges the light and shifts the focal point back onto the retina.
Pair 2 is incorrectly matched. Hypermetropia, or farsightedness, is a condition in which
distant objects are clearer than near ones. It can be corrected using a convex lens, which
converges the light and shifts the focal point forward onto the retina.
Pair 3 is incorrectly matched. Astigmatism is a common vision problem caused by an
irregularly shaped cornea or lens, which causes light to be focused unevenly onto the retina.
It can be corrected using a cylindrical lens, which corrects the uneven refraction of light.

16. The Milankovitch Cycles, named after Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch, describe how
Earth's climate is influenced by its tilt, orbit shape, and axis direction. These cyclical orbital
movements cause variations in the amount of solar radiation that reaches Earth's
atmosphere and where it reaches. The Milankovitch cycles include eccentricity, obliquity,
and precession. These small changes have a large impact on Earth's climate over tens of

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thousands to hundreds of thousands of years and can be modeled mathematically to examine
past and future climate conditions.

17. Statement 1 is wrong as Wolf-Rayet stars are one of the hottest and most luminous types of
stars, with surface temperatures a thousand times hotter than the sun. These massive stars
have lost their outer hydrogen layers.
Statement 2 is incorrect as supernovae are powerful and luminous explosions that occur
when there is a change in the core of a star, and they are the biggest explosion observed by
humans. However, they are difficult to observe in our own galaxy due to dust.
Statement 3 is accurate as neutron stars are formed from the collapsed core of a massive
supergiant star that has run out of fuel. They are currently the smallest and densest known
class of stellar objects, with the exception of black holes and a few hypothetical objects.

18. Einstein's theory of special relativity states that the laws of physics are the same for all non-
accelerating observers and the speed of light in a vacuum remains constant regardless of the
observer's velocity. It also introduced the concept of space-time, which combines space and
time into a single continuum.
The Big Bang Theory describes the origin of the universe as a singularity that suddenly began
expanding.
Quantum theory explains the behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic
level.
String theory replaces point-like particles with one-dimensional objects called strings,
describing their propagation and interactions in space.

19. Researchers have recently discovered a new soft ionization method using nanosheets made
from molybdenum disulphide. This new method eliminates the need for external energy
sources, as liquids flowing over the modified paper produce an electric current. The
nanosheet has many applications, such as checking for contaminants in drinking water, toxic
chemicals in any liquid, and glucose in blood. The nanosheet can also be used as a self-
energised disposable sensor for breath alcohol detection, with a higher sensitivity than
standard breath analysers.

20. A launch near the equator towards the east direction gets an initial boost equal to the
velocity of Earth's surface. This is due to the fact that the surface velocity of rotation is high
near the equator, at about 1600 km per hour. Hence statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is
correct as launching satellites from the west direction would mean that they have to battle
against the angular momentum of Earth's rotation, while launching from the east would give
them an advantage due to the momentum.
Statement 3 is also correct as launching stations are generally located near the eastern
coastline to prevent satellites from falling on the built-up hinterland in the event of a launch
failure.

21. The Sun is a star, and thus generates its most of the energy through nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium and further on. Hence, Statement 1 is correct.
The Sun is a giant globe of gases. It has an atmosphere. The corona is the outermost part of
the Sun’s atmosphere. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.

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Sunspots are areas that appear dark on the surface of the Sun. They are regions of reduced
surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection.
Hence, Statement 3 is correct.
The sun sends out a constant flow of charged particles called the solar wind. The solar wind
travels past all the planets to some three times the distance to Pluto before being impeded by
the interstellar medium. This forms a giant bubble around the sun and its planets, known as
the heliosphere. Hence, Statement 4 is correct.

22. Statement 1 is incorrect, as the Earth's atmosphere blocks most forms of electromagnetic
radiation from space. However, radio frequencies, visible light, and some ultraviolet light can
reach sea level.
Statement 2 is correct, as the wavelength increases and the frequency decreases from
gamma rays to radio waves on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Statement 3 is incorrect, as radio waves cannot pass through metal and water due to the
presence of free electrons that cause them to bounce back.

23. Option a: Red dwarfs are the faintest main sequence stars, with low luminosity and a surface
temperature of about 4000°C. They make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way and
are too small to be visible to the naked eye. Proxima Centauri is an example of a red dwarf.
Option b: A black hole is a dense object in space with such strong gravity that nothing,
including light, can escape its pull.
Option c: Neutron stars form when a massive star collapses, leaving behind a core of
neutrons. They are found throughout the galaxy, often in binary systems with a companion.
Option d: Given passage describes a red giant. In a few billion years, our own sun will become
a red giant.

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Chemistry

1. Chemistry, Matter & its Composition


• Chemistry is the scientific discipline that studies the composition, properties, and
behavior of matter, including the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.
• It involves the study of atoms, molecules, ions, and their interactions, as well as the study
of various chemical compounds and their uses in different applications.
Chemicals of Common Use

Common Name Molecular Formula (Chemical Common Uses as/in


name)
Acetone C3H6O (propanone) Solvent, nail polish remover
Ammonia NH3 (ammonium hydroxide) Fertilizer, cleaning agent
Aspirin C9H8O4 (acetylsalicylic acid) Pain reliever, anti-inflammatory
Benzene C6H6 (cyclohexatriene) Industrial solvent, gasoline
Calcium CaCO3 (limestone) Building material, antacid
carbonate
Chlorine Cl2 (dichlorine) Water purification, bleach
Ethanol C2H5OH (ethyl alcohol) Fuel, solvent, alcoholic beverages
Hydrochloric HCl (chlorane) Cleaning agent, industrial use, Secreted
acid in human stomach for digestion
Methane CH4 (carbon tetrahydride) Fuel, natural gas
Nitric acid HNO3 (hydrogen nitrate) Fertilizer, explosives
Oxygen O2 (dioxygen) Respiration, combustion
Propane C3H8 (tricarbon octahydride) Fuel, heating
Sodium NaCl (table salt) Food seasoning, water softener
chloride
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) Battery acid, industrial use
Vinegar CH3COOH (acetic acid) Cooking ingredient, cleaning agent

Matter and Its Composition


• Matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of atoms, which
are the basic units of matter.

Classification of Matter
There can be two broad categories based on which matter can be classified:
1. Physical Composition: Based on this matter is classified into three main types: Solids,
Liquids, and Gases
2. Chemical Composition: Based on this matter is classified into two types Pure Substances
and Mixtures which are further divided as given below.

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Metals

Elements Non-metals

Metalloids
Pure Substances
Organic
Compounds
Matter
Inorganic

Homogeneous
Mixtures
Heterogeneous
Laws of Gases
Notes: Solids and Liquids are discussed in Physics section. Hence only exam relevant areas of gases
are being discussed here.

Name of the Law Equation of Constant Definition


law Conditions
Boyle's Law PV = k T, n At constant temperature and amount of
gas, the pressure and volume of a gas are
inversely proportional to each other.
Charles's Law V/T = k P, n At constant pressure and amount of gas,
the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
Avogadro's Law V/n = k T, P At constant temperature and pressure, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to
the number of moles of gas present.
Gay-Lussac's P/T = k V, n At constant volume and amount of gas, the
Law pressure of a gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature.
Graham's Law of Rate1/Rate2 = T, P The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
Diffusion √(M2/M1) proportional to the square root of its
molar mass.
Dalton's Law of Ptotal = P1 + P2 V, T, n The total pressure of a mixture of gases is
Partial Pressure + P3 + ... equal to the sum of the partial pressures
of the individual gases present.
Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT None The relationship between pressure (P),
volume (V), temperature (T), and number
of moles (n) of a gas. R is the universal gas
constant.
In the table, "k" represents the constant value for each law. "P" represents the pressure of the
gas, "V" represents the volume of the gas, "T" represents the absolute temperature of the gas (in
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Kelvin), "n" represents the number of moles of the gas (amount of gas), "R" represents the
universal gas constant, and "M" represents the molar mass of the gas.

Ideal and Real Gases


• An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of molecules with zero volume and no
intermolecular forces.
o Ideal gases follow Laws of gases at all temperatures and pressures.
• A real gas is a gas that deviates from ideal gas behavior due to the presence of
intermolecular forces and the finite size of gas molecules.
o Real gases follow the Laws of gases at only high temperatures and low pressures.

Plasma and BEC states of matter


• These two states of matter occur only at extreme temperatures and pressures.
• Plasma is a state of matter in which a gas has been ionized, resulting in a mixture of
positively charged ions, negatively charged electrons, and neutral atoms or molecules. It
is commonly found in stars and lightning.
• Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter that occurs when a group of boson
particles are cooled to a temperature close to absolute zero, causing them to collapse into
the same quantum state and behave as a single entity with unique properties such as
super-fluidity and coherence.
• It was first predicted by Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose in the early 1920s.

Conversion of States of Matter


• Melting is the process of heating a solid to convert it into a liquid, while the temperature
at which a solid starts to melt is called its melting point.
• Adding impuritieslowers the melting point.
• For Example, Instead of 00C
ice melts at even -50C or
lower when salt is added.
• Latent heat is the heat absorbed by a
solid without changing its
temperature during melting or
freezing.
• Boiling is the process of heating a
liquid to convert it into a gas, while
the temperature at which a liquid
starts boiling is called its boiling
point.
• Adding impurities increases
the boiling point.
• For example, Salt is added to water as it can be heated to a more temperature as
its boiling point is increased.
• Sugarcane juice contains sugar in water. The presence of sugar increases its
boiling point.

• Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid into gas at room temperature.


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• Freezing is the process of cooling a liquid to convert it into a solid, while the
temperature at which a liquid starts to freeze is called its freezing point.
• Adding impuritieslowersthe freezing point.
• Example: Salt is added on the roads to prevent ice formation in winter so that it
will take less than 00C to form ice.
• Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze at cold places.
• Sublimation is the process of a substance directly transitioning from a solid to a gas
without passing through the liquid state. This is called sublimation, and substances that
undergo this process are called sublimates.

Elements
• Elements are the basic building blocks of matter that cannot be chemically broken down
into simpler substances. They are made up of atoms that have the same number of
protons in their nuclei, giving them unique chemical properties.
• There are currently 118 known elements, each with its own unique set of physical and
chemical properties.
• Elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic structure, which
allows scientists to predict their behavior in chemical reactions.

Compounds
• In a compound, two or more elements are combined in a fixed ratio and cannot be
physically separated into their components.
• The properties of a compound are distinct from those of its constituent elements, and it is
a homogeneous substance with a fixed melting and boiling point. Examples of
compounds include water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and sugar.

Mixture
• A mixture is composed of two or more elements or compounds chemically combined
together in any ratio and can be separated into its constituents through physical
methods.
• It lacks a fixed melting and boiling point, and its properties reflect those of its
components without a definite formula.

Types of Mixtures
• Two categories of mixtures can be distinguished on the basis of their composition.
• Homogeneous Mixturehas the same composition and properties in every part as its
component elements.Examples include sugar dissolved in water, sulfur dissolved in
carbon disulfide, and ammonia dissolved in air.
• Heterogeneous Mixture has different compositions and properties in different parts.
Examples include colloidal solutions, mixtures of salt and sugar, and suspensions
Solution
• A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances where one substance is
dissolved into another.
• For example, lemonade is a solution of sugar and water, and the taste is consistent
throughout.

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• Solid solutions, like alloys, are formed by dissolving one solid in another, whereas liquid
solutions, like soft drinks, involve the dissolution of a substance in a liquid.
• Similarly, air is an example of a gaseous solution.
• A solution has two main components, solvent and solute, and if the proportion of the
solute is small, the solution is dilute; if the proportion of solute is higher, it's
concentrated.
• A solution in which more solute can dissolve at a particular temperature is known as an
unsaturated solution, and if no more solute can dissolve, it is called a saturated
solution.
• A solution having more solute than a saturated solution is called a supersaturated
solution.

Solubility
• Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a specific temperature.
• The solubility of most substances increases with an increase in temperature, but there
are exceptions.
• For instance, the solubility of certain substances like CaO, CaCO3, CaSO4, may decrease
with an increase in temperature as their dissolution takes place with the evolution of
heat. In contrast, the solubility of NaOH increases with an increase in temperature
despite the fact that its dissolution takes place with the evolution of heat.
• The solubility of gases in water, on the other hand, decreases with an increase in
temperature as their dissolution takes place with the evolution of heat.

Colloidal Solution
• A colloidal solution is a type of heterogeneous mixture where one substance is dispersed
as very fine particles in another substance, known as the dispersion medium. The
diameter range of colloidal particles is typically between 1 nm to 100 nm.
• Colloidal solutions of soaps or detergents in water at higher concentrations are examples
of colloidal solutions.
• Colloidal solutions remain stable as the colloidal particles do not settle down even when
left undisturbed.
• Additionally, colloidal particles can scatter a beam of visible light, which is known as the
Tyndall effect.
Types of Colloidal Solutions
Dispersed phase Dispersing medium Type of solution Example(s)
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, fog
Liquid Gas Aerosol Clouds, mist
Gas Solid or Liquid Foam Shaving cream,
foam
Solid Liquid Sol Paint, ink
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, salad
dressing
Gas Liquid Aerosol Spray, aerosol can

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Note: Dispersed phase refers to the substance that is present in the form of small particles or
droplets in the colloidal solution, while the dispersing medium refers to the substance in which
the dispersed phase is present.

2. Atomic Structure

Atoms and Molecules


• Atoms are the basic units of matter that make up all the elements. They are composed of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• For example, an atom of carbon consists of six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons.
• Molecules are formed when two or more atoms chemically combine to form a new
substance. They can be composed of atoms of the same element or different elements.
• For example, a molecule of water consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
chemically bonded together. Another example is a molecule of carbon dioxide, which
consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms chemically bonded together.

Subatomic Particles
• Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons are the more popular subatomic particles that make up
atoms.
Note: Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons are discussed in Nuclear Physics Chapter in Physics section
of this book and summarized as below.
Particle Discoverer Charge Mass Relative
Mass*
Electron J.J. Thomson -1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Proton Ernest Rutherford +1 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Neutron James Chadwick 0 1.67 x 10^-27 kg 1836
Meson Yukawa Hideki 0 2.2 x 10^-28 kg 274
Positron Carl Anderson +1 9.11 x 10^-31 kg 1
Neutrino Theorized: Wolfgang 0 < 3 x 10^-36 kg <0.04
Pauli (1930);
Discovered: Cowan &
Reines (1956)
*Relative Mass is given to enable student to appreciate the relative masses of different particles;
it is not a technical term.
Fundamentally sub-atomic particles are classified into two categories:
1. Bosons are often referred to as force-carrying particles because they carry the
fundamental forces of nature, such as the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear
forces.
• These are particles with integer values of spin and obeying Bose-Einstein
statistics.
• Examples include the photon, Higgs Boson, W and Z bosons, and gluon.
2. Fermionsare often referred to as matter particles because they make up the building
blocks of matter.

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• These are particles with half-integer values of spin and obeying Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
• They are Further categorized into:
1. Leptons - fundamental particles that do not interact via the strong nuclear
force. Examples include the electron, muon, tau, and their corresponding
neutrinos.
2. Quarks - fundamental particles that interact via the strong nuclear force and
make up protons and neutrons. Examples include up, down, charm, strange,
top, and bottom quarks.
3. Different Quarks on combination give Protons and Neutrons.
o For example the proton is made up of two up quarks and one down
quark. Both up and down quarks are fermions, and so the quarks
inside the proton are fermions. Therefore, the proton is considered a
composite particle that contains fermions, but it is not itself a
fermion.

Sub-atomic
Particles

Bosons
Ex: photon, Higgs Fermions
Boson, W and Z
bosons, and gluon

Quarks
Leptons Ex: Up & Down
Ex: Electrons, Quarks
neutrinos Quarks make up
Protons & Neutrons

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Important Terms Related to Atom
• The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of protons inside the
nucleus of its atom.
o Atomic number = Number of protons = the number of electrons
• The atomic weight of an element, also known as the relative atomic mass, is calculated
by dividing the weight of one atom of the element by 1/12th of the weight of one atom of
carbon-12.
o Atomic Weight = Weight of one atom of an element / (1/12)×weight of one atom
of Carbon (C-12)
• Mass Number = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons
• The atomicity of a molecule is the total number of atoms present in that molecule. For
instance, the atomicity of nitrogen gas is 2, while the atomicity of ammonia is 4.
• Avogadro's number is the number of atoms or molecules present in one mole of a
substance, which is approximately 6.02 x 1023.

Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones


Term Definition Examples
Isotopes Atoms of the same element (same atomic number) with C-12, C-14
different mass numbers
Isobars Atoms of different elements (different atomic number) with 40Ar, 40K, 40Ca
the same mass number
Isotones Atoms of different elements with the same number of 13C, 14N
neutrons

Atomic Models
• The concept of atomic models was introduced to explain the arrangement of fundamental
particles within an atom. Some significant atomic models include Dalton's Atomic
Theory, Thomson's Atomic Model, and Rutherford's Atomic Model.

Dalton's Atomic Theory


• Dalton's Atomic Theory was based on the laws of chemical combination and proposed
that all matter is composed of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible.
• Atoms of the same element have identical properties, including identical mass, and they
combine in small whole numbers to form
compounds.
• Chemical reactions involve only the combination,
separation, or rearrangement of atoms.
Thomson's Atomic Model
• Thomson's Atomic Model described an atom as
consisting of a uniformly positively charged
sphere with a radius in the order of 10-10m, in
which the entire mass is uniformly
distributed, and negatively charged electrons are Thomson’s Atomic Model
embedded randomly.
• The atom as a whole is neutral.

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• Thomson's Atomic Model could not explain the origin of the spectral series of hydrogen
and other atoms or the large-angle scattering of alpha particles.

Rutherford's Atomic Model


• Rutherford's Atomic Model proposed that the entire positive charge and almost the
entire mass of the atom are concentrated at its center in a tiny region of the order of
10 -15 m, called the nucleus.
• Negatively charged electrons revolve around the
nucleus in different orbits.
• A nucleus consists of positively charged protons and
electrically neutral neutrons, and the total positive
charge on the nucleus is equal to the total negative
charge on the electrons, making the atom overall
neutral.
• The existence of nucleus was proved by Rutherford in
his ground breaking Gold-foil (α -particle
scattering) experiment. Rutherford’s Atomic Model
• Rutherford's Atomic Model failed to explain why
electrons in orbit do not emit electromagnetic waves (as in line with Maxwell’s
electromagnetic wave theory) and lose energy, causing them to eventually fall into the
nucleus.

Planck's Quantum Theory:


• In 1900, Planck proposed a revolutionary theory of electromagnetic radiation known as
quantum theory of radiation. According to this theory
• (Electromagnetic) Radiant energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously, but rather in
small packets of energy called photons (or quanta).
• The energy associated with a quantum of radiation is proportional to the frequency of
the radiation.
• Energy (E)  frequency (ν) => E = hν, where h is Planck's constant.

Bohr's Model:
• Bohr's model of the atom was based on the Planck’s theory
i.e., quantization of energy.
• The model proposed several postulates, including the idea
that electrons revolve in fixed circular orbits around the
nucleus without losing or gaining energy.
• The angular momentum of the electron is quantized Bohr’s Atomic Model
and can only be in integral multiples of h/ 2π
• The electron has a definite energy characteristic of the
orbit it occupies, and as long as it remains in that orbit, it does not lose energy. An
electron in first orbit (n = 1), has the lowest possible energy.
• The absorption or emission of energy can only occur through transitions of electrons
between different energy levels.

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Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:
• According to this principle, it is impossible to simultaneously measure the position and
velocity or momentum of a microscopic particle.
• Heisenberg's principle does not apply to macroscopic objects or large objects.

de-Broglie’s Concept
• Matter has two distinct properties, that of a wave and a particle.
• The wavelength of a microscopic particle, such as an electron, is inversely proportional to
its momentum.
o = h/p or = h/mv (since momentum is equal to mass times velocity). Here, h
represents Planck's constant, p represents momentum, and m represents the
mass of an electron.
Shell
• The concept of shells states that electrons move in orbits that have a specific energy
level, also known as stationary orbits.
• These orbits are categorized as K, L, M, and N shells with n = 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively.
• Electrons closest to the nucleus are in the n=1 shell, which has the lowest possible
energy.
• Shells are divided into sub-shells or sub-levels which are referred to as orbitals. These
orbitals are regions in the electron cloud where electrons are most likely to be found.

Distribution of Electrons into Orbits


• The distribution of electrons into different orbits is governed by Bohr and Burry's rules.
• The maximum number of electrons in a shell is determined by the formula 2n 2 (where, n
= 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 for K, L,M and N shells respectively).
• The outermost orbit can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

Electronic Configuration
• The electronic configuration indicates how electrons are arranged in various shells,
subshells, and orbitals in an atom.
• The Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle, and Hund's rule of maximum
multiplicity govern the filling of orbitals in atoms.
• In the ground state of an atom, electrons enter the orbital of lowest energy first (Aufbau
principle), with subsequent electrons entering in the order of increasing energies.
o Lower the value of (n + l ) for an orbital, lower is its energy. If two orbitals have
the same (n + l ) value, the orbital with lower value of n has lower energy.
• According to Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity, electron pairing will not take place
in orbitals of the same energy until each orbital is first singly filled with parallel spin.

Quantum Numbers
• Each electron in an atom is identified by a set of specific values assigned to four quantum
numbers. These are denoted by symbols n, l, m, and s.

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• The principal quantum number (n) is used to determine the shell or main energy level
that the electron occupies. The values of n, which are K, L, M, and N, increase as the
energy of the electron increases.
• The azimuthal quantum number (l) is used to identify the sublevel or sub-shell (s, p, d,
and f) in the principal energy level or shell that the electron belongs to.
• The magnetic quantum number (m) provides information about the orientation of the
orbital.
• The spin quantum number (s) describes the spin of the electron, which can only be
clockwise or anticlockwise.

Pauli's Exclusion Principle


• Pauli's Exclusion Principle, formulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, posits that within an
atom, no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers.

3. Chemical Bonding
Atoms, molecules, or ions of elements, except noble gases, do not have a complete octet (8
valence electrons in its outermost energy level) and hence, they form chemical bonds with other
constituent atoms to attain a stable octet. This process is known as chemical bonding and is
dependent on the valency of atoms.

Valency
• Valency refers to the ability of an atom or element to form chemical bonds.
• For metals, valency is determined by the number of valence electrons in its atom.
• For non-metals, valency is calculated as 8 minus the number of valence electrons in its
atom.

Ions
• Ions are charged particles, either positively or negatively charged. A positively charged
ion is known as a cation, while a negatively charged ion is known as an anion.
• Cations have fewer electrons compared to a neutral atom, for example, Na+, H+, Mg2+,
• Anions have more electrons than a neutral atom, for example, F−, Cl−, O2−.

Types of chemical bonds


• Different types of chemical bonds can be categorized based on the mode of electron
transfer, shared electrons, or forces of attraction. These include:
• Electrovalent or ionic bond
• Covalent bond
• Coordinate or dative covalent bond
• Hydrogen bond
• Van der Waals' forces

Electrovalent
• An electrovalent bond, also known as an ionic bond, is formed when electrons are
transferred from one atom to another.

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• The resulting compound is called an electrovalent or ionic compound, and typically
consists of electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms.
• Electrovalent compounds are usually crystalline solids with high melting and boiling
points.
• They can conduct electricity when dissolved in water and are soluble in water, but
insoluble in organic solvents such as alcohol.
• The degree of ionic character in a bond can be determined by the electronegativity
difference between the two atoms involved, with a difference of 1.7 indicating a bond
that is fifty percent ionic.

Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons towards itself when forming a chemical bond.
• It is a relative scale called Pauling Scale that ranges from 0 to 4, with higher values
indicating a greater ability to attract electrons.
• Electronegativity influences the polarity of chemical bonds and determines the
distribution of charge in molecules, affecting their chemical properties and reactivity.
• Fluorine (F) is the element with the highest electronegativity, with a value of 3.98.
Oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and chlorine (Cl) also have high electronegativity.
• The elements with the lowest electronegativity are typically found in the alkali and
alkaline earth metal groups of the periodic table, such as cesium (Cs), francium (Fr), and
barium (Ba).

Examples of Ionic Compounds


Name Formula Ions Present
Sodium Chloride NaCl Na+, Cl-
Magnesium Oxide MgO Mg2+, O2-
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 Ca2+, Cl-
Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 Al3+, O2-
Potassium Iodide KI K+, I-
Copper (II) Sulfate CuSO4 Cu2+, SO42-

Covalent Bond
• When two atoms of the same or different elements share electrons, it forms a bond
called a covalent bond and the resulting compound is called a covalent compound.
• The number of sharing pairs of electrons can determine if the covalent bond is single,
double, or triple.
• Covalent compounds often exist as liquids or gases and have a low melting and boiling
point.
• They do not conduct electricity and are typically insoluble in water but can dissolve in
organic solvents such as alcohol.

Examples of Covalent Compounds


Name Formula Elements in the bond
Water H2O Hydrogen, Oxygen
Methane CH4 Carbon, Hydrogen

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Ammonia NH3 Nitrogen, Hydrogen
Carbon Dioxide CO2 Carbon, Oxygen
Ethanol C2H5OH Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 Hydrogen, Sulfur, Oxygen

Coordinate or dative bond


• Coordinate or dative bond is a type of chemical bond that forms through one-sided
sharing of a lone pair of electrons between two atoms.
• The key condition for the formation of a coordinate bond is that one atom must have a
complete octet with at least one lone pair of electrons, while the other atom should have
a deficiency of at least one pair of electrons.
• The atom with the complete octet, which provides the electron pair for sharing, is
referred to as the donor, while the atom that accepts the electron pair is called the
acceptor.
The nature of the bonding between atoms A and B can be categorized as follows:
• If A and B have approximately the same value of electronegativity, the bond is covalent.
• If the lone pair on atom A is donated to an electron-deficient B, the bond is
coordinatedative in nature.
• If there is a large difference in electronegativity between A and B, the bond is
predominantly ionic.

Examples of Coordinate Bonds


Name Formula Type of Coordinate Bond
Ammonia NH3 Coordinate covalent
Carbon monoxide CO Coordinate covalent
Ethanol C2H5OH Coordinate dative
Acetate ion CH3COO- Coordinate dative
Tetraamminecopper(II) Cu(NH3)4 Coordinate ion
Hexaaquacobalt(II) Co(H2O)6 Coordinate ion

Hydrogen Bond
• A hydrogen bond is an electrostatic force of attraction that occurs between a hydrogen
atom, which is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom, and another
electronegative atom in the same or different molecules.
• The strength of hydrogen bonding is maximum in the solid state and minimum in the
gaseous state.
• There are two main types of hydrogen bonding:
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of hydrogen bonding occurs between
different molecules of a compound, such as in molecules of HF or water (H2O).
• It results in increased solubility in water and high boiling points.
2. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of hydrogen bonding occurs within
different parts of the same molecule, as seen in compounds like o-nitrophenol.
• It results in decreased solubility in water and low boiling points.
• Molecules that contain O—H, N—H, or H—F bonds often exhibit abnormal properties
due to hydrogen bond formation.

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• For example, glycerol is viscous and has a very high boiling point due to the presence of
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
• Hydrogen bonding also plays a critical role in biological systems, contributing to the
stability of proteins and nucleic acids.

Van der Waals' forces


• "Van der Waals' forces refer to the sum of attractive or repulsive interactions between
molecules that are not due to covalent bonds or electrostatic interactions of ions with
each other or with neutral molecules.
• These forces are relatively weak compared to normal chemical bonds and can be
categorized into three types: dipole-dipole interaction, London dispersion force, and
Debye force.
• One example of van der Waals' forces is the ability of geckos (lizards)to climb on
sheer surfaces using only one toe, which has been attributed to the van der Waals'
forces between the surfaces and their foot-pads.

4. Periodic Table
• The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements based on their atomic
numbers, electronic configurations, and chemical properties. It provides a systematic
organization of elements that allows for easy identification, classification, and
understanding of their properties and behavior.
• The periodic table is a fundamental tool in chemistry and serves as a concise
representation of the entire known chemical elements.
• It helps scientists to predict and explain the properties and behavior of elements, and
make connections between different elements and their chemical reactions.
• The periodic table has immense significance in understanding and advancing our
knowledge of the fundamental building blocks of matter.

Evolution of Periodic Table


• The evolution of the periodic table can be traced back to the early 19th century when
various scientists and chemists made important contributions.
• In 1829, Johann Dobereiner observed that certain groups of three elements had similar
properties and called them "triads".
• John Newlands in 1865, stated that elements exhibit similar properties in groups of
eight when arranged by atomic weight, forming a repeating pattern or "octaves".
• In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev developed the much improved periodic table which became
the basis for modern periodic table.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table


• Mendeleev's Periodic Table was the first successful attempt to systematically arrange the
known chemical elements based on their atomic masses and properties.
• It consisted of a tabular arrangement of elements in rows (periods) and columns
(groups) with elements having similar properties grouped together.
• Mendeleev left gaps for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties based
on the patterns observed in the table.
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• His periodic table provided a framework for understanding the relationships and trends
among elements, leading to the development of the periodic law and our current
understanding of the organization of elements in the periodic table.

Modern Periodic Table


• Moseley (1913) revised Mendeleev's periodic law and introduced the modern periodic
law, stating that "the physical and chemical characteristics of elements exhibit periodic
trends based on their atomic numbers."
• Moseley's breakthrough was realizing that atomic number, rather than atomic mass, is a
more fundamental property in determining the periodic behavior of elements.

Long form of Periodic Table


• The long form of the periodic table, also known as Bohr's table, is structured based on the
Bohr-Burry concept of electronic configuration. It consists of 7 periods (horizontal
rows) and 18 groups (vertical columns).
• The number of periods indicates the number of outermost shells of each element.
• In Bohr's table, the first element of each period (except for the I period) is an alkali
metal, and the last element is an inert gas.
• The lanthanoids and actinoids, which belong to the VI and VII periods, respectively, are
placed in separate rows at the bottom of the periodic table.
• Elements within the same group typically have similar outer shell electronic
configurations.
• The elements in groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18 are referred to as normal or
representative elements, while the elements in groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 are
known as transition elements.
• Bohr's table is essentially a graphical representation of the Aufbau principle, based on
the electronic configuration of elements, and it includes all 118 elements.
• Elements with atomic numbers that differ by 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, or 32 electrons tend to
exhibit similar properties. For example, elements with atomic numbers 3, 11, 19, 37, 55,
and 87 belong to the same group due to this pattern.

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Brief Description of Periods
Period Number of Characteristics
Elements
1 2 Elements have one shell (K-shell)
2 8 Elements have two shells (K and L shells)
3 8 Elements have three shells (K, L, and M shells)
4 18 Elements have four shells (K, L, M, and N shells)
5 18 Elements have five shells (K, L, M, N, and O shells)
6 32 Elements have six shells (K, L, M, N, O, and P shells); Lanthanoids belong
to this period
7 32 Elements have seven shells (K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q shells); Actinoids
belong to this period
Note: The characteristics of elements in each period may vary, but generally follow trends in
terms of properties such as atomic size, electronegativity, and chemical reactivity.
Characteristics of Periods:
• In a period of the periodic table, the number of valence electrons in elements increases
from 1 to 8 when moving from left to right. —
• The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers. —
• The valency of an element increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0 as we move from
left to right in a period with respect to hydrogen.

