Mauritania Country Handbook

1. This handbook provides basic reference information on Mauritania, including

its geography, history, government, military forces, and communications and
transportation networks. This information is intended to familiarize military per-
sonnel with local customs and area knowledge to assist them during their
assignment to Mauritania.
2. This product is published under the auspices of the U.S. Department of
Defense Intelligence Production Program (DoDIPP) with the Marine Corps Intel-
ligence Activity designated as the community coordinator for the Country Hand-
book Program. This product reflects the coordinated U.S. Defense Intelligence
Community position on Mauritania.
3. Dissemination and use of this publication is restricted to official military and
government personnel from the United States of America, United Kingdom,
Canada, Australia, NATO member countries, and other countries as required
and designated for support of coalition operations.
4. The photos and text reproduced herein have been extracted solely for
research, comment, and information reporting, and are intended for fair use by
designated personnel in their official duties, including local reproduction for train-
ing. Further dissemination of copyrighted material contained in this document, to
include excerpts and graphics, is strictly prohibited under Title 17, U.S. Code.
CONTENTS

KEY FACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
U.S. MISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
U.S. Embassy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Travel Advisories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Entry Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Passport/Visa Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Immunization Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Customs Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cross Country Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Maritime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Radio and Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Telephone and Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

iii
Contents (Continued)

Newspapers and Magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Postal Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Education and Literacy Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Social Customs and Courtesies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Greetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Food and Drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Taboos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
MEDICAL ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Disease Risks to Deployed Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Food- or Waterborne Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Vectorborne Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Sexually Transmitted Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Respiratory Diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Water-contact Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Animal-contact Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Key Medical Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chronology of Key Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
National Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Local Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

iv
Contents (Continued)

Key Government Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Suffrage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Parties and Pressure Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
ECONOMY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Petroleum and Gas Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
THREAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Travel Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Drug Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Major Intelligence Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Opposition Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Threat to U.S. Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
ARMED FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Organization and Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Training and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Future Requirements/Force Modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Key Defense Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

v
Contents (Continued)

Force Disposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Air Defense Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coastal Defense Forces/Marines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Paramilitary Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
National Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

APPENDICES

A. Equipment Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

B. International Time Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
C. Conversion Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
D. Holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1
E. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
F. International Road Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
G. Deployed Personnel’s Guide to Health Maintenance . . . . G-1
H. Individual Protective Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
I. Dangerous Animals and Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
J. International Telephone Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J-1

vi
Contents (Continued)

ILLUSTRATIONS

Mauritania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
National Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
U.S. Embassy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
View of Coastline from Old Port in Nouakchott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Topography and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Pirogue Crossing Senegal River at Rosso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Canyons of the Adrar Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Bir Moghrein/Kaedi Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Nema/Nouakchott Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Desert Landscape - Shifting Dunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cross Country Travel via Four Wheel Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ferry Crossing at Rosso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Transportation Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Taxis in Nouakchott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Typical Loaded Minibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Iron-Ore Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Camel Transporting Goods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Upscale Home in Nouakchott. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Handcrafts Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Women Wearing Malaffas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Man Wearing Hawli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Walk-Up Fast Food Restaurant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
President Taya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Presidential Palace in Nouakchott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Administrative Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fisherman on the Beach in Nouakchott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Offshore Oil Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Military Bases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Military Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

vii
 Las
Valverde
16
Palmas Tarfaya MOROCCO 8
Canary Islands Tindouf
(Spain)
La youn Al Farciya ALGERIA
Mauritania
National capital Smara
Region capital
City Boukra
Boujdour
International border
0 50 100 150 km
Bir Mogrein Chegga
0 50 100 mi
Galtat
Zemmour

24
WESTERN
Ad Dakhla
SAHARA
Atlantic Imlily
Ocean Zouirat MALI
F’derik

Bir Gandouz

Chaimane
Nouadhibou Ouadane
Atar Chinguetti

Akjoujt
Nouamrhar

Tidjikdja Tichit
NOUAKCHOTT

Boutilimit
Qualata
Mederdra
gal Bogue Aleg ’Ayoun
SØnØ el ’Atrous
Kiffa Nema
Rosso Kaedi
16 Mbout Timbedra
Saint Louis Kankossa Bassikounou
Matam Maghama
Linguere Selibaby Nioro du Sahel Nampala
DAKAR Diourbel SENEGAL Segala MALI
Kayes
Kaolack
ger
Ni

Tambacounda

Mauritania

viii
KEY FACTS

Country Name. Mauritania

Conventional Long Form. Islamic Republic of Mauritania
Local short form. Muritaniyah
Local long form. Al Jumhuriyah al Islamiyah al Muritaniyah
Flag. Green background with a yellow five-pointed star above a hori-
zontal crescent; the closed side of the crescent is down; the crescent,
star, and green color are traditional symbols of Islam.
Head of State. President Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed Taya
Capital. Nouakchott
Time Zone. Mauritania’s time zone is UTC (formerly GMT)
Population. 2,828,858 (July 2002)
Languages. Since 1968, Mauritania’s official language has been Has-
saniyya Arabic, spoken mainly by the Moors. French is also spoken.
Other main languages include Azayr, Fulfulde, Mande-kan, Pulaar,
Soninke, and Wolof. All the languages have similarities, and most are
rooted in the Niger-Congo language family.

National Flag

1
Currency. Mauritanian ouguiya (UM) = 5khoums; US$1= UM263
(February 2003). Notes are in denominations of UM1000, 500, 200,
100, 50, 10, and 5. Coins are in denominations of UM20, 10, 5, and 1,
and 1 and 0.2 khoums.

U.S. MISSION

U.S. Embassy
Location Rue Abdallaye, Nouakchott
Mailing Address BP 222, Nouakchott
Phone [222] 525-2660, 525-2663
Fax [222] 525-1592

Travel Advisories
Although U.S. citizens are generally welcome in Mauritania, there were
reports of anti-American incidents (threats and stoning of vehicles) fol-
lowing the 1998 U.S.- and British-led air attacks against Iraq. There
have been small-scale (6,000-8,000 people, primarily youths), non-vio-
lent demonstrations in Nouakchott in response to the 2003 war in Iraq.
Mauritanian security forces were able to control the crowds, and kept
them at least 200 meters from the U.S. Embassy compound. Some Mus-
lim extremists perceived Christian non-governmental organizations as a
threat. Political violence and religious extremist groups have not posed a
direct threat to U.S. interests in Mauritania.

As a result of a past border conflict between Morocco and Western

Sahara, unexploded landmines near the border are a potential dan-
ger. In addition, tourists have been held up and robbed along the
borders with Western Sahara and Algeria. Surface travel between
Mali and Mauritania can be dangerous, due to banditry in the border
region. In 1999, 13 Mauritanians and Malians were killed in a bor-

2
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der clash, prompting the establishment of a Mauritanian-Malian-

Senegalese police coordination force to provide greater border secu-
rity. Groups traveling to Moroccan, Algerian, or Malian borders

3
should check with the U.S. Embassy in Nouakchott and/or local
authorities to leave their itineraries and check the condition along
the planned trip routes.

Entry Requirements

Passport/Visa Requirements

Passports are required by all foreign nationals except for those nation-
als of ECOWAS countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote
d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali,
Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo) who hold valid
national identification cards.

Visa prices vary by country, and multiple-entry visas are generally not
available. The standard visa is valid for 3 months and good for a stay of
up to 3 months from the date of entry. Visas are required by everyone
except for those of the following categories who plan to stay less than
3 months: French and Italian nationals (all other EU nationals do need a
visa); nationals of ECOWAS countries; and nationals of Algeria, Cen-
tral African Republic, Madagascar, and Romania. Transit passengers
continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft do not
require visas, provided they hold onward or return documentation and
do not leave the airport.

Immunization Requirements

Visitors coming from an infected area may be required to provide proof

of vaccination against cholera or yellow fever.

Customs Restrictions

It is illegal to bring alcohol into the country. Despite this, some hotels do
serve alcohol. Local currency cannot be imported or exported.

4
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
Geography
Mauritania is located in northwest Africa along the Atlantic coast. With
a total land area of 1,030,400 square kilometers (397,950 square miles),
Mauritania is about the size of Texas and New Mexico combined.

Atlantic
Ocean
MADEIRA
ISLANDS
TUNISIA Mediterranean Sea
CANARY MOROCCO
ISLANDS

ALGERIA
WESTERN
LIBYA EGYPT
SAHARA

Re
dS
MAURITANIA
ea
MALI NIGER
SENEGAL CHAD den
fA
GAMBIA
SUDAN lf o
BURKINA Gu
GUINEA FASO DJIBOUTI
BISSAU GUINEA BENIN
NIGERIA
SIERRA COTE ETHIOPIA
LEONE DIVOIRE GHANA CENTRAL AFRICAN
LIBERIA REPUBLIC
TOGO CAMEROON
SOMALIA
EQUATORIAL
GUINEA UGANDA
CONGO KENYA
GABON
RWANDA
BURUNDI
ZAIRE SEYCHELLES
CABINDA
(Angola)
TANZANIA

COMOROS
ANGOLA
MALAWI
ZAMBIA

MOZAMBIQUE
ZIMBABWE MADAGASCAR
Atlantic NAMIBIA MAURITIUS
BOTSWANA
Ocean

SWAZILAND
SOUTH LESOTHO
AFRICA Indian
Ocean

Boundary representations are not necessarily authoritative.

Africa

5
Boundaries
Mauritania’s boundaries consist of the Atlantic Ocean to the west; the
Western Sahara to the northwest; Algeria in the north; Mali along the
eastern border; and Mali and Senegal to the south. The southern border
between Mauritania and Senegal is along the Senegal River.

Sandy shores border nearly all of the southern half of Mauritania’s

coastal area. The northern half of the coastline is formed partly by rocky
and/or sandy beaches and partly by cliffs. Rocky beaches have formed
in regions where erosion by the sea causes landslides and large rocks to
fall to the bases of cliffs. Heavy surf eventually breaks down this debris
leaving narrow sandy beaches fronting the cliffs.

Topography
The vast Sahara Desert makes up the northern two-thirds of Mauritania
and is characterized by sand dunes and rugged plateaus that reach 457
meters (1,500 feet) above sea level. The Senegal River Valley, in the
extreme southwest, is a 15- to 30-kilometer- (10 to 20 mile-) wide belt
of rich, well watered, alluvial soil. The Sahel is a broad east-west steppe

View of Coastline from Old Port in Nouakchott

6
 Las
Valverde
16 Palmas
Tarfaya MOROCCO 8
Canary Islands Tindouf
(Spain)
La youn Al Farciya ALGERIA
Mauritania
Elevation in meters Smara
0-200
200-500 Boukra
Boujdour
500+
Bir Mogrein Chegga
Galtat
Zemmour

24
WESTERN
Ad Dakhla
SAHARA
Atlantic Imlily

Ocean Zouirat MALI

F’derik

Bir Gandouz

Chaimane
Nouadhibou Ouadane
Atar Chinguetti

Akjoujt
Nouamrhar

Tidjikdja Tichit
NOUAKCHOTT

Boutilimit
Qualata
Mederdra
Aleg ’Ayoun
Rosso Senegal Bogue el ’Atrous
Kiffa Nema
Kaedi
16 Mbout
Saint Louis Timbedra
Kankossa Bassikounou
Matam Maghama
Linguere
Selibaby Nioro du Sahel Nampala
DAKAR Diourbel SENEGAL MALI
Segala
Kayes
Kaolack er
Nig

Tambacounda

Topography and Drainage

that extends from the valley to north of Nouakchott. The 20- to 40-kilo-
meter- (12 to 25 mile-) wide coastal belt extends the length of the Atlan-
tic coast in an arc from Cape Blanc to the Senegal River.

7
The coastal area forms the western edge of the Sahara Desert and is
characterized as one of the chief desert coasts of the world. Throughout
the area the coastal plain is wide, averaging about 322 kilometers (200
miles) in Mauritania and northern Senegal, and gradually decreases in
width to the north in Western Sahara. In the vicinity of the Senegal
River, where the generally flat terrain is subject to annual flooding, the
coastal plain is fertile and cultivated. The majority of the coastal plain is
covered by extensive dunes that range from 3 to 32 kilometers- (2 to 20
miles-) wide, usually oriented in a northeast-southwest direction. The
dunes in the southern part of the desert are shrub-covered and station-
ary; in the north they are barren and constantly shifting.

The Senegal River, which forms the boundary between Mauritania and
Senegal, is the only permanent river in this area, and is one of the most
significant rivers in northwest Africa. From its source in Guinea, it
flows north and west, 2,500 kilometers (1,553 miles), reaching the
Atlantic Ocean at Saint Louis, Senegal. From its mouth, the river is nav-
igable for over 874 kilometers, as far as Kayes, Mali, during the rainy
season (July - September), and to Podor, Senegal during the rest of the
year. Heavy rains during the rainy season bring annual floods.

Pirogue Crossing Senegal River at Rosso

8
The Senegal River delta is bordered by 74 kilometers (46 miles) of
sandy coast north of the river mouth, and consists of marshy islands sep-
arated by a network of mangrove-lined tributaries and channels. From
its entrance, the river parallels the coast for 31.5 kilometers (20 miles) to
the north, and is separated from the sea by a narrow sand spit, Langue de
Barbarie. This sand spit gradually widens and rises in elevation toward
the north. In the lower main course of the river, local winds form small,
evenly spaced sand spits along the shores. The city of St. Louis is
located partially on Langue de Barbarie and partially on islands in the
river, 22 kilometers (14 miles) north of the river entrance. The Senegal
River valley covers a zone 16 to 32 kilometers- (10 to 20 miles-) wide
south and north of the river. During the rainy season the river floods the
surrounding valley filling numerous lakes and sebkhas (a term used to
describe a flat area, not necessarily in a depression, usually forming
swamps or lakes during the rainy season and dry salt pans during the dry
season). Following the rainy season the flooded regions drain through a
network of channels back into the river, and the land is cultivated.