Characteristics of Groups:
• All the elements in a group or vertical column of the periodic table have the same
number of valence electrons, resulting in similar chemical properties among them.

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Classification of Elements into Blocks
s-Block Elements
• The s-block elements consist of groups 1 and 2, including Hydrogen and alkali metals (Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) and alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) with a general electron
configuration of ns1-2.
• These elements are soft metals, electropositive, and form basic oxides.

p-Block Elements
• The p-block elements comprise groups 13 to 18 (according to IUPAC numbering), with a
general electron configuration of ns np1-6.
• This is the only block that contains metals, non-metals, and metalloids.
• Heavier elements in this block exhibit the inert pair effect, where their lower valency
becomes more stable.

d-Block Elements
• The d-block elements consist of groups 3 to 12, with a general electron configuration of
(n-1) d1-10 ns1-2.
• These elements are called transition elements (except for group-12), and they contain
unpaired electrons, making them paramagnetic.
• These elements exhibit variable valency due to the small difference in energy between
the outer and penultimate shells.
• They are generally colored and used as catalysts.

f-Block Elements
• The f-block elements are usually placed below the rest of the periodic table and consist of
two rows of 14 elements each, known as the lanthanides and actinides, respectively.
• The general electron configuration for these elements is (n-2) f 1-14(n-1) d0-1 ns2.
• Elements in this block are called inner-transition elements and are only present in the
IIIB (3) group.

Periodic properties
• Periodic properties are a set of characteristics that display a repeated pattern along both
periods and groups in the periodic table. These properties can be used to predict the
behavior of elements in various chemical reactions. Some important periodic properties
include:

Ionization enthalpy: This is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an
isolated gaseous atom to form a positive ion.
• It generally increases along a period but there are exceptions like boron and oxygen,
which have smaller ionization energy than beryllium and nitrogen respectively, due to
stable electronic configuration.
• Ionization enthalpy decreases as you go down the group.

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Electron gain enthalpy: This is the energy released when an extra electron is added to a
neutral gaseous atom of an element.
• It generally increases along the period and decreases down the group, though there are
some exceptions.

Electronegativity: This is the ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards
it.
• Electronegativity increases along a period and decreases down the group.
Metallic character: This refers to the tendency of an element to form a cation by the loss of
electrons.
• It generally decreases along a period and increases down the group.

Oxidizing and reducing character:


• The reducing character decreases along the period and increases down the group
• Oxidizing character increases along the period and decreases down the group.
Valency: With respect to hydrogen, valency increases from 1 to 7, but with respect to oxygen, it
first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to one (except OF2). Valency remains the same
within a group.
Basic Nature of Oxides: The nature of oxides can be categorized as basic or acidic.
• The basic nature of oxides tends to decrease along a period while the acidic nature
increases.
• Down the group, the basic nature of oxides increases while the acidic nature decreases.

5. Chemical Reactions & Equations

Physical & Chemical Changes


Physical changes refer to alterations that only affect the physical properties of matter, such as
color, density, hardness, and melting point, while the chemical composition remains unchanged.
• These changes can be reversed by modifying temperature and pressure conditions, such
as in processes like crystallization, sublimation, boiling, vaporization, cutting of trees,
dissolving common salt in water, burning of wax, and melting of ice.
Chemical changes impact the composition and chemical properties of matter, resulting in the
formation of new substances.
• Chemical changes are generally irreversible, meaning they cannot be reversed by
changing temperature and pressure conditions.
• Examples of chemical changes include the burning of a candle (producing gases),
photosynthesis, fruit ripening, electrolysis of water, digestion, burning of paper, and
souring of milk.

Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reactions occur when substances undergo a chemical change, resulting in the
production of new substances. For example, when iron articles are exposed to a humid
atmosphere, they undergo rusting.

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Types of Chemical Reactions
Type of Chemical Explanation Examples
Reaction
Combination Two or more substances combine to 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (formation
(Synthesis) form a new substance. of water)
Decomposition A single compound breaks down into 2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
two or more simpler substances. (breaking up of ferrous
sulphate)
Displacement One element is replaced by another Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 (zinc
element in a compound. displacing hydrogen in
hydrochloric acid)
Dissociation A molecule dissociates into two or 2HI → H2 + I2 (Hydrogen
more simple molecules Iodide dissociating into
Hydrogen and Iodine)
Precipitation Two solutions react to form an AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl (s) +
insoluble solid (precipitate). NaNO3 (formation of silver
chloride precipitate)
Acid-Base An acid reacts with a base to form HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
water and a salt. (formation of sodium
chloride and water)
Combustion A substance reacts with oxygen, C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
usually with the release of heat and (complete combustion of
light. propane)
Redox (Oxidation- Transfer of electrons between two or 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Reduction) more substances. (magnesium undergoing
oxidation and oxygen
undergoing reduction)
Disproportionation A single substance is simultaneously 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
oxidized and reduced, leading to the (hydrogen peroxide
formation of two or more different undergoing
products. disproportionation)

Exothermic and endothermic reactions


• Exothermic and endothermic reactions are characterized by the release (exo-) or
absorption (endo-) of heat, respectively, during the formation of products.
• For instance, the burning of fuel is an example of an exothermic reaction, while
endothermic reactions involve the absorption of heat.

Reversible & Irreversible reactions


• Reversible reactions occur in both forward and backward directions but do not go to
completion, while irreversible reactions only occur in the forward direction and reach
completion.

Redox reactions

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• Redox reactions, which involve oxidation and reduction reactions, are important in
various chemical and biological processes. Redox reactions consist of two half-reactions,
one involving oxidation and the other involving reduction.
• Examples include burning of fuels for energy production, electrochemical processes such
as manufacturing of sodium hydroxide, photosynthesis in plants, digestion of food in
animals, and corrosion of metals.

Oxidation & Reduction


• The original definition of oxidation involved the addition of oxygen to a substance, such
as the reaction of magnesium with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
o 2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s)
• However, later on, the removal of hydrogen from a substance was also considered as
oxidation, as seen in the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with oxygen to form sulfur and
water.
o 2 H2S(g) + 3 O2(g) → 2 S(s) + 2 H2O(g)
• In oxidation reactions, electrons are lost, as exemplified by magnesium being converted
into magnesium ions and losing two electrons (in Magnesium oxide) in the process.
• Reduction initially referred to the processes where metal oxides were converted to
metals using hydrogen, carbon, or carbon monoxide, and involved the removal of oxygen
from a substance.
o CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
• In reduction reactions, electrons are gained, as seen in the conversion of copper ions into
copper and gaining two electrons in the process.
• Oxidation and reduction occur together in equivalent amounts in redox reactions, and
oxidizing agents, which accept electrons, behave as Lewis acids, while reducing
agents, which donate electrons, behave as Lewis bases.

Rules for determining the Oxidation state of elements


1. The oxidation state of an element in its free or uncombined state is always zero.
2. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1, but in hydrides, it has an oxidation state
of -1.
3. Oxygen usually has an oxidation state of -2 in its compounds, but in peroxides, it has an
oxidation state of -1.
4. Elements in Group IA (alkali metals) have an oxidation state of +1 in their compounds,
elements in Group IIA (alkaline earth metals) have an oxidation state of +2, and elements
in Group IIIA have an oxidation state of +3.
5. The oxidation state of any ion is equal to its charge.
6. The sum of the oxidation states of all elements in a neutral molecule is always zero.
7. The sum of the oxidation states of all elements in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge
on the ion.
8. The oxidation state of halogens in their binary compounds (halides) is -1.
9. Oxygen can have a positive oxidation state in compounds such as OF2.

Corrosion

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• Corrosion is a chemical process that involves the deterioration or degradation of
materials, usually metals, due to chemical or electrochemical reactions with their
surrounding environment.
• Corrosion can result in the loss of material, reduced structural integrity, and diminished
performance of the affected materials or objects.
• Corrosion can occur in various forms, such as rusting of iron and steel, tarnishing of
silver, and pitting of aluminum, and it is a common problem in many industries and
everyday life.
• Example: 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 Fe2O3·xH2O(s)
o This is the equation for rusting of iron.
o The value of "x" in the formula Fe2O3·xH2O can vary, as rust can have different
degrees of hydration depending on the environmental conditions.
Catalysis
• A catalyst is a substance that can alter the rate of a chemical reaction. Importantly, the
catalyst itself does not undergo any change in chemical composition and is typically
recovered unchanged after the completion of the reaction.
• The phenomenon in which the presence of a substance (catalyst) affects the rate of a
reaction is known as catalysis.
• Catalysts do not initiate a reaction but can significantly impact the reaction rate.
• Catalysts generally do not change the nature of products formed and are specific in
their action.
• They do not alter the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction, but rather facilitate the
attainment of equilibrium more rapidly.
• The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to decrease the activation energy, making it
easier for the reactants to overcome the energy barrier and proceed to the products. This
allows for faster reaction rates and improved efficiency in many industrial processes.

Applications of Catalysts
Examples of the industrial applications of catalysts include
• the use of iron as a catalyst (with molybdenum as a promoter) in the Haber process for
ammonia production
• vanadium pentoxide as a catalyst in the Contact process for sulfuric acid production
• platinum gauze as a catalyst in the Ostwald process for nitric acid production
• cupric chloride as a catalyst in the Deacon process for chlorine production

Enzyme Catalysis
• Enzyme catalysis refers to the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction facilitated by
enzymes, which are biocatalysts and are typically proteins in nature. Enzymes exhibit
high specificity in their action, and their activity is highly influenced by temperature, with
an optimal temperature range usually between 25-37°C.
• The pH of the environment also significantly affects the rates of enzymatic reactions.
• Enzymes have specific pH ranges at which they are most active, and changes in pH can
greatly impact their catalytic activity.
Examples of important enzyme catalysis reactions include the conversion of starch to maltose by
diastase, maltose to glucose by maltase, glucose to ethyl alcohol by zymase, sucrose to glucose
and fructose by invertase, and urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide by urease.

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6. Elements & Compounds
Elements and compounds are fundamental forms of pure substances.
• Elements are categorized into metals, non-metals, and metalloids based on their
properties.
• Compounds are composed of two or more elements combined in fixed proportions by
mass.
• Every material object that exists in the universe is made up of some combination of just
these 118 elements (even less than that as only 90 of them are stable).

Metals
• Metals are typically excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
• Silver has the highest thermal conductivity, followed by copper, and aluminum is also a
good conductor of heat. This is why cooking utensils and water boilers are often made of
copper or aluminum.
• Mercury has very high resistance to the passage of electric current.
• Metals are generally hard, but sodium and potassium are so soft that they can be easily
cut with a knife.
• Metals are malleable and ductile, which means they can be shaped without breaking and
drawn into wires, respectively.
o Gold and silver are the most malleable and ductile metals.
• Metals are usually solids at room temperature, with the exception of mercury (melting
point −39°C), which is a liquid, and cesium (melting point 28.4°C) and gallium (melting
point 29.8°C), which are liquid above 30°C.
• Metals are electropositive in nature, meaning they tend to ionize by losing electrons and
form positive ions.
• Most metal oxides are basic in nature, meaning they have a pH greater than 7, but zinc
oxide and aluminum oxide are amphoteric, which means they can act as both acidic and
basic depending on the conditions.

Alkali Metals and their Compounds


• Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium (all from Group 1) are classified as
alkali metals. Alkali metals are typically stored under kerosene or liquid paraffins to
protect them from the action of air.
• Sodium chloride (NaCl), commonly known as table salt, is used in our daily diet as a
preservative for pickles, meat, and fish. It is also used in the manufacturing of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), chlorine (Cl2) gas, and soap.
• In the Nelson cell or Castner-Kellner cell, NaCl is used as a starting material for the
production of caustic soda (NaOH).
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as caustic soda, is used in the soap, dyes, and
artificial silk industries, as well as in the refining of bauxite mineral.
• Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), commonly known as baking soda, is used in
effervescent drinks, fruit salts, fire extinguishers, and as a wool-washing agent.
• Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3× 10H2O), also known as washing soda, is used in the
manufacturing of glass, soap, washing powder, and for softening hard water.
• A mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate is known as a fusion mixture.
It is used in analytical chemistry techniques and glass making.

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• Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4× 10H2O) is also known as Glauber's salt, and it is used as a
purgative (a substance that helps to stimulate bowel movements).
• Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3× 5H2O), also known as hypo, is used in photography as a
fixing agent.
• Metallic sodium is prepared by the electrolysis of molten mixture of 40%sodium
chloride and 60% calcium chloride in a Down’s cell.

Alkaline Earth Metals


• The group of elements comprising beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium,
and radium (all from Group 2) is collectively known as alkaline earth metals.
• Calcium, one of the members of this family, is the most abundant element in the Earth's
crust.
• Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) is commonly referred to as milk of magnesia and is
used as an antacid.
• Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime, finds application in the manufacturing of
various products such as glass, calcium chloride, cement, bleaching powder, calcium
carbide, slaked lime, in the extraction of iron and as a drying agent for ammonia and
alcohol.
• Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH2)], commonly referred to as slaked lime, is used in the
manufacturing of caustic soda, sodalime, and for softening hard water.
• Calcium sulfate (CaSO4 ×2H2O), known as gypsum, loses a part of its water of
crystallization when heated up to 120°C, resulting in the formation of [CaSO 4]2 ×H2O,
commonly known as plaster of Paris. Gypsum is employed in the preparation of building
plaster, anhydride CaSO4, and is used for the manufacturing of ammonium sulfate (Sindri
fertilizer) and sulfuric acid.
• Plaster of Paris is a white powder that hardens into a solid mass when mixed with
water, and it is utilized in the production of statues, toys, as well as in medical
applications for setting fractured bones and in dentistry.
Some Important Metals and their Uses
Aluminium
• "Aluminium (Al) is the third most abundant element in Earth's crust, and it is extracted
from bauxite (Al2O3 ×2H2O).
• Due to its low cost and lightweight properties, aluminium is widely used in various
applications such as utensils, frames, bodies of automobiles, and aircraft.
• Additionally, aluminium powder finds use in fireworks, flash light powder, and thermite
welding. Aluminium acetate (red liquor) is used as a mordant in dyeing and calico
printing.
• Ammonal, which is a mixture of aluminium powder and ammonium nitrate, is utilized as
an explosive.
• Ruby and sapphire are composed primarily of aluminium oxide (Al2O3), with ruby being
red due to the presence of chromium (Cr) and sapphire being blue due to iron (Fe) and
titanium (Ti). Emerald, on the other hand, is green and contains calcium (Ca), chromium
(Cr), and aluminium silicates (Al2SiO3).

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Iron
• Iron (Fe) is extracted from its haematite ore and is a reactive metal that does not occur
in its free state.
• Cast iron, which is obtained from haematite oxide ore, is the most impure form of iron
and contains approximately 2.5-4% carbon.
• Wrought iron or malleable iron, on the other hand, is the purest form of iron and
contains the minimum amount of carbon, ranging from 0.12-0.5%.
• Iron (II) is a component of haemoglobin, which is found in blood.
• Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni), and is commonly
used for making automobile parts and utensils. Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is utilized as a
stypic to stop bleeding from cuts, and ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) is used in the production
of blue-black ink.

Copper, Silver, and Gold (Cu, Ag, Au)


• Copper, silver, and gold (Cu, Ag, and Au) are commonly referred to as coinage metals.
• Gold and silver are resistant to tarnish from exposure to air, while copper may develop a
greenish film over time.
• These metals are known to form alloys with each other and with other metals, and are
widely used in jewelry, coin minting, and decorative pieces.
• Silver and gold also find applications in Ayurvedic medicines, with silver being used as an
amalgam for dental fillings and in the silvering process for mirrors.
• Silver bromide (AgBr) is used in photography, while AgNO3, known as lunar caustic, is
used in the preparation of marking inks and hair dyes.
• Copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution mixed with lime is known as bordeaux mixture,
which is used as a fungicide. CuSO4 5H2O, also known as blue vitriol or nila thotha, and
CuFeS2, known as fool's gold, are other compounds of copper.
• The purity of gold is expressed in carats, with pure gold being 24 carats.

Lead
• Lead (Pb) is primarily found in the form of sulphide ore known as galena (PbS).
• Lead is used in various applications such as in the production of chambers for the
chamber process of sulphuric acid (H2SO4), lead pigments, bullets, lead accumulators,
and more.
• Lead blocks are also used for shielding against harmful emissions from radioactive
minerals.
• Red lead (also known as minium or sindhur) is Pb3O4, and it is used for making
protective paint for iron and in the match industry.

Alloys
• An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal that is formed by
melting the constituents together and then solidifying the mixture to obtain desired
properties such as improved strength, durability, corrosion resistance, and other
characteristics not found in pure metals.

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Commonly used alloys:

Alloy Name Composition Uses


Brass Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) Plumbing fixtures, musical
instruments, decorative items
Bronze Copper (Cu) and Tin (Sn) Statues, bells, bearings, marine
applications
Stainless Iron (Fe), Chromium (Cr), and Nickel Cutlery, cookware, industrial
Steel (Ni) equipment, construction materials
Steel Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C) Buildings, bridges, vehicles,
machinery, tools
Aluminum Aluminum (Al) and other elements Aircraft, automotive parts, beverage
Alloy such as Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), cans, construction materials
Magnesium (Mg), and others
Titanium Titanium (Ti) and other elements such Aerospace applications, medical
Alloy as Aluminum (Al), Vanadium (V), and implants, sports equipment
others
Solder Tin (Sn) and Lead (Pb) Joining metal parts, electronics
Monel Nickel (Ni) and Copper (Cu) Marine applications, chemical
processing equipment

Non-Metals
• Non-metals can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous states (with bromine being the only
liquid non-metal). Other important characteristics of non-metals include the following:
• They are generally soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non-sonorous, and poor conductors of heat
and electricity.
• They have low melting and boiling points compared to metals.
• Non-metals form oxides with oxygen that are typically acidic in nature.
• Examples of non-metals include noble gases such as helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), as well as some other p-block elements such as chlorine (Cl2),
bromine (Br2), and phosphorus (P), among others.

Some important non-metals


Hydrogen
• Hydrogen is a non-metal that can become metallic under very high pressure. It
constitutes about 10% of the weight of living organisms and is the most abundant
element in the universe, accounting for 70% of the universe's total mass.
• In the combined state, it is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust.
Hydrogen is also a fundamental constituent of the sun and stars.
• Hydrogen has three isotopes: protium (H1), deuterium (H2), and tritium (H3). Protium
has a mass number of 1. Deuterium, also known as heavy hydrogen, has a mass number
of 2. Tritium is a rare isotope of hydrogen that is radioactive, with a mass number of 3
(all 3 have same atomic number of 1)

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Compounds of Hydrogen
Water
• Water constitutes a significant portion of living beings, ranging from about 65% in
humans to up to 95% in some hydrophytes.
• Water exists in nature in three physical states: ice (solid), water (liquid), and water vapor
(gas). It is a colorless, mobile, and volatile liquid with unique properties that result from
extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules.
• Drinking water is typically purified through methods such as boiling, chlorination,
ozonization, or ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet radiation can effectively inactivate
harmful microorganisms in water, making it safe for drinking.
• Water can be classified into two types: soft water, which forms lather with soap, and
hard water, which does not.
o Hardness of water can be temporary, caused by the presence of bicarbonates of
calcium or magnesium, or permanent, caused by the presence of chlorides or
sulphates of calcium or magnesium.

Heavy Water
• Heavy water (D2O) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid that is found in about
6000 parts of ordinary water per part.
• Due to the higher nuclear mass of deuterium compared to hydrogen, and the stronger H-
bonding in heavy water, nearly all physical constants of D2O are higher than those of
ordinary water (H2O).
• Chemically, heavy water reacts more slowly than water due to the isotopic effect.
• The effects of heavy water are significant in biochemical reactions, as it impacts various
biological processes. Seeds do not germinate in heavy water, the rate of fermentation
decreases, the growth of bio-organisms is retarded, and aquatic animals such as tadpoles
and fish die in heavy water.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)


• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), also known as oxygenated water, is found in trace amounts in
the atmosphere, plants, rains, snow, etc. It decomposes in the presence of light, and
therefore, is stored in dark-colored plastic or wax-lined bottles.
• 30% hydrogen peroxide (perhydrol) is used as a germicide and antiseptic for wounds,
ears, and teeth, as well as a preservative for milk and protein. It is also used as a
bleaching agent for wool and other soft materials.

Carbon
• Carbon, symbolized by C, is a member of group 14 or IV A in the periodic table.
• Carbon can be found in both free state, such as in coal, diamond, and graphite, as well as
in combined state, such as in carbonates, carbon dioxide, petroleum, and other
compounds.
• Carbon exhibits two crystalline allotropes, diamond and graphite, which have distinct
structures and properties.

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Allotropes of Carbon:
1. Diamond, the purest form of carbon, is the hardest substance known and a poor
conductor of electricity. It finds applications in jewelry making, glass cutting, and as an
abrasive in graphite.
2. Graphite, which is prepared artificially in large quantities through the Acheson process,
is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors,
as a dry lubricant, in pencils, as electrodes, and in crucibles.
3. Fullerene (C60) has a soccer ball or bucky ball-like structure, consisting of 20 six-
membered and 12 five-membered rings of carbon atoms. It acts as an excellent lubricant,
and alkali metal compounds of C60 are used as superconducting materials.
4. Graphene, an allotrope of carbon, has a one-atom-thick structure with densely packed
carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb crystal lattice. Graphene is a two-dimensional
material with high conductivity, and it is used as a conducting material in touch screens,
LCDs, and LEDs.

Compounds of Carbon:
1. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, neutral, and highly poisonous gas. It
combines with hemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin, which is cherry-
colored and unable to absorb oxygen, resulting in suffocation (asphyxia).
o Low-level poisoning can cause headaches and drowsiness, while high-level
poisoning may be fatal.
o Deaths in closed rooms with wood, coal, or coke fires, or in closed bathrooms
with gas geysers, are often caused by carbon monoxide formation.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) occurs in the air at concentrations of 0.03-0.05%. It is found in
caves, mines, and volcanic emissions, and is produced from the burning of carbon and
carbonaceous matter, decay of vegetable matter, and animal respiration.
o Solid CO2, also known as dry ice, is a soft, white, snow-like substance. It is used
in refrigeration under the name "drikold" and in the transport of perishable food
items as it provides both cold temperature and an inert atmosphere that helps
kill bacteria, fungi, and molds.
o Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere through processes such as
respiration, combustion, fermentation, and decay of plants and animals.
o In the presence of sunlight, green plants take in CO2 from the atmosphere and
water from the soil, and with the help of chlorophyll, convert it into glucose,
starch, and cellulose through photosynthesis, releasing oxygen into the
atmosphere.

Oxygen
• Oxygen (O2) is a crucial component of the Earth's atmosphere, constituting
approximately 21% of the volume, as well as being present in the oceans and Earth's
crust. The majority of atmospheric oxygen is generated through the process of
photosynthesis by green plants.
• Oxygen exists in two molecular allotropic forms: the most stable form is the diatomic
molecule (O2), while the less stable form is the triatomic molecule O3, known as ozone.
o The upper layer of the atmosphere is where Ozone (O3) is produced through the
interaction of oxygen and UV rays emitted by the sun. Ozone plays a crucial role
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in safeguarding life on Earth by preventing harmful UV rays from penetrating the
planet. Unfortunately, the use of common refrigerants such as
chlorofluorocarbons has contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer.
• Dioxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and non-inflammable gas, but it acts as a
supporter of combustion. Oxygen readily forms compounds by combining with various
elements.
• All living beings obtain oxygen from the air. Inhaled oxygen dissolves in the blood as
oxyhemoglobin and is transported to every cell in the body, where it plays a crucial role
in carrying out metabolic activities.
• Oxygen is used in life-support systems in hospitals and for underwater diving by divers,
miners, and mountaineers to provide necessary oxygen for breathing. Additionally, liquid
oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon is used as a substitute for dynamite in coal
mining.

Nitrogen
• Nitrogen (N2) is a significant component of air, constituting approximately 79% of the
volume. It is also an essential element in plants and animal proteins. Nitrogen is a
colorless, odorless, and non-poisonous gas.
• In its combined state, nitrogen is found in the form of nitrates, such as sodium nitrate
(NaNO3) known as Chile saltpetre, potassium nitrate (KNO3) known as Indian saltpetre,
and ammonium salts.
• Nitrogen is chemically inert and neutral towards litmus. It reacts with other elements
only at high temperatures.

Some uses of nitrogen:


• Manufacturing of nitric acid, ammonia, and other nitrogen compounds.
• Use as a refrigerant in liquid form.
• Providing an inert atmosphere in various metallurgical operations.
• Use in the manufacturing of gas thermometers and filling electric bulbs.

Compounds of Nitrogen:
• Ammonia, an important nitrogen compound, is commercially prepared from nitrogen
and hydrogen using Haber's process. It is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent
odor and high solubility in water. Its aqueous solution is alkaline in nature.
o Ammonia is used in various applications, including refrigeration, manufacturing
of fertilizers and explosives, and in nitrogen fixation, which involves the
conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates by lightning and nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.
• Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are formed by the reaction between nitrogen and
oxygen during lightning. These oxides are carried to the soil by rainwater, where they are
neutralized by lime in the soil to form calcium nitrate, which is used by plants.

Nitrogen Cycle:
• Symbiotic bacteria present in the root nodules of leguminous plants convert atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrogen compounds. Some bacteria, such as azobacter found in the soil,
convert nitrates back into nitrogen, which returns to the atmosphere.

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• Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrates and convert it into plant
proteins. Herbivorous animals then consume these plants as food.
• Dead plant and animal remains, as well as animal excreta, are decomposed into nitrates
by bacteria. This process continues the nitrogen cycle in nature.

Metalloids
• Metalloids exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals. There is no universally
accepted definition of metalloids, and there is ongoing debate about which elements
should be classified as such.
• Their physical and chemical properties are often intermediate in nature.
• The six commonly recognized metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium.
• Other elements such as carbon, aluminum, polonium, and astatine are sometimes also
considered as metalloids.
• On a standard periodic table, these elements can be found in a diagonal region of the p-
block, extending from boron to astatine.
• Metalloids generally have a metallic appearance, but they are brittle and exhibit only fair
conductivity of electricity.
• Chemically, they mostly behave as weak non-metals. They can also form alloys with
metals.
• Metalloids and their compounds find applications in various fields such as alloys,
biological agents, flame retardants, glasses, optical storage, pyrotechnics,
semiconductors, and electronics.

Acid and Base


• In our daily life, we come across a wide variety of substances such as lemon, tamarind,
common salt, sugar, baking soda and vinegar. The substances that taste sour are called
acids (the word "acid" is derived from the Latin word "acere" which means "sour").
• Substances like baking soda have a bitter taste and feel soapy when rubbed between
fingers. Such bitter substances are basic in nature and are known as bases. —
• Acids that are obtained from plants and animals are referred to as organic acids, such as
lactic acid, oxalic acid, acetic acid, uric acid, etc.
• Acids that are obtained from minerals are referred to as mineral acids, such as sulphuric
acid (H2SO4), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), etc.

Different Concepts of Acids & Bases


Concept Acid Base
Arrhenius Capable of furnishing H+ ions Capable of furnishing OH− ions
Ex: HCl, H2SO4 Ex: NaOH, NH4OH
Bronsted Lowry Capable of donating a proton Capable of accepting a proton
Ex: NH3+H2O ⇆NH4++OH- Ex: NH3+H2O ⇆NH4++OH-
H2O is the Acid as it donates a proton NH3 is the base as it receives a
proton
Lewis Can accept an electron pair Can donate an electron pair
Ex: BF3, AlCl3, CO2, SO2 Ex: F−, Cl−, I−, Br−, water, alcohols

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Acids & Bases in Everyday substances

Name of Acid/Base Found in


Acetic acid Vinegar
Citric acid Citrus fruits (lemons, oranges, etc.)
Ascorbic acid Vitamin C supplements
Hydrochloric acid Stomach acid
Sulfuric acid Battery acid
Carbonic acid Carbonated beverages (soda, sparkling water, etc.)
Lactic acid Sour milk products (yogurt, sour cream, etc.)
Formic acid Ant’s sting

Oxalic acid Spinach


Tartaric Acid Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes
Ammonia Cleaning products
Sodium hydroxide Drain cleaners
Calcium hydroxide Cement, mortar
Baking soda Baking powder, antacid
Toothpaste Contains various acids and bases for oral health
Soap Contains basic salts for cleaning
Antacids Over-the-counter medications used to neutralize stomach acid

Indicators
• Indicators are special substances used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic, as
we cannot taste every substance to determine its properties. When added to a solution
containing an acidic or basic substance, indicators undergo a color change.
• Naturally occurring indicators such as turmeric, litmus (extracted from lichens), and
China rose petals (gudhal) can be used for this purpose.
• Common examples of acid-base indicators include methyl orange, methyl red,
phenolphthalein, litmus, and bromocresol green.
• Not all indicators are suitable for all situations. For instance, phenolphthalein may not be
suitable if the base is weak, such as in the case of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), while
methyl orange may not be suitable for weak acids like acetic acid (CH3COOH).
pH Scale
• The pH scale is a measurement of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Acid and
base indicators are helpful in distinguishing between acids and bases, but the strength of
an acidic or basic solution is expressed using the pH scale.
• Solutions with a pH value less than 7 are considered acidic, while solutions with a pH
value greater than 7 are considered basic or alkaline.
• A pH value of 7 is considered neutral, and pure water typically has a pH very close to 7.

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7. Chemistry in Everyday life
Chemicals play a vital role in everyday life, from the food we eat to the medicine and the various
products we use. From simple personal care items such as shampoo, toothpaste, and deodorants
to the manufacturing of materials for various complex activities such as pesticides, explosives,
and biological medicine – knowledge of chemicals leads to a more sophisticated and comfortable
life and civilization.

Synthetic Materials
• Synthetic materials refer to materials that are human-made using natural resources.
• Examples of synthetic materials include cement, glass, fertilizers, pesticides, polymers,
cosmetics, medicines, dyes, soaps, detergents, and various chemicals used in food and
beverages.

Cement
• Cement is a weighty, greyish powder composed of calcium aluminates and silicates, first
discovered in 1824 by an English mason, Joseph Aspdin, who named it Portland cement
because of its similarity to Portland limestone.
Composition of Portland
Component Percentage
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60-70%
Silica (SiO2) 20-25%
Alumina (Al2O3) 5-10%
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2-3%

• The manufacturing process of cement involves raw materials such as limestone, clay, and
gypsum. Limestone provides lime, clay offers alumina and silica, and gypsum reduces the
setting time of cement.
• When water is mixed with cement, it becomes a hard mass after setting, an exothermic
process that requires cooling for up to seven days by sprinkling water.
• Mortar, which is a blend of cement, sand, and water, is used for plastering walls and
binding bricks and stones. On the other hand, concrete is a mixture of cement, sand,
gravel, or small stones, and water, used for constructing floors.
• Reinforced concrete is a structure comprising wet concrete embedded with iron rods,
which provides great strength and is commonly used in the construction of roofs,
bridges, gutters, among others, sometimes with the addition of asbestos, wire mesh,
bamboo, etc., for reinforcement.
Glass
• Glass is a brittle and hard material with a typically transparent and amorphous structure
(lacking definite crystalline structure), classified as a super-cooled liquid of silicates.
• Ordinary glass, also known as soda glass, has an average composition represented by the
formula Na2O-CaO-6SiO2.
• The raw materials used in making glass include sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate,
and sand.

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• Glass can be etched(to create a design or pattern on the surface of the glass) by using
hydrofluoric acid (HF) due to its ability to attack glass.

Manure and Nutrients —


• Manure contains large amounts of organic matter and provides small quantities of
nutrients to the soil. The bulk of organic matter present in manure helps in improving the
soil structure.
• There are two types of manure: compost and vermicompost. —
• Soil supplies 13 mineral nutrients to the plants. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and sulphur are macronutrients as they are required in large
quantities.
• Iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, and chlorine are micronutrients as
they are required in small quantities. —
• Continuous cultivation of crops makes the soil deficient in certain nutrients. Therefore,
farmers have to add manure and fertilisers to replenish the soil with nutrients.

Chemicals in Agriculture

Fertilisers
• Fertilisers are chemical substances that are rich in a particular nutrient. They supply
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
• Continuous use of fertilisers in an area can deplete the soil fertility.
• A chemical fertiliser should be completely soluble in water, easily assimilated by plants,
and stable so that the elements are retained in the soil for a longer duration. It should not
disturb the pH of the soil. —
• Major nitrogenous fertilisers are ammonium sulphate, calcium cyanamide, basic calcium
nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate, and urea. —
• Urea is the best fertiliser as it leaves only carbon dioxide after the ammonia has been
assimilated by plants. It has 46.6% nitrogen and does not alter the pH of the soil. —
• The mixture of Ca(CN)2 and C is known as nitrolim.
• Commercially, calcium nitrate is known as Norwegian saltpetre.
• Calcium superphosphate, nitro phosphate, triple phosphate, and phosphatic slag
(Thomas slag) are some important phosphatic fertilisers.
• NPK fertilizers refer to a combination of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potash fertilizers
in appropriate proportions.
• NP fertilizers, on the other hand, are created by blending nitrogenous and phosphatic
fertilizers in specific proportions.
• Calcium superphosphate and dihydrogen ammoniated phosphate are some of the
examples of NP fertilizers.—

Pesticides
• Pesticides are chemical substances used to kill, repel or control pests such as insects,
weeds, rodents, and fungi. They can be synthetic or derived from natural sources.

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• Some common examples of pesticides include glyphosate, malathion, pyrethroids, and
neonicotinoids.

Explosives
• Explosives are chemical compounds or mixtures designed to undergo rapid exothermic
reactions, resulting in a large amount of gas, heat, and pressure, and often accompanied
by a loud noise.
• Explosives are classified as primary, secondary, and teritiary explosives based on their
sensitivity to initiation.
• Primary explosives require the least amount of energy for initiation. Hence they are used
in detonators.
• Some examples of explosives include TNT (trinitrotoluene), RDX (cyclotrimethylene-
trinitramine) and nitroglycerin.
• Explosives have various applications in mining, construction, military, and demolition
industries.

FireCrackers
• A fire cracker is an explosive device that is intended to produce a loud bang noise, while
any visual effects are secondary.
• Typically, they are composed of cardboards or plastics and black powder acts as the
propellant, which comprises potassium nitrate (KNO3), charcoal, and sulfur. The
effectiveness of the firecracker depends on its tight packing.
Polymers
• Polymers are substances that are composed of multiple repeating units of monomers (a
building block molecule that combines with other molecules).
• The term "polymer" is derived from the Greek words "poly" which means many and
"mer" which means unit or part.
• They have a wide range of applications including the production of plastic toys, cups,
buckets, synthetic clothing materials, machine parts, automobile tires, gears, seals, and
electrical insulating materials.
• Polymers play a significant role in various industries such as plastics, fibers, elastomers,
paints, and varnishes.
• Polymerization is the process by which a polymer is formed, involving the union of a
large number of molecules of one or two types of low molecular weight monomers. The
resulting compound has a high molecular weight.

Types of Polymers
• Polymers can be classified into two main types: natural and synthetic polymers.
• Natural polymers are present in nature, and examples include cellulose, starch, rubber,
wool, and silk.
• Synthetic polymers are chemically synthesized by humans, and examples include
polythene, nylon, orlon, dacron, and melamine.
• Synthetic polymers can be further categorized into two types: thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastics.

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• Thermoplastics can be softened on heating and harden on cooling, which makes them
suitable for reshaping, remolding, and recasting.
o These polymers are formed by the addition polymerization of compounds that
have terminal double bonds, such as polythene, nylon, celluloid, and polystyrene.
• Thermosetting plastics, on the other hand, can only be molded into a desired shape
once, and they cannot be reused because they harden on heating and may start to burn
on prolonged heating.
o These types of polymers are formed by condensation polymerization, and
examples include glyptal, bakelite, melamine, and terylene.
Soaps
• Soaps are salts of higher fatty acids like oleic acid, stearic acid, and palmitic acid, which
are made by saponification of glycerides.
• Glycerides are esters of higher fatty acids with glycerol, which are found in oils and fats.
Sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are commonly used for cleaning
purposes. Examples of important soaps include sodium palmitate, sodium stearate, and
sodium oleate. To make soap, oils or fats are heated with a 20% NaOH solution, and
sodium chloride is added to separate out the soap. To give soap certain characteristics,
perfumes, disinfectants, and medicines may be added.
• The saponification reaction produces glycerol, which is a useful chemical by-product.
Builders such as sodium carbonate and trisodium phosphate can enhance the soap's
activity. Toilet soaps are made from better quality fats and oils, and perfumes and colors
are added to improve their appearance. Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the
soap in ethanol and then evaporating the excess ethanol. Some soaps contain medicinal
substances, while others, like shaving soaps, have glycerol added to prevent rapid drying
and rosin added to help it form lather. Laundry soaps may contain ingredients like
sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax, and sodium carbonate.

Chemistry MCQs

Exercise - I 1. rain water


1. With reference to Click chemistry, 2. pure water
consider the following statements: 3. milk of magnesia
1. It can produce exact copies of Select the correct answer using the code
natural chemicals. given below:
2. It can be used to create a plastic a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
that can conduct electricity. c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
3. It can help in the treatment of
cancer in the human body. 3. OPCW stands for Organisation for the
Which of the statements given above Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Which
is/are correct? of the following statements is/are correct
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 1 and 2 only with reference to OPCW?
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only 1. OPCW is an informal group under
the United Nations framework.
2. Which of the following substances turn 2. OPCW provides assistance and
blue litmus paper to red? protection to its Member States
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 432
against chemical threats and 1. Formalin is a chemical that is derived
promotes the peaceful use of from formaldehyde.
chemistry. 2. Formalin is a recognized carcinogenic
3. OPCW can perform testing of sites agent.
and victims of suspected chemical 3. Formalin is utilized to extend the shelf
weapons attacks to determine if life of perishable foods.
chemical weapons were used.
4. OPCW reports to the United Which of the above statements is/are
Nations General Assembly and correct?
the United Nations Security a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
Council through the office of the c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 only
Secretary-General.
Select the correct answer using the codes 7. How do aerosols differ from respiratory
given below: droplets in transmitting viruses?
a) 1, 2 and 3 only b) 1, 3 and 4 only 1. Aerosols are smaller in size than
c) 2, 3 and 4 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 respiratory droplets.
2. Aerosols remain suspended in the air
for a longer period than respiratory
4. They are various structural forms of the
droplets.
same element that can display contrasting
Which of the statements given above
physical properties and chemical
is/are correct?
behaviors. These different forms are
influenced by familiar forces such as a) 1 only b) 2 only
pressure, light, and temperature, which c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
trigger their transformations. The notion
was initially put forth by Jons Jakob 8. What identification marks are present in
Berzelius, a Swedish scientist, in 1841. Hallmarked Gold Jewellery?
What is being referred to in the above 1. BIS mark.
passage? 2. Purity in carat.
a) Isotopes b) Allotropes 3. Assaying Centre’s identification
c) Isobars d) Isotones number.
4. Jeweller’s identification mark.
Choose the correct option:
5. Which of the following laws or acts are
relevant to safeguarding against chemical a) 1, 2 and 3 only b) 2, 3 and 4 only
disasters in India? c) 1, 3 and 4 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. The Environment (Protection) Act of
1986 9. Which of the following statements about
2. The Public Liability Insurance Act of phosphine, a gas discovered in Venus'
1991 atmosphere by recent research, is/are
3. The National Environment Appellate accurate?
Authority Act of 1997 1. Phosphine is regarded as a biomarker
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only of life.
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 only 2. Phosphine cannot be produced through
industrial processes.
6. Which of the following statements a) 1 only b) 2 only
accurately describe Formalin? c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2

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10. Consider the following statements about 14. Which of the following statements
styrene. regarding quarks is/are correct?
1. Breathing in styrene can lead to 1. Quarks are elementary particles that
health problems. come in six flavors: up, down, charm,
2. Styrene is a key component used to strange, top, and bottom.
manufacture polystyrene. 2. The Large Hadron Collider beauty
Choose the correct statement(s) from the (LHCb) experiment investigates the
options given below: slight difference between matter and
a) 1 only b) 2 only antimatter by studying the "beauty
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 quark" particle.
3. Protons and electrons are elementary
11. Which of the following statements about particles made up of three different
Vanadium is/are correct? quarks.
1. Vanadium alloys are used in nuclear a) 1 and 2 only b) 1 only
reactors. c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Vanadium is used to manufacture
steel alloys. 15. Which of the following elements are
3. India is the world's largest producer radioactive?
and exporter of vanadium. 1. Hassium
2. Promethium
a) 1 and 3 only b) 1 and 2 only 3. Technetium
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 4. Zirconium
5. Nobelium
12. Which of the statements below about Choose the correct answer from the
surfactants is true? options below:
a) They are chemicals that are surface a) 1, 2 and 3 only
active and can form foam. b) 4 and 5 only
b) They decrease the surface tension c) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
between two liquids. d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
c) They are utilized to tackle the
problem of foaming in sewage 16. Regarding lithium, which of the following
treatment. statements is/are true?
d) They are soluble in water but 1. Lithium is the lightest metal on earth.
insoluble in organic solvents. 2. Excess intake of lithium can cause
black foot disease.
13. Consider the following statements about 3. The lithium triangle region consists of
Aqua regia: Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia.
1. Aqua regia is a mixture of Nitric acid a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
and Sulphuric acid. c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Aqua regia is known as royal water.
3. Aqua regia can dissolve gold. 17. With reference to Bisphenol A (BPA),
Which of the statements given above consider the following statements :
is/are correct? 1. It is a colourless crystalline solid
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only insoluble in organic solvents.
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only 2. It is used to manufacture polycarbonate
plastics and resins.

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Which of the statements given above 2. It is made from natural dyes extracted
is/are correct ? from lichens.
a) 1 only b) 2 only 3. It can accurately provide the pH value
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 of any solution.
Which of the statements given above
18. Generally, curd is not kept in brass and is/arecorrect?
copper vessels. Which of the following is a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
the most probable reason for not keeping c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
curd in brass and copper vessels?
a) Curd contains Lactic acid which can 20. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is considered a
react with copper & brass to produce better fire extinguisher than water to
harmful products. extinguish fire triggered by electrical
b) Tartaric acid in curd reacts with equipment. Which of the following best
copper & brass to produce harmful gases. describes the reason for this?
c) Curd primarily contains Acetic acid, a) Nontoxicity of CO2 even in high
which becomes harmful when it reacts concentration reduces the damage caused
with brass and copper. to humans trapped in fire.
d) Ascorbic acid in the curd reacts with b) CO2 fire extinguishers can extinguish
copper & brass to produce toxic flammable liquid fires, flammable solids,
compounds. and flammable gases.
c) CO2 will cut down the contact between
19. With reference to ‘Litmus Paper’, consider oxygen and burning object as it is heavier
the following statements: than Oxygen.
1. It is a type of pH indicator that is used d) Compared to water, more amount of
to test the acidity or basicity of a solution. CO2 can be stored in the given space.

Exercise – I Key

1. c 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. c
11. b 12. a 13. c 14. a 15. c 16. c 17. b 18. a 19. b 20. c

Explanations
1. The scientists, Carolyn R Bertozzi, Morten Meldal and K Barry Sharpless, have been awarded
the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, 2022 for their work in click chemistry.
Statement 1 is incorrect: Click chemistry cannot provide exact copies of natural molecules.
However, by using click chemistry it is possible to produce molecules that fulfil the same
functions.
Statement 2 and 3 are correct: Click chemistry reactions are now used to create plastics that
can conduct electricity by adding a chemical azide. Manufacturers can also make them water
proof by adding a chemical alkyne.
It can now be used to treat cancer. Bertozzi used click chemistry to make a product that can
be used to study glycans attached to the lymph nodes in the human body. The product
developed by her using click chemistry are now used by researchers across the world to
treat cancers.

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2. Acidic solutions are those that have pH value less than 7 and basic solutions or bases have pH
more than 7. An acid/acidic substance turns Blue litmus paper to red and a base/basic
substance turns red litmus paper to blue. As rainwater is mildly acidic (pH<7), it will turn the
blue litmus paper to red. Pure water has pH=7 and hence it will have no effect on the colour
of the litmus paper. Milk of magnesia is a basic solution with pH>7 and hence it will also not
react with the blue litmus paper.

3. Statement 1 is wrong. OPCW is an intergovernmental organization responsible for


implementing the Chemical Weapons Convention, which has 193 member countries, and is
not a UN organization. Statement 2 is correct, OPCW's objectives are to destroy all chemical
weapons, monitor chemical industry to prevent chemical weapons, provide assistance and
protection against chemical threats, and foster international cooperation.
Statement 3 is correct, OPCW can perform inspections and testing of sites and victims of
suspected chemical weapons attacks. Statement 4 is correct. OPCW reports to the UN
through the office of the Secretary-General under the 2001 Relationship Agreement. India's
CAG GC Murmu was chosen as an external auditor to the OPCW for a three-year term starting
in 2021.

4. Allotropes are distinct forms of a chemical element that can exist in the same physical state,
resulting from varying arrangements of atoms and their bonding. Allotropes can exhibit
stark differences in their chemical and physical properties. For instance, graphite and
diamond are allotropes of carbon that both exist in the solid state, with graphite being soft
and diamond being extremely hard. Another class of carbon allotropes includes fullerene.
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons (atomic mass) but differing numbers of
neutrons. Isobars are atoms of different chemical elements having equal values for atomic
mass. Isotopes have the same atomic number. Isobars have different atomic numbers.
Isotonesare atomic species that share the same number of neutrons, and differ in the number
of protons.

5. Statement 1 is correct as the Environment Protection Act of 1986 authorizes the central
government to take measures for preserving the environment, setting standards and
inspecting industrial units. Additionally, two rules - the Manufacture, Storage and Import of
Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 (MSIHC) and the Chemical Accidents (Emergency,
Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules, 1996 (EPPR) have been established under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to ensure chemical safety.
Statement 2 is also correct as the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 mandates that
hazardous units must have an insurance policy and deposit an equal amount in the
Environment Relief Fund to provide immediate relief to victims of chemical accidents.
Statement 3 is correct as the National Environment Appellate Authority Act of 1997 creates
the National Environment Appellate Authority, which can hear appeals regarding the
restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes shall or shall not be
carried out subject to certain safeguards under EPA, 1986.

6. Statement 1 is correct. Formalin is a chemical that is obtained from formaldehyde, which is a


harsh-smelling gas and is present in a 37% aqueous (water) solution. It has the chemical

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formula HCHO and is used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, and primarily as a fixative for
histology, which is the study of tissues under the microscope.
Statement 2 is also true. If consumed in excessive amounts over a prolonged period, it has
been found to be carcinogenic.
Statement 3 is correct as well. It is used to extend the shelf life of food, particularly fish, on
fishing vessels in the ocean.

7. Aerosols are particles suspended in the air, including fine dust, mist, or smoke. In terms of
virus transmission, aerosols refer to micro droplets, which are much smaller (5 microns or
less) than respiratory droplets. Hence, statement 1 is correct. They are expelled when people
breathe, laugh or sing, while respiratory droplets are expelled through forceful acts like
sneezing or coughing. Compared to respiratory droplets, aerosols take a longer time to fall to
the floor and can remain suspended in the air for longer periods. Hence, statement 2 is
correct.

8. Hallmarking in India involves accurately determining and officially recording the proportion
of precious metal in articles made of precious metals. The official marks used in India
guarantee the purity or fineness of precious metal articles. Currently, only two precious
metals, gold and silver, are brought under the purview of hallmarking in India. Gold
Hallmarked Jewellery consists of four marks, which are: the BIS mark, purity in carat and
fineness for gold (such as 22K916, 18K750, 14K585), the assay centre's identification
mark/number, and the jeweller's identification mark/number.

9. Statement 1 is correct. Phosphine, a gas discovered in Venus' atmosphere, is considered a


biomarker of life as it is produced by anaerobic bacteria which can inhabit oxygen-sparse
environments. Phosphine is composed of one phosphorus atom and three hydrogen atoms,
similar to ammonia.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Phosphine can be produced through industrial processes, in
addition to being produced by bacteria that survive without oxygen. Phosphine is a colorless,
pungent-smelling gas, known to be generated by certain bacteria species.

10. The Visakhapatnam gas leak, which occurred at the LG Polymers chemical plant, was caused
by styrene gas. Statement 1 is correct, as inhaling styrene can cause various health problems
like eye irritation, respiratory issues, nausea, and even cancer in rodents. Statement 2 is
correct - styrene is a key raw material for polystyrene synthesis and is also used in the
production of fiberglass, rubber, and latex. It is found in natural foods and cigarette smoke,
as well as vehicle exhaust. Styrene is a flammable gas stored in factories as a liquid, which
easily evaporates and requires storage under 20°C.

11. Vanadium has various applications. Statement 1 is correct because vanadium alloys are used
in nuclear reactors due to their low neutron-absorbing properties, and vanadium pentoxide
is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.
Statement 2 is correct because vanadium is mainly used to produce specialty steel alloys.
However, statement 3 is incorrect as China is the largest producer and consumer of
vanadium, followed by Russia and South Africa. While India is a significant consumer of
vanadium, it is not a primary producer of the metal.

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12. Surfactants are chemicals that are surface-active and can form froth. They are often found in
synthetic detergents, and they are a problem in sewage treatment plants and natural streams
because of their ability to form froth. The conventional alkyl benzene sulfonate surfactants
are persistent, and although they are slowly broken down by natural stream organisms, they
remain a problem.
Surfactants are amphiphilic molecules, meaning that their heads are polar or hydrophilic,
while their tails are hydrophobic. They are soluble in both water and organic solvents. The
surfactant reduces the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-gas interface.
Therefore, the correct option is (a).

13. Aqua regia is a solution composed of a 3:1 mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCL) and nitric acid
(HNO3). Therefore, Statement 1 is not correct.
Aqua regia is commonly known as royal water in Latin. Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
Aqua regia is capable of dissolving noble metals such as gold, platinum, and palladium from
substrates, and is used in microfabrications and microelectronics labs for this purpose. It is
one of the few reagents that can dissolve gold and platinum. However, it should be handled
with extreme caution as it is highly corrosive and may cause explosions or skin burns. Hence,
Statement 3 is correct.

14. Quarks are the smallest known building blocks of the Universe and are elementary particles.
The standard model currently recognizes six flavors of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top,
and bottom. Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.
The Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) experiment focuses on investigating the slight
differences between matter and antimatter by studying a type of quark called the "beauty
quark" or "b quark,". Hence, Statement 2 is correct.
Leptons, such as electrons, muons, and taus, are elementary particles that carry one unit of
electric charge or are neutral. Protons and neutrons, on the other hand, are composed of 3
quarks each (of two kinds of quarks, up and down quarks). Protons consist of two up quarks
and a down quark, while neutrons consist of two down quarks and an up quark. Therefore,
Statement 3 is not correct, as electrons are not made up of quarks.

15. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei disintegrate spontaneously to form more
stable atomic nuclei with the emission of radiation. Hassium, Promethium, Technetium, and
Nobelium are radioactive elements. It is to be noted that
Technetium is the least atomic numbered radioactive element with
an atomic number of 43.
Zirconium, on the other hand, is a non-radioactive, hard, silvery
metal used in making ceramics and as a semi-precious gemstone.
Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer.

16. Lithium is the lightest metal on earth with a density of 0.534


g/cm3, making it the least dense metal. Therefore, Statement 1 is
correct. However, excess intake of lithium can cause lithium
toxicity, but it is not linked to black foot disease. Therefore,
Statement 2 is incorrect.

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The Lithium Triangle is a remote region that spans Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia, containing
over 63% of the world's lithium reserves, with Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni having the richest
lithium deposits. Hence, Statement 3 is correct.

17. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical compound that is commonly utilized for producing different
types of plastics. It is a colorless solid that can dissolve in most organic solvents but has
limited solubility in water. Thus, Statement 1 is incorrect.
The major use of BPA is in the production of polycarbonate plastics, which are used in a wide
range of products such as shatterproof windows, eyewear, water bottles, and epoxy resins
that coat metal food cans, bottle tops, and water supply pipes. Therefore, Statement 2 is
correct..

18. Option a is correct: Curd is obtained from milk by coagulating milk through a process called
curdling.
Curd contains Lactic acid. When lactic acid in the curd reacts with the metals like Brass and
Copper, it causes corrosion and the creation of products that cannot be digested by the
human body.
Option b, c, and d are incorrect:
Tartaric Acid is an organic acid found in Tamarind and grapes.
Ascorbic acid is an antioxidant agent that functions in fighting bacterial infections, in
detoxifying reactions, and in the formation of collagen in fibrous tissues. It is found in citrus
fruits.
Acetic acid is also known as ethanoic acid. Acetic acid is a by-product of fermentation and
gives vinegar its characteristic odour.

19. Statement 1 is correct: Litmus paper is a simple and easy-to-use pH indicator that has been
used for centuries to test the acidity or basicity of a solution. When litmus paper is dipped
into an acidic solution, the dye in the paper changes color from blue to red. Conversely, when
litmus paper is dipped into a basic solution, the dye changes color from red to blue. The
paper can also be used to test the pH of a neutral solution, which will not change the color of
the paper.
Statement 2 is correct: Litmus paper is made from natural dyes extracted from lichens,
specifically Roccella tinctoria and Roccella pygmaea.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Litmus paper has a limitation of not showing the accurate pH value
of given solution. Litmus paper only shows whether a material is acidic or basic, while pH
strips specify the pH value (alkaline).

20. The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
To extinguish fire, the ignition temperature of the burning objects must be brought down
using certain materials. The most common materials used to extinguish fire are water, heavy
clothes, gases etc.,
Option a is incorrect: CO2 is a toxic gas and highly suffocating gas, whose concentration of
even 9% in the breathing air would make a person unconscious within minutes
Option b is incorrect: Co2 fire extinguishers can extinguish flammable liquid fires but are not
suitable for use on flammable solids, and flammable gases.

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Option c is correct: CO2 being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket thus the
contact between the fuel and oxygen will be cut off and the fire is controlled. Hence for fires
involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is
the best extinguisher.
Option d is incorrect: Although it is true that in the given space large amounts of CO2 can be
stored by compressing it, it is not the reason why CO2 was preferred over water to
extinguish fire caused by electrical equipment.

Exercise - II c) 1, 3 and 4 only d) 2 and 4 only


1. Which of the following is/are the
example/ examples of chemical change? 4. With respect to Isotopes and Isobars,
1. Crystallization of sodium chloride consider the following statements:
2. Melting of ice 1. Isotopes of an element have different
3. Souring of milk numbers of protons and neutrons in
Select the correct answer using the code nucleus.
given 2. Isobars are atoms of different elements
below. that have the same atomic number, but
a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only different atomic mass.
c) 1, 2 and 3 d) None 3. Isotopes can be used to study the
effects of different types of fertilizers on
plant growth.
2. With reference to ‘Non-Metals’, consider
the following statements: Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
1. The reaction of non-metals with oxygen
gives only acidic oxides. a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
2. Most non-metals do not react with c) 3 only d) 1 and 3 only
water under normal conditions.
3. All the existing non-metals do not react 5. With reference to Thermosetting and
with acid. Thermoplastics, consider the following
4. Non-metals react with base to form salt statements:
and water. 1. Thermoplastics are plastics that can
Which of the statements given above only be molded once and cannot be
is/are correct? remelted.
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 4 only 2. Thermosetting plastics can be melted
and reshaped multiple times, unlike
c) 4 only d) 2, 3 and 4 only
Thermoplastics, without losing their
properties.
3. With reference to different acids present
3. Nylon is an example of Thermoplastics,
in food, consider the following pairs:
while Bakelite is an example of
Food Source - Acids Thermosetting plastics.
1. Milk - Lactic Acid Which of the statements given above
2. Amla - Oxalic Acid is/are correct?
3. Grapes - Tartaric Acid a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
4. Spinach - Ascorbic acid c) 3 only d) 2 and 3 only
Which of the pairs given above are
correctly matched? 6. Consider the following pairs:
a) 1 and 3 only b) 1, 2 and 3 only

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Commonly used products: Poisonous Select the correct answer using the code
chemicals found in them given below.
1. Noodles : Lead a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 4 only
2. Air freshener: formaldehyde c) 1, 3 and 4 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
3. Cosmetics: Phenoxyethanol
4. Whey Proteins: Bisphenol-A 10. Which of the following is the reason for
How many pairs given above is/are the little chemical activity shown by noble
correctly matched? gases like Helium and Neon?
a) Only one Pair a) Absence of neutrons
b) Only two pairs b) Presence of completely filled valence
c) Only three pairs shell
d) All four pairs c) Presence of higher number of
electrons compared to protons
7. Colloidal solutions are mixtures in which d) Absence of protons
microscopically dispersed insoluble
particles of one substance are suspended
in another substance. Which of the 11. Which of the following statements about
following are examples of colloidal rare earth elements (REEs) are true?
solutions? 1. REEs are a group of 17 chemical
1. Cow milk elements that are essential for many
2. Milk of magnesia modern technologies, including
3. Blood smartphones, wind turbines, and electric
4. Tincture of iodine vehicles.
5. Shaving cream 2. China currently produces more than
Select the correct answer using the code 80% of the world's REEs, making it the
given below. dominant global supplier.
a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only 3. The rare earth elements are all metals.
b) 1, 3 and 4 only a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) 2, 4 and 5 only c) 1 and 2 only d) 1, 2, and 3
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
12. For which of the following reasons do
8. We feel burning pain when stung by Ant. chip manufacturers flush a bag of chips
Which of the following acid is responsible with nitrogen gas?
for the burning pain? a) To prevent growth of
a) Methanoic Acid b) Acetic Acid microorganisms.
c) Oxalic Acid d)Tartaric Acid b) To prevent oxidation of the chips.
c) To prevent reaction of salts in chips
9. “Sorbitol” has applications in which of with the inner layering of the packet.
the following? d) To enhance the flavour of the chips.
1. used as a sugar substitute in
confectionaries 13. Consider the following statements:
2. used as a natural anti-diarrheal 1. Both graphite and diamond are
3. used in the preparation of synthetic allotropes of carbon.
Vitamin-C
4. used as an ingredient in toothpaste

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2. Graphite is soft and has a greasy touch c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
while diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring substance. 17. Regarding solar cells, review the
3. Graphite is a bad conductor of following statements:
electricity while diamond is a very 1. Solar cells are devices composed of
good conductor of electricity. silicon that exhibit semi-conducting
Which of the statements given above properties.
is/are correct? 2. Solar photovoltaic cells generate
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only direct electricity through the
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 conversion of solar radiation.
3. The operation and maintenance costs
14. Syngas, a product formed by Coal of solar cells can be considerably high,
Gasification, is a mixture consisting rendering them less attractive for
primarily of: residential applications.
1. Carbon monoxide Which of the above statements is/are
2. Ammonium correct?
3. Carbon dioxide a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
4. Hydrogen c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct? 18. Cloud seeding employs which of the
a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 b) 1, 2 and 3 only following chemicals?
c) 1, 3 and 4 only d) 2 and 4 only 1. Dry ice
2. Silver Iodide
15. Which of the following statements most 3. Potassium Iodide
accurately characterizes the “Elastocaloric Select the correct answer using the code
effect"? given below:
a) The impact of an increase in caloric a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
intake on human health. c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
b) The impact of a decrease in caloric
intake on human health. 19. Which of the following statements
c) The cooling effect generated by the provides the most accurate description of
twisting and untwisting of rubber the process of deposition in chemistry?
bands. a) It refers to the direct conversion of
d) The heating effect generated by the solid substances into gas without
twisting and untwisting of rubber transitioning through a liquid state.
bands. b) It is the process by which a gas changes
directly into a solid without passing
16. With reference to Green Chemistry, through the liquid state.
consider the following statements: c) It involves the creation of a solid, where
1. Pseudomonas putida is used in the atoms or molecules are arranged in
bioremediation of oil spills. a well-organized structure known as a
2. H202 is used as antiseptic, disinfectant crystal.
and in rocketry as a propellant. d) It takes place when evapotranspiration
Which of the statements given above is/are surpasses precipitation, leading to the
correct? upward movement of dissolved alkaline
salts from groundwater.
a) 1 only b) 2 only

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c) 2 and 3 onlyd) 1, 2 and 3 only
20. Which of the statements below accurately
describe bleaching powder? 21. Consider the following statements
1. Bleaching powder is manufactured by regarding thorium:
exposing dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] to 1. India possesses approximately 25% of
chlorine gas. the world's thorium reserves.
2. The chemical formula for bleaching 2. Thorium itself is not a fissile material,
powder is CaOCl2. meaning it cannot split and release
3. Bleaching powder is utilized to disinfect energy on its own.
drinking water, eliminating any Which of the statements given above
harmful bacteria. is/are correct?
Which of the above statements is/are a) 1 only b) 2 only
correct? c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
Exercise – II Key

1. b 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. a 8. a 9. c 10. b
11. d 12. b 13. b 14. c 15. c 16. c 17. b 18. d 19. b 20. d
21. c

Explanations:

1. Option 3 is correct. Souring of milk is a chemical change as acidification takes place and
soured milk is produced. This sour milk has different chemical properties from fresh milk.
Option 1 and 2 are incorrect. Crystallisation of sodium chloride and melting of ice are
physical changes.

2. Non-metals are a group of elements that are located on the right side of the periodic table,
typically to the right of the metalloids. They have properties that are different from those of
metals, and they typically do not conduct heat or electricity as well as metals do. They are
characterized by having relatively low melting and boiling points, and they are typically
gases or brittle solids at room temperature.

Statement 1 is incorrect: Some non-metals, such as sulfur and phosphorus, can react with
oxygen to form acidic oxides, which means that these oxides will have acidic properties when
dissolved in water. However, not all non-metals that react with oxygen form acidic oxides.
Some non-metals such as carbon and nitrogen, when they react with oxygen, form neutral
oxides such as CO2 and NO2 respectively, which do not have acidic properties when
dissolved in water.

Statement 2 is correct: Most non-metals do not react with water under normal conditions,
and when they do, they typically form acidic oxides.
An example of this is the reaction of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and water, which forms sulfuric
acid (H2SO4), an acidic oxide.

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Statement 3 is incorrect: While some non-metals, such as carbon and nitrogen, do not react
with acids under normal conditions, other non-metals such as sulfur, phosphorus and
chlorine can react with acids to form various compounds.
For example, sulfur can react with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
hydrogen chloride (HCl), and phosphorus can react with hydrochloric acid to form
phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and hydrogen chloride.

Statement 4 is correct: Non-metals react with base to form Salt and the water. It does not
form hydrogen after reaction. This is known as neutralization reaction, in which an acid and
a base react to form water and a salt.
For example, carbon dioxide (CO2) can react with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) and water (H2O), sulfur dioxide (SO2) can react with calcium
hydroxide (Ca (OH)2) to form calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and water (H2O).