Adrar Region

The Adrar region in western Mauritania is a massif of pink and brown

plateaus with dunes and deep canyons sheltering palm groves. It lies in
the north central part of the country, and begins about 320 kilometers
(200 miles) northeast of Nouakchott.

Russian researchers using space-related technology have found a pow-

erful underground river some 250 meters (820 feet) below the arid rocky
desert of the Adrar plateau. The water flow, tested through borehole
drilling at 32,000 liters per hour, is heavy enough to supply the 50,000
inhabitants of the nearby town of Atar. This could sufficiently augment
the water sources used to sustain the scattering of palm groves and gar-
den plots that fringe the town – and help to maintain Adrar’s viability as
a local trading hub and center for tourist excursions to such places as the
historic Islamic town of Chinguetti, 120 kilometers (75 miles) away.

9
Canyons of the Adrar Region

Atar, the capital of the Adrar region, is an oasis lying on a salt caravan
route. It is the market center for the nomads of northern Mauritania and
has an old quarter, the Ksar, with flat-roofed houses and a palm grove.
The oasis of Azoughui was the capital of the Almoravid empire during
the 11th and 12th centuries, and remains of fortified buildings from that
era still exist. A popular day excursion from Atar leads over the moun-
tain pass of Homogjar to Chinguetti. Founded in the 13th century,
Chinguetti is a holy city of Islam that has a medieval mosque and a
library housing ancient manuscripts.
Climate
Most of the country is hot and dry and receives practically no rain. The
south, however, experiences a rainy season from July to September. The

10
coast is tempered by trade winds and is mild with the exception of the
hot Nouakchott region (where the rainy season begins a month later).
Deserts are cooler and windy in March and April.
Mauritania has four climatic zones. The Sahara Desert region typically
receives 25 to 125 millimeters (1 to 5 inches) of rain during the rainy
season. During winter (December through April), the mean daily mini-
mum temperature is 0° C (32°F) and the mean daily maximum is 38°C
(100°F). In contrast, summer (May through October) has a mean daily
maximum temperature of 49°C (120° F) and a mean daily minimum of
16°C (60°F). Desert conditions are intensified by hot, dry, blinding
sandstorms, which occur primarily in March and April.
The Senegal River Valley zone has the highest rainfall in the country, with up
to 660 millimeters (26 inches) of rain per year, beginning in May and lasting
through September. The mean daily maximum temperature is 34°C (94° F),
while the mean daily minimum drops to approximately 23°C (74°F).
The Sahelian zone has a rainy season from July through October, pro-
ducing an average annual rainfall of approximately 460 millimeters (18
inches). Temperature extremes are less severe than in the Sahara.
The coastal zone has a humid but temperate climate modified by the
trade winds. Annual rainfall usually is less than 25 millimeters (1 inch).
The mean daily maximum temperature is approximately 31°C (90°F),
while the mean daily minimum temperature is approximately 20°C
(68°F). Severe cyclones can occur from September through April.
Throughout this area the trade winds blow steadily from a northerly
direction, usually parallel to the coast, with speeds predominately
between 7 and 17 knots. The trade wind belt migrates seasonally, reach-
ing its southernmost limit (approximately 10 degrees north) during win-
ter. It moves north during spring, and in summer the southern boundary
of the belt is at its northern most limit (approximately 20 degrees north).
Nouakchott also has been hit by dust storms for up to 9 months. Harmat-
tan winds (northeasterly surface winds that blow throughout the dry sea-
son, November - April) often cause blinding sandstorms due to dust and

11
 BIR MOGHREIN
o
F TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION
150 20
Extreme High
Average High Snow
Average Low Rain
Extreme Low

120 15

D
A
90 Y 10
S

60 5

30 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

KAEDI
o
F TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION
120
20 Snow
Rain

100
15

D
A
80 Y
S 10

60 5
Extreme High
Average High
Average Low
Extreme Low

40 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

Bir Moghrein/Kaedi Weather

12
 NEMA
o
F TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION
120 20
Snow
Rain

100 15

D
A
80 Y 10
S

60 5
Extreme High
Average High
Average Low
Extreme Low

40 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

NOUAKCHOTT
o
F TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION
120
20 Snow
Rain

100
15

D
A
80 Y
S 10

60 5
Extreme High
Average High
Average Low
Extreme Low

40 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

Nema/Nouakchott Weather

13
haze carried from the Sahara. Fog, not as frequent as the harmattan, is
more common along the coast. The strengthening of the sea breeze and
temperature contrast between the land and water help increase occur-
rences of fog along the coast. The northern coast, with no terrain block-
ing features, has a higher frequency of fog than the southern coast. Most
fog develops around sunset and lasts until mid-morning. Thunderstorms
occur approximately 1 day a month throughout the Mauritania region.

In January 2002, southern Mauritania was subjected to 3 days of severe

rain, wind, and cold. Between the Trarza and Brakna regions in south-
western Mauritania, 30 people were killed; 10,000 left homeless; 1,500
homes were destroyed; and 115,000 animals were killed. Additionally,
there were significant losses to standing crops and pasturage. Much of
the region’s cereal harvest and hay crops were lost.

Environment

There is widespread desertification in Mauritania, made worse by over-

grazing, deforestation, and soil erosion.

Desert Landscape - Shifting Dunes

14
Battering surf and shifting sandbanks characterize the entire length of
the shoreline. The breaker zone lies between the 15 meter- (50 foot-)
depth contour and the shore. Breakers approach the coast primarily from
the north and northwest; however, breakers from the west through
southwest also occur. Breakers in this area usually are associated with
swell from distant storms and may occur regardless of local weather
conditions. Spilling-type breakers dominate, with plunging-type occur-
ring to a lesser extent; surging-type breakers are minimal.
Cross Country Movement
Mauritania’s infrastructure cannot support the transportation and logisti-
cal requirements of large-scale, sustained operations of any duration.
The lack of roads connecting the ports at Nouakchott and Nouadhibou
to the northeast makes airlift the only means of transportation. Only one
road joins Nouakchott with Nema across southeastern Mauritania, and
its interdiction would leave few feeder roads in the southern third of the
country. Sustained operations in the south would also depend on airlift

Cross Country Travel via Four-Wheel Drive

15
capability. In the central regions, the lack of airfields and the presence of
only trace roads or trails leave four-wheel-drive vehicles the only means
of accomplishing force deployment and logistics operations.

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION

Transportation
Roads
Mauritania has 1,685 kilometers (1,047 miles) of paved highways, and
1,040 kilometers (646 miles) of roads with crushed stone and gravel sur-
faces. Main roads run north to south and were developed for mineral
exploitation. The country’s main highway is the Route de Mauritanie,
which runs the length of the country, along the Western Sahara land bor-
der and the coast.
The most reliable route into Mauritania overland is from Senegal. From
Dakar, the journey to Nouakchott is 8-10 hours along a 575 kilometer
(360 mile) tarred road. The River Senegal must be crossed by ferry at
Rosso. The ferry service operates from 0730-1200 and 1500-1800 daily.

Ferry Crossing at Rosso

16
 16
Canary Islands MOROCCO 8
(Spain)
Mauritania
National capital ALGERIA
Region capital
City
International border
Road
Railroad
Airport Bir Mogrein Chegga
Major Port
0 50 100 150 km
0 50 100 mi

24
WESTERN
SAHARA
Atlantic
Ocean Zouirat MALI
F’derik

Chaimane
Nouadhibou Ouadane
Atar Chinguetti

Akjoujt
Nouamrhar

Tidjikdja Tichit
NOUAKCHOTT

Boutilimit
Qualata
Mederdra
gal Bogue Aleg ’Ayoun
Sene el ’Atrous
Kiffa Nema
Rosso Kaedi
16 Mbout Timbedra
Kankossa Bassikounou
Maghama
Selibaby
DAKAR SENEGAL MALI
er
Nig

Transportation Network

A new, Japan-financed road enables travel from Nouakchott to Atar in 6

hours. The road from Atar to Choum and Chinguetti (both 3 hours) is in
reasonably good condition and does not require four-wheel drive. Gas is

17
usually available in both towns but can be expensive if there is a short-
age. Travelers can also drive to Ouadane without four-wheel drive along
the northern plateau road, but not via the sandy southern route from
Chinguetti. Four-wheel drive is also required around Tidjikja.

The overland trip from Nouakchott to Nouadhibou (525 kilometers/

326 miles) takes 2-3 days and requires four-wheel drive. This route is
far worse than any other section of the trans-Saharan route through
Morocco and Mauritania. The first 155 kilometers (96 miles) from
Nouakchott north to Cap Timiris runs along the beach and is passable
only during low tide, making a breakdown potentially disastrous. The
road beyond Cap Timiris is hampered by drifting dunes for almost
300 kilometers (186 miles). For safety reasons, at least two vehicles
are recommended for the trip; using one as a guide.

Construction of a new 470-kilometer (292-mile) road along the Atlantic

coast has begun. The new US$70 million highway, financed by the Arab
Fund for Economic and Social Development and the Islamic Develop-
ment Bank, is part of a planned, all-weather route from Europe, through
Morocco and the Western Sahara, to West Africa. The road will have an
immediate practical impact on Mauritania, linking Nouakchott and the
northwestern city and fishing port of Nouadhibou that previously
required a 24- to 36-hour trip over sand tracks. The new road will stimu-
late local traffic and improve access between isolated local fishing com-
munities and the markets in Nouakchott. Once it is open, the road’s
success will depend on the government’s ability to maintain it.

In July 1999, an agreement was reached between the OPEC Fund

for International Development and Mauritania to finance US$4
million for a 125 kilometer- (78 mile-) stretch of road from Aioun
El Atrouss to Gogui, on the Malian border. Additionally, the OPEC
Fund plans to co-support a 72 kilometer (45 mile) road extending
from Hassi to Gogui. These new roads are expected to improve
trade with Mali.

18
From the airport in Nouakchott, taxis accept U.S. dollars and French francs.
The standard fare from the airport to the city center is between UM600 and
UM700 (US$2 and US$3), but at night drivers usually demand more.
Taxis are easy to find along Abdel Nasser and Kennedy Avenues, espe-
cially in the market area. Passengers must specify whether they want a
course or route taxi. Route taxis operate like buses, with ride sharing
and specified routes, most of which start at the market stand. Fares are
UM25 to UM35 (US$0.10 to US$0.15).

A course taxi offers a private ride to an exact destination and costs

UM250 (US$1) around town, including the airport, or UM500 to
UM600 (US$1.90 to US$2) by the hour (negotiable). Taxis do not
have meters, but drivers are fairly honest about fares.

Yellow and green minibuses run throughout the city. Fares range from
UM25 to UM35 (US$0.10 to US$0.15). In the city center, minibuses
can be found on Kennedy Avenue next to the Grand Marche.

Taxis in Nouakchott

19
Typical Loaded Minibus

Rail
Mauritanian National Railways (TFM-SNIM) exists mainly to serve the
state-owned mining company, Societe Nationale Industrielle et Minere.
The TFM-SNIM rail fleet consists of 31 diesel locomotives, 8 shunting
locomotives, 1,200 freight wagons, and 8 passenger cars.

The Nouadhibou-Zouerat train is the world’s longest train (typically 2.3

kilometers/1.5 miles long). It is an iron-ore train with no passenger ter-
minals. However, for people traveling between these two towns, it has
become a passenger train for lack of alternatives. The trip takes 16 to 18
hours, but most travelers get off at Choum, 12 hours from Nouadhibou.
The train randomly stops to let people off. The dilapidated passenger
carriage at the rear has no lights or porters, and the seats consist of long

20
Iron-Ore Train
benches on either side. There are compartments with fold-down bunks
at either end, but getting one is difficult. The carriage is usually
crowded, but as the journey progresses and people get off, space
becomes available. In the late afternoon, many men find space on the
floor to pray and at dusk, when the cabin becomes dark, chanting
begins. A houli, or man’s headwrap, is useful for keeping sand and soot
out of the eyes, and passengers bring extra clothes to keep warm, as it
gets very cold at night.
The railroad's ore hopper cars cannot be used to move most mili-
tary cargo, general cargo, or containers. They transport small troop
units and basic equipment to northeastern Mauritania. In event of a
military operation, heavy equipment and large volumes of supplies
would have to be transported by road or air.
Air
Mauritania has international airports in Nouakchott, Nouadhibou, and
Nema. The country has 30 smaller airports for internal domestic flights.
Airlift capability is restricted, as there is a lack of cargo-handling equip-
ment and airfield clearance capacities, and inadequate accommodations

21
for large transport aircraft. In addition, the airfields are unevenly distrib-
uted in the southern and northern areas of the country.
Air France has flights twice weekly to and from Paris. From
Nouakchott, regular fares (UM75,250 or US$580 one way, economy
class) are half the price of tickets purchased in France.
Flights operate between Nouakchott and Dakar, Senegal on weekdays
on Air Mauritanie, and Air France. There are also flights twice a week
to and from Bamako, Mali on Air Mauritanie; to and from Banjul, The
Gambia on Air Gambia and Air Mauritanie; and to and from Abidjan,
Cote d’Ivoire on Air France. There are weekly flights to and from Alg-
iers, Algeria on Air Algerie and to and from Tunis, Tunisia on Tunis Air.
Air Mauritanie, considered one of the better airlines in West Africa, flies
twice daily from Nouakchott to Nouadhibou, and less frequently to Atar,
Nema, Zouerat, Tidjikja, Kaedi, Kiffa, and Ayoun-el-Atrous. Airline
departures are rarely on time, and the cleanliness of the aircraft cabin may
be less than ideal. Mauritanian pilots can be aggressive in their maneuver-
ing of the aircraft and do not make gradual turns and altitude adjustments.
Maritime
Mauritania’s principal port is in Nouadhibou. There is also a small port
at Nouakchott. St. Louis, in northern Senegal, also serves Mauritania.
Mauritania's ports do not have the cargo-handling equipment needed to
accommodate large military cargo vessels. All ships must be self-sus-
taining. The only port with adequate alongside depths and storage area
is the Port de L'amitie at Nouakchott. The port’s capacity was expanded
to 950,000 tons in 1986 with the completion of a 500,000-ton deep-
water facility (financed and constructed by the People’s Republic of
China). However, heavy swells and strong undertows may be encoun-
tered within the port, and several dangers, including wrecks and other
obstructions, lie within 3 kilometers of the pier to the south and south-
west. The onset of bad weather should be carefully observed, since the
coast offers no shelter. It is recommended that vessels be kept ready to

22
head to open sea at any time, as the port is often subject to sudden devel-
opment of bad weather.
The iron ore port of Point-Central, 10 kilometers (6 miles) to the south
of Nouadhibou, can accommodate 150,000-ton bulk carriers. A 740-
kilometer (460-mile) rail line links the port with iron ore deposits at
Zouerat, the El Rhein deposit, and M’Haoudat.
Communication
The broadcast media are state-owned. Their coverage is strongly in
favor of the government, and opposition access to radio broadcasting is
limited. Citizens can receive foreign television broadcasts, including
programming from France and Arabic countries. Cellular phone com-
munication systems are gradually becoming more prominent, as is the
case throughout most of West Africa.
Radio and Television
Office de Radiodiffusion-Television de Mauritanie (ORTM) is the
national broadcaster. It broadcasts on FM and short wave in Arabic,
French and other local languages, and is also available on the Arabsat
2B satellite, which broadcasts news, sports, and cultural programs.
Radio France Internationale is relayed on FM from Nouakchott. The
Gabon-based, Africa No 1 radio has permission to broadcast on FM.
Mauritanian TV broadcasts in Arabic, French and other local languages.
It has only one channel, which can be received via satellite in 11
regional capitals. There are also current American TV shows broadcast
in English with Arabic subtitles.
Telephone and Telegraph
A recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system
links Nouakchott with regional capitals. International calls and faxes
may be sent/received at many post and telephone centers, but the many
privately run phone shops located in the major cities and towns are usu-

23
ally more convenient. Most of these shops are open late. The cost is
about UM450/US$3 per minute to the United States or Europe and less
for calls within West Africa. Telephone area codes within Mauritania
are as follows: Nouakchott – 2; Rosso – 5; Nouadhibou, Atar, and
Zouerat – 7. The international dialing code for Mauritania is +222.
In 2001, there were 35,000 cell phone users in Mauritania. Recent
upgrades have been made to the country’s cell phone system, and cover-
age is said to be good in most parts of the country.
By the end of 2001, there were five internet service providers and
approximately 7,500 Internet users in Mauritania. Internet cafes can be
found in Nouakchott, especially in the hotels.
Newspapers and Magazines
Since 1992, local printed media production has increased tremendously.
Some newspapers are critical of the government. Newspapers must reg-
ister with the Interior Ministry and submit copies to the Justice and Inte-
rior Ministries for censorship. Material that insults Islam or is perceived
to threaten national security may be censored. Major French and Arabic
publications include: Al-Sha’b (Arabic); Horizon (French); Journal Offi-
ciel (French-language official gazette); Le Calame (Arabic and French);
L’Eveil-Hebdo (French); Rajoul Echaree (in Arabic and French); and
Nouakchott Info (in French). Copies of Le Monde, Newsweek, and the
Herald Tribune are also available.
Postal Service
In Nouakchott, the post office is located on Abdel Nasser Avenue. Post
offices are open from 0800 to 1200, and 1500 to 1800, and are usually
closed Fridays and Saturdays. However, the post office in Nouakchott is
open every day. Letters sent from Mauritania to Europe take about a
week to arrive.
Satellites
One Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT and two ARABSAT satellite earth sta-
tions provide communication with other countries. Mauritania is explor-

24
ing the implementation of a new domestic television satellite system
with Kuwait and France.

CULTURE
Society
Intermittent droughts have forced a large percentage of Mauritania’s
rural population to abandon its traditional nomadic way of life and move
to the larger towns and cities. The urban areas are unable to cope eco-
nomically or structurally with this influx. This has resulted in insuffi-
cient health and sanitation facilities, a reduction in agricultural
productivity, and high unemployment.
People
Ethnic groups in Mauritania include Arab-Berber (White Moor or Bidan),
Arab-Berber-Negroid (Black Moor or Haritine), Haalpulaar, Soninke, and
Wolof. The Moors have one of the most stratified caste systems in Africa.
The system is based on lineage, occupation, and access to power. This
division hampers any attempt to unify the people. Skin color has become
a common, although inaccurate, measure used to determine status.
The top social stratum is the typically light-skinned Bidan Moors,
descended from warriors. Below them are commoners, mostly of Ber-
ber-Negroid descent. The lowest castes traditionally consist of four
groups: the Haratin Moors, artisans, griots, and slaves, who have no
rights of any kind.
The Haratin are generally employed to perform house and field work
and tend to be, therefore, lean in physical stature. Bidan women tend to
be slightly overweight because it is considered beautiful.
The Moors were nomads who made a living raising cattle and sheep, and
from commerce, particularly transport with camel caravans. For many,
this ended during the severe droughts of the 1970s and early 80s when
most of their animals died. Many Moors were forced to give up their

25
Camel Transporting Goods
nomadic existence and move to Nouakchott, where they lived in shanty-
towns. Today, most are city-based traders.
Mauritanian men characteristically have Arab facial features and wear
long light-blue African robes. Many have the name Ould (son of), for
example, Ahmed Ould Mohamed. For women it is Mint (daughter of).
Although women are at a disadvantage due to their low literacy rate,
culturally they have more freedoms than women in many Arabic coun-
tries. For example, while Mauritanian women cover their heads, they
are not required to cover their faces.
Family
Mauritania’s traditional social unit is the family and its lineage. A family’s
lineage is traced back five or six generations. The lineage serves as a basis

26
of socialization for the young, with elder members of the lineage guiding
younger members to conform to social norms. A group of related lineage
that maintain social ties is known as a clan. The smallest unit within the
clan is the extended family, consisting of a group of related males, with
their wives, sons, and unmarried daughters. Marriage within the clan is
preferred. First cousins are the traditional marriage partners.

Every Mauritanian is expected to marry and have children. A wedding

ceremony consists of an ‘aqd, which is the actual Islamic contractual
commitment in which the bride and groom pledge themselves to the
marriage. The ‘aqd is followed by a party. The next step in the wedding
is the marwah party, which is a reception to see the bride off to her new
family. The marwah is bigger, noisier, and has more entertainment and
dancing than the ‘aqd.

Thin girls are not considered attractive in Mauritanian society, and pre-
teen girls are encouraged to eat well and drink lots of milk in order to
ensure their physical beauty. Years ago, girls became engaged or mar-
ried by the time they were 8-10 years of age. However, today, many
girls wait until they graduate from high school or college. Mauritanian
men are permitted to marry more than one wife; however, most do not.
Many Mauritanian men will marry in succession, divorcing one wife
and then marrying a second.

Upscale Home in Nouakchott

27
Handcrafts Market

Languages
Since 1968, Mauritania’s official language has been Hassaniyya Arabic,
spoken mainly by the Moors. French is also spoken. Other main lan-
guages include Azayr, Fulfulde, Mande-kan, Pulaar, Soninke, and
Wolof. All the languages have similarities, and most are rooted in the
Niger-Congo language family. The study of Hassaniyya in secondary
schools was made compulsory in 1966. Hassaniyya is a largely Arabic
language with many Berber words mixed in, and reflects the fact that
the Moors are descendants of both the Arabs and the Berbers. Many
people in the larger cities and villages speak French, which is also an
official language of Mauritania.

Education and Literacy Rates

It is not mandatory that children in Mauritania attend school, and atten-
dance is far from universal. While girls often attend elementary school,
once this is completed, it is common for them to stay home. Elementary

28
school lasts 6 years and is followed by two cycles of secondary school.
The lower secondary cycle lasts 4 years, and the upper secondary cycle
lasts 3 years.

Schools that provide an Islamic education are common. These tradi-

tional schools often develop around a learned Islamic leader known as a
marabout. Boys generally attend religious schools for 7 years, and girls
attend for 2 years. While the emphasis is placed on religious learning—
memorizing passages from the Qur’an, students also study language,
arithmetic, and logic. Mauritania has one major secular university, one
Islamic institute of higher education, and some vocational institutes.
Arabic is taught in all schools. Other local ethnic languages are also
taught in elementary schools. French is taught throughout the public
school system. During colonial rule, the French administration estab-
lished public schools, mainly in the Senegal River Valley, where black
Africans comprised most of the population.

The Peace Corps in Mauritania began an education project in July

2000 to strengthen the culture of learning, teaching, and service in
general to secondary schools and to build capacities by providing
quality instruction in English. This will also entail peer coaching Mau-
ritanian English teachers as they build skills to be more qualified, cre-
ative, and effective in a work environment with few resources to
support them. Another aspect will involve developing resources that
will strengthen links between schools and parent associations, encour-
age strong participation on the part of the parents, and advocate for the
education of all children.

There is great emphasis on homemaking skills for girls, so most daugh-

ters are taught aspects of raising a family and taking care of the house-
hold. Often, girls are educated at home instead of at school. Mothers are
expected to prepare their daughters for their future careers as homemak-
ers, while the fathers are expected to provide well for their daughters so
they can grow up healthy and physically attractive.

29
As of 2001, the literacy rate in Mauritania is little more than 40 percent.
The literacy rate is slightly above 50 percent for males, and 30 percent
for females.

Religion
Islam is the official religion, and the population is almost entirely Mus-
lim of the Malekite rite. Mauritanians are Sunni Muslims and have
adhered to the Islamic faith since the 9th century. In Mauritania, as in
most of West Africa, Islamic Sufi brotherhoods, known as tariqas,
gained importance around the 13th century. Sufism is a religious move-
ment stressing mysticism and the needs of the human spirit. The broth-
erhoods transcended ethnic and tribal lines, thus helping to develop a
broad national identity beyond that of separate clans and ethnic groups.

Mauritania has two major brotherhoods, known as the Tijaniyya and the
Qadiriyya orders. The Qasiriyya brotherhood stresses Islamic teachings,
humility, generosity, and respect for one’s neighbors. The Tijaniyya
brotherhood places less stress on learning. It is a missionary order that
denounces theft, lying, cheating, and killing, and emphasizes continual
reflection on God.

Chinguetti, in the Adrar region, is the seventh Holy Place in Islam.

In Mauritania there is common belief in divination and supernatural

powers associated with holy men who lead Islamic Sufi brotherhoods
(mystical associations). These religious leaders are venerated among
West Africans and North Africans and are considered well-educated.
They are called marabouts, or murabitun, and it is believed that their
baraka, or divine grace allows them to perform miracles. They make
and administer amulets and talismans. These are believed to have mysti-
cal powers that give protection from illness and injury.

Cheikh Yacoub Ould El Cheikh Sidina, one of the most renowned

sheikhs of the Mauritanian Sufi brotherhoods, died in Senegal in
November 2002. He was approximately 80 years-old. His body was

30
Mosque
returned to Mauritania for burial. El Cheikh Sidina came from a Sufi
family of learning widely-known in Mauritania and West Africa. The
spiritual influence of El Cheikh Sidina’s family reached Niger and Nige-
ria and it has many followers in Senegal where Cheikh Yacoub lived for
2 years before returning to Mauritania in 1989.

Social Customs and Courtesies

Mauritanians are considered friendly people, even in Nouakchott, which

is overpopulated and poverty-stricken due to urbanization. Elders are
respected by the young. This practice is known as essahwa, which
requires the young to respect social customs in the presence of an eld-
erly person. For example, a young Mauritanian would not smoke in

31
front of an elder. Also, the youth use appropriate language (no swear-
ing), avoid public displays of affection, and avoid talking too loudly in
the presence of the elderly.
Greetings
As in most of West Africa, elaborate greetings are traditional in Moorish
society. Social activities revolve around tea, which is invariably strong
and sweet. The first two glasses are almost obligatory, but declining the
third glass is not impolite.
Dress
Mauritanian attire is influenced by the desert heat and Islamic
norms. Men and women wear clothing that covers the entire body,
leaving the face, hands, feet, and arms showing. Women wear a
malaffa, which is a long cloak wrapped loosely around the body

Women Wearing Malaffas

32
from head to toe. The men wear a dar’a, which is a long, loose robe
over baggy pants known as sirwal. Some men wear head-coverings,
predominantly turbans or hawli, for protection from the winter cold

Man Wearing Hawli

33
and summer heat. Office attire for men is Western-style pants and
shirts. Southern women wear dresses, or skirts, and blouses. They
also wear long robes called boubous.
Female visitors should dress conservatively; miniskirts, shorts, and
swimsuits are offensive to many Mauritanians.
Food and Drink
The desert cuisine of the Moors is generally bland, consisting of rice,
mutton, goat, camel, or dried fish. Unsweetened, curdled goat or camel
milk often accompanies meals in private homes. A mechui is a tradi-
tional nomad’s feast where an entire lamb is roasted over a fire and
stuffed with cooked rice. Guests tear off bits of meat with their hands.
Lunch is the main meal of the day. Mauritanians commonly eat a spicy
fish-and-vegetable stew, or a spicy rice mixed with tishtar, which are

Walk-Up Fast Food Restaurant

34
small pieces of dried meat. A common dinner meal is couscous; this
consists of semolina wheat sprinkled with oil and water and rolled into
tiny grains. The grains are then steamed and used in a variety of recipes.
In some parts of Mauritania, couscous is known as lachiri.