3. Acids present in various food items are the acids that can be eaten. These acids are
responsible for the sharpness of the taste of any food.

Pair 1 is correctly matched: Milk contains lactic acid. Lactic acid is an organic acid that is
naturally produced in the body during the fermentation of carbohydrates by lactic acid
bacteria. It is also found in a variety of fermented foods, including milk and other dairy
products.
Pair 2 is incorrectly matched: Oxalic acid is a naturally occurring organic acid found in many
plants, including fruits and vegetables such as rhubarb, spinach, beet greens, and chard. It is
also found in some nuts, such as almonds and peanuts, and in some seeds, such as sesame
and poppy seeds. Oxalic acid is a colourless crystal or white powder that is soluble in water
and has a sharp, acidic taste. Amla is rich in citric acid.
Pair 3 is correctly matched: Tartaric acid is present in the juices of various fruits, particularly
in tamarinds, unripe grapes, Pineapples, Potatoes, Carrots and is one of the main acids in
wine. Tartaric acid is an extremely versatile acid and it is utilized in a wide range of
industries. Malic acid is also found in the Grapes.
Pair 4 is correctly matched: Spinach contains several acids, including oxalic acid and ascorbic
acid (vitamin C), which can be harmful in large amounts. However, it does not contain other
acids like citric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, or malic acid.

4. Statement 1 is incorrect: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number
of protons in their nucleus, but a different number of neutrons. This means they have the
same atomic number, but a different atomic mass. For example, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are
isotopes of carbon because they have the same number of protons (6) but different numbers
of neutrons (6 and 7, respectively).

Statement 2 is incorrect: Isobars are atoms of different elements that have the same atomic
mass. This means they have different numbers of protons and neutrons, but their total mass
is the same. For example, chlorine-35 and sulfur-35 are isobars because they have different
numbers of protons (17 and 16 respectively) and neutrons (18 and 19, respectively), but
their atomic masses are 35.

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Statement 3 is correct: Isotopes can be used to study plant growth and soil fertility. Isotopes
are used in soil fertility research through isotopic analysis. Isotopes can also be used in the
study of irrigation water, to understand the origin of the water and how it affects the soil and
plant growth. Additionally, isotopes can be used to study the effects of different types of
fertilizers on plant growth, and to understand the mechanisms of nutrient uptake by plants.

5. Statement 1 is incorrect: Thermoplastics are plastics that can be melted and reshaped
multiple times without losing their properties. Thermoplastic materials typically have low
melting points due to which they can further be remoulded or recycled easily.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Thermosetting plastics have high melting points and tensile
strength. Thermosetting plastics are plastics that can only be moulded once and cannot be
remelted.
Statement 3 is correct: Vulcanized rubber, Bakelite, Polyurethane, Epoxy resin, Vinyl ester
resin are the examples of thermosetting polymers whereas, Polystyrene, Teflon, Acrylic,
Nylon, polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) are examples of thermoplastics.

6. Being exposed to high levels of lead can lead to anemia, weakness, kidney damage, and brain
damage. Recently, there has been a debate regarding the acceptable amount of lead in
noodles, making Pair (1) correct.
Air fresheners contain harmful substances such as formaldehyde, petrochemicals, p-
dichlorobenzene, and aerosol pollutants, which can cause cancer, throat and nose irritation,
and are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Therefore, Pair (2) is correct.
Phenoxyethanol, a preservative in many personal care products, has been linked to skin
irritation and nervous system interaction in infants. This makes Pair (3) correct.
Bisphenol-A is commonly used in single-use plastic that is used in the packaging for whey
proteins. When stored at room temperature, Bisphenol-A can seep into the protein powder
and have health implications, making Pair (4) correct.
7. Colloidal solutions are mixtures in which microscopically dispersed insoluble particles of one
substance are suspended in another substance.
Properties of colloid:
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture. The size of the particles of a colloid is too small to
be individually seen by the naked eye.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable.
Cow Milk, milk of magnesia, blood, and shaving cream are examples of colloidal
solutions.Tincture of iodine is an example of a homogeneous solution with iodine (solid) as
the solute and alcohol (liquid) as the solvent. Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

8. Formic acid or Methanoic Acid is present in a natural state in stinging nettles and is
responsible for the burning pain in contact with them. It is also found in the stings and bites
of many insects, including bees and ants, which use it as a chemical defence mechanism.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Natural Source Acid Natural Source Acid
Vinegar Acetic Acid Sour milk/Curd Lactic Acid
Orange Citric Acid Lemon Citric Acid
Tamarind Tartaric Acid Ant Sting Methanoic Acid
Tomato Oxalic Acid Nettle sting Methanoic Acid

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9. Sorbitol, also called D-sorbitol is a type of carbohydrate. It is a water-soluble compound and
is found naturally in some fruits, including apples, apricots, dates, berries, peaches, plums,
and figs.
Applications of Sorbitol:
• Sorbitol is a starch sweetener often used as a substitute for traditional sugar in diet foods
(including diet drinks) and confectionary items (cakes, biscuits, etc.) Hence option 1 is
correct.
• Sorbitol along with glycerol helps to hold the toothpaste together, and it's also a
sweetening agent. Hence option 4 is correct.
• Anti-diarrheal medication is used to treat sudden diarrhea. It works by slowing down the
movement of the gut and works in a manner opposite to the laxatives Hence option 2 is
not correct.
• It is used in the preparation of synthetic vitamin C. It is also used as a stabilizer in
pharmaceutical products. Hence option 3 is correct.

10. The combining capacity of the atoms of elements, that is, their tendency to react and form
molecules with atoms of the same or different elements, is explained as an attempt to attain a
fully-filled outermost shell.
In general, noble gases like Helium, Argon, Krypton, Neon, Xenon, Radon, etc. are not very
reactive, their chemical inertness is due to the fact that they have completely filled ns2np6
electronic configuration of their valence shells. The other reasons are very high ionization
enthalpy and almost zero electron affinity.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

11. Recently, the biggest Rare Earth Elements (REE) deposit in Europe has been discovered in
Arctic region of Kiruna, Sweden (home to world's largest underground iron-ore mine).
Rare earth elements are a group of seventeen chemical elements that occur together in the
periodic table. The group consists of yttrium, scandium and the 15 lanthanide elements.
The rare earth elements are all metals, and the group is often referred to as the "rare earth
metals." Hence options 1, 2 and 3 are correct.

12. The chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with gas such as nitrogen to prevent the
chips from getting oxidised.
When fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell and taste change. Usually
substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to foods containing fats and oil.
Keeping food in air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation. Hence option (b) is the
correct answer.

13. Diamond and Graphite, both are allotropes of carbon. These minerals chemically consist of
carbon atoms with different physical properties. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Graphite is soft with a greasy touch and is utilized as a lubricant in the form of dispersion
material or powder. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance and is used in
making tools that are utilized for grinding, cutting, drilling, etc. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
Graphite is used in the manufacture of electrodes of carbon employed in electrolytic cells, as
it is an excellent conductor of electricity. In a Diamond, each carbon atom is attached to the
other four carbon atoms through strong covalent bonds. Due to the absence of free electrons,
a diamond is a poor electrical conductor. Hence, statement 3 is not correct.
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14. Syngas, a gas mixture composed mainly of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), and
sometimes carbon dioxide (CO2), is a crucial component in the chemical industry and
accounts for 2% of total primary energy consumption. It is typically produced through
gasification, using sources such as natural gas, coal, and biomass, through reactions with
steam or oxygen. Syngas has a wide range of applications, including electricity production
and chemical production like fertilizers. The hydrogen derived from coal gasification can be
used for various purposes, such as ammonia production, fueling a hydrogen economy, or
upgrading fossil fuels. Additionally, methane or natural gas obtained from coal gasification
can be converted into LNG for direct use as transportation fuel.

15. When rubber bands are twisted and untwisted, they exhibit a cooling effect known as the
"elastocaloric" effect. Recent research conducted by multiple universities, including Nankai
University in China, suggests that harnessing this effect could eliminate the need for fluid
refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners. Similar to the process of compressing and
expanding fluid refrigerants, heat transfer occurs during the elastocaloric effect. When a
rubber band is stretched, it absorbs heat from its surroundings, and upon release, it
gradually cools down.

16. Green chemistry involves designing chemical products and processes that minimize or
eliminate the use of hazardous substances, reducing pollution at its source.
Bioremediation is a type of biotechnology that uses living organisms like bacteria and
microbes to remove contaminants and pollutants from the environment. Pseudomonas
putida is a type of bacteria that can convert styrene oil into biodegradable plastic, making it
useful in the bioremediation of oil spills. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound that is safer than chlorine and has antimicrobial
properties, making it useful as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Additionally, it can decompose
into water and oxygen, making it suitable for use in more environmentally friendly
propulsion systems.

17. Statement 1 is Correct. Solar panels, specifically photovoltaic (PV) panels, consist of multiple
solar cells made of silicon, similar to semiconductors. These cells are designed with positive
and negative layers that generate an electric field, akin to a battery.
Statement 2 is correct. Solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert sunlight (solar radiation) into
electricity, which can be used to power various devices or recharge batteries.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Photovoltaic cells produce environmentally friendly energy as they
do not emit greenhouse gases. Furthermore, the operation and maintenance costs of solar
cells are typically low. The expense associated with solar panels is primarily limited to the
initial purchase and installation, with minimal ongoing costs.

18. Cloud seeding is a technique used to artificially manipulate precipitation/rainfall, also known
by several other terms like man-made precipitation enhancement, and rainmaking. This
method involves spraying particles of salts like silver iodide and chloride onto clouds using
specialized aircraft, rockets, or ground-based dispersion devices. These salt particles act as a
core or cloud condensation nuclei, which attract water vapor within the cloud towards them,
resulting in the formation of raindrops.

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The primary objective of cloud seeding is to modify the natural development of the cloud to
increase precipitation, suppress hail, disperse fog, or minimize lightning. Commonly used
chemicals for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide, dry ice (solid carbon
dioxide), and liquid propane.

19. Deposition, a term used in chemistry, describes the direct conversion of a gas into a solid
without passing through a liquid state. Natural instances of deposition include the formation
of frost on the ground and cirrus clouds in the upper atmosphere.
Option A describes sublimation, which is the process by which a solid directly transforms
into a gas without first becoming a liquid. Examples of sublimation include the evaporation
of camphor and dry ice into gas.
Both sublimation and deposition are instances of phase changes in chemistry. Option C refers
to crystallization, which is the formation of a solid structure with well-organized atoms or
molecules known as a crystal. Option D refers to calcification in soil, which is the formation
of calcium deposits in soil.

20. All three statements provided are correct. Chlorine gas is utilized in the manufacturing of
bleaching powder, which occurs through the reaction between chlorine and dry slaked lime
[Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder has a complex composition, but its chemical formula is
represented as CaOCl2.
Bleaching powder is employed in numerous industries: (i) to bleach cotton and linen in the
textile industry, to whiten wood pulp in paper factories, and to bleach laundry; (ii) as an
oxidizing agent in many chemical industries; and (iii) to disinfect drinking water and remove
any harmful bacteria.

21. Thorium is a metallic element that is weakly radioactive with high thermal conductivity and
melting point. India has about 25% of the world's thorium reserves, which is three times
larger than its uranium reserves. Thorium is not a fissile material that can split and release
energy. It is fertile and requires a fissile material like recycled plutonium to be used as a fuel.
Additionally, it needs to undergo transmutation to U-233 in a reactor fuelled by other fissile
materials. The three-stage nuclear power program in India aims to utilize thorium for
sustainable production of nuclear energy and make India energy independent.

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Science and Technology MCQs
Note: For conceptual clarity – refer to the chapters in Part – I & Part – II
Exercise - I 3. Consider the following the initiatives of
Topics: Emerging Technologies, ICT, Nano Government of India. Which of them are
Technology, Robotics & AI aimed to promote the development of
1. Regarding Crypto-currency transactions, Artificial Intelligence?
which of the following statements is 1. Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme
accurate regarding the 'Proof-of-Stake' 2. FutureSkills PRIME initiative
mechanism that has been in the news 3. National Mission on Interdisciplinary
recently? Cyber-Physical Systems
a) This mechanism selects the miner who 4. Mission LiFE
solves the mathematical puzzle first as 5. RAISE scheme
the validator. Select the correct answer using the codes
b) Validators are randomly assigned from given below:
a pool of people using an algorithm in this a) 1, 3 and 4 only
process. b) 2, 3 and 5 only
c) It is a method of dividing transactions c) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
along the different chains to decrease the d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
cost and accelerate the transactions.
d) This mechanism enables users to 4. In relation to Additive Manufacturing,
become validators without storing large which of the following statements is
data on their computer. correct?
1. It involves creating a digital design of
2. Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) are unique the object using a 3D modeling
digital assets that have been in the news program.
for quite some time. Which of the 2. It involves cutting away material from
following are possible uses of Non- a solid piece to create a physical
Fungible Tokens? object.
1. NFTs can be a new medium of 3. It results in less material waste
investment for various investors. compared to traditional
2. NFTs can enable true ownership of manufacturing processes.
digital art. Which of the statements given above
3. NFTs can potentially reduce instances is/are correct?
of piracy and fraud in the music a) 1 only
industry. b) 1 and 3 only
4. NFTs can aid in the storage of medical c) 2 and 3 only
records and clinical data.
d) 1, 2 and 3
Select the correct answer using the codes
5. Which of the following technological
given below:
applications correctly represent Cyber-
a) 1, 3 and 4 only Physical systems?
b) 1 and 4 only 1. A self-driving car making decisions
c) 2 and 3 only about braking, acceleration, and
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 changing lanes.

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2. A pacemaker automatically adjusting d) involves scanning the soil surface to
the heart rate to maintain the desired identify physical, chemical, and
pace. biological characteristics of soil.
3. A drone utilizing GPS, cameras, and
lidar for navigation. 9. How does the use of graphene in bionics
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only relate to the construction of artificial
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 systems that have some of the
characteristics of living systems?
6. Consider the following statements about 1. Graphene is impermeable to harsh
3D printing and 4D printing: ionic solutions.
1. In 3D printing, a 2D structure is 2. Graphene has good electrical
repeated layer by layer to create a conductivity.
three-dimensional object. 3. Graphene is flexible.
Select the correct answer using the code
2. 4D printing allows printed objects to
given below.
change their form or function over
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
time.
c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
10. Consider the following statements about
a) 1 only b) 2 only spoofing and phishing:
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 1. Spoofing refers to the practice of
stealing the identity of a legitimate
7. What is the best definition of 'fiberisation' user.
in the context of communication 2. Phishing involves stealing sensitive
technology? information, such as bank account
a) The use of LAN cables to access details, from users.
networks in areas where radio wave Which of the statements given above
transmission is not possible is/are correct?
b) Replacing copper wires with optical a) 1 only b) 2 only
fibers for data transmission c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
c) The process of using optical fibers to
connect radio towers 11. Which of the following cyber attacks
d) The increased usage of the internet in involves a phone call or voicemail
remote and rural areas of a country. message?
a)DoS b) Smishing
8. Recently seen in news media "Horizon c)Vishing d) Cryptojacking
scanning" is related to:
a) the process to diagnose the cancer 12. Consider the following statements
cells in the human body. regarding Standalone 5G and Non-
b) the early detection and assessment of Standalone 5G:
emerging technologies or threats, 1. In Standalone mode, the 5G network
which aids in making policy decisions. operates independently of the existing
c) a global network of synchronized 4G network.
radio observatories that observe 2. Non-standalone networks utilize the
radio sources associated with black existing infrastructure for
holes. deployment.

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Which of the statements given above 4. Loss of data or connection
is/are correct? 5. Inability to bypass geographical
a) 1 only b) 2 only restrictions.
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
Select the correct answer using the codes
13. The Indian Farmers Fertilizer given below:
Cooperative (IFFCO) has developed the a) 1 and 2 only
world's first Liquid Nano Urea. What b) 2 and 5 only
benefits does it offer over traditional c) 1, 3 and 5 only
Urea? d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
1. The plant leaves absorb it more
efficiently. 16. In the current digital age, businesses rely
2. It has a longer shelf life than heavily on data for daily activities and
traditional urea. financial transactions. In this context,
3. It can significantly reduce water which of the following statements
consumption for irrigation. accurately describes 'Edge Data Centers'?
4. It can aid in reducing air pollution. a) They are data centers that provide
Select the correct answer using the code cloud-based services to customers
given below: through the internet.
a) 1, 2 and 4 only b) They are data centers that offer space
b) 1 and 4 only for multiple organizations to store their
c) 2 and 3 only own servers and networking equipment.
d) 1, 3 and 4 only c) They are small, decentralized facilities
located close to the data source they
14. What are the potential benefits of net process.
neutrality? Choose from the options d) They are solely owned and operated by
below: an organization, supporting their internal
1. Preserves consumers' right to freely operations and services.
choose and access internet content.
2. Allows access to information without 17. With reference to ‘Near Field
location-based restrictions. Communication (NFC) Technology’, which
3. Significantly lowers the cost of of the following statements is/are
internet services for consumers. correct? (UPSC PRELIMS 2015)
4. Encourages social inclusivity by 1. It is a contactless communication
catering to a diverse range of users. technology that uses electromagnetic
a) 1 and 2 only radio fields.
b) 2 and 3 only 2. NFC is designed for use by devices
c) 1, 2 and 4 only which can be at a distance of even a
d) 2, 3 and 4 only metre from each other.
3. NFC can use encryption when sending
15. Which of the following are the issues sensitive information.
associated with using Virtual Private Select the correct answer using the code
Network (VPN)? given below.
1. Slower internet connection speeds a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only
2. Insufficient protection against online c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
threats
3. Higher cost of doing business

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18. With reference to ‘Li-Fi’, recently in the 3. Consumers can make purchases using
news, which of the following statements any platform since ONDC is not
is/are correct? (UPSC PRELIMS 2016) platform-specific.
1. It uses light as the medium for high- (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
speed data transmission. (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 2 only
2. It is a wireless technology and is
several times faster than ‘Wi-Fi’. 20. Match the following Artificial Intelligence
Select the correct answer using the code tools with their origin company
given below. Tool Company
a) 1 only b) 2 only 1. Watson Studio A. Open AI
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. AlphaFold B. IBM
19. Which of the following statements 3. ChatGPT C. DeepMind
regarding the Open Network for Digital
Commerce (ONDC) project is/are true?
1. ONDC is responsible for regulating the Choose the correct answer from the options
e-commerce ecosystem in India. below.
2. The ONDC project advocates for an a) 1-C, 2-B, 3-A b) 1-A, 2-C, 3-B
open network that facilitates the c) 1-A, 2-B, 3-C d) 1-B, 2-C, 3-A
exchange of goods and services over
digital networks. .

Exercise – I Key
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. d 10. c
11. c 12. c 13. a 14. c 15. d 16. c 17. c 18. c 19. b 20. d

Explanations

1. The Ethereum blockchain platform has completely shifted from a 'proof of work' consensus
mechanism to a 'proof-of-stake' mechanism. Option a is incorrect as it refers to the proof-of-
work mechanism. Under proof of work, miners compete to solve complex mathematical
puzzles using specialized computer hardware, and the first to solve the puzzle becomes the
validator. Option b is correct as it accurately describes the Proof-of-Stake consensus
mechanism, which randomly assigns a validator using an algorithm from a pool of people
who 'stake' their coins. Option c is incorrect as sharding in crypto refers to the process of
dividing transactions across several different chains to decrease fees and increase
transaction speed. Option d is incorrect as it pertains to The Verge, a cryptocurrency that
allows users to become validators on the network without storing extensive data on their
computers.

2. Non-fungible tokens are digital assets that are unique and stored on a blockchain, the same
network used for cryptocurrencies. They can include anything digital, such as images, videos,
music, and online articles, and can be converted into NFTs and monetized. NFTs are not
digital art themselves but instead serve as certificates of authenticity, and most use the
Ethereum blockchain, the second-largest cryptocurrency.

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Statement 1 is correct: The uniqueness and scarcity of NFTs make them appealing to
investors looking for new and innovative investment opportunities.
Statement 2 is correct: Artists worldwide can convert their digital artwork, graphical
designs, or photographs into NFTs that can be bought and sold.
Statement 3 is correct: NFTs can provide a way to prove ownership and authenticity of
digital music, which can help reduce piracy and fraud in the music industry. Musicians can
sell their music directly to buyers using NFTs, and buyers can prove that they own a unique
piece of music.
Statement 4 is correct: NFTs can be used to store medical records and clinical data, providing
a secure and private way to access data only to authorized individuals.

3. Option 1 is correct: The Government of India has launched the 'Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme' to
boost the number of PhDs in Electronics System Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) and IT/IT
Enabled Services (IT/ITES) sectors, with a focus on research areas such as Artificial
Intelligence and Machine Learning.
Option 2 is correct: The Ministry of Electronics and IT, in collaboration with NASSCOM, has
launched a programme called FutureSkills PRIME to re-skill/ up-skill IT professionals in ten
emerging areas, including Artificial Intelligence.
Option 3 is correct: The Department of Science & Technology is executing the National
Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS), which includes the
establishment of 25 Technology Innovation Hubs in prominent institutions across the
country, with a focus on advanced technologies such as Machine Learning and Artificial
Intelligence.
Option 4 is incorrect: Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) was launched by Prime
Minister Modi at COP26 in November 2021. It is a global mass movement led by India aimed
at encouraging individual and collective behaviors that promote the protection and
preservation of the environment. As part of Mission LiFE, the Indian Government published a
list of 75 lifestyle practices that promote climate-friendly behaviors.
Option 5 is correct: In 2020, the Government of India held Responsible AI for Social
Empowerment (RAISE), the first-ever global conference on Artificial Intelligence, to drive
India's vision and roadmap for social transformation, inclusion, and empowerment through
responsible AI.

4. The Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology has released a “National Strategy on
Additive Manufacturing”. It aims to position India as a global hub for Additive Manufacturing
development and deployment.
Statement 1 is correct: Under additive manufacturing technology, a virtual design of the
object is created using a 3D modeling program based on Computer Aided Design (CAD). The
CAD software is used to create a digital 3D model of the object, which can then be converted
into a physical object using an additive manufacturing process.
3D printer is controlled by a computer, which receives the instructions from the CAD
software and controls the build process..
Statement 2 is incorrect: Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is a process of
creating a physical object by laying down successive layers of material. The object is built up
layer by layer, rather than being cut away from a piece of solid material as in traditional
manufacturing methods.

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Subtractive manufacturing, also known as traditional machining, is a process of creating a
physical object by cutting away material from a solid piece of material.
Statement 3 is correct: In traditional manufacturing methods such as subtractive machining,
a large amount of material is cut away or removed to create the desired shape of the object.
This results in a significant amount of material waste. In contrast, additive manufacturing
builds up the object layer by layer, using only the material that is needed to create the final
shape. This process results in minimal material waste, as only the necessary amount of
material is used.

5. CPS or Cyber-Physical Systems integrate computation and physical processes to create a


closed-loop system that interacts with the physical world. They use sensors to gather data
from the physical environment, computational elements to process the data, and actuators to
perform actions in the physical world. Examples of CPS include self-driving cars, medical
devices, and industrial control systems. Correct examples of CPS are: a self-driving car that
uses computational models and sensors to make decisions about its movement, a pacemaker
that adjusts the pace of the heart based on sensor data, and a drone that navigates using a
combination of sensors and computational models while following a pre-defined flight path.

6. Automated 3D printing is a process of constructing a three-dimensional object by adding


material rather than removing it, using an additive process. The process involves laying
down successive layers of material until the object is complete.
The key difference between 3D printing and 4D printing is that 4D printing is a subset of 3D
printing that enables printed objects to change their form or function with time, based on
external stimuli like heat, water, current, or light, by incorporating smart design or
responsive materials that cause time-dependent deformations. In contrast, 3D printing is
primarily concerned with repeating a 2D structure layer by layer in a print path from the
bottom to the top until a 3D volume is produced. Therefore, statement 1 about 3D printing is
correct, and statement 2 about 4D printing is also correct.

7. Fiberisation refers to the process of connecting radio or cell towers to each other using
optical fiber cables. This is crucial for achieving high-speed data transfer rates and low-
latency connectivity required by 5G technology. Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer.
Currently, only 33% of the towers in India are connected through fiber optic cables, which is
significantly lower than the 80-90% fiberisation rate in the United States, Japan, and China.
To transition to 5G, India needs to increase its fiberisation by at least 16 times.
8. Horizon scanning is a methodical technique that aims to identify significant upcoming
developments and their potential implications over the next ten years, particularly in the
context of emerging technology and its impact. The primary objective is to determine
whether individuals or organizations are adequately equipped to deal with future changes or
risks.
When executed consistently and efficiently, horizon scanning can be merged with other
forecasting tools to assist policymakers in recognizing crucial necessities or inadequacies. It
is also a valuable approach for bringing together experts from diverse domains to cooperate
on a shared problem and create practical solutions. Therefore, option (b) is correct.

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9. Graphene, which is composed of a single layer of carbon atoms bound hexagonally, has the
potential to revolutionize bionics by enabling the creation of replacement ears and eyes that
are more organic than mechanical.
Graphene's resistance to corrosive ionic solutions in the human body makes it less
susceptible to damage. Additionally, its electrical conductivity allows it to interact with cells
that communicate via nerve impulses.
In addition to its favorable electronic properties, graphene is also flexible, allowing it to be
wrapped around delicate tissues. Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.

10. The Indian Army recently proposed the use of vehicle-based drone jammers, which can be
achieved through various methods such as radio frequency jamming, satellite link disruption,
spoofing, and dazzling.
Spoofing is an attack on a computer system where the attacker tries to steal the identity of a
legitimate user and impersonate another person. Such an attack can breach the system's
security or steal users' information. Therefore, statement 1 is true.
Phishing is a type of computer attack where the attacker tries to fraudulently obtain users'
sensitive information through electronic communication by impersonating a trusted
organization. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Spoofing can be part of phishing, but phishing cannot be part of spoofing. Spoofing does not
necessarily require fraud, but phishing is always operated in a fraudulent manner.

11. DoS, or Denial-of-Service, is a type of attack that aims to make a website or network
unavailable to legitimate users by flooding it with traffic. A Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attack is a type of DoS attack that uses multiple sources to overwhelm an online
service.
Smishing is similar to vishing, but instead of phone calls, it uses SMS text messages to deceive
the recipient into divulging sensitive information.
Vishing is a type of cyber attack that involves using a phone call or voicemail message to trick
the recipient into disclosing sensitive information, such as passwords, credit card numbers,
or OTPs.
Cryptojacking is a type of attack where a hacker uses a victim's computer or mobile device to
mine cryptocurrency without their knowledge or consent.

12. Standalone 5G and Non-Standalone 5G


Standalone 5G and Non-Standalone 5G are two main deployment modes for 5G networks.
The selection of the deployment mode depends on the operator's perception of the market
for the new technology, as both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages.
In Standalone mode, the 5G network operates independently with dedicated equipment and
runs parallel to the existing 4G network. On the other hand, in Non-Standalone mode, the 5G
network utilizes the 4G core infrastructure. Since Non-Standalone networks are built on
existing infrastructure, the initial cost and the time taken to deploy services through this
mode are significantly less than Standalone networks. However, the benefits of Standalone
networks exceed those of Non-Standalone networks.

13. The Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative (IFFCO) has developed the world’s first Liquid
Nano Urea, which is essentially urea in the form of a nanoparticle. It aims to reduce the

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burden of urea subsidy, prevent the unbalanced and indiscriminate use of conventional urea,
increase crop productivity and reduce soil, water, and air pollution. The IFFCO’s Nano
Biotechnology Research Center (NBRC) developed this technology.
Statement 1 is correct, as liquid nano urea sprayed directly on the leaves is better absorbed
by the plant, with an efficiency of 85-90%, compared to conventional urea with an efficiency
of about 25%.
Statement 2 is also correct, as liquid nano urea has a higher shelf life of up to a year
compared to conventional urea.
Statement 3 is incorrect, as there is no relation between using liquid nano urea and
significant water reduction for irrigation use. Liquid nano urea releases nitrogen, which is a
major component of chlorophyll.
Statement 4 is correct, as the imbalance in the use of conventional urea leads to most of the
nitrogen being vaporized or lost as a gas, resulting in air pollution. The use of Nano Urea can
help solve this problem by reducing the use of urea by up to 50%, making it an eco-friendly
product.

14. Net neutrality is the principle that internet traffic should be treated equally, without
discrimination or preference given to certain types of traffic or websites, and ISPs should not
block or slow down access to specific websites or services, or charge higher fees for faster
access to certain websites or services. This is based on the idea that the internet is a public
utility that should be accessible to everyone without discrimination.
Statement 1 is correct: Net neutrality protects consumers' freedom to choose what they want
to access and use on the internet.
Statement 2 is correct: Net neutrality ensures access to information regardless of location,
allowing all internet users to have access to the same information, regardless of their
location or ISP resources.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Reduced cost of internet to consumers is not necessarily an
advantage of net neutrality. ISPs may charge higher fees for data connection, and the cost of
data transfer is passed on to the consumer. For instance, streaming services accounted for
57% of global bandwidth consumption in 2018, and this additional cost is borne by the
consumer in the form of higher subscription fees.
Statement 4 is correct: Net neutrality promotes social inclusion by ensuring that all users
have equal access to the internet, irrespective of their ability to pay.

15. The Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology creates a secure, encrypted connection over a
public network, allowing users to access a private network remotely. However, there are a
few potential issues associated with using VPNs:
1. Slower internet connection speeds due to the encryption and decryption of data,
especially on lower-end devices or when the VPN server is located far away. Hence
statement 1 is correct.
2. VPNs do not provide protection against all online threats, such as malware and phishing.
Hence statement 2 is correct.
3. Some VPNs can be expensive, which may not be feasible for some users, especially for
businesses. Hence statement 3 is correct.
4. VPN connections can be unstable and may drop unexpectedly, leading to the loss of data
or connection. Hence statement 4 is correct.

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5. The statement that VPNs cannot bypass geographical restrictions is incorrect. VPNs can
be used for geo-spoofing to access content that is not available in a certain location due
to licensing agreements or government restrictions. Hence statement 5 is incorrect.

16. Edge data centers are decentralized facilities that are located closer to end-users or devices,
providing faster processing, storage, and analysis of data, while reducing latency and
bandwidth requirements. They are particularly suited to support internet of things (IoT)
devices, real-time applications, and other applications requiring low-latency and high-
bandwidth connections. The growth potential of edge data centers in India is significant.
Option a is incorrect because cloud data centers are data centers operated by cloud service
providers to deliver cloud-based services such as storage, computing, and software to
customers over the internet.
Option b is incorrect because colocation data centers provide space, power, and cooling for
multiple organizations to house their own server and networking equipment.
Option d is incorrect because enterprise data centers are data centers owned and operated
by a single organization and used to support the organization's internal operations and
services.

17. Statement 1 is correct, but Statement 2 is incorrect. NFC, or Near Field Communication, is a
set of communication protocols that allow electronic devices to establish radio
communication with each other by bringing them into close proximity, usually within 10 cm
or less. An antenna can extend the range to 20 cm. NFC uses electromagnetic radio fields to
transmit data between two devices that have NFC chips, and transactions occur within a
short distance.
Statement 3 is correct: NFC often establishes a secure channel and employs encryption when
transmitting sensitive information.