A favorite desert drink is zrig, made from goat’s milk, water, and
sugar. Despite the heat of the desert, tea is common throughout the
country. Mauritanians drink imported green tea from China, made
with fresh mint and served in small glasses. Alcoholic beverages are
forbidden in Islam, and in 1986 the government banned their import,
purchase, and consumption. However, some hotels in Nouakchott do
serve alcohol.

Before eating a meal, guests wash their hands and then gather around a
large platter of food placed on the floor. They then scoop up small por-
tions of food from the platter either with their hands or with utensils.
Each person eats only from his or her side of the platter. Many house-
holds use a central serving platter, but then provide diners with individ-
ual plates. In some households, the men and women dine separately.

Taboos

Photo permits are not required. However, taking photographs of some-

thing other than a tourist site is not recommended. Taking photographs
of government buildings including post offices, airports, ports, radio
antennas, and military installations is strictly forbidden. Some Mauri-
tanians do not want their photos taken, and may expect payment for
the privilege, so it is best to always ask first.

Recreation

Soccer is the most popular sport played in Mauritania. Wrestling

matches can usually be found on Saturday afternoons at the Stade de la
Luttes (wrestling arena) at the western end of Rue Ely Ould Mohamed
in Nouakchott.

35
MEDICAL ASSESSMENT
Medical care and hygiene are well below U.S. standards. Mauritania’s
health care system is supported by several United Nations (UN) agen-
cies, the World Health Organization, and numerous other nongovern-
mental organizations (NGOs).
Mass evacuation would be extremely difficult because the road condi-
tions generally are poor, particularly in the country’s interior. The coun-
try only has three paved roads. The National Hospital Center and the
Nouakchott Military Hospital each have two ambulances.
The country lacks an adequate number of qualified medical personnel;
it is estimated that there are as few as 320 physicians in the country.
All physicians are trained outside Mauritania because the country has
no medical school. The National School of Nurses and Midwives in
Nouakchott trains nurses, midwives, and paramedical personnel.
Medical personnel generally speak Arabic and are fluent in French,
while very few speak English. African dialects are spoken in the coun-
try’s southern region.
Because of its limited domestic production, Mauritania imports most of
its medical material, primarily from Algeria, the European community,
Japan, Pakistan, Thailand, and the United States. Basic pharmaceuticals
are available, although shortages exist of many specialized drugs.
Mauritania’s blood supply does not meet U.S. standards. While the
country is working with the World Bank and UNAIDS on initiatives to
safeguard the blood supply, screening of blood for HIV currently is con-
fined to Nouakchott. The country’s only blood bank, collocated with the
National Hospital Center, tests donated blood for hepatitis A, B, and C,
HIV 1 and 2, and syphilis prior to transfusion.
Disease Risks to Deployed Personnel
Mauritania is a high risk country for infectious diseases. Without force
health protection measures, mission effectiveness will be seriously jeop-

36
ardized. Risk varies greatly depending on location, individual expo-
sures, and other factors.
Food- and Waterborne Diseases
Sanitation is extremely poor throughout the country, including major
urban areas. Local food and water sources (including ice) are heavily
contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and viruses to which
most U.S. service members have little or no natural immunity.
If local food, water, or ice from unapproved sources is consumed,
diarrheal diseases can be expected to temporarily incapacitate a very
high percentage of personnel within days. Hepatitis A and typhoid
fever can cause prolonged illness in a smaller percentage of U.S.
personnel exposed to contaminated food or water sources. In addi-
tion, cholera outbreaks can occur among the local population coun-
trywide. A small number (potentially as high as 1 percent per month)
of personnel consuming local food, water, or ice could develop
symptomatic infection. Consumption of unpasteurized dairy prod-
ucts or raw animal products increases the risk of many diseases,
including brucellosis and Q fever.
Vectorborne Diseases
In the southern third of the country, the climate and ecological condi-
tions support large populations of arthropod vectors, including mosqui-
toes, ticks, and sand flies. Significant disease transmission is sustained
year-round in this area, including urban areas. The northern two-thirds
of the country has a desert ecology, with lower overall vectorborne dis-
ease risk. Many of the vectorborne diseases are even more common than
officially reported because medical surveillance and diagnostic capabil-
ity are lacking countrywide.
Malaria is the major vectorborne disease risk in Mauritania, capable
of debilitating a high percentage of personnel for up to a week or
more. Malaria is transmitted year-round with the highest risk in the
southern more tropical parts of the country, including urban areas.

37
The northern two-thirds of the country has a lower risk. In addition,
there are a variety of other vector-borne diseases, including Rift Val-
ley fever, which as a group constitute a very serious risk comparable
to that of malaria. Personnel exposed to mosquitoes, ticks, sand flies,
or other biting vectors are at high risk during the day or night, in
both urban and rural areas.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Gonorrhea, chlamydia, and other infections are very common, and may
affect a high percentage of personnel who have sexual contact. Carrier
rates for hepatitis B also are high. An infrequent or sporadic numbers of
personnel having unprotected sexual contact, particularly with prosti-
tutes, could become infected with HIV. Heterosexual contact is the pre-
dominant mode of HIV transmission. Though the immediate impact of
HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B on an operation is limited, the long-term
health impact on individuals is substantial.
Respiratory Diseases
Mauritania lies adjacent to the “meningitis belt,” where dry conditions
from November through May, combined with crowding of local popula-
tions, result in large annual outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis.
Meningococcal meningitis occurs year-round and countrywide, and an
infrequent or sporadic number of cases could occur among U.S. person-
nel, particularly in crowded living conditions. Tuberculosis rates are high
within the local population. Prolonged contact with the local population
may result in conversion rates to tuberculosis skin testing (PPD screen-
ing) elevated over U.S. military baseline.
Water-contact Diseases
Lakes, rivers, streams, or other surface water may be contaminated with
the infectious agents that cause leptospirosis and schistosomiasis. Opera-
tions or activities that involve extensive freshwater contact may cause
personnel to be temporarily debilitated with these diseases.

38
Animal-contact Diseases
Infrequent cases of anthrax could occur among U.S. personnel with
direct exposure to animals or through consumption of contaminated
meats, especially beef. Rabies is a major health problem in the region.
Dogs are the main source of human rabies exposure, and the risk exists
countrywide, associated with animal contact (bites or scratches).

Key Medical Facilities

While the government is decentralizing the health care sector, access to
adequate secondary care is available only in major cities, primarily
Nouakchott. Hospital facilities in Mauritania are very limited. The
National Hospital Center has 400 beds, and as few as 100 hospital beds
exist elsewhere in the country.
Facility National Hospital Center
Coordinates 18-05-14N 015-59-16W
Location B. P. 612, Nouakchott
Telephone 52-135, 51-733
Type Government
Beds 400, expandable to 500
Capabilities Medical — infectious diseases; surgical — orthope-
dic; ancillary — emergency room, 2 operating
rooms, 10-bed intensive care unit (primarily post-
operative), x-ray, laboratory, blood bank.
Comments National referral hospital. Sanitary and technical
levels are considerably below U.S. standards.
Poorly staffed, equipped, and managed. Crowded.
U.S. Embassy personnel use hospital for emer-
gency care only. Staff includes 20 well-trained
physicians, 55 poorly trained nurses, and Western-
trained dentists. About 10 percent of staff speaks
English. Helipad. Two ambulances (no medical
equipment). Water supply is not potable.

39
Facility Nouakchott Military Hospital
Coordinates 18-06-XXN 015-57-XXW
Location Near airport, in a northern suburb of Nouakchott
Telephone 25-08-36, 25-08-37
Type Military
Beds 50, plus 20 reserved for VIPs
Capabilities Medical — cardiology, internal, obstetrics, gynecol-
ogy, pathology, pediatrics; surgical — general, oph-
thalmology, orthopedic; ancillary — 4-bed intensive
care unit, 3 operating rooms, endoscopy suite, labo-
ratory, x-ray, ultrasound.
Comments Only military hospital in Nouakchott. Clean facility in
excellent condition. Emergency generator, laundry,
incinerator on grounds. Two ambulances, but no
emergency room. Equipment relatively new, service-
able; medical supply shortages still exist. Recom-
mended over National Hospital Center.

HISTORY

In the Middle Ages, Mauritania was the cradle of the Almoravid move-
ment, which spread Islam throughout the region and for a while con-
trolled the Islamic portion of Spain. European traders began to show
interest in Mauritania in the 15th century, and in 1814 it came under
direct French rule.

Morocco opposed the country’s independence in 1960 and tried to absorb

it. But King Hassan II improved ties as part of his plan to divide Western
Sahara. The eventual deal in 1976 brought more problems, with Maurita-
nia under attack by Western Sahara’s POLISARIO (Popular Front for the
Liberation of the Saquia El Hamra and Rio de Oro) guerrillas and the
subsequent downfall of its leader since independence, Moktar Ould Dad-
dar, in a 1978 military coup.

40
Colonel Mustafa Ould Salek, who became prime minister following the
coup, was replaced in April 1979 by Colonel Ahmed Ould Bouceif and
Colonel Muhammad Khouna Ould Haidalla. Bouceif died soon after-
ward in an airplane crash, and Haidalla became Mauritania’s prime min-
ister. Haidalla ended Mauritania’s military involvement in the Western
Sahara, and gave diplomatic recognition to the POLISARIO guerrillas
of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). This worsened rela-
tions with Morocco until 1985.
Haidalla was replaced as prime minister by Colonel Maouya Ould Sidi
Ahmad Taya in a December 1984 coup. Taya established a military gov-
ernment and began to reform the political system, holding local elections,
and releasing some political prisoners. Taya strengthened relations with
the former Soviet Union, China, and wealthy Middle Eastern states. His
objectives were to gain access to trade and financial assistance, and elimi-
nate Mauritania’s dependence on the West.
Approximately 25,000 refugees from Western Sahara were living in
Mauritania in 2001. Another 4,000 persons from Mali were residing in
the country in refugee-like circumstances. Likewise, nearly 50,000
Mauritanians were refugees or asylum seekers at the end of 2001,
including an estimated 40,000 in Senegal, 5,000 in Mali, and 4,000 in
Europe and other Western countries.
Mauritania has a history of tension between the Moors and the non-
Moor black Africans. The non-Moor black Africans resent Moor domi-
nation of the Mauritanian political system and armed forces.

Chronology of Key Events

12 May 1903 French protectorate of Mauritania established.
18 Oct. 1904 Status changes to French civil territory of Maurita-
nia (part of French West Africa).
12 Jan. 1920 Mauritania becomes French colony.
27 Oct. 1946 Mauritania becomes overseas territory of France.
28 Nov. 1958 Receives autonomy (Islamic Republic of Mauritania).

41
28 Nov. 1960 Mauritania receives independence from France.
1969 Morocco recognizes Mauritania.
1976 - 1979 Mauritania annexes the southwestern region of
Western Sahara.
1981 Diplomatic relations with Morocco break.
1985 Diplomatic relations with Morocco resume.
1989 Mauritania joins Maghreb Arab Union with Alge-
ria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia.
1989 Government experiences internal racial clashes;
arrival of 200,000 Moors from Senegal heightens
tension; fighting breaks out along Senegalese border.
1995 Food riots staged in Nouakchott.
1999 Mauritania signs agreement to establish full diplo-
matic relations with Israel.
2000 Mauritania threatens to expel Senegalese citizens if
Dakar continues with plans to use water from the
Senegal River for an irrigation project.
2001 Mauritania is condemned by the Arab League after
foreign minister visits Israel.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Government
National Level
Mauritania is a highly centralized Islamic republic dominated by a strong
presidency. The 1991 constitution provides for a civilian government con-
sisting of a dominant executive branch, a senate and a national assembly.
President Maaouya Ould Sid’Ahmed Taya has governed since 1984, first
as head of a military junta, and then, since the 1992 multiparty election, as
the head of a civilian government. In December 1997, Taya was re-elected
president, receiving more than 90 percent of the vote. Although the elec-
tion was contested by four opposition candidates and boycotted by the
five-party Opposition Front coalition, Taya remained president.

42
Executive Branch. The execu-
tive branch consists of the presi-
dent and 27 appointed members
of the Council of Ministers. The
president is elected for a renew-
able 6-year term of office.
Maaouya Ould Sid’Ahmed Taya
was re-elected in 1997.
Legislative Branch. The
bicameral parliament consists
of the senate, with 54 members,
the lower house, and the
national assembly, with 81 dep-
uties. Part of the senate is sub-
ject to re-election every 2 years.
Judicial Branch. Mauritania’s
Code of Law was promulgated
in 1961 and subsequently mod-
President Taya
ified to integrate modern law
with Islamic institutions and practices. The primary courts include 3
courts of appeal, 10 regional tribunals, 2 labor tribunals, and 53
departmental civil courts. A revenue court has jurisdiction in financial
matters. With the introduction of Shar’ia in 1980, a special Islamic
court was established. This court is presided over by a magistrate of
Islamic Law, who is assisted by two counselors and two ulemas (Mus-
lim jurists and interpreters of the Qur’an). A five-member High Coun-
cil of Islam, appointed by the president, provides advice regarding the
conformity of national legislation to religious precepts, at the request
of the president.
Local Level
Based on the 1991 constitution, local government is strongly influenced
by Shar’ia.

43
Key Government Officials
President Maaouya Ould Sidi Ahmed Taya
Prime Minister Cheikh Afia Ould Mohamed
Khouna
Defense Minister Kaba Ould Elewa
Foreign Affairs Minister Mohamed Ould Tolba

Politics
Elections
The election to fill seats for the national assembly was held in October
2001; the next presidential elections are scheduled for December 2003.

Suffrage
All citizens 18 years of age or older are eligible to vote.

Presidential Palace in Nouakchott

44
 16
MOROCCO 8
Canary Islands
(Spain)
ALGERIA
Mauritania
National capital
Region capital
Regional border
International border
0 50 100 150 km
0 50 100 mi

24
WESTERN TIRIS-ZEMMOUR
SAHARA MALI
Atlantic
Ocean Regions
F’derik of
Mauritania
1. Adrar
2. Brakna
3. Dakhlet Nouadhibou
BAIE DU 4. El Acaba
LEVRIER 5. Gorgol
Nouadhibou 6. Guidimaka
Atar ADRAR 7. Hodh ech Chargui
INCHIRI 8. Hodh ech Gharbi
9. Inchiri
Akjoujt 10. Tagant
11. Trarza
12. Tiris Zemmour
TAGANT
Tidjikdja
NOUAKCHOTT HODH
TRARZA ORIENTAL
BRAKNA
Aleg ’Ayoun
gal ASSABA
Rosso Sene el ’Atrous Nema
Kiffa HODH
16 Kaedi OCCIDENTAL
GORGOL
IV
GUIDIMAKA
Selibaby
SENEGAL MALI
er
Nig

Administrative Regions
Parties and Pressure Groups
Mauritania has 29 registered political parties; the main ones are the rul-
ing Parti Republicain Democratique et Social (PRDS), Action pour le

45
Changement (AC), Rassemblement pour la Democratie et l’Unite
(RDU), Union des Forces Democratiques (UFD) and Rassemblement
des Forces Democratiques (RFD).
Foreign Relations
Mauritania has good and improving relations with the West. President
Taya maintains ties with Israel despite Arab anger over the policies of
the government of Ariel Sharon. While attending the UN Conference on
Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in September 2002, Taya
held talks with the Israeli foreign minister, Shimon Peres, at which he
called for renewed Middle Eastern peace talks and an end to Palestinian
suffering. A few days later, in Nouakchott, he accepted the credentials
of Israel’s second ambassador, Ariel Kirim (full relations were estab-
lished between the two countries in 1999).
Although Europe remains the country’s prime economic partner and
France is keen to revive defense ties, the U.S. connection is also valu-
able for Mauritania. The government hopes to revive links within the
Arab Maghreb Union, but its trade and development interests equally lie
in relations with its West African neighbors, particularly Senegal, with
which relations have not always been easy. This distinctive stance paral-
lels Mauritania’s cultural position in combining Moorish Arab and West
African origins in a single state.
United States. U.S.-Mauritania relations are excellent but have under-
gone several transformations since Mauritania’s independence. From
1960 to 1967, the United States maintained cordial relations with Mauri-
tania and provided a small amount of economic assistance. During the
June 1967 Middle East war, Mauritania broke diplomatic and consular
relations with the United States, but restored ties 2 years later and main-
tained relatively friendly relations until the late 1980s, despite disagree-
ments over the Arab-Israeli issue.
Between 1983 and 1991, when the U.S. Agency for International Devel-
opment (USAID) mission in Mauritania ceased operations, the United
States provided US$67.3 million in development assistance. The United

46
States also provided emergency food assistance through bilateral chan-
nels until 1992 and, subsequently, through multilateral channels. Since
1981, the United States has provided about US$100 million in economic
and food assistance.
In 1989, a rupture between Mauritania and Senegal resulted in Mauritania
deporting tens of thousands of Senegalese citizens, which negatively affected
U.S.-Mauritanian relations. In addition, Mauritania’s support of Iraq prior to
and during the 1991 Gulf War further weakened the strained ties.
Relations between the United States and Mauritania reached a low in
spring 1991, as details of the Mauritanian military's role in widespread
human rights abuses surfaced. The United States responded by formally
halting USAID operations and all military assistance to Mauritania.
Relations also suffered in the 1990s as a result of repeated, but later dis-
credited, reports that slavery continued in some parts of Mauritania
despite legal proscriptions.
In the late 1990s, the Mauritanian government began allowing the return
of the Senegalese who were expelled or who fled in1989. They also
turned away from Iraq and toward the West, and initiated a poverty-
reduction strategy while securing debt relief under the Highly Indebted
Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. These changes occurred as relations
with the United States were improving. Of particular importance, the
U.S. government resumed its military cooperation and training pro-
grams. In October 2000, Mauritania was among the initial group of
countries named eligible for U.S. trade benefits under the Africa Growth
and Opportunity Act (AGOA).
Neighbors. Mauritania faces few external threats but has experienced
periodic downturns in its relations with Mali and Senegal over the issue
of refugees on either side of its borders. Water is also a crucial point of
contention between Mauritania and its immediate neighbors. The Sig-
nificance of the Senegal River was highlighted by Mauritania’s diplo-
matic dispute with Senegal in June 2000. The resource dispute was
mixed with the possibility of further cross-border ethnic tension when

47
Mauritania threatened to again expel Senegalese citizens. The crisis,
however, was resolved.
Mauritania regulates its border dispute with Senegal over the demarca-
tion lines of the Senegal River within the framework of the Organisation
pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal, in cooperation with Mali.
This tripartite cooperation between Mauritania, Senegal, and Mali has
extended into joint security along the borders to counter the infiltration
of refugees and the problems of arms and drug-trafficking.
Other Major Countries. Mauritania has pursued a low-key strategy in
Arab politics. It has rehabilitated and strengthened ties with Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.
Foreign diplomatic facilities in Mauritania include: Algeria, People’s
Republic of China, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, France, Ger-
many, Israel, Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Nige-
ria, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Spain, Syria,
Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, United States, and Yemen.

ECONOMY

Due to poor management of state enterprises, Mauritania is heavily in

debt, and relies on financial assistance. Mauritania's economy is cen-
tered primarily on mineral production, agriculture, fishing, and the ser-
vice sector. Iron-ore mining is the most significant activity, and high-
grade iron ore deposits are generally found in the northern province of
Tiris Zemmour, close to the Western Sahara border. Mauritania has rich
maritime resources that are threatened by over-exploitation. The fishing
industry earns a large portion of the country's foreign income.
Statistics
GDP US$935 million
Annual growth rate 4%
Per capita income US$370

48
Agriculture 24% of GDP
Products Livestock, millet, maize, wheat, dates, rice
Industry 30% of GDP
Types Iron mining, fishing
Trade 40% of GDP
Exports US$370 million
Major markets Japan 29%; Italy 14%; France 14%; Spain 10%,
Belgium/Luxembourg 7%; Switzerland 5%
Imports US$469 million — Foodstuffs, machinery, tools,
cloth, consumer goods.
Major suppliers France 33%; U.S. 10%; Spain 9%;
Germany 6%; Algeria 6%; Italy 4%;
Belgium/Luxembourg 5%
Natural Resources
Mining
Mauritania’s mining revenue stems primarily from iron ore, gypsum,
fish, copper, phosphate, diamonds, and gold.
Fisheries
The main fisheries can be divided into three categories: artisan, local
industrial, and large-scale.
Artisan fisheries primarily operate from canoes within 18.5 kilometers
of the shore. The canoes usually are wood, from 6–12 meters- (20–40
feet-) long. The fisheries use a variety of gear including cast nets, sur-
rounding and floating gill nets, hand lines and beach seines. An adapta-
tion of the ring-net purse seine is also used.
Local industrial fisheries usually operate in water depths of 50 meters (164
feet) or less. The boats average 13-25 meters (20-40 feet) in length, and
nearly all carry purse seines. These purse seines are often 300-750 meters-
(984-2,460 feet-) long and 35-60 meters- (11-197 feet-) high. Some of the
larger seiners are equipped with acoustic detection equipment.

49
Fisherman on the Beach in Nouakchott

Large-scale fisheries primarily involve foreign ships, ranging from 35-

meter (115-foot) seiners to 85-meter (279-foot) trawlers. The larger
trawlers have the capacity to process their catch aboard the ship. A 22-
kilometer territorial limit established by Senegal and Mauritania has
reduced large-scale fishery activities in these coastal waters. Fish pro-
cessing activities are focused in Nouadhibou.
Mauritania imposed a 2-month ban on commercial fishing in September
and October 2002 to allow vulnerable species a chance to reproduce, but
this annual measure is no longer sufficient to prevent the long-term ero-
sion of stocks. Local fishermen and many outside observers blame an
agreement with the EU that allows large European boats to take hefty
catches in return for an annual payments. Better management of stocks
and study of the marine ecosystem in Mauritanian waters will become
necessary if the sector is to survive.
Petroleum and Gas Reserves
Although no exploitable hydrocarbon resources currently exist, Mauri-
tania depends on its downstream oil industry and has an operating refin-

50
ery in Nouadhibou. Mauritania’s hopes to become a significant
petroleum producer were bolstered with the news of successful drilling
results from the Chinguetti (blocks 2-4 on Offshore Oil Field map) off-
shore appraisal. (The well is nowhere near the town of Chinguetti,
which lies 600 kilometers inland.)

In an Independence Day speech 28 November 2002, President Taya

announced that a consortium of international companies, led by Austra-

Offshore Oil Fields

Area A D
Area B
Area C2
Area C6 Block 8
Area D
0 100 km

D
MAURITANIA

Block 7

C
Block 6

B A
Atlantic Ocean
Block 5

B A
Block 4 NOUAKCHOTT

Block 3

C
Block 2

D
Block 1

Offshore Oil Fields

51
lia’s Woodside Petroleum had discovered two important sources of
hydrocarbons offshore. Woodside Petroleum leads the international con-
sortium exploring offshore Mauritania (blocks 2-6 on Offshore Oil Field
map). The offshore waters of Mauritania have long been of interest to
international oil companies, but only modern seismic and deep water
drilling technology have made possible Woodside’s recent finds. Presi-
dent Taya indicated that the Chinguetti oil field, 85 kilometers southeast
of the capital, contains estimated reserves of 100 million barrels. Taya
also remarked that a second oil field, Banda, found 20 kilometers to the
east of Chinguetti, could contain oil reserves of 100 million barrels and
significant reserves of natural gas. Taya suggested that crude production
could begin in 2005.
However, final decisions of exploiting these fields will depend on the
results of commercial studies, including deep water engineering solu-
tions and investment decisions planned for 2003. If the study results are
positive, production could begin in 2006.
Chinguetti’s reserves are too small to be commercial, but the gas is suffi-
cient to help overcome engineering difficulties in bringing crude to the
surface from under 850 meters of ocean water. While deep, cold Atlan-
tic waters will thicken the Chinguetti crude, the re-injected natural gas
can help bring the oil to the surface. A production test on one of the
appraisal wells showed good viscosity and flow. Woodside estimated the
petroleum reserves of Chinguetti in excess of 100 million barrels.
Seismic surveys indicate that the Banda field is potentially broader than
Chinguetti. Banda could have more than 100 million barrels of crude
and a trillion cubic feet of gas. Woodside has scheduled an appraisal
drilling for 2003.
Woodside will continue to invest in exploration of the five offshore
blocs for which the Australian firm has operating rights. Other oil
explorations in the country are undergoing seismic and geophysical
studies (Blocks 1 and 7 on the Offshore Oil Field map). Woodside is
also a junior partner in block 7, which is operated by the UK’s Dana

52
Petroleum. Dana is also operator of block 1. A Russian firm registered
in Guernsey, UK and some Mauritanian investors are also exploring an
onshore area.
As yet, the only tangible result of the discovery of oil has been a raise in
local land prices. Real estate prices in Nouakchott have reportedly dou-
bled in recent years in a local boom fueled by increased public spend-
ing, improved urban infrastructure, millions of dollars of debt relief,
expatriate remittances, and anticipated oil profits.
Water
Mali has ratified a water use agreement for the Senegal River that was
signed by Mauritania, Mali, and Senegal in May 2002. The accord was
designed to protect the river, through a protocol on pollution (fining pol-
luters) and by controlling developments that would affect the river sys-
tem. The 1,700-kilometer (1,056 mile) Senegal River is a vital source of
water and livelihood for the densely populated border region, stretching
from the hilly Guidimakha region around Selibaby down through Kaedi
to the lowlands around Rosso. Mauritania, Mali and Senegal set up an
organization for the development of the Senegal River in 1972.
Trade
Mauritanian interest in doing business with the United States is very
high. In 2002, the United States became Mauritania’s second largest sup-
plier of imported goods. Imports range from the lease of the latest model
Boeing 737 aircraft and one-time purchases of heavy machine tools for
mining companies, as well as U.S. agricultural products such as wheat,
soybean oil, and poultry. The once-dormant chamber of commerce and
industry has been restructured with the help of World Bank financing and
is promoting trade with major European partners. Chamber officials have
asked U.S. Embassy officials for assistance in training, information on
AGOA, and in setting up of an American products trade show.
The Mauritanian government is encouraging joint ventures with compa-
nies from the most advanced technology countries, particularly with the

53
United States. In January 2002, the government issued a new investment
code intended to attract foreign investors by creating attractive terms for
establishing an enterprise in the country.
Services
Mauritania has an electrical generating capacity of 105,000 kilowatts;
electrical output is 127/220 volts AC, 50 hertz. Round, two-pin plugs
are typically used.