18. The first statement is correct, as Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) utilizes the frequencies produced by
LED bulbs to transmit information wirelessly by flickering on and off. In essence, Li-Fi is a
technology for wireless communication that transmits data at an incredibly high speed using
visible light.
The second statement is also correct, as Li-Fi is known to offer data transmission rates that
are approximately 100 times faster than those provided by Wi-Fi, which relies on radio
waves to transfer data.

19. The ONDC project is a government-supported initiative that seeks to democratize e-


commerce by fostering an open network for trading goods and services over digital
networks. The platform is not platform-centric, meaning consumers can buy using any
platform. It is important to note that ONDC is not the regulatory body for the e-commerce
ecosystem in India. As a result, statements 2 and 3 are correct, while statement 1 is incorrect.

20. IBM Watson Studio is a cloud-based platform that provides tools and services for building,
training, and deploying AI models. It offers a collaborative environment for data scientists,
developers, and subject matter experts to work together on projects.
DeepMind Technologies, an AI research company owned by Alphabet, has developed
AlphaFold, an AI tool that has collaborated with the European Bioinformatics Institute to

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predict and publish over 200 million protein structures. The resulting database is widely
regarded as one of the most significant resources for biological research.
ChatGPT is an AI language model trained by OpenAI. It is based on the GPT-3.5 architecture
and has been designed to respond to natural language queries and generate human-like text

Exercise – II 3. Which of the following statements


Topics: Space & Applications accurately describe Satellite-Based
Internet Systems?
1. Which of the following statements 1. Satellite internet constellations like
regarding the International Liquid Mirror Starlink offer lower latency than fiber
Telescope (ILMT) is/are correct? optic internet.
1. The ILMT is a space telescope situated 2. Internet services provided by satellite
at Lagrangian Point 2, roughly 1.5 constellations can be impacted by
million kilometers away from Earth. atmospheric factors such as moisture
2. Mercury is utilized as the reflective and precipitation.
liquid in ILMT, which is safeguarded 3. 'Responsible Space' is an initiative
against wind by a thin, transparent launched by Starlink to promote
film of mylar. sustainability and safe operation of
3. The ILMT cannot be rotated or satellite systems in space
directed towards any particular a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
direction. c) 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3
a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 4. Consider the following statements about
ISRO's Launch Vehicles:
2. Which of the following statements about 1. LVM-III employs India's most
Navigation Systems is/are incorrect? powerful cryogenic engine.
1. The Indian Regional Navigation 2. SSLV uses a combination of solid and
Satellite System (IRNSS) is a regional liquid propellants.
navigation system developed 3. PSLV uses India's first Indigenous
indigenously in India, not a global Cryogenic engine.
navigation system. Which of the statements given above
2. The GPS Aided GEO Augmented is/are correct?
Navigation (GAGAN) is a Satellite- a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only
Based Augmentation System (SBAS) c) 1 and 2 only d) 3 only
launched by India to improve the
accuracy and integrity of GPS signals 5. Consider the following statements
for the safety of civil aviation, by regarding India's Space Program:
augmenting the IRNSS signal quality. 1. The Gaganyaan program will be
3. The ionosphere layer of the India's first human-spaceflight
atmosphere can cause interference program by ISRO with a crew of three
with radio communication. astronauts to Lower Earth Orbit
(LEO) to demonstrate indigenous
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only capability.
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only 2. Rakesh Sharma is the first and only
Indian citizen to have travelled to
space.

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3. The Vyomnauts of Gaganyaan
program will be launched by LMV III. 8. Which of the following statements about
Which of the statements given above is/are Thermobaric Weapons are correct?
correct? 1. Russia created Thermobaric
a) 1 and 3 only b) 3 only Weapons, a type of nuclear weapons.
c) 1 only d) 1, 2, and 3 2. Oxygen obtained from the
atmosphere is used to produce a blast
6. Consider the following pairs: in Thermobaric Weapons.
Space Feature 3. All forms of Thermobaric Weapons
Mission are strictly prohibited by the Hague
Convention, including their use,
1. Psyche It is a Chinese space mission to production, and transfer.
study solar flares. a) 2 only b) 3 only
c) 1 and 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3
2. JUICE It is a European Space Agency's
mission to observe Jupiter. 9. Which of the following options accurately
describes the meaning of the term 'Iron
3. LUNA- It is a Russian space mission to Dome' as it is commonly used in news?
25 study Lunar surface. a) It is an architectural design intended to
safeguard buildings from excessive heat.
4. LUCY It is NASA’s mission to study b) It is an agricultural structure designed
Jupiter Trojan Asteroid. to maintain an ideal temperature for plant
growth.
c) It is an air defense system used to
How many pairs given above are correctly counter hostile aerial attacks.
matched? d) It is a method for extracting iron from
a) Only one pair its ore.
b) Only two pairs
c) Only three pairs 10. Consider the following statements:
1. The Defence Research and
d) All four pairs
Development Organization (DRDO)
has recently established an Integrated
7. Consider the following statements about Cryogenic Engine Manufacturing
the Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) Facility.
technology:
2. India is the sole Asian country that
1. SFDR technology enables missiles to
has conducted a successful test flight
intercept aerial threats at subsonic
for Cryogenic Engine.
speeds only.
3. Cryogenics is the scientific study that
2. The SFDR technology is a joint
deals with the production and
venture between India and France.
consequences of extremely low
3. The SFDR technology uses temperatures.
atmospheric air as an oxidizer.
Which of the statements given above
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 only
a) 1 and 3 only b) 3 only
c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
c) 1 only d) 1, 2, and 3

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11. Recently, the Defence Research and capability to perform a soft landing on
Development Organization (DRDO) the Moon's surface.
claimed to have successfully 2. Chandrayaan-3 will be launched using
demonstrated Quantum Key Distribution the LVM 3 launch vehicle.
(QKD) technology. Consider the following 3. The Chandrayaan-3 mission consists
statements regarding QKD: of an Orbiter, Lander, and Rover,
1. QKD relies on the principles of which will be used to explore the
quantum mechanics to provide a uncharted South Pole region of the
secure communication technique. Moon.
2. It is believed that QKD has the ability 4. Chandrayaan-3 is solely an Indian
to detect any intrusion or mission and not a joint collaboration
eavesdropping on the transmission with Japan.
network. a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 4 only
3. One of the challenges with this c) 1, 2 and 3 only d) 3 and 4 only
technology is the current limitation in
achieving long-range transmission 14. Identify the correct statements about
beyond 100 kilometers. Mission Prarambh:
Which of the statements given above 1. It is India's first privately developed
is/are correct? space launch vehicle.
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only 2. The mission was authorized by Antrix,
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2, and 3 the commercial and marketing arm of
the Indian Space Research
12. What are the activities that can be Organization.
effectively carried out using Geo-Spatial 3. Under this mission, the suborbital
technology, given the current level of launch vehicle Vikram-S has been
technology? launched.
1. Locating and tracking goods Choose the correct answer using the code
2. Analyzing the distribution of mineral given below:
resources a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
3. Mapping weather forecasts to specific c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
regions
4. Assessing vegetation on specific 15. Consider the following statements
terrains regarding the technological achievements
5. Managing individual finances. of the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM):
a) 1, 2 and 5 only 1. Machine learning models were used
b) 2 and 4 only by the mission to classify extra-
c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only terrestrial landslides.
d) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only 2. The mission captured images of the
far side of Mars' moon Deimos for the
13. Which of the following statements first time.
regarding Chandrayaan-3 mission are 3. The MOM is credited with the
correct? discovery of ‘supra-thermal’ Argon-40
1. Chandrayaan-3 is a mission that atoms in the Martian exosphere.
follows the Chandrayaan-2 mission, 4. The mission observed and captured
and it aims to showcase India's the seasonal changes in the thickness
of Martian polar ice caps.

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Which of the statements given above are
correct? 19. What are Lagrangian points, often
a) 1, 2, and 3 b) 1, 3, and 4 discussed in the context of space
c) 2 and 4 d) 1, 2, 3, and 4 exploration?
a) They are points where a small object
16. For the measurement/estimation of is relatively stable under the
which of the following are satellite gravitational influence of two larger
images/remote sensing data used? (UPSC objects.
PRELIMS 2019) b) They are locations on the outer edges
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of of the Milky Way galaxy.
a specific location c) They are points in the solar system
2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice where the orbits of two planets
paddies of a specific location intersect.
3. Land surface temperatures of a specific d) They are locations on the surface of
location Jupiter where frozen water has been
Select the correct answer using the code detected.
given below.
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only 20. Which of the following entities is
responsible for the lunar orbiter mission
c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
called "Danuri"?
a) European Union b) Japan
17. What are the possible applications of
c) China d) South Korea
ISRO’s Inflatable Aerodynamic
Decelerator (IAD)?
1. Recovery of spent stages of a rocket. 21. Consider the following statements about
2. Landing payloads on Mars or Venus. Mars.
1. The orbital speed of a planet changes
3. Creating space habitats for human
as its distance from the sun changes.
spaceflight missions.
2. The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) is
Select the correct answer using the codes
the first interplanetary mission by the
given below:
Indian Space Research Organization
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
(ISRO) to Mars. The orbiter was
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 designed to operate in an elliptical
orbit around Mars ranging from 372
18. Consider the following statements km to 80,000 km.
regarding the Magellanic Clouds: 3. The density of the Martian
1. These clouds can be seen with the atmosphere is higher compared to the
naked eye in the southern Earth's atmosphere.
hemisphere. Which of the above statements are
2. They are a part of the Milky Way correct?
galaxy. a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only
3. The Magellanic Clouds provide a c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only
setting for researching active star
formation and evolution.
22. Select the correct statement(s) about
Which of the statements given above
Scramjet Engines, Sounding Rockets, and
is/are correct?
BrahMos from the options below.
a) 1 and 2 only b) 1 and 3 only
c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3

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1. Scramjet engines enable efficient 2. Antrix Corporation and New Space
operation at hypersonic speeds and India Limited (NSIL) both operate
use supersonic combustion. under the administrative control of
2. Sounding rockets developed by ISRO the Department of Space (DoS).
are solid propellant rockets used for 3. ISRO has launched more foreign
upper atmospheric research. satellites than Indian-origin satellites.
3. BrahMos is a supersonic cruise a) 1 only b) 2 only
missile that uses a ramjet engine and c) 1 and 3 d) 1, 2, and 3
can be launched from land, sea, and 24. Which of the following is not a purpose of
air. HAGAR, MACE, and Astrosat
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only observatories?
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only a) Observing very high energy gamma-ray
emissions from celestial objects.
23. Which of the following statements are b) Studying dark matter and dark energy.
true? c) Exploring high energy gamma radiation
1. The Amazonia-1 mission is the first in the Universe.
dedicated commercial mission of New d) Observing the universe in various
Space India Limited (NSIL). regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Exercise – II Key

1. c 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. a 9. c 10. c
11. d 12. c 13. a 14. c 15. d 16. d 17. d 18. b 19. a 20. d
21. b 22. b 23. d 24. b

Explanations
1. The International Liquid Mirror Telescope (ILMT) is located at the Devasthal Observatory
campus of the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) in Nainital,
Uttarakhand, India, and it is not situated at the Lagrangian Point. Therefore, Statement 1 is
incorrect.
The ILMT consists of three main components: a rotating container with a highly reflective
liquid (mercury) that forms the primary mirror and is protected from wind by a thin
transparent film of mylar, an air compressor that operates an air bearing on which the liquid
mirror rests, and a drive system. Thus, Statement 2 is correct.
As liquid mirror telescopes cannot be tilted and track like conventional telescopes, Statement
3 is also correct.

2. NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), also known as IRNSS (Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System), is a regional satellite navigation system developed indigenously
by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) for national applications. Therefore,
Statement 1 is correct.
GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation) is a Satellite-Based Augmentation System
(SBAS) launched by ISRO and the Airport Authority of India (AAI) to ensure the safety of
civilian aviation by augmenting the Global Positioning System (GPS) signal quality. It does

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not augment the IRNSS signal quality, as IRNSS is a separate regional navigation system.
Hence, Statement 2 is incorrect.
The ionosphere is a layer of the atmosphere that can interfere with radio communication, as
it contains ionized gases that are affected by solar radiation. This interference can impact
radio signals, including those used in navigation systems like GPS. Therefore, Statement 3 is
correct.

3. Satellite internet is offered by companies such as SpaceX through constellations like Starlink,
which provide internet access to nearly 40 countries. However, the latency offered by
satellite internet is typically higher than that of cable and fiber internet due to the satellites
being positioned at a distance of 35,000 kms above the Earth (although Starlink's satellites
are placed in LEO at a distance of 300 miles). Cable and fiber internet generally offer latency
in the range of 20 to 50 milliseconds (ms), while satellite internet latency can range as high
as 600 ms, making Statement 1 incorrect.
Moisture and precipitation can interfere with internet services provided by satellite
constellations. Heavy snowfall, for example, can disrupt communication and the
accumulation of snow around the satellite dish may need to be removed to restore service, so
Statement 2 is correct.
'Responsible Space' is actually an initiative by OneWeb to promote sustainability and safe
operation of satellite systems in space. The goal is to prevent harm to the environment of
lower Earth orbit while developing connectivity and mobility. Therefore, Statement 3 is
incorrect.

4. The LVM-III (earlier known as GSLV Mk. III), an evolved version of India's Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle, is a 3-stage launch vehicle capable of carrying 4-ton class satellites
into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). The
vehicle comprises two solid strap-on motors (S200), the largest solid boosters in the world,
one liquid core stage (L110) with twin liquid engines, and a high-thrust cryogenic upper
stage (C25) with a fully indigenous cryogenic engine. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The SSLV is a 3-stage launch vehicle that is specifically designed to launch satellites to serve
the emerging global market for launching small satellites. It comprises three solid-fuel-based
stages and a liquid fuel-based velocity trimming module (VTM) that is used to place satellites
in orbit. The SSLV uses solid and liquid propellants, but not cryogenic propellants. Therefore,
statement 2 is correct.
The PSLV is a medium-lift launcher with a range up to various orbits, including the GTO, LEO,
and Polar Sun Synchronous Orbit. The PSLV is a 4-stage system that comprises a
combination of solid and liquid-fuelled rocket stages. GSLV Mk. III is the first launch vehicle
that uses the cryogenic engine, whereas the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle doesn't use
cryogenic engines. Therefore, statement 3 is not correct.

5. Statement 1 is correct as the Gaganyaan program aims to demonstrate India's ability to


undertake a human space flight mission to LEO with a crew of three astronauts. Two
uncrewed and one human-crewed mission are approved as part of the program.
Statement 2 is also correct as Rakesh Sharma, an Indian citizen, was the first and only Indian
to travel to space in a Soviet rocket in April 1984. While other Indian-origin persons have
also travelled to space, including Kalpana Chawla and Sunitha Williams, Rakesh Sharma was
the first and only Indian citizen to do so.
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 463
Statement 3 is also correct as the human-rated LMV – III (earlier known as GSLV Mk-III) is
identified as the launch vehicle for the Gaganyaan mission.

6. Pair 1 is incorrect: Psyche is a NASA mission that will explore the metallic asteroid 16
Psyche, which is located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. This asteroid is
thought to be the exposed core of a planet that was destroyed in the early solar system. No
spacecraft has ever visited a metallic asteroid like Psyche. The mission is set to launch in
August 2022.
Pair 2 is correct: The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) is an interplanetary spacecraft
developed by the European Space Agency. Its primary mission is to study the giant gas planet
Jupiter and its three largest icy moons, Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa. The mission is a
collaboration between European countries, Japan, and the United States.
Pair 3 is correct: The Luna-25 spacecraft, also known as Luna-Glob, is a Russian lunar lander
set to launch in October 2021. It is the first Russian lunar mission since the Luna-24 mission
in 1976. The primary goal of the mission is to study the Moon's south pole and its
environment, including its soil and atmosphere.
Pair 4 is correct: The Lucy mission is a NASA mission launched in October 2021. Its goal is to
study the Trojan asteroids, which are small bodies that orbit the Sun in two loose groups
ahead of and behind Jupiter. These asteroids are thought to be remnants of the early solar
system, and studying them could provide insights into the formation and evolution of the
solar system.

7. DRDO has recently conducted a successful test of the Solid Fuelled Ducted Ramjet (SFDR)
technology at the Integrated Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur.
Statement 1 is incorrect: SFDR based propulsion enables the missile to intercept aerial
threats at very long ranges at supersonic speeds, unlike subsonic speeds. The development of
SFDR technology will enable India to make its own long-range air-to-air missile and surface
to air missile.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) has been developed under a
joint Indo-Russian R&D project, not with France.
Statement 3 is correct: The SFDR system uses a solid fuelled air-breathing propulsion ramjet
engine, which takes up oxygen from the atmosphere during flight. This makes it lighter than
solid-propellant rockets, which carry fuel and oxidiser in the rocket itself and limits their
range.

8. The first statement is incorrect: Thermobaric weapons are also referred to as fuel-air bombs,
aerosol bombs, or vacuum bombs, and they are regarded as the most destructive non-
nuclear weapons created to date.
The second statement is correct: Oxygen from the surrounding air is employed to create a
powerful and high-temperature blast in thermobaric weapons.
The third statement is incorrect: While no international regulations prohibit the production,
use, and transfer of all types of thermobaric bombs, if a nation employs them to target
civilians, it may be found guilty of a war crime under the Hague Conventions.

9. The correct option is C, which states that the Iron Dome system is an air defense system
designed by Israel, which uses Tamir interceptor missiles and radar to detect and eliminate

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 464


incoming missiles or rockets. This system is capable of detecting and engaging targets up to a
range of 70 kilometers, and it is effective in all weather conditions.

10. Statement 1 is incorrect: The Integrated Cryogenic Engine Manufacturing Facility (ICMF) has
been established by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in Bengaluru, and it will cater to
the entire rocket engine production under one roof for ISRO.
Statement 2 is incorrect: In 2014, India successfully flew GSLV-D5 with a cryogenic engine
and became the 6th country to develop cryogenic engines after the USA, France, Japan, China,
and Russia. Cryogenic engines are widely used in launch vehicles around the world. India is
not the only country in Asia to have successfully conducted a test flight with a cryogenic
engine.
Statement 3 is correct: Cryogenics is a scientific field that studies the production and effects
of very low temperatures. The term cryogenics generally refers to temperatures below
approximately -150 C.

11. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a technique that uses the principles of quantum
mechanics to securely distribute cryptographic keys. The keys are transmitted between two
parties using a shared quantum channel, such as a fiber optic cable, with the states of
individual photons encoding the keys.
Statement 1 is correct: QKD uses the principles of quantum mechanics to provide a secure
communication technique.
Statement 2 is correct: QKD offers a high level of security and has the potential to detect any
intrusion or eavesdropping on the transmission. Because of the unique properties of
photons, any third party who tries to read or copy the photons in any way will change the
photons' state.
Statement 3 is correct: One of the limitations of QKD is the distance over which the photons
can travel, which is typically around 100km due to signal loss over long distances.
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: This principle states that it is impossible to know the
exact velocity and position of a particle at the same time, and one can calculate velocity or
position to precision but not both at the same time

12. Geo-spatial technology is the use of technology to collect, analyze, and visualize data related
to a specific location. This can include maps, satellite imagery, and geographic information
systems (GIS) data, and is utilized in various fields, such as urban planning, environmental
management, military operations, and natural resource management. Examples of geo-
spatial technologies are:
• Option 1: Geo-spatial technology can be utilized to track the location and movement of
goods and to analyze data related to the quality of goods, such as temperature or
humidity data.
• Option 2: GIS and remote sensing are examples of geo-spatial technology that can be
used to map and analyze the distribution of mineral resources.
• Option 3: Geo-spatial technology can be used to visualize and analyze weather data, such
as through the use of GIS or by overlaying weather forecasts onto maps.
• Option 4: Remote sensing or GIS can be utilized by geo-spatial technology to assess the
state of vegetation on a selected terrain.

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• Option 5: Managing personal finances is not typically related to geo-spatial technology, as
it is not a direct use-case for this technology.

13. Statement 1 and 2 are correct. Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 and it
will be launched by LVM – III (earlier called GSLV Mk-III) from Sriharikota.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Unlike Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3 will only be carrying a lunar
lander and rover, not an orbiter, lander, and rover. It will communicate with Earth with the
help of the orbiter from Chandrayaan-2.
Statement 4 is also incorrect. Chandrayaan-3 is an indigenous mission by India, while India
and Japan are collaborating for a joint Lunar Polar Exploration Mission set to launch around
2024-2025.

14. Statement 1 is correct: On November 18, 2022, Vikram-S, a suborbital launch vehicle
developed by Skyroot Aerospace Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, was successfully launched under
Mission Prarambh, making it the first privately developed space launch vehicle in India.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The mission was authorized by the Indian National Space
Promotion and Authorization Center (IN-SPACe) and not Antrix, which is the commercial
arm of the Indian Space Research Organization.
Statement 3 is correct: Vikram-S is a suborbital launch vehicle that carried three customer
payloads and validated the majority of the technologies in the Vikram series of space launch
vehicles.

15. In 2013, ISRO launched the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or Mangalyaan, which has been
orbiting Mars since 2014, using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket C25. After
successfully operating for 8 years, the spacecraft lost communication with the ground station
in October 2022. Despite this setback, the mission is widely regarded as a major
accomplishment in planetary exploration.
Statement 1 is correct: Using machine learning models, the mission provided an opportunity
to classify extra-terrestrial landslides.
Statement 2 is correct: The spacecraft captured, for the first time, the far side of Deimos, one
of the natural satellites of Mars.
Statement 3 is correct: The mission is credited with the discovery of ‘supra-thermal’ Argon-
40 atoms in the Martian exosphere, which gave some clues on one of the potential
mechanisms for the escape of atmosphere from Mars.
Statement 4 is correct: The mission also observed the seasonal changes in thickness of the
Martian polar ice caps, i.e., the polar ice caps spread during Martian winter and shrink during
Martian summer.

16. Remote sensing is a technique that enables the collection of information about the earth's
surface and atmosphere from a distance, typically by using sensors on satellites. The data
obtained through remote sensing can be utilized for studying and monitoring various
environmental changes, including alterations in land use and land cover, natural disasters,
weather patterns, and climate change. All of the applications mentioned in statements 1 to 3
can be accomplished using remote sensing data.

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India has developed several remote sensing satellites, such as Cartosat-1 and 2, Resourcesat-
1 and 2, Oceansat-1 and 2, Risat-1, Megha-Tropiques, SARAL, Scatsat, and the INSAT series.
These satellites are a part of the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) program.

17. Statement 1, 2, and 3 are correct. An Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (IAD) was
developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center and was successfully test flown in a Rohini
sounding rocket from TERLS, Thumba. This marks the first time that an IAD was designed
specifically for spent stage recovery, and all objectives of the mission were successfully
demonstrated. The IAD has potential in a variety of space applications, including the
recovery of spent rocket stages, landing payloads on Mars or Venus, and creating space
habitats for human spaceflight missions.

18. NASA's James Webb telescope has recently discovered a star formation, called NGC 346, in a
dynamic cluster within the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). The Magellanic clouds are visible
to the naked eye from the southern hemisphere, but cannot be observed from most northern
latitudes, making statement 1 correct.
The Milky Way galaxy has several satellite galaxies, with the largest being the Large
Magellanic Cloud, and these companion galaxies were named after Portuguese navigator
Ferdinand Magellan, whose crew discovered them during the first voyage around the world
in the 16th century. However, the Magellanic Clouds were recognized early in the 20th
century as companion objects to the Milky Way, but they are not part of the Milky Way
galaxy, making statement 2 incorrect.
The Magellanic Clouds serve as laboratories for the study of active stellar formation and
evolution, making statement 3 correct.

19. Lagrangian points refer to the points in space where the gravitational forces of two larger
bodies balance the centrifugal force of a
smaller body. Therefore, statement (a) is
correct.
In 1772, the French mathematician Joseph-
Louis Lagrange was the first to discover the
existence of five Lagrangian points in the
Earth-Sun system.
Objects located at Lagrangian points remain
relatively stable because the gravitational
forces of the two larger bodies balance the
centrifugal force of the smaller body. As a
result, objects can maintain their position
without expending energy. Because of their
stability, these points are useful in space exploration and satellite missions.
In the Earth-Sun system, the five Lagrangian points are designated as L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5.

20. Danuri is the first lunar orbiter mission of South Korea, which is conducted in collaboration
with NASA. The primary goal of this mission is to explore the Moon's surface and to identify
potential landing sites for future missions.

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The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) is responsible for the design, manufacturing,
and operation of the orbiter, while NASA assists in the development of one of the six
scientific payloads and provides support for spacecraft communication and navigation.
Therefore, the correct option is (d).

21. Kepler's Law of planetary motion states that a planet sweeps equal areas in equal times,
which means that planets move faster when they are closer to the Sun and slower when they
are farther away. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) is ISRO's first interplanetary mission to Mars, and it is
designed to orbit Mars in an elliptical orbit with an apogee of 80,000 km and a perigee of 372
km, which makes statement 2 correct.
Statement 3 is incorrect, as the Martian atmosphere has a much lower density than Earth's
atmosphere, although it exhibits weather phenomena due to various chemical,
thermodynamic, and fluid dynamic effects.

22. Statement 1 is correct, as scramjet engines are designed to operate efficiently at hypersonic
speeds and allow supersonic combustion, while ramjet engines use the forward motion of
the vehicle to compress incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor.
Statement 2 is correct, as ISRO-developed sounding rockets are used for upper atmospheric
research and are one or two-stage solid propellant rockets.
Statement 3 is correct, as BrahMos is a ramjet supersonic cruise missile that can be launched
from land, sea, and air.

23. Amazonia-1, an earth observation satellite of Brazil, was launched by India's PSLV C51 in
February 2021, marking the first dedicated commercial launch for NSIL. NSIL is a wholly
owned Government of India undertaking and commercial arm of ISRO, under the
administrative control of the Department of Space (DoS). Antrix Corporation, also under the
DoS, shares similar responsibilities of promoting and commercializing ISRO's products and
services. Hence, statements 1 and 2 are correct.
ISRO launched its first satellite, Rohini Technology Payload (RTP), using an Indian-made
Satellite launch vehicle (SLV-3 E1) in 1979. Since then, ISRO has launched 130 satellites of
Indian origin and 422 foreign satellites belonging to 36 countries until March 2023.
Therefore, statement 3 is also correct.

24. High Altitude Gamma Ray experiment (HAGAR) and Major Atmospheric Cherenkov
Experiment Telescope (MACE) are ground-based telescopes that observe high-energy
gamma rays from celestial objects.
Astrosat is a space-based observatory that can observe the universe in various
electromagnetic spectrum regions, and recently detected UV light from a galaxy 9.3 billion
light-years away. None of these observatories are designed to study dark matter or dark
energy.

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Exercise – III c) Biogas has a higher calorific value
Topic: Energy Resources than diesel.
d) Biogas can be utilized in diesel
1. Recently seen in news, Etalin engines.
hydroelectric project is proposed to be set
up in which state? 5. Consider the following statements about
a) Arunachal Pradesh b) Assam National Coal Index (NCI)
c) Tripura d) Manipur 1. The National Coal Index (NCI) is used
to track the changes in the usage of
coal in India's energy mix.
2. Hydrogen has recently gained attention as
a potential alternative source of energy. 2. The financial year 1991-92 serves as
What are the advantages of using the base year for the National Coal
hydrogen as fuel? Index (NCI).
1. It can be produced from renewable Which of the statements given above
energy sources. is/are correct?
2. It is more efficient than petrol as a a) 1 only b) 2 only
fuel. c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. It can result in zero vehicular
emissions. 6. The Prime Minister recently declared that
Select the correct answer from the India has met its goal of blending 10%
options below: sugarcane-based ethanol with petrol
a) 1 and 2 only b) 1 and 3 only before the scheduled time.
c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2, and 3 Considering this, which of the following
are the benefits of ethanol blending?
1. Decrease in petroleum imports
3. Gas hydrates are viewed as a potential
source of energy, but their use raises 2. Increase in farmers' earnings
concerns. Which of the following 3. Decrease in carbon monoxide
statements are true? emissions
1. Decomposition of gas hydrates can Select the appropriate answer using the
contribute to global warming. given code:
2. Most gas hydrates are composed of a) Only 1 and 2 b) Only 2
methane, the release of which can c) 1, 2, and 3 d) Only 1 and 3
trigger submarine landslides.
3. India has not yet discovered any gas 7. Consider the following statements about
hydrate deposits. the Renewable Energy Certificate (REC)
a) 2 and 3 only b) 1 and 2 only Mechanism:
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2, and 3 1. RECs are market-based instruments
that certify ownership of one
megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity
generated from a renewable energy
4. Which of the statements below is
source.
incorrect about biogas?
a) Biogas is a blend of gases, 2. Once a REC has been sold by the REC
predominantly composed of methane registry in India, it cannot be
and carbon dioxide. purchased again.
b) Biogas combustion is smokeless and 3. RECs are valid for about one year
does not leave any residue. from the date of issuance.

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Which of the above statements is/are 11. What are the fields in which nuclear
correct? radiation is applied?
a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only 1. Agriculture
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Medical diagnostics
3. Oil drilling
8. Which of the following statements about 4. Cancer treatment
Producer gas is/are correct? 5. Tracking the movement of pollutants
1. Burning coal or coke without the Select the correct answer using the code
presence of oxygen generates given below.
Producer Gas a) 1 and 3 only
2. Producer gas is a colorless gas that b) 3 and 4 only
mainly consists of Methane and
c) 1, 4 and 5 only
hydrogen.
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
3. Mostly used as fuel in the iron and
steel manufacturing industries.
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only 12. How does nuclear energy pose risks and
challenges?
c) 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Generation of hazardous radioactive
waste.
9. How many of the following statements
2. Possibility of a major nuclear accident
about Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) and
leading to the release of radioactive
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) are
materials into the air.
correct?
3. Limitations in reprocessing used
1. LPG is an odorless and colorless gas
nuclear fuel.
mainly consisting of propane and
butane. 4. Challenges in the storage and disposal
of used nuclear fuel.
2. LPG is lighter than CNG.
Select the correct answer using the code
3. CNG is heavier than air.
given below:
a) Only one statement.
a) 1, 2 and 4 only
b) Only two statements.
b) 2 and 4 only
c) All three statements.
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
d) None of the statements.
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
10. Regarding nuclear power plants, consider
13. Consider the following statements about
the following statements:
Tokamak:
1. Normal water is utilized as a
1. It is a device that employs magnetic
moderator in light water reactors.
fields to confine plasma in a torus
2. Graphite serves as both a coolant and
shape.
moderator in the Pressurized Heavy
2. Conditions similar to those in
water reactor.
Tokamak can occur naturally in stars.
3. Fast breeder Reactors do not require
3. India constructed its first indigenous
moderators to function.
Tokamak reactor in the 1980s.
Which statements are correct?
Which of the statements given above are
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 3 only
correct?
c) 2 only d) 1, 2 and 3
a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3

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16. In reference to Flex Fuel Vehicles, how
14. Consider the following pairs regarding many of the following statements is/are
Ethanol production: correct?
Technological Raw material 1. They can run on pure ethanol.
level used 2. Flex Fuel vehicles running on 20%
ethanol blended petrol will not
1. First Edible food crops eliminate carbon monoxide
Generation emissions.
ethanol 3. Increased use of Flex Fuel Vehicles
can create additional revenue for
2. Second Algae grown in farmers.
Generation wastewater a) Only one statement
ethanol b) Only two statements
c) All three statements
3. Third Genetically
Generation d) None of the statements
engineered
ethanol feedstock
17. Which of the following statements about
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) is correct
How many of the pairs given above are
with respect to nuclear reactors?
correctly matched?
a) SMRs only use heavy water as a
a) Only One pair coolant, unlike standard reactors.
b) Only Two pairs b) They are typically cheaper and faster to
c) All Three pairs build than standard reactors.
d) None of the pairs c) SMRs are not vulnerable to damage
caused by seismic activity, unlike
15. Which of the following statements is standard reactors.
correct regarding Zinc-Air batteries? d) SMRs cannot be used to enrich
1. Zinc-air batteries are rechargeable uranium for the production of nuclear
and are meant to be used many times weapons.
before disposal.
2. Zinc-air batteries require a 18. Consider the following statements:
continuous supply of oxygen from 1. Thorium can be used as nuclear fuel
external sources to sustain chemical without requiring any processing or
reactions within them. enrichment, unlike uranium.
3. Zinc-air batteries are used in small 2. Kerala holds the largest deposits of
devices such as hearing aids and monazite, a mineral that contains
wristwatches. significant amounts of rare earth
4. Zinc-air batteries are generally less elements, including thorium, in India.
expensive than lithium-ion batteries. Which of the statements given above
Choose the correct answer from options is/are correct?
below. a) 1 only b) 2 only
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 4 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
c) 3 and 4 only d) 2, 3 and 4 only
19. Which of the following statements about
Nuclear Reactors in India is/are correct?