THREAT
Crime
Despite a rise in crime, particularly regarding petty theft, Nouakchott
remains one of the safest capital cities in Africa. Nouakchott is a late-
night city, with many people walking around even at 2300. Even at
those hours, walking around is considered safe for men. The area along
the beach near the city is the most dangerous, where mugging and rapes
have occurred. No one, especially women (even in a group), should
walk along the beach at night. Foreigners of African descent are some-
times subjected to harassment by the police and Moors.
Travel Security
There is still an uneasy peace with neighboring Mali, as Tuareg fighters
(nomadic Malians engaged in periodic guerilla fighting) have taken ref-
uge in Mauritania and use it as a base for attacks against Malian armed
forces, creating a minor security concern for Nouakchott. The area south
of Nema has occasionally been affected by the Tuareg insurgency. There
have also been regional disturbances, some violent, involving cattle rus-
tling and the weapons trade. Mauritania has agreed with Mali that nei-
ther side will allow rebels to operate from its territory.
The conflict in Western Sahara remains a security concern until a reso-
lution is found. The issue affects the relations between both Mauritania

54
and Morocco. While not a major security issue, members of the
POLISARIO’s military wing have taken refuge in Mauritania. The bor-
der with the Western Sahara remains unstable. There are thousands of
landmines buried along the Mauritanian side, to include the area west of
Nouadhibou on the peninsula. People have been killed here.
In addition to being one of the poorest countries in the world, the popu-
lation is also ethnically diverse. The issue of slavery continues to affect
everyday life and politics. All of these factors combine to make the
country potentially volatile.
Women can be subjected to sexual harassment, especially when alone or
with other women.

Terrorism
As in other parts of the region, the spread of Islamic fundamentalism
among urban youth is of increasing concern. Nouakchott, meaning
“place of the winds” in Hassaniyya, was hastily created in 1960 follow-
ing Mauritania’s independence from France. Over the last 3 decades, the
population of Nouakchott has mushroomed from 50,000 to 500,000.
The government has lagged behind in providing services and facilities
for this population influx, forcing many citizens to live in squalid shan-
tytowns. Several Islamic organizations have filled some of the gaps left
by the government. The country’s economic problems may contribute to
increased disillusionment with the current situation and foster the
growth of Islamic extremism.
Possible links between Mauritanians and Osama bin Ladin are also
cause for concern. There has been U.S. criticism of the Mauritanian
government’s lack of vigilance regarding possible terrorist networks
operating within its borders.

The smuggling of weapons and explosives into and out of Mauritania

continues to be a force protection concern for U.S. visitors and diplo-
matic personnel, due to its potential links to terrorist-related activity.

55
Previous arrests related to arms trafficking have involved both civilian
and army personnel.

Drug Trafficking
The UN International Drug Control Program has reported that Maurita-
nia is a cannabis-growing country whose crop is being sold within West
Africa and in Europe. The UN also indicated that Mauritania is a transit
point for cocaine from South America to North America and Europe.

Major Intelligence Services

Opposition Forces
Banned political parties include: Umma, an Islamic fundamentalist
party that remains within the opposition political arena rather than
resorting to violent measures, and Taliaa/Parti de l’Avant Garde, which
takes its inspiration from Saddam Hussein and Iraq’s Ba’athist move-
ment. The Muslim Brotherhood is rumored to be active, especially in
regions with strong Berber connections. A militant black organization
also operates in the southern part of the country. Tuareg and black Afri-
can groups are a potential insurgency danger, but have shown few indi-
cations of resorting to violence in recent years. The Forces de
Liberation Africain de Mauritanie (FLAM) draws support from black
Africans who believe that Islam and Arab influences are destroying
their traditional values. The outlawed FLAM has indicated it is prepared
to negotiate with the government. No information regarding FLAM
operations has been published in Mauritania. FLAM has undertaken
armed incursions from across the Senegalese border and has also pub-
lished manifestos from Senegal.
Ethnic tension is a source of political instability in Mauritania between
Moors and black Mauritanians. The latter fear further government Arab-
nationalization efforts in the country and racial discrimination. The
politically marginalized and socially repressed members of the Halpu-
laar, Soninke, and Wolof ethnic groups may continue to represent

56
sources of discontent. Previous social tensions have resulted in protests
against the World Bank and the government’s economic policies. Three
days of rioting broke out in Nouakchott in January 1995 following a 25
percent increase in the price of bread. At that time, a curfew was
imposed and many opposition leaders were arrested.

The leader of the Popular Front (FP) and President Taya’s closest rival
in the 1997 presidential elections, Mohamed Lemine Ch’bih Ould
Cheikh Melainine, was arrested in April 2001 on charges of plotting
subversion and sabotage with Libyan support. The opposition Union of
Progressive Forces (UFP) condemned the government’s actions and
security forces broke up a subsequent demonstration by FP supporters.
Although the prospect of hostilities is remote, the civil rights situation in
Mauritania is substandard. Elections are widely perceived as being
rigged, dissent is suppressed, and human rights abuses such as slavery
continue to be reported.

Threat to U.S. Personnel

A number of environmental threats exist in Mauritania. The main con-
tamination issue in Mauritania is the pollution of already scarce water
supplies by raw sewage and saltwater intrusion. The significant mining
industry also may pose risks of heavy metals contamination to surround-
ing waters and soils. The most significant air contamination is from
leaded-gasoline vehicle emissions and residue from burning trash. Fish
processing companies in Nouadhibou reportedly have used water con-
taminated with fuel oil and raw sewage, which may result in chemical or
microbial contamination of consumer food products.

Water supplies contaminated with raw sewage are Mauritania's major

pollution problem. From August to September, flooding contributes to
surface water contamination. No permanent surface waters exist except
for the Senegal River and its tributaries in the south. Alternative water
sources (ponds, dug wells, boreholes) are scarce in other parts of the
country and are of poor quality.

57
In Nouadhibou, sewage treatment is non-existent, with open sewers
and a lack of water treatment facilities. Contamination of water
sources by human and animal waste is widespread. Tests have
found that 85 percent of drinking water samples from Nouadhibou
are contaminated.

In Nouakchott, the existing potable water supply, storage, and dis-

tribution systems are seriously inadequate. Contamination of water
has resulted from frequent failure of lines and joints, and low oper-
ating hydrostatic pressures. Open-well dispensing points in
Nouakchott are vulnerable to direct human and animal contamina-
tion. Reports indicate that rural residents along the coast of
Nouakchott indiscriminately dispose of refuse and raw sewage in
rivers, streams, and oceans.

In addition, the quaternary unconfined aquifer underlying the

Nouakchott region is subject to permanent saltwater seepage.

ARMED FORCES

Organization and Capability

Mauritania’s armed forces are relatively small and poorly equipped in
relation to the vast amount of territory they are required to defend. Due
to its small size, the armed forces receive considerable personal control
and involvement from the president and minister of defense. The army
is the senior service with the air force and navy as its subordinates. The
armed forces’ overall capabilities are adequate only for internal security
functions. Without external support, their ability to handle a border con-
flict with one of their neighbors would be questionable.

There are some indications that Mauritania is gradually re-equipping its

armed forces, however, its military is likely to remain little more than a
heavily armed internal security force.

58
Key military issues affecting morale include low pay, minimal training,
spartan living conditions, poor relations between officers and enlisted
soldiers, and ethnic dissension.
The greatest contrasts and often the cause of conflicting issues are
between the officers and the enlisted troops, and between Afro-Maurita-
nian and Arab-Amazigh members. Lack of resolution following the
repression, torture, and death of Afro-Mauritanians in 1989-91 still com-
plicates relationships within Mauritania’s ethnically diverse military.
Many fear similar events could recur if the country’s economic and mili-
tary situation deteriorates as it did prior to the repression. There is also
some concern within the military of a dispute with POLISARIO guerrillas
or Moroccan forces, should the Western Sahara issue not be satisfactorily
settled. The result could be new military clashes that involve Mauritania.
Mission
The armed forces will likely continue its focus on being employed
domestically against ethnic unrest and in joint efforts with Senegal and
Mali to patrol border areas against the infiltration of refugees, and to
counter arms and drug trafficking.
Strategy
Previously, the armed forces employed Soviet doctrine, modified due to
influences of Iraq and Libya. Due to their move away from those coun-
tries, followed by an increase in inter-military training with the United
States, a shift is expected in Mauritania’s future military doctrine.
Personnel
Two years of military service is compulsory for all Mauritanian males.
Based on January 2002 statistics, the total personnel strength of the
Mauritanian armed forces was 15,650. Of that, the army consists of
15,000 personnel, leaving the air force with 150 personnel, and the navy
500 personnel. There is an ethnic Arab armed forces reserve of 35,000
men, ranging in age from 20-50 years-old.

59
Training and Education
Conscripts are trained in Mauritania. With the collapse of the Soviet
Union, the practice of sending senior officers to Soviet defense and
command schools ceased. This program was replaced by training in
France. However, following the 1999 arrest in France of a Mauritanian
officer accused of torture, this training also ceased.
Capabilities
Future Requirements/Force Modernization
The military plays an important role in Mauritanian culture and will
probably receive priority for some funding in the immediate future.
Until 1991, Libya and Iraq were Mauritania’s major arms suppliers.
During the Gulf War, Mauritania was the custodian of various Iraqi
weapon systems, the current condition of which is unknown. Mauritania
has also received some equipment of Western origin through the open
arms market and with aid from Libya and Egypt. It is believed that
France has offered to re-equip the Mauritanian armed forces and
recently delivered a new patrol craft.
Although funds are unlikely to be made available to replace the army’s
main battle tanks and other armored vehicles, it is likely that some equip-
ment will be upgraded in the near term. The air force has no combat air-
craft in its inventory, and most of its other aircraft, with the exception of
the BN-2A Defenders, require overhaul. The Mauritanian navy appears to
be in the best shape regarding its equipment. Its small fleet is relatively
modern and capable of handling its fishery protection mission. If funding
is made available, a second OPV-54 class vessel may be acquired.
Key Defense Personnel
Minister of Defense Kaba Ould Elewa
Armed Forces Colonel Mohamed Lemine Ould N'Diayane
Chief of Staff

60
Force Disposition
Army bases are located at Ayoun el Atrous, Bir Moghreim, Fderik
(Fort Gouraud), Moudjeria, Nouadhibou (Port Etienne), Nouakchott,
and Tidjikdja.
16
MOROCCO 8
Canary Islands
(Spain)
ALGERIA
Mauritania
Army Base
Naval Base
Air Base
Marine Base
0 50 100 150 km
Bir Mogrein
0 50 100 mi

24
WESTERN
SAHARA
Atlantic
Ocean MALI
F’derik

Nouadhibou

Tidjikdja
NOUAKCHOTT
Moudieria

gal
Sene
’Ayoun
el ’Atrous
16

SENEGAL MALI
er
g
Ni

Military Bases

61
The bulk of the Mauritanian army is deployed along the borders with
Senegal and Mali. The military devotes a considerable amount of atten-
tion to urban internal security. Operations in a rural environment is gen-
erally augmented by members of the Gendarmerie Nationale.

Army

Organization

Mauritania is divided into six military regions. The Mauritanian army

consists of 15 infantry battalions (seven motorized and eight garrison-
based), one armor battalion composed of T-54/55 main battle tanks, an
armed reconnaissance squadron of AML and Saladin armored vehi-
cles, and three artillery battalions armed with a variety of Soviet-era
towed guns. The army also maintains four air defense batteries, which
have also been provided with Soviet equipment (mainly supplied by
Libya). Most mobile units are equipped with SA-7 manportable sur-
face-to-air missiles.

The army deploys one Camel Corps battalion in the north and a second
in the eastern portion of the country, supported by engineer companies.
The army’s special forces element includes a para-commando battalion.
However, this battalion is of limited operational value due to a lack of
helicopters in its inventory.

Personnel

The army’s personnel strength declined following the 1989-91 border

skirmishes with Senegal. However, there are recent indications that their
numbers are gradually increasing. The army has 15,000 personnel.

Equipment

Most of the army’s equipment was acquired during the 1970s and 80s.

62
Armor
Type Role Quantity
T-54/T55 Main Battle Tank 35
AML-60/90 Reconnaissance 60
Saladin Reconnaissance 40
Panhard M3 Armored Personnel Carrier 20
Saracen Armored Personnel Carrier 5
8

Mauritania
Military Regions ALGERIA
International border
0 50 100 150 km
0 50 100 mi

16

24
WESTERN II
SAHARA
Atlantic
Ocean MALI
F’derik

Nouadhibou I
Atar

III

NOUAKCHOTT
VI IV
VII
Aleg
gal
Sene
Nema
V
16

SENEGAL
Selibaby MALI

Military Regions

63
Artillery
Type Role Quantity
105-mm M101A1 Howitzer 36
122-mm D-30 Howitzer 20
122-mm D-74 Howitzer 24
120-mm Brandt Mortar 30
81-mm Brandt Mortar 70
Air Defense
Type Role Quantity
100-mm KS-19M2 Antiaircraft Gun 12
SU-23-2 Twin Antiaircraft Gun 20
ZPU-2 Twin Antiaircraft Gun 24
ZPU-4 Quad Antiaircraft Gun 12
Strella (SA-7/SA-9) Surface-to-Air Missile 104
Air Force
Organization
Mauritania has a small and poorly equipped air force, with no dedi-
cated combat aircraft. However, it does have a useful maritime patrol
capability. The air force operates maritime patrol aircraft on behalf of
the Ministry of Fisheries and the Customs Corps. The air force is
mainly tasked to support the army and maritime/border patrol. Pilots
and technicians are trained at civilian schools in France. There are air
bases located at: Aioun el Atrousse, Bir Moghreim, Fort Gouraud,
Moudjeria, Nouadhibou (Port Etienne), Nouakchott, and Tidjirkdja.
The army provides air base security.
The air force lost a Xian Y-7-100C transport in May 1998 near Nema,
killing 39 of the 42 passengers and crew.
Personnel
The air force has 150 personnel.