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1. The Madras Atomic Power Station 3. Nuclear poison refers to a substance
(MAPS) located at Kalpakkam was the that can absorb neutrons near the
first nuclear power station to be built reactor core.
in India. (a) 1 only (b) 3 only
2. Boron is a material used to maintain a (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and
controlled chain reaction in nuclear
reactors.

Exercise – III Key

1. a 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. c 9. a 10. a
11. d 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. c 16. b 17. b 18. d 19. c

Explanations
1. A proposed hydroelectric project, called Etalin, is planned to be established in Arunachal
Pradesh. The project, which has a capacity of 3,097 MW, would involve clearing more than
1100 hectares of forested land and cutting down over 280,000 trees. Conservationists and
wildlife scientists from the state have written to the Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) of the
Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) expressing their
concerns regarding the potential risks to the local biodiversity posed by the project.

2. Statement 1 is correct. Hydrogen can be produced from renewable sources, and it is classified
into three types: grey, blue, and green. Grey hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels and is the
primary type currently generated. Blue hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels but with carbon
capture and storage. Green hydrogen, which comes entirely from renewable sources, offers
specific benefits. It is a clean-burning fuel that can decarbonize various sectors, including
transportation, iron and steel, and chemicals. Additionally, renewable energy that cannot be
stored or used by the grid can be channeled to produce hydrogen.
Statement 2 is correct. Hydrogen is two to three times more efficient than burning petrol. One
kilogram of hydrogen gas holds about the same amount of energy as 2.8 kilograms of petrol.
Statement 3 is correct. Hydrogen is a clean fuel that produces only water when burned in air,
releasing no carbon-based emissions. As a result, using hydrogen can lead to zero vehicular
emissions.

3. Gas hydrates are a potential energy source, but their use raises concerns. Statement 1 is
correct in that their decomposition can release methane, a greenhouse gas that contributes to
global warming. Statement 2 is also correct in that gas hydrates are ice-like crystalline
minerals that mostly form from methane and their sudden release can cause submarine
landslides and trigger tsunamis. However, statement 3 is incorrect. Recent research found
that methane hydrate deposits of biogenic origin are located in the Krishna-Godavari basin,
which is a rich source of natural gas.

4. Biogas is produced by the process of Anaerobic Digestion in Biogas Plants using organic waste
such as biomass from farms, gardens, kitchens, industry, and municipal waste. It's a mixture
of gases, mainly methane, carbon dioxide, and traces of other gases. Biogas burns cleanly and
without leaving any residue. It can be used as a fuel for cooking, lighting, generating
Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 472
electricity, and in diesel engines. The calorific value of biogas is lower than diesel fuel, making
option (c) incorrect.

5. The NCI is a price index that tracks the change in the price of coal each month relative to the
fixed base year of FY 2017-18. Hence both statements 1 and 2 are incorrect.
Recent Context: The Ministry of Coal and Mines organized an Investors' conclave to discuss
commercial coal mines auctions and opportunities in the mining sector. The Ministry of Coal
has launched commercial coal mines auctions on a revenue share basis, using the National
Coal Index (NCI) to determine the revenue share based on market prices.
The Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, developed the concept, design, and Representative
Prices of the Index, which is released every month.

6. Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that India has achieved its target of blending 10%
sugarcane-extracted ethanol in petrol ahead of schedule. Originally, India aimed to increase
this ratio to 20% by 2030, but in 2021, the deadline was advanced to 2025 according to the
ethanol roadmap by NITI Aayog.
Benefits of ethanol blending include:
• Reducing India's share of oil imports (which is almost 85%) and saving precious foreign
exchange.
• Increasing farmers' incomes by boosting ethanol output. The Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas reports that ethanol blending led to the payment of over Rs 40,600 crore to
farmers in the last eight years.
• Lowering the emissions of some regulated pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbons (HC), and CO2. Therefore, the correct answer is option (c).

7. Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) certify that the bearer owns one MWh of electricity
generated from a renewable energy source, and are used to address the mismatch between
renewable energy availability and the obligation of entities to meet their Renewable Purchase
Obligations (RPO). Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The REC received can be sold on the open market as an energy commodity or as a carbon
credit to offset emissions. The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has notified
the regulation on RECs to promote renewable energy sources and develop the electricity
market.
A REC that has already been sold cannot be purchased again, and all RECs have a unique
number with location and generation information. Therefore statement 2 is correct
RECs are valid for approximately three years from the date of issuance and their price is
determined in power exchange within the forbearance and floor price set by CERC. Therefore
statement 3 is not correct.

8. The gas is not produced without the presence of oxygen; it requires a controlled amount of
oxygen to be produced. Therefore, statement 1 is also incorrect.
Producer gas is a type of fuel gas that is produced by burning coal or coke with limited oxygen
and controlled moisture. The gas comprises flammable gases such as carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, as well as non-flammable gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Methane is not
present in the gas. Hence, statement 2 is incorrect.

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Producer gas is primarily used as a fuel in the iron and steel manufacturing industries, such as
in firing coke ovens and blast furnaces, and is used as a reducing agent in metallurgical
operations. Thus, statement 3 is correct.

9. LPG, a by-product of crude petroleum extraction, is a liquefied gas consisting of propane,


butane, and traces of propylene and butylene. While it is odorless and colorless, an odorant is
added to it for safety purposes. Statement 1 is correct.
CNG, or Compressed Natural Gas, is primarily methane compressed at a pressure of 200 to
248 bars. It is a cleaner fuel for transportation vehicles and contains methane. In terms of
density, LPG is heavier than CNG, so Statement 2 is not correct.
CNG is lighter than air because its density is lower than that of air, causing it to rapidly
dissipate into the atmosphere when released. Statement 3 is not correct.

10. Light water reactors employ light water to generate electricity from nuclear energy, as it can
act as both a moderator and a coolant to remove the energy produced by nuclear fission.
Therefore, Statement 1 is true.
In a pressurized heavy water reactor, heavy water (D2O; D is deuterium an isotope of
Hydrogen) is employed as a coolant and moderator. Graphite serves as a moderator because
it reflects fast-moving neutrons, but it is not employed as a coolant in the Pressurized Heavy
water reactor. Therefore, Statement 2 is incorrect.
In nuclear reactors, moderators are used to reduce the velocity of the neutrons. Fast neutrons
produced during fission have high energy and travel quickly. These neutrons are not as
effective at causing fission as slower-moving ones. However, unlike most conventional
nuclear reactors, fast reactors do not need an effective moderator, so their neutrons remain
high-energetic. Although these fast neutrons are not as efficient at causing fission, they are
readily absorbed by a uranium isotope (U238), which then transforms into plutonium
(Pu239). This plutonium isotope can be reprocessed and utilized as more reactor fuel or in
the production of nuclear weapons. As a result, the Fast Breeder Reactor can function without
moderators. Hence, Statement 3 is correct.

11. Nuclear applications in agriculture rely on the use of isotopes and radiation techniques to
combat pests and diseases, increase crop production, protect land and water resources. Hence
option 1 is correct.
Common uses of nuclear medicine for diagnosis include, scans of the heart, lungs, kidneys,
gallbladder, and thyroid Hence option 2 is correct.
The use of radioactive materials in oil drilling can provide valuable information about the
subsurface properties of oil reservoirs and help to improve production efficiency and safety.
Hence option 3 is correct.
Nuclear medicine therapy uses a small amount of radioactive material combined with a
carrier molecule. Nuclear medicine therapies treat cancer and other conditions. Hence option
4 is correct.
Radioactive isotopes can greatly be utilized for the accurate measurement of pollutants in
the environment including groundwater and river. Hence option 5 is correct.

12. Statement 1 is correct: The generation of radioactive waste is a significant environmental


concern associated with nuclear power. This waste can include materials such as uranium

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mill tailings, spent reactor fuel, and other radioactive wastes that can remain hazardous to
human health for thousands of years.
Statement 2 is correct: Although nuclear accidents are rare, when they occur, they can have
severe consequences for both people and the environment. Examples of major nuclear
accidents include the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Used nuclear fuel is typically not reprocessed to extract fissile
materials in most countries, although it has been done in some countries like France.
Reprocessing can reduce the volume of high-level waste, but it also generates additional
waste and has proliferation risks.
Statement 4 is correct: The safe storage and disposal of used nuclear fuel is a significant
challenge for nuclear energy. The high level of radioactivity in used fuel means that it must be
carefully stored and monitored for thousands of years to prevent harm to people and the
environment.

13. A tokamak is a machine that uses a strong magnetic field to contain plasma in the form of a
torus. This is an important technology being developed for producing controlled
thermonuclear fusion power. Statement 1 is correct.
Statement 2 is also true, as plasma confinement is the process of keeping a plasma under
control by different forces, which is crucial for achieving fusion reactions. These conditions
occur naturally in stars, where gravity maintains them.
Statement 3 is correct as well. India's first Tokamak reactor, called Aditya, was constructed in
1980 and completed 30 years of safe operation in January 2020.

14. The correct matching is as given below.


Technological level Raw material used
1. First Generation ethanol Edible food crops
2. Second Generation ethanol Food waste
3. Third Generation ethanol Algae grown in wastewater
4. Fourth Generation ethanol Genetically engineered feedstock

The 4 generations of ethanol production are:


1. First Generation: The first generation of ethanol production is based on the fermentation
of simple sugars derived from food based feedstocks such as corn, wheat, and sugarcane.
2. Second Generation: The second generation of ethanol production is based on the use of
non-food feedstocks such as wood, grasses, and agricultural waste.
3. Third Generation: The third generation of ethanol production involves the use of algae as
a feedstock for ethanol production. Algae can be grown in a variety of conditions and can
produce high yields of lipids and carbohydrates, which can be used to produce ethanol.
4. Fourth Generation: The fourth generation of ethanol production involves the use of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to produce ethanol. This generation is still in
development and not yet commercially viable.

15. Statement 1 is incorrect: Zinc-air batteries are not disposable batteries, they can be
rechargeable. They are batteries that use zinc and oxygen to create a reaction that produces

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electricity. These batteries are known for their high energy density, which means they can
store a lot of energy in a small space.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Zinc-air batteries do not require an external source of oxygen to
sustain the chemical reactions within them. They rely on the oxygen in the air to produce the
chemical reaction.
Statement 3 is correct: Zinc-air batteries are available in various sizes, from small batteries
used in hearing aids and watches to larger batteries used in electric vehicles and grid energy
storage. Zinc-air batteries are now used instead of mercury batteries in small devices due to
environmental concerns associated with mercury batteries.
Statement 4 is correct: Zinc-air batteries are generally cheaper than lithium-ion batteries.

16. Statement 1 is correct: Flex engines have the capability of running on either 100% petrol or
100% bio ethanol. A flex fuel or flexible fuel can operate on more than one fuel type or even a
blend of fuels, with the most common versions using a mix of petrol and ethanol or methanol.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Flex fuel vehicles operating on a 20% ethanol blended petrol may
not completely eliminate carbon monoxide emissions. However, they can reduce carbon
monoxide emissions by 50% in two-wheelers and 30% lower in four-wheelers than petrol.
Additionally, hydrocarbon emissions can be reduced by 20% compared to petrol.
Statement 3 is correct: The increased use of Flex Fuel Vehicles could lead to a wider adoption
of ethanol or methanol as a fuel source. This could result in an additional source of revenue
for farmers.

17. Option a is incorrect as Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors use heavy water (deuterium
oxide D2O) as both a coolant and moderator, and not just as a coolant. However, some SMRs
use different coolants such as sodium, lead, gas, or salt instead of water.
Option b is correct as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are designed to be cheaper and
quicker to build and commission than traditional nuclear plants, with the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defining them as nuclear power stations producing under 300
megawatts electrical (MWe) of nuclear energy.
Option c is incorrect as SMRs, like any other nuclear reactors, can be susceptible to seismic
activity, including earthquakes and tsunamis.
Option d is incorrect as SMRs are not used to enrich uranium to produce nuclear weapons,
but rather to generate electricity. However, some experts have raised concerns about the
potential misuse of SMRs for nuclear weapons or other malicious purposes if they fall into
the wrong hands.

18. The use of uranium and thorium in nuclear reactors varies due to their different
characteristics. Unlike uranium, thorium cannot be directly used as nuclear fuel because it
does not contain enough fissile material to start a nuclear chain reaction. Therefore,
statement 1 is incorrect.
India's major resource of rare earth minerals is monazite, and the Atomic Minerals
Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) has found 12.73 million tonnes of monazite
reserves in India. However, contrary to statement 2, Kerala does not have the highest
monazite resources in India. The largest monazite resource in India, with 3.78 million tonnes
of monazite, is found in Andhra Pradesh.

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19. India's first nuclear reactor was Apsara, built at Tarapur, Maharashtra in 1956. Madras
Atomic Power Station (MAPS) was designed and built by India on its own. Thus, Statement 1
is incorrect.
Control rods, made of neutron-absorbing materials such as boron, are used to control the
chain reaction of nuclear fission in nuclear reactors. Therefore, Statement 2 is correct.
A neutron-absorbing material, also known as a nuclear or neutron poison, is intentionally
inserted into certain types of reactors to decrease the reactivity of their initial fresh fuel load.
Thus, Statement 3 is correct.

Exercise - IV 4. Which of the following are related to the


Topics: Biotechnology & Crop Science process of photosynthesis?
1. Absorption of light energy by
1. HD-3385, developed by ICAR, is a new chlorophyll.
variety of which species? 2. Conversion of light energy to
a) Rice b) Wheat chemical energy and splitting of
c) Tomato d) Brinjal water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.
3. Reduction of carbon dioxide to
2. Consider the following pairs:
carbohydrates.
Plant cell organelles: Functions
Select the correct answer using the code
1. Mitochondria: Generates energy given below.
2. Ribosome: Distributes synthesized (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
material
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Lysosome: Waste disposal system
4. Golgi apparatus: Synthesizes
5. Consider the following pairs:
biological proteins
Mode of reproduction: Example
Which of the pairs given above is/are
correctly matched? 1. Vegetative propagation: Ginger
2. Pollination: Tomato
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Which of the pairs given above are
(b) 1 and 3 only
correctly matched?
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(d) 4 only
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None
3. With reference to Zinc, consider the
6. Consider the following pairs:
following statements:
Mode of reproduction : Example
1. It is a form of macronutrient
1. Fragmentation : Yeast
required by plants.
2. Budding : Jellyfish
2. It is essential for growth hormone
Which of the pairs given above are
production and internode
correctly matched?
elongation in plants.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? (c) 1 and 2 (d) None
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
7. With reference to plant transportation
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
system, consider the following
statements:

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1. Phloem moves water and minerals
obtained from the soil to the leaves. 11. Researchers have recently developed
2. Xylem transports products of Proton therapy, a more efficient cancer
photosynthesis from the leaves to other treatment method.
parts of the plants. 1. Proton therapy uses x-rays for
3. Transpiration involves loss of water treating cancer.
vapour through the stomata of plants. 2. Cyclotron generates high-power
Which of the statements given above energy radiation for proton therapy.
is/are not correct? 3. Proton therapy is less likely to
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only damage healthy tissues surrounding
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 3 only malignant tumors.
Which of the above statements is/are
8. Which of the following plant hormones correct?
acts as a general plant growth inhibitor (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
and an inhibitor of plant metabolism? (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
(a) Abscisic acid
(b) Cytokinins 12. Consider the statements regarding Ribose
(c) Gibberellins Nucleic Acid (RNA):
(d) Auxin 1. RNA is present in the mitochondria
and nucleus of a human cell.
9. Which of the following statements about 2. Transfer RNA (t-RNA) carries
stem cells is/are true? information from DNA to ribosomes
1. Stem cells are special cells that can for protein synthesis.
self-replicate and differentiate into Which statement(s) is/are incorrect?
various types of cells. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
2. HIV patients can be completely cured (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
by stem cells obtained from umbilical
cord blood transplants. 13. Which of the following statements about
Choose the correction option from below. gene banks is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only 1. Gene banks are biorepositories that
(c) 1 only (d) None preserve genetic material.
2. Gene bank is a method of in-situ
10. Which of the following statements about conservation of flora and fauna.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 3. The world's second-largest gene bank
technique is/are incorrect? is located in India.
1. PCR helps in making many copies of a Select the correct answer using the code
small amount of DNA. given below:
2. DNA molecule is first cooled to break (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
it up into two strands followed by (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
heating with primers so that they bind
to the DNA. 14. With reference to Green Manure, consider
3. RT-PCR diagnosis used for COVID-19 the following statements :
employs NAAT method. 1. These are crops grown specifically for
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only maintaining soil fertility and structure.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Glyricidia, Pongamia and Subabul are
used as Green Manure.
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3. Green manure usage will subsequently 2. Reproducing copy of a
reduce the consumption of Chemical Reproductive whole animal
fertilizers in India. Cloning
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct ? 3. Therapeutic Treating the
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only Cloning neurodegenerative
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only diseases

15. Consider the following statements


regarding the stem cell transplant: How many pairs above are correctly
1. It is also known as bone marrow matched?
transplant. a) Only one pair
2. In allogeneic transplantation the b) Only two pairs
patient’s own stem cell is used. c) All three pairs
Which of the statements given above d) None of the pairs
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
18. The term ‘Genomic Surveillance’ can be
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 best described as a process of constant
monitoring of the:
16. 'RNA interference (RNAi)' technology has (a) Harmful mutations that occur due to
gained popularity in the last few years. exposure to mutagens.
Why? (UPSC PRELIMS 2019) (b) Pathogens and analysing their genetic
1. It is used in developing gene silencing similarities and differences.
therapies. (c) Gene pool of a human population and
2. It can be used in developing therapies assessing genetic diversity.
for the treatment of cancer. (d) Genetic markers to link an inherited
3. It can be used to develop hormone disease with the responsible gene.
replacement therapies.
4. It can be used to produce crop plants 19. Consider the following statements about
that are resistant to viral pathogens. Genome Edited Plants (GEPs):
Select the correct answer using the code 1. All the gene edited crops are developed
given below. using insertion of foreign genetic
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 material.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 only 2. It is mandatory for researchers in India
to seek approval from the Genetic
17. Consider the following pairs about Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)
various cloning techniques and their to modify a genome using gene editing.
applications: Which of the statements given above
Cloning Potential is/are correct?
Techniques Applications (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None
1. Gene Regenerating a whole
Cloning new organ from 20. Consider the following statements about
embryonic stem cell Genome Edited Plants (GEPs):

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1. CRISPR-Cas9 technique is often used 23. Which of the following statements
for genome editing. regarding fortification of food is/are
2. Bt-Cotton is India’s first non-transgenic correct?
Genome Edited Crop. 1. The Food Safety and Standards
Which of the statements given above Authority of India provides
is/are correct? fortification guidelines.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 2. According to FSSAI rules, packaged
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None milk must be fortified with Vitamin A
and D.
21. Which of the following are types of bio- 3. Golden Rice, produced through
plastics? genetic fortification, requires
1. Polyhydroxyalkanoate significant changes in cultivation
2. Polylactic acid practices.
3. Polyethylene terephthalate (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only 24. With reference to the Food Safety and
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Standards Authority of India (FSSAI),
consider the following statements:
1. It is an autonomous statutory body
22. Consider the following:
which regulates food safety and
1. Bacteria
standards.
2. Fungi
2. It is under the Ministry of Health &
3. Virus Family Welfare.
4. Protozoa Which of the statements given above
Which of the above can be used in is/are correct?
pesticides to prevent crop damage? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 4 only (b) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Exercise – IV Key
1. b 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. a 8. a 9. a 10. b
11. c 12. d 13. a 14. c 15. a 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. d 20. a
21. a 22. d 23. a 24. c

Explanations
1. The new wheat variety called HD-3385 has been developed by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) to address the challenges posed by climate change and rising
heat levels. It can be sown early and harvested before the end of March.

2. Mitochondria are known as the powerhouse of the cell.


The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules [If Mitochondria is the
Power Plant. ATP is the Electricity].
Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.

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Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out
cell organelles.
During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when the cell gets damaged,
lysosomes may burst and the enzymes in them digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes
are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
Golgi apparatus is a special part of our cells that helps process and package molecules so that
they can be sent to the right place to do their jobs.
A ribosome is a complex molecular machine found inside the living cells that produce
proteins from amino acids during a process called protein synthesis or translation.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

3. Plant growth and development are largely determined by nutrient availability. Plants require
two types of nutrients- macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are the nutrients required by plants in large amounts. These include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, and potassium. Micronutrients are
the ones required in very small amounts by plants. These include iron, zinc, boron, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, etc. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
Zinc is also involved in the activation of certain enzymes and is essential for growth hormone
production and internode elongation in plants. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

4. Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophs (those that can produce their own food)
take in substances from the outside and convert them into stored forms of energy. This
material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water which is converted into
carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilised for
providing energy to the plant.
The following events occur during this process of photosynthesis:
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. Hence option (d) is the correct answer.

5. There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are categorised into
two types: (i) asexual, and (ii) sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction plants can give
rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained
from seeds.
Vegetative propagation
• It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from roots,
stems, leaves and buds.
• Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as
vegetative propagation.
• For example- potato, Ginger, Sweet potato. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
Pollination
• Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance made up of microspores in seed plants.
It is produced by the male reproductive organs of a flower, called the anther, and
contains the male gametes (sperm cells) of the plant.
• The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.
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• If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same
plant, it is called self-pollination. When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of a
flower of a different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
• Tomatoes are self-pollinating, meaning they have flowers that contain both the male
and female parts, so more than one plant is not needed for reproduction. Hence pair
2 is correctly matched.

6. Fragmentation
• It is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning, where an organism is split into
fragments.
• Each of these fragments develops into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones
of the original organism.
• When water and nutrients are available algae grow and multiply rapidly by
fragmentation.
• An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces grow into
new individuals. This process continues and they cover a large area in a short period
of time.
Yeast reproduces through Budding. Hence pair 1 is not correctly matched.
Budding
• It is an asexual reproduction method in which a new organism develops from a bud
of an existing organism.
• Until the new organism matures, it remains attached to the parent organism. It is
separated from the parent organism when it gets matured by leaving scar tissues
behind.
• Bacteria, yeast, corals, flatworms, Jellyfish and sea anemones are some animal
species which reproduce through budding.

7. Plants do not move, and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues. As
a result, plants have low energy needs, and can use relatively slow transport systems. Plant
transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from roots. These
two pathways are constructed as independently organised conducting tubes, xylem and
phloem.
The xylem and the phloem transport water, sugars, and other important substances around a
plant. What is commonly referred to as ‘sap’ is indeed the substances that are being
transported around a plant by its xylem and phloem.
One, the xylem moves water and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem
transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they are synthesised to other
parts of the plant. Hence, statement 1 and statement 2 are not correct.
Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour through the stomata of plants.
The loss of water vapour from the plant cools the plant down when the weather is very hot,
and water from the stem and roots moves upwards or is 'pulled' into the leaves. Hence,
statement 3 is correct.

8. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
The PGRs can be broadly divided into two groups based on their functions in a living plant
body.

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One group of PGRs are involved in growth promoting activities, such as cell division, cell
enlargement, flowering, fruiting and seed formation. These are also called plant growth
promoters, e.g., auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.
The PGRs of the other group play an important role in plant responses to wounds and
stresses. They are also involved in various growth inhibiting activities such as dormancy and
abscission (shedding of leaves, fruits, flowers).
The PGR abscisic acid (ABA) belongs to this group. It acts as a general plant growth inhibitor
and an inhibitor of plant metabolism.
Hence option (a) is the correct answer.
Note: The gaseous PGR, ethylene, could fit either of the groups, but it is largely an inhibitor of
growth activities.

9. Statement 1 is correct as stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide and produce
more stem cells while also transforming into specialized cell types. Stem cells can be
obtained from various sources in adults, including embryos, bone marrow, and umbilical
cords.
Statement 2 is also correct as a woman with HIV who received a blood stem cell transplant to
treat her acute myeloid leukemia has reportedly been cured of HIV. The stem cells in the
umbilical cord blood had a gene variant that made them resistant to HIV infection.

10. PCR is a technique used to "amplify" small segments of DNA, making it valuable in many
laboratory and clinical techniques. Statement 1 is correct.
In PCR, the DNA is first heated to separate it into two strands, and then primers are added to
bind to the DNA. However, in Statement 2, it is incorrectly stated that the DNA is cooled for
separation. The correct order is to heat the DNA before adding the primers and then cool it.
Statement 2 is incorrect.
The RT-PCR test used for COVID-19 employs the NAAT method to amplify the virus's genetic
material for detection. Statement 3 is correct. The NAAT procedure amplifies the nucleic
acids and detects the virus using various methods such as RT-PCR, NEAR, TMA, LAMP, HDA,
CRISPR, and SDA. Therefore, the answer is (b) 2 only as it is the only incorrect option.

11. Statement 1 is incorrect. Proton therapy uses protons, not x-rays, which can cause damage to
healthy tissues surrounding the tumor.
Statement 2 is correct. Cyclotron is used to speed up protons to create high energy and give
the targeted radiation dose to the tumor.
Statement 3 is correct. Proton therapy delivers less radiation to healthy tissues surrounding
the malignant tumor, lowering the risk of radiation damage to these tissues. Additionally, it is
useful for treating children as it reduces the chance of harming healthy, growing tissue.

12. DNA is the genetic material present in most living organisms and is found in the cell nucleus
and mitochondria. RNA is also present in the majority of living organisms and viruses.
However RNA is not present in mitochondria. Thus, statement 1 is incorrect .
The types of RNA involved in protein synthesis are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries genetic information from DNA and tRNA
carries amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. Thus, statement 2 is incorrect
because tRNA carries amino acids, not information codes.

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13. Gene banks are facilities that store and preserve genetic material, such as seeds, DNA, and
other biological samples. These banks are essential resources for genetic research and
conservation efforts. Therefore, Statement 1 is correct.
In-situ conservation refers to the conservation and protection of species and ecosystems in
their natural habitats. On the other hand, ex-situ conservation is the conservation of species
and ecosystems outside of their natural habitats, such as in gene banks. Therefore, Statement
2 is not correct.
The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources has established the world's second-largest
refurbished gene bank in New Delhi, which can safely store up to one million germplasms.
Hence, Statement is 3 correct.

14. Green manure is un-decomposed material used as manure and is made up of plants from the
leguminous family that are grown specifically to maintain soil fertility and structure. Hence
statement 1 is correct.
Green leaf manure, on the other hand, involves the application of green leaves and twigs of
trees, shrubs, and herbs collected from elsewhere. The source of green leaf manure is forest
trees and plants growing in wastelands, field bunds, and specific plant species such as neem,
mahua, wild indigo, Glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamia glabra), Calotropis, Avise (Sesbania
grandiflora), Subabul, and other shrubs. As given plant/trees are green leaf manures, not
green manure, statement 2 is incorrect.
Dhaincha, Cowpea, Sunhemp, summer moong, marsh pulses, and guar are crops grown as
green manure crops to improve soil health and enhance crop productivity.
High-intensity agricultural practices lead to deficiencies of micronutrients such as iron and
zinc, affecting soil productivity, which is why green manuring helps improve soil health and
crop productivity. Hence statement 3 is correct.

15. Recent context: Researchers reported fourth patient of HIV cured after stem cell transplant
(SCT). SCT, also called bone marrow transplant, is a procedure in which a patient receives
healthy stem cells to replace damaged stem cells. Hence statement 1 is correct.
Two main types:
Autologous transplantation: Uses patient’s own stem cells. These cells are removed, treated
and returned to his body after a conditioning regimen.
Allogeneic transplantation: Uses stem cells from a donor. Hence statement 2 is not correct.

16. RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process that occurs within cells, in which small RNA
molecules are used to silence or "turn off" specific genes. This is accomplished by the RNA
molecules binding to and targeting messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, which are
responsible for carrying genetic information from the DNA in the cell's nucleus to the
ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
When RNAi occurs, the targeted mRNA is destroyed or prevented from being translated into
protein, effectively shutting down the gene's expression.
Statement 1 and 4 are correct: RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene
Silencing (PTGS) may have important practical applications in agriculture (to produce crop
plants that are resistant to viral pathogens) and other areas.

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Statement 2 is correct: RNAi is used in developing therapies for the treatment of viral
infection, dominant disorders, neurological disorders, and many types of cancers.
Statement 3 is incorrect: Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is a treatment to relieve
symptoms of the menopause. It replaces hormones (Oestrogen and Progesterone) that are at
a lower level as you approach the menopause.

17. Pair 1 is incorrect: Gene cloning produces copies of genes or segments of DNA. Hence, it is
also known as DNA cloning, where a fragment of DNA is cloned. It has several applications:
Medical application including synthesis of vitamins, hormones, and antibiotics;
Agricultural applications including production of nitrogen fixing bacteria;
Pair 2 is correct: Reproductive cloning produces copies of whole animal. It involves transfer
of DNA from the donor animal’s somatic cell to an oocyte. Dolly, the sheep was the first
successful reproductive cloning experiment. Samrupa, the world's first cloned buffalo calf
that was cloned at Karnal’s National Dairy Research Institute.
Pair 3 is correct: In some of the recent researches held on various animals, it is found that the
neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer's can be treated with the
use of therapeutic cloning.

18. Genomic surveillance is the process of constantly monitoring pathogens and analysing their
genetic similarities and differences. Genomic surveillance works on the basis that everything
with a genome (humans, animals, plants, bacteria, viruses etc.) needs to replicate their
genetic material in order to reproduce, and this results in changes known as mutations.
Genomic surveillance is critical for stronger pandemic and epidemic preparedness and
response.

19. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) had issued Guidelines for Safety Assessment of
Genome Edited Plants in 2022 to ease norms for developing GM crops.
Statement 1 is incorrect: The genome edited plants derived from the use of genome editing
techniques are generally classified under three categories:
Site-Directed Nuclease (SDN)-1, a site-directed mutagenesis (the process of intentionally
introducing mutations or changes in the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism)
without using a DNA sequence template. It doesn’t involve insertion of a DNA fragment from
foreign genome.
SDN-2, a site-directed mutagenesis using a DNA sequence template. It also doesn’t involve
insertion of foreign genetic material.
SDN-3, site-directed insertion of gene/large DNA sequence using a DNA sequence template,
which involves insertion of DNA fragment of a foreign origin.
Site-Directed Nuclease (SDN)- Site-directed nucleases (SDNs) are a class of engineered
nucleases that can cleave DNA at specific sites within the genome. SDNs are commonly used
in genome editing techniques to introduce precise modifications to the DNA sequence of an
organism.
Statement 2 is Incorrect: The ‘Guidelines for Safety Assessment of Genome Edited Plants,
2022’ exempt researchers who use gene-editing technology to modify the genome of the
plant from seeking approvals from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (SDN 1 and
SDN 2 are exempted from rule 7-11 of the Environment Protection Act).

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20. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) had issued Guidelines for Safety Assessment of
Genome Edited Plants in 2022 to ease norms for developing GM crops.
Statement 1 is correct: CRISPR-Cas9 (‘clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic
repeats’) is the most common and efficient system used for genome editing. It is often known
as genetic/molecular scissor. A targeted segment of DNA is located, cut, removed and then
replaced with a correct sequence. It does not involve introduction of foreign genetic material.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Bt-cotton is a genetically modified transgenic plant that has been
grown in the country for the past two decades. It contains the pesticide gene from the
bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). It has been modified to produce an insecticide to combat
the cotton bollworm. On the other hand, non-transgenic plants do not involve introduction of
genetic material from outside. Rather it involves redesigning (shortening, lengthening,
removal) of a gene that is already present in the plant.

21. Bioplastic refers to plastic made from plants like maize, wheat or sugarcane or other
biological material instead of petroleum. Bio-plastics are biodegradable and compostable
plastic materials.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are polyesters produced in nature by numerous
microorganisms. Hence option 1 is correct.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a thermoplastic polyester that has become a popular material due to
it being economically produced from renewable resources and in 2021, had the highest
consumption volume of any bioplastic of the world. Hence option 2 is correct.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) is a strong, stiff synthetic fibre and resin and a
member of the polyester family of polymers. Hence option 3 is not correct.

22. Microbial-based pesticides are biological pesticides (bio-pesticides) that are derived from
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. These pesticides are used to
control pests, weeds, and diseases in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.
One example of a microbial-based pesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a naturally
occurring soil bacterium that produces a protein that is toxic to certain insects. Bt is
commonly used to control pests such as caterpillars, beetles, and moths in crops like corn,
cotton, and vegetables.
Another example is Trichoderma, a fungi that can be used as a biocontrol agent against plant
pathogens, and can also promote plant growth.

23. Fortification involves adding essential micronutrients to food to improve its nutritional
quality. The FSSAI provides regulations and guidelines for packaging and labelling of food
products, food standards, and food additives. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
According to FSSAI standards, packaged milk must be fortified with Vitamin A and D, and the
notification to make this mandatory was issued in December 2020. Hence, statement 2 is also
correct.
Golden Rice is biofortified with provitamin A and does not require any significant changes in
cultivation practices. Thus, statement 3 is incorrect.

24. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under Food
Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which consolidates various acts & orders that have hitherto
handled food related issues in various Ministries and Departments.

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It is an autonomous statutory body which regulates and monitor manufacturing, distribution
and processing of food products. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
FSSAI has been created for laying down science based standards for articles of food and to
regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of
safe and wholesome food for human consumption.
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative Ministry for
the implementation of FSSAI. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

Exercise – V 1. LSD virus have a single-stranded DNA


Topic: Infections & Diseases genome.
2. It is a non-zoonotic disease therefore it
1. Regarding Human Papillomavirus (HPV), is safe to drink milk from the infected
which of the following statements is/are cattle.
true? 3. Incubation period of LSD is around 28
1. It is a double-stranded DNA virus that days.
affects human beings. 4. Due to rapid mutations in LSDV, a
2. Gardasil 9 is a gender-neutral HPV vaccine against it cannot be developed.
vaccine manufactured by Merck & Co 5. It has a very high mortality of greater
and is available in India. than 50%.
3. Cervical cancer is primarily caused by Which of the statements given above are
HPV. correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 3 and 5 only

2. Which of the following statements 4. Consider the following pairs:


accurately describe antimicrobial Vitamins/Minerals: Deficiency Diseases
resistance? 1. Vitamin A : Night blindness
1. Antibiotic resistance does not occur 2. Vitamin D : Scurvy
naturally and is primarily caused by 3. Iron : Anaemia
the inappropriate use of antibiotics in 4. Iodine : Goitre
humans and animal feed. How many pairs given above are correctly
2. The use of Colistin in poultry is matched?
prohibited in India. (a) Only one pair
3. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria can (b) Only two pairs
result from genetic changes that (c) Only three pairs
reduce the effectiveness of drugs used
(d) All four pairs
to treat infections.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
5. With reference to Enzyme-linked
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), consider
the following statements:
3. Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) is caused in 1. Performing an ELISA involves at least
cattle and water buffaloes by a poxvirus one antibody with specificity for a
called Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV). particular antigen.
Consider the following statements about 2. It can be used to detect Covid
this disease: antibodies that the body develops in

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response to infection by the SARS-CoV-
2 virus. 9. Which of the following diseases are
Which of the statements given above caused by protozoa?
is/are correct? 1. Dengue
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 2. Malaria
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 3. Kala-Azar
4. Tuberculosis
6. Consider the following statements Select the correct answer using the code
regarding Viruses: given below.
1. All viruses contains both RNA and (a) 1, 2 and 4 only
DNA.
(b) 2 and 3 only
2. Bacteriophages (viruses that infect
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
the bacteria) are usually single-
stranded DNA viruses (d) 1 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? 10. Which of the following statements given
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only below are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 1. Swine flu is a zoonotic respiratory
disease.
2. WHO classifies swine flu as the
7. With reference to hand-foot-and-mouth
Neglected tropical disease.
disease (HFMD), consider the following
statements: 3. Dizziness, sore throat and watery eyes
1. It is different from foot-and-mouth are the symptoms of swine flu.
disease which commonly affects cows, Select the correct answer using the code
sheep, and pigs. given below:
2. Tomato flu is a clinical variant of the (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
HFMD and results in tomato-shaped (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
red blisters on several parts of the
body. 11. Which of the following diseases are
Which of the statements given above classified as Neglected Tropical Diseases
is/are correct? by WHO?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 1. Trachoma
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. Leprosy
3. Snake-bite (envenoming)
8. Consider the below claims about the 4. Helminthiases
Central Drugs Standard Control 5. Sleeping sickness
Organization: Select the correct answer using the code
1. It is in charge of approving new given below:
medications and clinical trials across the (a) 1, 2, and 3 only
nation. (b) 1, 2, and 4 only
2. The Directorate General of Health (c) 2 and 4 only
Services oversees its operations. (d) All the above
Which of the aforementioned statements
is true? 12. Which of the following statements are
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only not correct regarding Monoclonal
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Antibodies (mAbs) ?
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1. They are artificially created proteins 1. When our body encounters a pathogen
that mimic human antibodies in the for the first time, it produces anamnestic
immune system. immune response.
2. Monoclonal antibodies are highly 2. T-lymphocytes produce antibodies into
reactive and can bind to more than our blood to fight with pathogens, while
one protein simultaneously. B- lymphocytes help T- cells to produce
3. CAR-T cell therapy involves them.
genetically engineered White Blood 3. Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) produced in
cells to target and destroy cancer stomach is an example for innate immune
cells. response.
Select the correct answer using the code Which of the statements given above
given below : is/are correct ?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only

13. What are the defense mechanisms found 16. Which of the following statements is/are
in the human body? Which of the options correct?
below is/are included? 1. BCG vaccine provides protection
1. Immune system for protection against against meningitis and disseminated
infections. TB in children.
2. Hormonal release as a means of stress 2. BCG vaccine is not a part of India's
resistance. universal immunization program.
3. Haemostasis to halt bleeding and 3. XDR-TB in HIV patients leads to high
prevent blood loss. mortality.
Choose the appropriate response code: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
17. The term 90-90-90 strategy recently seen
14. Consider the following statements: in news is related to which one of the
1. DNA vaccines are stable at higher following diseases?
temperatures and thus easier to (a) AIDS (b) Monkeypox virus
store unlike RNA vaccines. (c) Nipah virus (d) SARS
2. DNA vaccines, once injected,
cannot alter natural genetic 18. Which of the following diseases recently
material of a cell unlike RNA in the news is associated with the 'G4'
vaccines. virus?
Which of the statements given above (a) Yellow fever
is/are correct? (b) Japanese encephalitis
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Swine flu
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Bird flu

15. Consider the following statements, with


reference to Human Immune system :

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Exercise – V Key

1. d 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. c 8. c 9. b 10. c
11. d 12. b 13. d 14. a 15. c 16. d 17. a 18. c

Explanations

1. HPV is a group of more than 200 related viruses that can be transmitted through sexual and
non-sexual modes, including direct skin-to-skin contact. HPV is a double-stranded DNA virus,
hence statement 1 is correct.
Prevention of cervical cancer through vaccination is an effective option, and there are several
vaccines available in the market. Gardasil 9 is a gender-neutral HPV vaccine manufactured by
Merck & Co, which is available in India. Cervavac is the first indigenously developed
quadrivalent HPV vaccine for the prevention of cervical cancer, manufactured by the Serum
Institute of India. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Cervical cancer is the most common cancer caused by HPV infection. Persistent infection
with high-risk HPV types, particularly HPV 16 and 18, can lead to the development of
cervical, vulvar, vaginal, anal, penile, and oropharyngeal cancers. Therefore, statement 3 is
correct.

2. Antibiotic or antimicrobial resistance occurs when bacteria and fungi acquire the ability to
survive exposure to drugs that are meant to kill them. As a result, the germs can continue to
grow and cause infections that are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to treat. Although
resistance is a natural phenomenon, the misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals
accelerates the process, making it a major cause of antibiotic resistance. Therefore,
Statement 1 is incorrect.
In 2019, India's Ministry of Health banned the manufacture, sale, and distribution of colistin,
an antibiotic often misused in poultry industry, for food-producing animals, poultry, aqua
farming, and animal feed supplements. Therefore, Statement 2 is correct.
Antibiotic resistance develops in bacteria when they acquire the ability to survive exposure
to drugs designed to kill them. This ability typically occurs through genetic mutations. Hence,
Statement 3 is correct.

3. Lumpy Skin Disease has recently spread in India, and it has severe implications on the
economy of India.
Statement 1 is incorrect: LSD is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) which belongs to
the genus capri poxvirus. All Capri poxviruses have a double-stranded DNA genome.
Statement 2 is correct: LSD is a non-zoonotic disease i.e.; the disease is non transmissible
from animals to humans. It cannot be transmitted either by direct contact or by consumption
of milk. Therefore, it is safe to drink milk from the infected cattle.
Statement 3 is correct: Incubation period of LSD disease is around 28 days, but
experimentally infected cattle may develop clinical signs as early as 6-9 days. It is
characterized by a mild fever, followed by the sudden appearance of skin nodules.
Statement 4 is incorrect: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is aiming to
commercially launch the “Lumpi-ProVacInd” Vaccine. This vaccine provides 100% protection
against LSD in cattle.

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Statement 5 is incorrect: According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the
mortality rate is less than 10%.

4. Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.
In its more severe forms, vitamin A deficiency contributes to blindness by making the cornea
very dry, thus damaging the retina and cornea. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
Scurvy is the most prominent disease linked to Vitamin C deficiency. It denotes a heavy lack
of vitamin C in the diet. Hence pair 2 is not correctly matched.
Vitamin D deficiency can lead to a loss of bone density, which can contribute to osteoporosis
and fractures (broken bones). In children, it can cause rickets- a rare disease that causes the
bones to become soft and bend.
Anaemia is a condition in which blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells. Red blood cells
carry oxygen to the body's tissues. Anaemia typically happens due to insufficient iron. Hence
pair 3 is correctly matched.
Goiter is a condition where the thyroid gland grows larger. Iodine deficiency is the most
common cause of goiter in the world. Hence pair 4 is correctly matched.

5. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is an immunological assay (test)


commonly used to measure antibodies, antigens, proteins and glycoproteins in biological
samples.
Antibodies are blood proteins produced in response to a specific antigen. ELISA helps to
examine the presence of
antibodies in the body,
in case of certain
infectious diseases.
Principle of ELISA:
ELISA works on the
principle that specific
antibodies bind the
target antigen and
detect the presence and
quantity of antigens
binding. Performing an
ELISA involves at least
one antibody with
specificity for a
particular antigen.
ELISA can provide a
useful measurement of
antigen-antibody
concentration. Hence,
statement 1 is correct.
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)-National Institute of Virology (NIV) at Pune has
developed and validated the indigenous IgG ELISA test “COVID KAVACH ELISA” for antibody
detection for COVID-19. It is an IgG Elisa-based test. This means that the test will be done to
detect the Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody.

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If the IgG antibody is detected, it can be concluded that the person was exposed to SARS-CoV-
2. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

6. In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or
DNA. Leuko virus contains both DNA and RNA. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals
have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA. Bacterial viruses or
bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA viruses.
Hence statement 2 is not correct.
Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is also
caused by a virus.

7. An increase in cases of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) has been reported in Delhi-


NCR in 2022.
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease is a mild, contagious viral infection common in young children.
Symptoms include sores in the mouth and a rash on the hands and feet. it is a mild, self-
limiting disease with no significant adverse effects. It lasts seven to ten days.
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease is most commonly caused by a coxsackievirus. This virus is
part of a group of viruses called enteroviruses (viruses transmitted through the intestine).
Hand, foot, and mouth disease is often confused with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), which
affects cows, sheep, and pigs. Humans do not get the animal disease, and animals do not get
the human disease. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Tomato Flu is caused by Coxsackievirus A16. Tomato flu has been reported from at least four
states — Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, and Odisha.
Researchers believe that it is a different clinical presentation of hand-foot-and mouth disease
(HFMD). Hence, statement 2 is correct.

8. The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare's Directorate General of Health Services is responsib
le for CDSCO. As a result, statement 2 is true.
In accordance with the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, CDSCO is in charge of: Drug
approval; Clinical trial administration; Drug standard setting; and Regulation of the quality of
imported drugs in the nation. Thus, statement 1 is true.

9. Dengue is caused by a virus while Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria.


Protozoan-caused Diseases:
• Kala-azar: Leishmania Donovani parasite is the root cause
• Malaria: Plasmodium parasite causes malaria. Female Anopheles mosquitoes spread
it.
• Diarrhea: Although several intestinal protozoa can induce diarrhoea, the most
significant ones are Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia intestinalis.
• sleeping sickness: Trypanosoma brucei causes it.

10. Swine flu (H1N1) is a respiratory disease caused by type A influenza viruses that are
transmitted from pigs to humans. It can cause serious illnesses like pneumonia and lung
infection, and make other illnesses like asthma or diabetes worse. Swine flu is recognized as
a global health problem. Hence, statement 1 is correct.

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Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are found in several countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America and are especially common in tropical areas where people do not have access to
clean water or safe ways to dispose of human waste. Swine flu is not classified as an NTD by
the WHO. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
The symptoms of Swine flu include fever, cough, runny nose, sore throat, body aches, chills,
fatigue, dizziness, and red, watery eyes. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

11. The World Health Organisation (WHO) identifies 20 different diseases that are common in
tropical regions as Neglected Tropical Diseases.
These diseases primarily impact poor communities, and women and children in tropical
regions are disproportionately affected by them.
Environmental factors often contribute to these diseases, and many of them are spread by
vectors or have complex life cycles, making their control difficult for public health officials.
Neglected Tropical Diseases:
Buruli ulcer, Chagas disease, dengue and chikungunya, dracunculiasis (Guineaworm disease),
echinococcosis, foodborne trematodiases, human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping
sickness), leishmaniasis, leprosy (Hansen's disease), lymphatic filariasis, mycetoma,
chromoblastomycosis, and other deep mycoses, onchocerciasis (river blindness), rabies,
scabies, and other ectoparasitoses, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiases,
snakebite envenoming, taeniasis/cysticercosis, trachoma, and yaws and other endemic
treponematoses.

12. The immune system produces antibodies, which are proteins that attach to specific antigens
(foreign substances) in the body. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs or MoAbs) are artificially
created proteins that mimic human antibodies and can be designed to target specific
antigens. So, statement 1 is correct.
Contrary to statement 2, monoclonal antibodies are highly specific and typically bind to a
single protein or antigen. They do not bind to more than one protein simultaneously.
CAR-T cell therapy is a type of cancer immunotherapy in which White Blood cells (T cells)
are genetically engineered in a laboratory to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) on
their surface. These CARs allow the modified T cells to target and destroy cancer cells. So,
statement 3 is correct.

13. The body's initial defense mechanisms that provide protective responses against various
threats are referred to as "innate," "inborn," or "nonspecific" immunity. These primary forms
of host defense mechanisms in our body include:
• Immunity to protect against infections
• Metabolic defense to detoxify and metabolize foreign chemicals
• Hemostasis to stop bleeding and prevent blood loss
• Release of hormones as a means of stress resistance.

14. (For a detailed differences between DNA & RNA Vaccines refer to the descriptive question in
earlier section)
Comparatively, DNA vaccines are safe, easy, affordable to produce, and, unlike RNA vaccines,
are stable at room temperature. Hence, statement 1 is correct.

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RNA vaccines are believed by many scientists to be less risky than DNA vaccines since they
would not affect the host’s DNA or even have to enter the nucleus of a host cell because the
mRNA has already been formed. This also means the process of making antibodies is faster.
Hence, statement 2 is not correct.

15. The primary immune response happens when the immune system encounters a new
pathogen for the first time. The anamnestic immune response happens when the immune
system has already encountered the same pathogen before.
B-cells are responsible for starting the antibody-mediated immune response. They mature in
the bone marrow and then travel in the blood to other parts of the body. When activated, B-
cells turn into plasma cells that release antibodies. T-cells help regulate the immune
response and activate B-cells to produce antibodies. They also play a role in the cell-
mediated immune response. Therefore, statements 1 and 2 are both incorrect.
The hydrochloric acid (HCL) by the stomach plays an important role in protecting the body
against pathogens ingested with food or water. It is an example of Innate immune response
(natural, immediate, non-specific immune response). So, Statement 3 is correct.

16. Statement 1 is correct, as the BCG vaccine provides protection against meningitis and
disseminated TB in children with an efficacy of 75-87%. However, it does not prevent
primary infection and the reactivation of latent pulmonary infection (which causes TB).
Statement 2 is incorrect, as the BCG vaccine is a part of India's universal immunization
program.
Statement 3 is correct, as Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a form of TB
that is resistant to many anti-TB drugs, making it difficult to treat. HIV patients are
particularly susceptible to XDR-TB, which increases the mortality rate.

17. United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) created a plan called the 90-90-90
Strategy to stop the spread of AIDS. The plan had three goals to reach by 2020:
1. Make sure 90% of people with HIV know they have it.
2. Make sure 90% of people with HIV are getting treatment.
3. Make sure 90% of people receiving treatment have low levels of the virus.
At the end of 2020, the progress towards these goals was:
1. 78% of people with HIV knew they had it.
2. 83% of people with HIV who knew they had it were receiving treatment.
3. 85% of people with HIV who were receiving treatment had low levels of the virus.

18. A new strain of swine flu virus (H1N1) has been recently discovered in pigs in China by
scientists, which has been given the name G4. This new strain, also known as G4 EA H1N1, is
believed to have descended genetically from the H1N1 strain that caused a pandemic in
2009. Researchers identified the new strain through surveillance of influenza viruses in pigs
during a study that was conducted between 2011 and 2018 in ten provinces of China. They
found that this strain of influenza virus is infecting Chinese pigs and has the potential to
cause a pandemic. Experiments have shown that the G4 virus can be transmitted from
animals to humans, but there is no evidence yet that it can be transmitted from human to
human.

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Environment & Disaster Management MCQs
Note: For concepts on Environment refer to Part – II of this book.
Exercise – I 4. Consider the following statements:
Topic: Environmental Issues including 1. ‘In Our LiFEtime’ campaign was
Pollution lauched by India at a side event of the COP
27 at Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt.
1. Consider the following statements
regarding the protected areas in Madhya 2. The campaign aims to shift to 50% of
Pradesh. total energy needs to solar power within
1. Madhav National Park is a notified as our lifetime in the spirit of the goals of
national park recently. International Solar Alliance.
2. Translocation of tigers project is being
implemented in Durgavati Tiger Reserve Which of the statements given above
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
a) 1 only b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
5. Consider the following statements:
2. Match the following Protected 1. Ranipur Tiger Reserve and Pilibhit
areas/wetlands, recently in news, with Tiger Reserve, which were seen in the
their states: news, are located in Uttar Pradesh.
Protected Area State 2. Haryana State Government’s Forest
1. Kaziranga National A. Assam Department and the US Agency for
Park International Development (USAID)
announced the launch of the ‘Trees
2. Dharoi wetland B. Kerala
Outside Forests in India (TOFI)’ program.
3. Periyar Tiger Reserve C. Gujarat
4. Kanger Valley D. Chattisgarh
Which of the statements given above
National Park
is/are correct?
Choose the correct option:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
a) 1.A, 2.D, 3.B, 4.B
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
b) 1.A, 2.B, 3.C, 4.D
c) 1.A, 2.C, 3.B, 4.D
d) 1.D, 2.C, 3.B, 4.A 6. Consider the following statements:
1. Ministry of Environment issued the
draft Construction of Electric Lines in
3. Consider the following statements. Great Indian Bustard Area Regulations,
1. ‘Elephant Death Audit Framework’ is 2023 to protect the birds from accidental
launched by Kerala to track the reasons electrocutions.
for the death of elephants in the state.
2. The ‘Great Indian Bustard’ (GIB) is the
2. Soliga is an indigenous population of State bird of Rajasthan.
Karnataka’s Biligiri Rangana Hills
Which of the statements given above
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
a) 1 only b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2

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7. Consider the following statements 10. Consider the following statements about
regarding the species discovered recently Background Radiation:
in India. 1. Background Radiation is the measure of
1. A new species of jumping spider named radiation emitted from manmade sources
Pseudomogrus sudhii was discovered in like nucler power plants.
Rajasthan.
2. Glischropus meghalayanus, is a Bat 2. Parts of Kerala are experiencing nearly
species discovered in Meghalaya. 3 times more background radiation than
Which of the statements given above assumed.
is/are correct? Which of the statements given above
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only is/are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Consider the following statements about 11. Consider the following statements about
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) the Waste to Wealth Mission:
in India: 1. It is led by the Ministry of Housing
1. The Environment Impact Assessment and Urban Affairs.
Notification, 2006, is issued under the 2. The mission has launched the
Environment Protection Act 1986. Swachhta Saarthi Fellowship.
2. Highway Projects of defense Which of the statements given above
significance that are within 100 km of is/are correct?
the Line of Control are exempted from a) 1 only b) 2 only
EIA. c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? 12. Which of the following statements about
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only Black Carbon is/are incorrect?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 1. Black Carbon has a cooling effect on
the atmosphere when it stays above
the clouds.
9. Which of the following statements 2. Black Carbon increases the reflectivity
regarding Wetlands are incorrect? (albedo) of ice when it accumulates
1. Pantanal is the world’s largest wetland on it.
located in South Africa. 3. Black Carbon remains in the
2. In India, the Wetlands (Conservation atmosphere for only a few weeks.
and Management) Rules exclude river Which of the above statements is/are
channels and paddy fields from the correct?
definition of wetlands. (a) 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
3. Wetlands in India are declared by the (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
Ministry of Jal Shakti.
(a) 1 and 2 only 13. Which of the following statements about
(b) 2 only Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts)
(c) 1 and 3 only is/are true?
(d) 2 and 3 only

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1. ESCerts are market-based regulatory
tools designed to reduce energy 16. Consider the statements below with
consumption in energy-intensive reference to the Hazardous and Other
industries. Wastes (Management & Transboundary
2. The Perform, Achieve, and Trade Movement) Rules, 2016:
(PAT) scheme is responsible for 1. The Ministry of Environment, Forest
issuing ESCerts. and Climate Change is responsible for
3. The Central Electricity Regulatory the transboundary movement of
Commission regulates ESCert trading. hazardous and other wastes.
Which of the above statements is/are 2. The rules prohibit the import of
correct? hazardous and other wastes for any
(a) 1 Only (b) 1 and 2 Only purpose.
(c) 2 and 3 Only (d) 1, 2, and 3 Select the correct answer using the code
given below.
14. Which of the following methods can be (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
used to treat radioactively contaminated (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
water?
1. Aeration 17. The following statements refer to the
2. Reverse osmosis Bharat Stage (BS) VI emission standards.
3. Ion exchange Which statements are correct?
4. Granule Carbon adsorption 1. The BS VI standards apply to light and
Select the appropriate answer from the heavy-duty vehicles, but not to three-
options provided below. wheeled vehicles.
(a) 1 and 2 only 2. Petrol vehicles will need to reduce
(b) 3 and 4 only their nitrogen oxide emissions by
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only 25% according to the BS-VI emission
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 norms.
3. The BS-VI norms require all vehicles
to have onboard diagnostics.
15. The following statements pertain to the
4. The Ministry of Road Transport and
Plastic Waste Management Rules and
Highways determines the standards
related amendments:
and timeline for implementation.
1. In India, Extended Producer
Choose the correct answer using the
Responsibility (EPR) is legally
codes given below:
binding.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2, 3, and 4
2. Recycled plastic products are not
permitted for storing, carrying, (c) 1, 2, and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
dispensing, or packaging ready-to-eat
or drink foodstuff. 18. The function of a catalytic converter is to:
3. To manufacture carry bags at the (a) Convert biomass into ethanol
state level, registration from the state (b) Convert sewage sludge into biogas
pollution control board is required. (c) Convert methane hydrates into
Which of the above statements is/are natural gas
correct? (d) Convert toxic gases emitted from an
(a) 1 Only (b) 1 and 2 Only engine into steam
(c) 2 and 3 Only (d) 1, 2, and 3

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19. Which of the following options provides for Petrol vehicles is more compared to
the most accurate explanation for the the diesel vehicles.
term "Dead zone"? 2. BS VI fuel has reduced sulphur content
a) It is a region in the mountains where of 100 ppm.
vegetation and wildlife cannot survive. 3. Pollution emissions standards in India
b) It is a frozen area in Antarctica that are fixed and regulated by the central
remains permanently below zero degrees pollution control board.
Celsius. 4. Unlike BS IV, BS VI norms deals with
c) It is a location in the ocean where there selective catalytic reduction and diesel
is low oxygen concentration, also known particulate filter.
as hypoxia. Which of the statements given above
d) It is a space beyond the geostationary is/are correct?
orbit where unused satellites can be (a) 1 and 2 only
stored. (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 3 and 4
20. Consider the following statements with (d) 1, 3 and 4
reference to BS VI emissions norms:
1. In BS VI vehicles the maximum
permissible Nitrous oxide emission levels

Exercise – I Key

1. d 2. c 3. b 4. a 5. c 6. b 7. c 8. c 9. c 10. b
11. b 12. b 13. d 14. d 15. d 16. a 17. c 18. d 19. c 20. c

Explanations

1. The statements are interchanged with respect to each other and are both wrong.
Madhav National Park, which is one of the oldest national parks in Madhya Pradesh, serves
as a crucial link between the Panna Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh and the Ranthambore
Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan. The Madhya Pradesh Forest Department has constructed three
enclosures to accommodate five tigers from other reserves in an effort to restore the tiger
population. Recently, a male and female tiger were released into the enclosures by
government officials.

Madhya Pradesh Wildlife Board has approved the creation of a new tiger reserve called
Durgavati Tiger Reserve, which will be located within the Panna Tiger Reserve (PTR). Due to
the linking of the Ken-Betwa Rivers, approximately one-fourth of the new reserve's 2,339
square kilometres will be submerged. A green corridor will be developed to facilitate the
movement of tigers from PTR to Durgavati.

2. Kaziranga National Park, a protected area in Assam, is known for its population of one-
horned rhinoceroses. The government has requested a factual report on the rhino population
following concerns about the accuracy of the March 2022 survey results, which counted
2,613 rhinos.

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The Dharoi wetland in Gujarat was the site of the second annual Bird Survey Dharoi 2023,
which recorded 193 bird species out of the 616 found in the state. The wetland, spread over
107 square kilometres, was created in 1978 by damming the Sabarmati and Harnoi rivers for
irrigation purposes.
Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala was designated as a national park in 1982 and was the focus
of a recent 4-day bird survey by the state forest department. The survey identified 231 bird
species, including 14 endangered and 20 endemic to the Western Ghats, and documented 11
bird species not recorded in previous surveys.
The Kanger Valley National Park in Chhattisgarh is home to the state bird, the hill myna, as
well as over 200 other bird species identified in the state's first inter-state bird survey
conducted by bird watchers and forest department officials.

3. Statement 1 is incorrect. Tamil Nadu has launched the 'Tamil Nadu Elephant Death Audit
Framework' to enhance accountability by documenting the reasons for elephant deaths. Only
13 of the 131 recorded elephant deaths in Tamil Nadu's forest divisions from January 2021
to March 2022 were human-induced, as per media reports.
Statement 2 is correct. A new genus of wasp has been named Soliga ecarinata by
entomologists in recognition of the Soliga community's conservation of forests and
biodiversity in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of Karnataka. The Soliga lifestyle was also
acknowledged in the naming of the new genus.

4. Statement 1 is correct. The 'In Our LiFEtime' campaign was launched by India's Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) during a COP 27 side event in Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The campaign is intended to motivate young people to promote
sustainable living practices. The LiFE concept was first introduced by Prime Minister
Narendra Modi during COP 26 in Glasgow in November 2021.
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is a global alliance of over 120 countries initiated by
India with the aim to promote the adoption of solar energy to achieve sustainable
development goals.

5. The Pilibhit Tiger Reserve (PTR) in Uttar Pradesh currently has around 27 tigers residing in
the sugarcane fields, but they will soon be relocated to the newly-established Ranipur Tiger
Reserve (RTR). It is to note that the Ranipur Tiger Reserve (RTR), which is the fourth reserve
of its kind in Uttar Pradesh, currently does not have any tigers living there. Hence statement
1 is correct.
The launch of the ‘Trees Outside Forests in India (TOFI)’ program was announced by the
Forest Department of the Haryana State Government and the US Agency for International
Development (USAID). The program will provide funding of up to USD 25 million over a
period of five years to seven states, which include Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Odisha,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh. The Center for International Forestry Research
and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) will be providing assistance to the program. Hence
statement 2 is correct.

6. Statement 1 is incorrect. The Draft Construction of Electric Lines in Great Indian Bustard
Area Regulations, 2023 were issued by Central Electricity Authority (not Ministry of

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Environment) to make all electric lines of 33 kV and below passing via the Great Indian
Bustard Area underground, while overhead lines with bird flight diverts will be used for
those above 33 kV.
Statement 2 is correct. The Great Indian Bustard (GIB), which is protected under the Wildlife
Protection Act, is considered to be India's most critically endangered bird, with about 150 of
them living in Rajasthan, accounting for 95% of the world population. GIB is the state bird of
Rajasthan.
Recently, some GIBs were spotted in Pakistan, and environmentalists believe they may have
migrated there. This bird was recently added to the world list of protected species of the
'Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.'