64
Equipment
Helicopters in the air force inventory include the SA 316, SA-316B, and
the Dauphin-Z-9A.
Air Defense Forces
All air defense systems are manned by army personnel.
Navy
Organization
The Navy’s primary mission is to patrol its 407-nautical-mile coastline,
protect fisheries, and interdict drug operations. The headquarters and
dockyard are based at Port Friendship, Nouakchott. There are minor
facilities at Port Etienne, Nouadhibou.
Personnel
The Mauritanian Navy has approximately 500-600 personnel (40 offic-
ers). Service is voluntary.
Equipment
The naval order of battle consists primarily of former French and Indian
patrol ships, patrol craft, and patrol boats. The fleet includes one JURA
Class PS, one OPV 54 Class PC, one PATRA Class PC, and four MAN-
DOVI MARINE 15-M Class patrol boats.
Assets for coastal surveillance include four aircraft: two Piper Cheyenne
II twin-turbo prop delivered in 1981 and two Cessna 337F aircraft.
Coastal Defense Force/Marines
The Mauritanian Fusilier Marine (FUMA), or Marine Forces Battalion,
is located along the coast at Jreida (approximately 30 kilometers north
of Nouakchott). Although they are Mauritania’s equivalent of the U.S.
Marine Corps, they have limited capabilities, and are unable to maintain

65
sustained combat operations. This unit was established in 1989, prior to
the break in U.S./Mauritanian relations during the first war with Iraq,
and actually received its initial training from a unit of U.S. Marines.

The FUMA is commanded by a major, and is organized into three line

companies with an authorized strength of approximately 100 person-
nel. There is also a service support company, whose personnel strength
is unknown.

Paramilitary Forces
The National Guard reports directly to the Minister of the Interior. It has
approximately 2,000 uniformed personnel, in addition to 1,000 auxilia-
ries who can be called up during a national emergency.

The National Guard is deployed to secure land borders and for internal
security duties. They have bases throughout the country. Battlefield
skills are taught by the army while other skills are taught by the Gen-
darmerie Nationale. The National Guard appears to be deployed beyond
its current manpower capability and insufficiently equipped.

Mauritania has a presidential security battalion; however, very little is

known about it. It is believed that personnel assigned to the presidential
bodyguard have been trained in Libya.

The Gendarmerie Nationale is a military police force with wide-ranging

powers. It is organized into six regional companies and reports directly
to the Minister of the Interior.

National Police
The National Police is a civilian force responsible for national law
enforcement, including security within and around refugee camps. The
police have bases in all urban centers.

There is also a Customs Corps responsible for customs supervision at all

sea, land, and air entry points.

66
APPENDIX A:
Equipment Recognition
INFANTRY WEAPONS
9-mm MAT-49

Effective Range 200 m

Caliber 9-mm
System of Operation Blowback, automatic
Overall Length 734 mm
Feed Device 32-rd detachable box magazine
Weight 3.4 kg

A-1
 7.5-mm MAS 49/56

Maximum Effective Range 600 m

Caliber 7.5 x 54-mm
System of Operation Gas operated, tilting bolt
Overall Length 1,120 mm
Feed Device 10-rd detachable box magazine
Weight 4.10 kg (with empty magazine)

7.62-mm FR-F1

Maximum Effective Range 800 m

Caliber 7.62 x 51-mm (also made in 7.5 x 54-mm)
System of Operation Manual, single shot
Overall Length 1,138 mm (without stock spacers)
Feed Device 10-rd box magazine
Weight 5.2 kg (empty)

A-2
 0.30 M1 Carbine

Maximum Effective Range 300 m

Caliber .30 caliber
System of Operation Gas, self-loading
Overall Length 904 mm
Feed Device 15- or 30-rd detachable box magazine
Weight (Loaded) 2.77 kg

7.5-mm AAT-52

Maximum Effective Range 800 m

Caliber 7.5 mm
System of Operation Delayed blowback, automatic
Length 500 mm
Feed Device Disintegrating link
Weight (Empty) 9.15 kg (light barrel), 10.55 heavy)
Rate of Fire Cyclic, 700/900 rds/min
NOTE: Most in-service AAT-52s have been converted to the 7.62 mm NATO version, the
AAT model F1.

A-3
 7.92-mm MG42

Maximum Effective Range 800 m; w/tripod, 2,200 m

Caliber 7.92-mm
System of Operation Short recoil, automatic, roller locking
Length 1.225 m
Feed Device DM1 belt or DM 13 and M13 links
Weight (Loaded) With bipod, 11.05 kg
Rate of Fire Cyclic, 1,000-1,300 rds/min

A-4
 7.62-mm FN MAG

Maximum Effective Range 1,500 m

Caliber 7.62 x 51-mm
System of Operation Gas, automatic
Overall Length 1.26 m
Feed Device Belt
Weight (Loaded) 13.92 kg (with butt stock and bipod)

A-5
 M1919

Maximum Effective Range 1000 m

Caliber .30 caliber or 7.62-mm
System of Operation Automatic
Feed Belt

A-6
 50 cal. Browning M2 HB

Maximum Effective Range 1,500 m

Caliber .50 caliber (12.7 x 99-mm)
System of Operation Short recoil; selective fire
Overall Length 1.656 m
Feed Device 100-rd disintegrating link belt
Weight (Loaded) 38 kg

A-7
 75-mm M20 Recoilless Rifle

Crew 1
Maximum Range 6,400 m (HEAT)
Combat Weight 1.44 kg
Length 2.08 m

A-8
ARMOR
T-54/55

Crew 4
Armament 1 x 100-mm D10T2S gun w/43-rds;
1 x 7.62-mm SMGT coaxial w/3,500-rds;
1 x 12.-7-mm DShK antiaircraft w/500-rds
Maximum Speed 50 km/h
Maximum Range 460 km (650 km w/long range tanks)
Fuel Capacity 960 l
Combat Weight 36,000 kg
Length 9m
Width 3.76 m
Height 3.03 m
Night Vision Yes
NBC Yes
Fording 1.4 -m
Gradient 60%
Vertical Obstacle 0.8 m
Trench 2.7 m

A-9
 AML-90

Crew 3
Configuration 4x4
Armament 1 x 90-mm gun w/20 rds
1 x 7.62-mm MG w/2,000 rds
2 x 2 smoke grenade dischargers
w/12 grenades
Armor 8 to 12 mm
Night Vision Optional
NBC Capable Optional
Maximum Range 600 km
Maximum Speed 90 km/h
Fuel Capacity 156 liters
Fording 1.1 m (without preparation);
Amphibious (w/kit)
Gradient 60%
Height 2.07 m
Length 5.11 m (gun forward)
Width 1.97 m

A-10
 AML-60

Crew 3
Armament 60-mm mortar
7.62-mm MG
Armor 8 to 12 mm
Night Vision 600 km
NBC Capable 5,500 kg
Maximum Range 600 km
Maximum Speed 90 km/h
Fording 1.1 m
Gradient 60%
Vertical Obstacle 0.3 m
Trench 0.8 m
Combat Weight 5,500 kg
Height 2.07 m
Length 3.79 mm (gun forward)

A-11
 Saladin

Crew 2
Armament 1 x 76-mm gun w/42 rds
1 x 7.62-mm MG w/2,750 rds
Night Vision No
NBC Capable No
Maximum Range 400 km
Maximum Speed 72 km/h
Fuel Capacity 241 liters
Combat Weight 1,159 kg.
Height 2.19 m (turret roof)
Width 2.54 m
Length 4.93 m
Fording 1.07 m
Gradient 46%

A-12
 Panhard M3

Crew/Passengers 2 +10
Configuration 4x4
Night Vision Optional
NBC Capable No
Maximum Road Range 600 km
Maximum Speed (Road)90 km/h
(Water) 4 km/h
Gradient 60%
Trench 0.8 m
Combat Weight 6,100 kg
Height 2m
Length 4.45 m
Width 2.4 m

A-13
 Saracen APC

Crew/Passengers 2 +10
Configuration 6x6
Armament 2x7.62-mm MG (1 turret, 1 ring-mounted)
Maximum Road Range 400 km
Maximum Speed 72 km/h
Gradient 42%
Trench 1.52 m
Combat Weight 10,170 kg
Height 2.463 m
Length 5.233 m
Width 2.539 m
Night Vision No
NBC Capable No

A-14
ARTILLERY
105-mm M101 Howitzer

Crew 8
Caliber 105-mm
Maximum Range 11,270 m
Rate of Fire 10 rds/min (maximum)
3 rds/min (sustained)
Prime Mover 6 x 6 truck
Length 5.991 m (travelling)
Weight 2,258 kg (firing)

A-15
 122-mm D-30

Crew 7
Maximum Range 1,000 m (direct fire) 15,300 m (conventional) 21,900 m (RAP)
Rate of Fire 6 rds/min
Combat Weight 3,210 kg
Length 5.4 m
Width 1.95 m
Height 1.66 m
Prime Mover 6 x 6 truck

A-16
 106-mm M40A1 Recoilless Rifle

Caliber 106-mm
Max Range 6.9 km
Max Rate of Fire 5 rds/min
Elevation +22 to –17 degrees
Traverse 360 degrees
Weight 113.9 kg (combat order)

A-17
 60-mm Mortar

Crew 3
Caliber 60-mm
Range 100-2,060 m
Rate of Fire Up to 30 rds/min
Tube Length 724 mm
Weight 14.8 kg

A-18
 81-mm MO-81-61 Mortar

Crew 3
Caliber 81-mm
Maximum Range 5,000 m
Rate of Fire 10 rds/min (normal)
15 rds/min (burst)
8 rds/min (sustained)
Tube Length 1150.0 mm (MO-81-61C)
1450.0 mm (MO-81-61L)
Weight 42 kg

A-19
 120-mm BRANDT

Minimum range 500 m

Maximum range 9,000 m
Traverse limits 17°
Ammunition types HE, HE-RA, smoke, illum, practice, marker
Travelling Weight 402 kg
Length of barrel 1.746 m with breech cap
Elevation +45 to +80°
Rate of fire 12 rds/min

A-20
 MILAN Ground Launcher

Max Range and Flight Time 2,000 m in 12.5 seconds

Night Vision Device Thermal imaging
Warhead Type Unitary shaped charge
Warhead Penetration 1000 mm of RHA
Guidance/Command Link SACLOS/Wire
Attack Profile Direct LOS
Launch Platforms Ground tripod, compact turret

A-21
 RPG-7

Maximum Effective Range 1,700 m

Caliber 30-mm
Overall Length 1.1 m

A-22
 SA-7 GRAIL (STRELA-2M/A)

Function Manportable SAM

Range 3.7 km
Guidance IR
Warhead HE
NOTE: SA-7b; STRELA-2M/A electronic block in seeker is miniaturized.
RECOGNITION: Manportable shoulder launched system; smoke signature at launch

A-23
 SA-9 Gaskin

Type Low altitude surface to air missile system

Guidance Passive IR homing seeker
Maximum Range 4,200 m
Maximum Altitude 3,000 m
Launch Weight 30 - 30.5 kg
Length 1.803 m

A-24
 100-mm KS-19

Crew 15
Maximum Range 21,000 m (horizontal)
15,000 m (vertical)
Rate of Fire 15 rds/min
Combat Weight 9,550 kg
Length 9.45 m
Width 2.35 m
Height 2.201 m

A-25
 57-mm S-60

Crew 7
Maximum Range 12,000 m (horizontal) 8,800 m (vertical)
Rate of Fire 100 - 120 rds/min
Combat Weight 4,500 kg
Length 8.6 m
Width 2.054 m
Height 2.46 m

A-26
 37-mm M1939

Crew 3-6
Maximum Range 6,700 m (vertical) 9,900 m (horizontal)
Rate of Fire (Per Barrel) 120 rds/min
Combat Weight 2,676 kg

A-27
 122-mm Field Gun D-74

Crew 10
Maximum Range 24,000 m
Rate of Fire 6/7 rds/min
Combat Weight 5,550 kg
Length 9.875 m
Width 2.35 m
Height 2.745 m

A-28
 23-mm ZU-23 cannon

Maximum Range 2,500 m (horizontal) 1,500 m (vertical)

Rate of Fire (Per Barrel) 800-1,000 rds/min
Operation Gas, automatic
Feed Disintegrating link belt
Combat Weight 75 kg )
Length 2.555 m
NOTE: Mounted in pairs and fours on ZPU Twin and Quad systems

A-29
 14.5-mm ZPU-2 (Twin)

Crew 4
Maximum Range 8,000 m (horizontal) 5,000 m (vertical)
Rate of Fire (Per Barrel) 150- 600 rds/min
Combat Weight 1,810 kg
Length 4.53 m
Width 1.72 m
Height 2.13 m

A-30
 14.5-mm ZPU-4 (Quad)

Crew 5
Maximum Range 8,000 m (horizontal) 5,000 m (vertical)
Rate of Fire (Per Barrel) 150 - 600 rds/min
Combat Weight 1,810 kg
Length 4.53 m
Width 1.72 m
Height 2.13 m