7. A new type of bat residing in bamboo forests in Meghalaya has been discovered by a group of
scientists. The newly discovered species has been named "Glischropus meghalayanus" in
honor of Meghalaya state which has completed 50 years of statehood. Hence statement 1 is
correct.
This discovery brings the total number of bat species found in India to 131 with Meghalaya
having the highest diversity of bats, comprising of 67 species.
A group of researchers recently found a new species of jumping spider in Rajasthan's Desert
National Park, which they named Pseudomogrus sudhii after arachnologist Sudhikumar. This
4-millimetre-long spider is exclusively found in India and the United Arab Emirates. Hence
statement 2 is also correct.

8. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) identifies and predicts the impact of an action on
human health and the ecosystem. In India, EIA is notified under the Environment Protection
Act 1986. The public is involved in the process, and the clearance process involves four
stages: screening, scoping, public consultation, and appraisal.
The recent amendment to the EIA Rules exempts certain highway projects of strategic and
defence importance, which are 100 km from the Line of Control, from environmental
clearance. Therefore, both statements are correct.

9. Statement 1 is incorrect as Pantanal, the world's largest tropical wetland, is situated across
Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay is located in South America and not South Africa. Statement 2 is
correct as the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules exclude river channels and
paddy fields from the definition of wetlands in India. Statement 3 is incorrect as wetlands in
India are declared by the Union Environment Ministry and not the Ministry of Jal Shakti.

10. Statement 1 is incorrect. Background radiation is the amount of radiation emitted by natural
sources such as sand, rocks, or mountains.
Statement 2 is correct. A recent study conducted by scientists at BARC revealed that certain
areas in Kerala are exposed to background radiation levels almost three times higher than
previously estimated. The study found that the radiation level in these areas is around 70
milliGray per year, slightly higher than the radiation exposure for nuclear plant workers.

11. The Waste to Wealth Mission is one of the nine scientific missions initiated by the Prime
Minister's Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC) and is managed
by the office of the Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) of the Indian government. The goal of

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the mission is to find and implement technologies that can convert waste into energy, recycle
materials, and extract valuable resources. Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
The mission aims to integrate with Swachh Bharat and Smart Cities initiatives to create
circular economic models for financially viable waste management. The Indian government
has launched the "Swachhta Saarthi Fellowship 2022" under the Waste to Wealth Mission to
support young innovators who engage in community work for waste management,
awareness campaigns, surveys, etc. as Swachhta Saarthis. Thus, statement 2 is correct.

12. Black carbon (BC) is a type of fine particulate matter made up of pure carbon in various
forms, resulting from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass.
Although BC can stay in the atmosphere for only a few days to weeks, it contributes to global
warming in two ways: it absorbs sunlight and generates heat in the atmosphere and settles
on snow and ice, making it darker and hence absorbs more sunlight, (thus reducing the
albedo, which refers to the amount of energy reflected by a surface) leading to more melting.
This is a significant concern in regions like the Arctic and Himalayas. Hence statements 2 is
incorrect and 3 is correct.
However, when it hangs above low-lying clouds, it stabilizes the air layer above the clouds,
promoting their growth and cooling the planet. Hence statement 1 is correct.

13. The National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) has launched the Perform,
Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme, which is aimed at reducing specific energy consumption
(SEC) in large, energy-intensive industries. The Energy Saving Certificate (ESCert) is a
market-based regulatory mechanism under the PAT scheme that helps to achieve this goal.
Hence, statements 1 and 2 are correct.
Under this scheme, ESCerts are issued to those plants that have achieved their targets, and
plants that have failed to reach their targets can purchase ESCerts. The designated
consumers who are covered by this scheme include 13 sectors such as Aluminium, DISCOMs,
Hotels (under commercial buildings), Cement, fertilizers, Pulp & Paper, Thermal Power
Plant, Iron & Steel, etc. When a designated consumer overachieves the notified SEC targets in
the compliance year, the ESCerts are issued by the Central Government for the difference
between the notified target and the achieved SEC, according to the PAT rules.
The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) under the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) regulates the trading of ESCerts. Therefore, statement 3 is also correct.

14. The release of radioactive materials into the environment can contaminate air, water, soil,
plants, buildings, animals, and people, leading to hazards from ionizing radiation. Remedial
measures for treating radioactively contaminated water include aeration, reverse osmosis,
ion exchange, and granule carbon adsorption.
Aeration can remove high levels of radon (222Rn) from drinking water by promoting
volatilization and biological degradation. Reverse osmosis is used to remove various
radioactive elements, including alpha and beta particles, uranium, radium, and photon
emitters. Ion exchange involves passing water through a resin containing exchangeable ions,
and it is used for the removal of radium, uranium, alpha and beta particles, and photon
emitters. Granule carbon adsorption uses Granular activated carbon (GAC), a highly porous
adsorption media, to remove radioactive contamination from water.

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15. All three statements in the question are correct. The Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016,
amended in 2018 and 2021) have been updated to include rural areas, with responsibility for
implementation given to Gram Panchayat. Guidelines for Extended Producer Responsibility
have been given legal force.
Individuals and businesses must segregate plastic waste at the source and pay user fees.
Recycled plastic cannot be used for food packaging, and certain single-use plastics will be
prohibited from July 1, 2022. To prevent littering, plastic carry bags' thickness has been
increased from 50 to 75 microns, and then 120 microns from December 31, 2022. To
manufacture carry bags at the state level, registration from the state pollution control board
is required.

16. Statement 1 is correct because the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the
nodal Ministry to deal with the transboundary movement of hazardous and other wastes.
Statement 2 is incorrect because the import of hazardous and other wastes from any country
is permitted only for recycling, recovery, reuse, and utilization, including co-processing.
Disposal of hazardous and other wastes imported from any country is not permitted in India.

17. The BS VI emission standards apply to all major on-road vehicle categories, including light
and heavy-duty vehicles, as well as two and three-wheeled vehicles, as of April 1, 2020.
Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
According to the BS-VI emission norms, petrol vehicles will need to reduce their nitrogen
oxide emissions by 25%, while diesel engines will need to reduce their HC+NOx, NOx, and
particulate matter emissions by varying amounts. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
The BS VI regulation also mandates onboard diagnostics (OBD) for all vehicles to provide
information about system efficiency. Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
The Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate
Change is responsible for setting the standards and timelines for their implementation, not
the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. Therefore, statement 4 is incorrect.

18. A catalytic converter is a device located in the exhaust system of a vehicle near the engine. Its
purpose is to reduce the emission of gaseous pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and hydrocarbons (HCs). It utilizes a catalyst chamber to convert the
harmful compounds (toxic gases) emitted from the engine into safe gases, such as steam.
Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.

19. The term "Dead zone" is commonly used to refer to a condition called hypoxia, which is
characterized by reduced levels of oxygen in water bodies. Hypoxia creates areas in oceans
and lakes where marine life cannot survive, and most organisms either die or move away
from these regions. While hypoxic zones can occur naturally, human activities such as
eutrophication can enhance or create dead zones. Thus, option (c) is the best explanation for
the term "Dead zone."

20. Petrol vehicles following BS-VI norms emit 25% less nitrogen oxides and diesel vehicles emit
around 70% less than the BS-IV norms. In general, petrol vehicles emit less nitrous oxide
compared to diesel vehicles, making Statement 1 incorrect.

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BS-VI fuel contains less sulphur (10 ppm) compared to BS-IV fuel (50 ppm) to reduce air
pollution. Therefore, Statement 2 is incorrect.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), which is under the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change, sets and regulates the standards and timeline of the BS-VI norms,
making Statement 3 correct.
BS-VI norms enable the use of advanced emission control technologies such as Diesel
Particulate Filters (DPF) and Selective Catalyst Reduction (SCR) systems to reduce
Particulate Matter (PM) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions in vehicles. Therefore,
Statement 4 is correct.

Exercise – II (d) Ozone Depleting Agents


Topics: Pollution, Global Environmental Issues
1. With reference to ‘green crackers’, 4. With reference to acid rain, consider the
recently in the news, which of the following statements:
following statements is/are correct? 1. The gases mainly responsible for
1. They are known to cause less air acid rain are sulfur dioxide and
and noise pollution compared to oxides of nitrogen.
traditional firecrackers. 2. Acid rain has high pH levels ranging
2. They contain barium nitrate to between 8-9.
reduce pollutant levels. Which of the statements given above
Select the correct answer using the code is/are correct?
given below. (a) 1 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Which of the following best describes the
term “Forever chemicals”, seen in news 5. Which of the following is/are the
recent times? components of fly ash?
(a) The Chemicals that help to reduce the 1. Iron Oxide
negative impacts of climate change. 2. Potassium Oxide
(b) The Chemicals that persist in the 3. Aluminium Oxide
environment for a longer time periods. 4. Titanium Dioxide
(c) The Chemicals which can be used as Select the correct answer using the code
sustainable alternatives to the given below.
Chlorofluorocarbons. (a) 1 and 3 only
(d) The Chemicals that can react with (b) 2 only
plant tissues and change their (c) 4 only
characteristics permanently.
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
3. What are ‘Iprodione’ and ‘Terbufos’ that
6. Which of the following are particulate
have been recently in the news?
pollutants?
(a) Pesticides
1. Hydrogen sulphide
(b) Antiviral Drugs
2. Mist
(c) Artificial Ripening Agents
3. Fumes

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4. Hydrocarbons (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
5. Smog
Select the correct answer using the code 10. The recognition of the right to a clean,
given below : healthy and sustainable environment as a
(a) 1 and 5 only human right was made by which
(b) 2, 3 and 5 only international organization?
(c) 2 and 4 only (a) European Union
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only (b) United Nations
(c) World Bank
7. Which statement(s) about fluoride are (d) G-20
correct?
1. Adding soluble fluoride to drinking 11. Consider the following statements about
water can benefit dental health. the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands:
2. The WHO recommends toothpaste 1. The Convention is an
with 1000-1500 ppm fluoride to intergovernmental treaty that
prevent cavities. provides a framework for the
3. Excess fluoride in drinking water can conservation and wise use of
cause health problems such as dental wetlands and their resources.
fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. 2. Member countries are obliged to
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only manage wetlands for the benefit of
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 waterfowl regardless of whether they
are listed under the Convention or
8. Which of the following statements about not.
Green Manure is/are true? 3. The UNESCO is responsible for the
1. Green manure is used to maintain soil Convention's depositary functions.
fertility and structure. Which of the above statements is/are
2. Glyricidia, Pongamia, and Subabul are correct?
used as Green Manure. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
3. Green manure usage can reduce the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
need for chemical fertilizers in India.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only 12. Consider the statements regarding the
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 only World Sustainable Development Summit
(WSDS):
9. Consider the following statements. 1. The annual flagship event of
Greenpeace International is WSDS.
1. Australia recommended that its Great
Barrier Reef should be listed as ‘world 2. WSDS is the only independently
heritage site in danger’. convened international summit on
sustainable development and the
environment, based in the global
2. WMO has introduced the Global
south (or developing world).
Greenhouse Gas Monitoring
Infrastructure. 3. Act4Earth manifesto was launched at
WSDS 2022 to create a more
sustainable and equitable world for
Which of the statements given above
present and future generations.
is/are correct?
Choose the correct answer using the
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
codes given below:
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(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 14. Arrange the following sectors with
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 respect to their contribution to the global
green-house gas emissions in descending
order.
13. With reference to the ‘Seoul Forest 1. Power
Declaration’, which of the following 2. Road transport
statements are correct? 3. Agriculture and related land use
1. It was adopted in the CoP15 of United 4. Steel sector
Nations Convention to Combat Select the correct answer using the codes
Desertification. given below:
2. AFFIRM and SAFE are the two (a) 1-2-3-4
initiatives launched at this declaration. (b) 2-3-4-1
3. It aims to move towards a triangular (c) 1-3-2-4
bio-economy and climate neutrality. (d) 2-4-3-1
Choose the correct answer using the
codes given below: 15. Which is the first major metropolitan city
(a) 1 and 2 in India to prepare a detailed register of
(b) 2 and 3 biodiversity?
(c) 1 and 3 (a) Chennai (b) Mumbai
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Hyderabad (d) Kolkata

Exercise – II Key

1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. d 8. c 9. b 10. b
11. d 12. b 13. b 14. c 15. d

Explanations

1. Green crackers are dubbed as ‘eco-friendly’ crackers and are known to cause less air and
noise pollution as compared to traditional firecrackers. They are not completely pollution-
free but are relatively cleaner and safer than regular crackers. The regular crackers produce
160-200 decibels of sound, while the green crackers are limited to about 100-130 decibels.
Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Green crackers use alternative chemicals such as potassium nitrate and aluminum instead of
magnesium and barium as well as carbon instead of arsenic and other harmful pollutants.
Hence, statement 2 is not correct.

2. Option b is correct: According to a recent study, scientists have found that rainwater from
many places across the globe is contaminated with Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
(PFAs).
They are called Forever chemicals because of their tendency to stick around in the
atmosphere, rainwater, and soil for long periods of time. PFAs are also listed in the
Stockholm Convention.
What are PFAs?

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1) PFAs are man-made chemicals used to make non-stick cookware, water-repellent clothing,
stain-resistant fabrics, cosmetics, fire-fighting forms, and many other products that resist
grease, water and oil.
2) PFAs can migrate to the soil, water and air during their production and use.
3) There is no known method that can extract and remove PFAs from the atmosphere itself.

3. Recently, the international trade of two new hazardous pesticides — Iprodione and Terbufos
— has been recommended for “prior informed consent” (PIC) procedure under the
Rotterdam Convention.
Iprodione and Terbufos are hazardous pesticides that are dangerous for humans and aquatic
animals.
The PIC procedure is a mechanism for formally obtaining and spreading the decisions of
importing parties on their willingness to receive future shipments of hazardous chemicals.
Rotterdam Convention- The Convention covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that
have been banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons by parties and
which have been notified by parties for inclusion in Annex III for the purpose of PIC
procedure.

4. Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically
the disproportionate levels of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted by vehicles and
manufacturing processes. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
The pH scale measures how acidic an object is. The scale has values ranging from zero (the
most acidic) to 14 (the most basic). Pure water has a pH value of 7, this value is considered
neutral—neither acidic nor basic. However, when rain combines with sulfur dioxide or
nitrogen oxides the rain becomes much more acidic. Typical acid rain has a pH value of 4.
Hence, statement 2 is not correct.

5. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has notified the latest
amendments under the
Environment (Protection) Act
1986 for utilization of fly ash by
coal-based thermal power
plants (TPPs) in the country.
About Fly ash:
• Ash is the mineral matter left
after burning coal. In a power
plant, a major portion of the ash
is carried off with flue gases
(hence, the term fly ash), and
can be filtered using
electrostatic precipitators. Due
to improper handling, it ends
up in neglected ash ponds in
dangerous quantities, polluting the surface and groundwater.
• Composition: substantial amounts of oxides of silicon, aluminum, calcium; arsenic, boron,
chromium, lead, etc. in trace concentrations.

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• Usage: manufacturing of Portland cement, bricks, tiles, manufacturing of absorbents (for
purification of waste gases, drinking water), etc. Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

6. Particle pollution, also known as particulate matter, refers to a mixture of solid particles and
liquid droplets present in the air. Undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air lead to
tropospheric pollution.
The major pollutants found in the troposphere include gaseous pollutants like sulphur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone, and other
oxidants, as well as particulate pollutants like dust, mist, fumes, smoke, and smog. Therefore,
option (b) is correct.

7. Soluble fluoride is added to drinking water to bring its concentration up to 1 ppm to benefit
dental health. Fluoride toothpaste with 1000-1500 ppm fluoride is recommended by the
WHO to prevent cavities. Therefore, statements 1 and 2 are correct.
Excess fluoride in drinking water can cause health problems such as dental fluorosis and
skeletal fluorosis. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

8. Green manure is green, un-decomposed material used as manure, which is made up of field
plants, usually belonging to the leguminous family, and incorporated into the soil after
sufficient growth. The plants grown for green manure are called green manure crops.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
Green leaf manuring is different from green manuring, which involves applying green leaves
and twigs of trees, shrubs, and herbs collected from elsewhere. Forest trees, plants growing
in wastelands, and field bunds are the source of green leaf manure. Green leaf manure plant
species are neem, mahua, wild indigo, Glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamia glabra), Calotropis, Avise
(Sesbania grandiflora), Subabul, and other shrubs. So, statement 2 is incorrect.
Green manuring can help improve soil health and enhance crop productivity. Since farmers
practice high-intensity agricultural practices, cultivating two to three crops a year, they
require lots of chemical fertilizers such as urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP), which
leads to deficiencies of micronutrients (iron and zinc) and affects soil productivity.
Therefore, green manuring can help reduce the need for chemical fertilizers in India. So,
statement 3 is correct.

9. Statement 1 is incorrect. The UN panel has recommended, not Australia, that Australia’s
Great Barrier Reef be designated as a ‘world heritage site in danger’ due to the significant
impact of climate change and ocean warming on the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem. The
reef has experienced multiple bleaching events, including four in the past seven years and
the first during a La Nina phenomenon.
Statement 2 is correct. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has launched the
Global Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure, which integrates space-based and surface-
based observing systems to improve the measurement of greenhouse gases in real-time and
inform policy decisions.

10. The United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution recognizing the right to a clean,
healthy and sustainable environment as a human right. India voted in favour of the
resolution but raised concerns about the procedure and substance of the resolution.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 507


11. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is a global treaty established in 1975 to promote
international cooperation for the conservation and sustainable use of wetland habitats.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) serves as the
depository for the convention, and its secretariat, the Ramsar Bureau, is located in Gland,
Switzerland. India signed this convention in 1981. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
The convention obligates parties to promote the wise and sustainable use of wetlands,
establish nature reserves, and manage wetlands for the benefit of waterfowl, irrespective of
their inclusion in the convention's list of Wetlands of International Importance. Therefore,
statement 2 is correct.

12. The World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS), organized by The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, is an annual initiative that has been established for
over two decades to make sustainable development a globally shared goal. Hence, statement
1 is incorrect.
As the only independently convened international Summit on sustainable development and
environment based in the Global South, it strives to provide long-term solutions for the
benefit of global communities by assembling the world's most enlightened leaders and
thinkers on a single platform, thus making statement 2 correct.
During WSDS 2022, the Act4Earth initiative was launched to create a more sustainable and
equitable world for present and future generations, making statement 3 correct.
13. The Seoul Forest Declaration was adopted at the 15th World Forestry Congress in 2022, with
a focus on how forests can help address various crises, including climate change, biodiversity
loss, and hunger. Hence Statement 1 is not correct.
Close cooperation among nations is necessary to solve these issues beyond political
boundaries, as shown by partnerships such as the AFFIRM Mechanism and the SAFE
initiative. Hence Statement 2 is correct.
The circular bio-economy is a framework that uses renewable natural capital to achieve
sustainable well-being in harmony with nature, while climate neutrality involves achieving
net zero greenhouse gas emissions. The Seoul Forest Declaration aims to move towards a
circular bio-economy and climate neutrality, making Statement 3 correct.
14. According to the Breakthrough Agenda Report, 2022 (prepared by the International Energy
Agency (IEA), the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the UN)
1) The power sector accounts for around 13 GtCO2e, or 23% of total emissions globally.
2) Agriculture and related land use accounts for around 10GtCO2e, or 17% of total emissions.
3) The road transport sector accounts for around 6 GtCO2e, or 10% of total emissions.
4) The steel sector accounts for around 3 GtCO2e of emissions, or 5% of total emissions.

15. A detailed register of biodiversity has been prepared in Kolkata, making it the first major
metropolitan city in India to do so. The register, known as the People’s Biodiversity Register
(PBR), includes 399 plant and 283 animal species. The Forest Survey of India has recently
reported that Kolkata has the least green cover among all metro cities. Chandigarh and
Indore have also created a similar document.

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Exercise – III c) 8% d) 20%
Topic: Disaster Management
8. Percentage of drought prone area in the
1. In which city the National Institute of India is
Disaster Management is situated? a) 38% b) 68%
a) Kolkata b) New Delhi c) 45% d) None of the above
c) Hyderabad d) Manipur
9. Consider the following statements:
2. DDMA is headed by 1. Atmospheric river is a narrow and
a) District Magistrate elongated region in the atmosphere
b) Chief secretary that carries a substantial amount of
c) BDO water vapor outside the tropics.
d) None of the above 2. It is associated with heavy rains and
flooding.
3. Which one of the following is a geological 3. It is recently observed in Meghalaya
disaster? state.
a) Tsunami Which of the above statements is/are
b) Storm surge correct?
c) Flood a) 2 only b) 1 and 3 only
d) Wild fire c) 1 and 2 only d) 2 and 3 only

4. Which declaration among the following


deals with Disaster Management? 10. Which is the only active volcano in India?
a) Yokohama Declaration a) Volcano Popa
b) Rio Declaration b) Volcano of Barren Island
c) Paris Declaration c) Volcano Etna
d) Tokyo Declaration d) None of the above

5. Select the correct full form of ISDR? 11. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 in Ukraine
a) International Sustainable Development was a case of
Report a) Epidemic disaster
b) International Strategy for Disaster b) Toxic gas disaster
Reduction c) Nuclear disaster
c) International Significant Disaster d) None of the above
Resources
d) Intergovernmental Strategy for 12. What is it called when a large number of
developing Recreation people in a community get a disease at the
same time?
6. The total flood prone area in India is a) Influx b) Black death
a) 30% b) 20% c) Epidemic d) Pandemic
c) 12% d) 10%
13. In India, Cyclone is tracked through which
7. The total cyclone prone area in India is satellite?
a) 15% b) 10% a) INSAT b) IRS

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 509


c) Ocean SAT d) None of the above d) None of the above

14. Impact of an earthquake is measured by 22. Tropical cyclones rarely develop within
a) Modified Mercalli scale 50 kms of the equator because coriolis effect
b) Richter scale is
c) Seismograph a) weakest there
d) None of the above b) moderate there
c) Strongest there
15. About 2/3rd of the cyclones that occur in d) None of the above
the Indian coastline occur in the
a) Bay of Bengal 23. Bhopal Gas Disaster is a kind of
b) Coastal area of south India a) Natural disaster
c) Coastal area of west India b) Manmade disaster
d) None of the above c) Mixed disaster
d) None of the above
16. International Tsunami information centre
is in 24. The National Disaster Management
a) Honolulu b) Goa Authority (NDMA) is headed by
c) Jakarta d) Puducherry a) Prime Minister of India
b) President of India
17. The most calm part of the tropical cyclone c) Governor of States
is d) Chief Minister of States
a) Limb b) Eye
c) Periphery d) None of the above 25. Generally the number on Richter Scale
ranges between
18. In India Tsunami Warning centre is a) 0 and 6 b) 0 and 9
located at c) 1 to 5 d) 1 to 12
a) Kolkata
b) Hyderabad 26. The level of risk of a disaster depends on
c) Ahmadabad a) Nature of the hazard
d) None of the above b) Vulnerability of the elements which are
affected
19. The word Tsunami has been derived from c) Economic value of the elements which are
A. French word B. Latin word C. Japanese affected
word D. Greek word d) All of the above

20. Which is the most landslide prone area in 27. The Richter scale expresses an
India A. Ganges valley region earthquakes
B. South Indian plateau C. Himalaya and north a) Magnitude
eastern hill D. None of the above b) Location
21. In northern hemisphere, the wind of the c) Duration
tropical cyclone blows in d) Depth
a) Anticlockwise direction
b) Clockwise direction
c) Straight

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 510


28. The point of the earth’s surface directly
above the point where an earthquake occurs 31. The State Disaster Management Authority
is called the: is headed by
a) Focus b) Epicenter a) Governor
c) Fracture d) Fault b) Chief Minister
c) Chief Secretary of the State
29. The National Disaster Response Force d) None of the above
(NDRF) Battalion’s regional headquarters for
Andhrapradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka is 32. Which disaster struck the South European
located at? countries have recently?
a) Vijayawada b) Bengaluru a) Wild fires b) Floods
c) Hyderabad d) Visakhapatnam c) Earthquake d) Chemical spill

33. What was the percentage increase in heat-


30. Who among these govern/ head the related deaths between 2000-2004 and 2017-
National Crisis Management Committee? 2021 according to a recent Lancet Report?
a) Cabinet Secretary a) 25% b) 36%
b) Ministry of Home Affairs c) 45% d) 68%
c) Prime Minister
d) Ministry of Environment

Exercise – III Key

1. b 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. b
11. c 12. c 13. b 14. c 15. b 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. c 20. c
21. a 22. a 23. b 24. a 25. b 26. d 27. a 28. b 29. a 30. a
31. b 32. a 33. d

Explanations

1. New Delhi is home to the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). It was
established in 2004 to offer training and development programs for dealing with natural and
artificial catastrophes. It was established it as a deemed university and institute of teaching
under the Disaster Management Act 2005.

2. Exp. District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) under National Disaster Management
Act, 2005 is headed by a District Magistrate.

3. Tsunami is caused by earthquakes under ocean’s beds. Hence its geological disaster.

4. The Yokohama Declaration was adopted at the First World Conference on Natural Disaster
Reduction (organized by UN), held in Yokohama, Japan, in May, 1994.
The Yokohama Declaration was a landmark document in the history of disaster reduction.
The Declaration emphasized the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach to

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 511


disaster reduction that would involve all sectors of society, including government, business,
civil society, and individuals.

5. ISDR stands for International Strategy for Disaster Reduction in its full form. ISDR is a
worldwide framework for disaster risk reduction developed by the United Nations in 1999.
The Yokohama Declaration of 1994 provided the basis for ISDR. The ISDR aimed to promote
a culture of disaster prevention and to reduce the impact of disasters through better risk
management, preparedness, and response.

6. India's flood prone area is up to 12% of the total land area, which is around 40 million
hectares. India's major flood-prone states are as follows:
• Haryana, Punjab, Bihar
• Assam, Manipur, Tripura
• Orissa, Jharkhand,West Bengal

7. India’s overall cyclone-prone region accounts for about 8% of the country’s total land area.
The eastern coast (the Bay of Bengal coastal area) and the western coast (Arabian Sea coastal
area) of India are both impacted by cyclones. More cyclones are generated on east coast than
on west coast. A tropical cyclone’s two primary seasons are May to June and mid-September
to mid-December.

8. 68% of landmass in India is vulnerable to various levels of droughts.

9. Statement 1 and 2 are correct. An atmospheric river is a relatively long and narrow region in
the atmosphere that contains a large amount of water vapor and occurs outside the tropics.
Also known as moisture plumes, tropical plumes, tropical connections, water vapor surges,
or cloud bands, they can stretch over thousands of kilometers and carry water vapor
equivalent to the average flow of water at the Mississippi River's mouth.
Statement 3 is incorrect. California is currently preparing for the arrival of atmospheric
rivers, which are predicted to result in significant precipitation, floods, and heavy snow.

10. India's only active volcano situated in Andaman and Nicobar is Barren Island Volcano. It
comes under the arc of active volcanoes extended between Sumatra and Burma. This volcano
had its last volcanic eruption on December 8, 2020.

11. Exp. Chernobyl disaster is the worst nuclear disaster in the world that occurred in 1986 of
the then Soviet Union (now Ukrain) in a nuclear power plant.

12. If the scale of the disease is global – then it is Pandemic.

13. INSAT series of satellites are used to track the cyclones in India.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 512


14. The Modified Mercalli scale measures the intensity of an earthquake based on its effects on
people, structures, and the environment, and is not a direct measure of the earthquake's
energy release.
Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. The Richter scale is a
logarithmic scale that measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake at its
epicenter, based on the amplitude of the seismic waves recorded by seismographs. The
higher the number on the Richter scale, the more intense the earthquake.
Seismographs are instruments used to record and measure seismic waves generated by
earthquakes.

15. About 2/3rd of the cyclones that occur in the Indian coastline occur in the Bay of Bengal. The
Bay of Bengal is known for being a hotbed of tropical cyclone activity, with an average of five
to six cyclones forming in the region each year. This is due to a combination of factors,
including warm sea surface temperatures, high humidity, and favorable atmospheric
conditions. The coastal areas of Arabian sea also experience cyclones, but the frequency and
intensity of these cyclones are lower compared to the Bay of Bengal.

16. The International Tsunami Information Centre (ITIC) is located in Honolulu, Hawaii. It is a
part of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO and serves as a
focal point for the exchange of tsunami-related information and data between countries and
organizations around the world.

17. The eye is the most calm part of a tropical cyclone, which is a region of relatively light winds
and clear skies at the center of the storm. The eye is surrounded by the eyewall, which
contains the most intense winds and rain of the cyclone.

18. The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) is located in Hyderabad, India. It was
established after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami to provide real-time
tsunami warnings and advisories to India's coastal states and neighboring countries.
19. c) Japanese word. The word tsunami is derived from the Japanese words "tsu" (meaning
harbor) and "nami" (meaning wave), reflecting the fact that tsunamis are often generated by
underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions that cause massive displacements of water.

20. The Himalayan and North Eastern regions of India are the most landslide-prone areas in the
country, due to their rugged terrain, high precipitation, and seismic activity.

21. In the northern hemisphere, the wind of the tropical cyclone blows in an anticlockwise
direction around the center of the storm, due to the Coriolis effect.

22. Tropical cyclones rarely develop within 50kms of the equator because the Coriolis effect,
which causes the cyclone to spin, is weakest at the equator and increases with distance from
it.

23. The Bhopal Gas Disaster was a man-made disaster that occurred on December 2-3, 1984, in
Bhopal, India. It was caused by the release of toxic gas (Methyl Isocyanate) from the Union
Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant, resulting in thousands of deaths and injuries.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 513


24. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an agency of the Government of
India, responsible for coordinating the national response to natural and man-made disasters.
It is headed by the Prime Minister of India, who serves as the Chairperson of the agency.

25. The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale that measures the magnitude or energy released by
an earthquake. The scale typically ranges from 0 to 9, with each whole number increase
representing a tenfold increase in the energy released.

26. The level of risk of a disaster depends on multiple factors, including the nature of the hazard,
the vulnerability of the elements that are affected, and the economic value of those elements.
All of these factors can influence the level of risk.

27. The Richter scale expresses an earthquake's magnitude, which is a measure of the amount of
energy released by an earthquake.

28. The point on the earth's surface directly above the point where an earthquake occurs is
called the epicenter. The focus is the actual point underground where the earthquake
originates.

29. NDRF was established in the year 2006 and comes under Home Ministry. It’s headquarters is
in New Delhi. It currently has 16 battalions that are spread throughout the country.

30. The Cabinet Secretary heads National Crisis Management Committee. Cabinet Secretary is
the highest executive officer, and all the secretaries of the departments are members of the
committee.

31. State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) under National Disaster Management Act,
2005 is headed by a Chief Minister.

32. Several Southern European nations such as Greece, Spain and France have been experiencing
severe heatwaves and wildfires. The increasing temperatures attributed to climate change
have caused numerous fatalities. To prevent further danger, France has evacuated over
16,000 people from the south-west region, while wildfires have continued to spread in Spain,
Greece and Croatia.

33. According to a recent Lancet report, heat-related deaths increased by 68 per cent between
2000-2004 and 2017-2021. The report also highlighted that vulnerable populations were
exposed to 3.7 billion more heatwave days last year than annually in 1986-2005. The study
focused on the health effects of climate change in the midst of the Covid pandemic, global
energy crisis, and the cost of living crisis due to the Russia-Ukraine war.

Science & Technology and Environment by Ravi Garlapati Page 514


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