A-31
AVIATION
SA 316

Crew 1+6
Armament Assorted guns, missiles, or rockets
Maximum Speed 185 km/h
Maximum Range 495 km
Length 12.84 m

A-32
 Dauphin-Z9A

Role Twin-turbine general purpose helicopter

Crew Pilot, co-pilot + 4 (can config for 12 passengers)
Maximum Speed 285 km/h
Maximum Range 897 km
Length 13.68 m

A-33
NAVY/COAST GUARD
PATRA Class Patrol Boat

Type Large Patrol Craft

Complement 20 (2 officers)
Armament 1x40-mm Bofors; 1x20-mm Oerlikon;
2x12.7-mm machine guns
Max Speed (knots) 26.3
Range 1.750 nmiles at 10 knots
Displacement (t) 149.8 (full)
LOA/Beam/Draft (m) 40.4x5.9x1.6

A-34
 MANDOVI Class Patrol Boat

Type Inshore Patrol Craft

Complement 8
Armament 1x7.62-mm machine gun
Max Speed (knots) 24
Range 250 nmiles at 14 knots
Displacement (t) 15 (full)
LOA/Beam/Draft (m) 15x3.6x0.8

A-35
 Franz Josef
Land
Arctic Ocean Severnaya
Zemlya
Spitsbergen
APPENDIX B:

New Siberian
Mould Bay Islands
Arctic Ocean
Resolute Standard time is advanced one Nordvik
hour, the year round, in Russia Dickson
Tiksi
Murmansk Ambarchik
Igarka
Taasiilaq Novyy Verkhoyansk
Nome Reykjavik Anadyr
Fairbanks Port
Whitehorse Helsinki Yakutsk
Oslo Magadan
International Time Zones

Anchorage Churchill
Juneau StockholmLeningrad Sverdlovsk Novosibirsk
Moscow Aloutian
Edmonton Dublin Berlin Irkutsk Islands
Aloutian Warsaw
Islands Winnipeg -3h30m London Kiyev
Seattle Montreal St. Johns Paris Budapest
Detroit Belgrade
Boise Chicago New York Madrid Rome Istanbul Baku Beijing
Tunis Seoul

B-1
San Francisco DenverSt. Louis Washington D.C. Azores Lisbon Tehran Kabul Lanzhou
Date Line

Tokyo
International

Los Angeles Bermuda Algiers Baghdad+3h30m+4h

Houston Tripoli New
Miami Atlantic Cairo 30m Delhi Pacific Ocean
Honolulu Mecca Calcutta Taiwan Midway
Mexico Havana Ocean Khartoum Bombay Hanoi Hong Kong Wake
Hawaii Pacific Dakar
Managua Sanaa +5h30m Bangkok Manilla Guam
Ocean Caracas Addis +6h30m
Panama -3h30m Lagos Marshall
Bogota Monrovia Accra Ababa Colombo Caroline Islands
Galapagos Quito Kampala Nairobi Singapore Islands
Marquesas Islands Kinshasa
Islands Manaus Dar es I n d i a n
Salvador Luanda Jakarta
-9h30m Lima Salaam Ocean Darwin Fiji
Samoa La Paz Brasilia Lusaka
Harare Antananarlvo New
Cook Rio de Windhoek
Islands Asuncion +9h Caledonia
Janeiro Maputo Brisbane
Santiago Perth 30m
Cape Town Sydney
Buenos Melbourne
Aires
Wellington
San Julian
Boundary representations are not
necessarily authoritative. Falkland Brown and Yellow: Hourly Zones
Islands Green: Irregular Time Zones
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12-
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
To use the table, go to the country you are interested in, and add the num-
ber of hours corresponding to the United States time zone to the current
time. The GMT is also known as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
Afghanistan +4.5 H +9.5 H +10.5 H +11.5 H +12.5 H
Albania +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Algeria +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
American Samoa -11.0 H -6.0 H -5.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H
Andorra +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Angola +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Antartica -2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H
Antigua and Barbuda -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Argentina -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
Armenia +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Aruba -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Ascension +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Austrailia North +9.5 H +14.5 H +15.5 H +16.5 H +17.5 H
Austrailia South +10.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H
Austrailia West +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Austrailia East +10.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H
Austria +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Azerbaijan +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Bahamas -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Bahrain +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Bangladesh +6.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H
Barbados -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Belarus +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Belgium +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Belize -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Benin +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Bermuda -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Bhutan +6.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H
Bolivia -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Bosnia Herzegovina +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Botswana +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H

B-2
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
Brazil East -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
Brazil West -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
British Virgin Islands -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Brunei +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Bulgaria +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Burkina Faso +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Burundi +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Cambodia +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Cameroon +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Canada East -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Canada Central -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Canada Mountain -7.0 H -2.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H
Canada West -8.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H
Cape Verde -1.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H
Cayman Islands -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Central African Rep. +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Chad Republic +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Chile -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
China +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Christmas Island -10.0 H -5.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H
Colombia -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Congo +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Cook Island -10.0 H -5.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H
Costa Rica -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Croatia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Cuba -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Cyprus +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Czech Republic +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Denmark +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Djibouti +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Dominica -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Dominican Republic -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Ecuador -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Egypt +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
El Salvador -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Equatorial Guinea +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H

B-3
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
Eritrea +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Estonia +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Ethiopia +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Falkland Islands -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Fiji Islands +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Finland +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
France +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
French Antilles -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
French Guinea -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
French Polynesia -10.0 H -5.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H
Gabon Republic +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Gambia +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Georgia +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Germany +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Ghana +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Gibralter +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Greece +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Greenland -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
Grenada -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Guadeloupe -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Guam +10.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H
Guatemala -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Guinea-Bissau +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Guinea +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Guyana -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
Haiti -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Honduras -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Hong Kong +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Hungary +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Iceland +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
India +5.5 H +10.5 H +11.5 H +12.5 H +13.5 H
Indonesia East +9.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H
Indonesia Central +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Indonesia West +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Iran +3.5 H +8.5 H +9.5 H +10.5 H +11.5 H
Iraq +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H

B-4
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
Ireland +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Israel +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Italy +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Jamaica -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Japan +9.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H
Kazakhstan +6.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H
Kenya +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Kiribati +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Korea, North +9.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H
Korea, South +9.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H
Kuwait +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Kyrgystan +5.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H
Laos +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Latvia +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Lebanon +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Lesotho +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Liberia +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Libya +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Liechtenstein +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Lithuania +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Luxembourg +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Macedonia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Madagascar +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Malawi +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Malaysia +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Maldives +5.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H
Mali Republic +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Malta +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Marshall Islands +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Mauritania +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Mauritius +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Mayotte +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Mexico East -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Mexico Central -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Mexico West -7.0 H -2.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H
Moldova +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H

B-5
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
Monaco +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Mongolia +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Morocco +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Mozambique +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Myanmar (Burma) +6.5 H +11.5 H +12.5 H +13.5 H +14.5 H
Namibia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Nauru +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Nepal +5.5 H +10.5 H +11.5 H +12.5 H +13.5 H
Netherlands +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Netherlands Antilles -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
New Caledonia +11.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H
New Zealand +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Newfoundland -3.5 H +1.5 H +2.5 H +3.5 H +4.5 H
Nicaragau -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
Nigeria +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Niger Republic +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Norfolk Island +11.5 H +16.5 H +17.5 H +18.5 H +19.5 H
Norway +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Oman +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Pakistan +5.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H
Palau +9.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H
Panama, Rep. of -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Papau New Guinea +10.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H
Paraguay -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Peru -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Philippines +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Poland +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Portugal +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Puerto Rico -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Qatar +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Reunion Island +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Romania +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Russia West +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Russia Central 1 +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Russia Central 2 +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Russia East +11.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H

B-6
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
Rwanda +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Niger Republic +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Norfolk Island +11.5 H +16.5 H +17.5 H +18.5 H +19.5 H
Norway +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Oman +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Pakistan +5.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H
Palau +9.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H
Panama, Rep. of -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Papau New Guinea +10.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H
Paraguay -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Peru -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Philippines +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Poland +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Portugal +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Puerto Rico -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Qatar +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Reunion Island +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Romania +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Russia West +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Russia Central 1 +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Russia Central 2 +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Russia East +11.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H
Rwanda +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Saba -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Samoa -11.0 H -6.0 H -5.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H
San Marino +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Sao Tome +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Saudi Arabia +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Senegal +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Seychelles Islands +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
Sierra Leone +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Singapore +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Slovakia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Slovenia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Solomon Islands +11.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H
Somalia +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H

B-7
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
South Africa +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Spain +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Sri Lanka +5.5 H +10.5 H +11.5 H +12.5 H +13.5 H
St. Lucia -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
St. Maarteen -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
St. Pierre & Miquelon -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
St. Thomas -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
St. Vincent -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Sudan +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Suriname -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
Swaziland +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Sweden +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Switzerland +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Syria +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Taiwan +8.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H +16.0 H
Tajikistan +6.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H
Tanzania +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Thailand +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Togo +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Tonga Islands +13.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H +21.0 H
Trinidad and Tobago -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Tunisia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Turkey +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Turkmenistan +5.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H
Turks and Caicos -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
Tuvalu +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Uganda +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Ukraine +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
United Arab Emirates +4.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H
United Kingdom +0.0 H +5.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H
Uruguay -3.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H +5.0 H
USA Eastern -5.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H
USA Central -6.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H
USA Mountain -7.0 H -2.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H +1.0 H
USA Western -8.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H -1.0 H +0.0 H
USA Alaska -9.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H -1.0 H

B-8
Country GMT Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
USA Hawaii -10.0 H -5.0 H -4.0 H -3.0 H -2.0 H
Uzbekistan +5.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H
Vanuatu +11.0 H +16.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H
Vatican City +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Venezuela -4.0 H +1.0 H +2.0 H +3.0 H +4.0 H
Vietnam +7.0 H +12.0 H +13.0 H +14.0 H +15.0 H
Wallis & Futuna Islands +12.0 H +17.0 H +18.0 H +19.0 H +20.0 H
Yemen +3.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H +11.0 H
Yugoslavia +1.0 H +6.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H
Zaire +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Zambia +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H
Zimbabwe +2.0 H +7.0 H +8.0 H +9.0 H +10.0 H

B-9
APPENDIX C:
Conversion Charts

When You Know

Units of Length Multiply by To find
Millimeters 0.04 Inches
Centimeters 0.39 Inches
Meters 3.28 Feet
Meters 1.09 Yards
Kilometers 0.62 Miles
Inches 25.40 Millimeters
Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Feet 30.48 Centimeters
Yards 0.91 Meters
Miles 1.61 Kilometers
Units of Area

Sq. Centimeters 0.16 Sq. Inches

Sq. Meters 1.20 Sq. Yards
Sq. Kilometers 0.39 Sq. Miles
Hectares 2.47 Acres
Sq. Inches 6.45 Sq. Cm
Sq. Feet 0.09 Sq. Meters
Sq. Yards 0.84 Sq. Meters
Sq. Miles 2.60 Sq. Km
Acres 0.40 Hectares
Units of Mass and Weight
Grams 0.035 Ounces
Kilograms 2.21 Pounds
Tons (100kg) 1.10 Short Tons
Ounces 28.35 Grams
Pounds 0.45 Kilograms
Short Tons 2.12 Tons

C-1
Units of Volume Multiply by To find
Milliliters 0.20 Teaspoons
Milliliters 0.06 Tablespoons
Milliliters 0.03 Fluid Ounces
Liters 4.23 Cups
Liters 2.12 Pints
Liters 1.06 Quarts
Liters 0.26 Gallons
Cubic Meters 35.32 Cubic Feet
Cubic Meters 1.35 Cubic Yards
Teaspoons 4.93 Milliliters
Tablespoons 14.78 Milliliters
Fluid Ounces 29.57 Milliliters
Cups 0.24 Liters
Pints 0.47 Liters
Quarts 0.95 Liters
Gallons 3.79 Liters
Cubic Feet 0.03 Cubic Meters
Cubic Yards 0.76 Cubic Meters
Units of Speed
Miles per Hour 1.61 Km per Hour
Km per Hour 0.62 Miles per Hour

C-2
Temperature
To convert Celsius into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply Celsius by 1.8 and
add 32. To convert degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 and divide
by 1.8.

Celsius Fahrenheit
oC oF

100 212 ➞ Boiling Point of Water

Heat Wave ➞ 40 105
98.6 ➞ Normal Body Temperature
36.9
35
90

A Hot Summer Day ➞ 30

80
25
70 ➞ A Mild Spring Day
20
60
15

A Warm Winter Day ➞ 10

50

5 40

0 32
30
➞ Freezing Point of Water
—5
20
— 10
10
— 15
0
— 20

Temperature Chart

C-3
APPENDIX D:
Holidays

2003 Holidays
January 1 New Year’s Day
February 12 Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice)
March 5 Islamic New Year
May 1 Labor Day
May 14 Mouloud (Prophet’s Birthday)
May 25 African Liberation Day
(Anniversary of the OAU’s Foundation)
July 10 Armed Forces Day
November 26-28 Korite (End of Ramadan)
November 28 National Day

2004 Holidays
January 1 New Year’s Day
February 2 Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice)
February 22 Islamic New Year
May 1 Labour Day
May 2 Mouloud (Prophet’s Birthday)
May 25 African Liberation Day
(Anniversary of the OAU’s Foundation)
July 10 Armed Forces Day
November 14-16 Korite (End of Ramadan)
November 28 National Day

NOTE: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various

phases of the moon and the dates given above are approximations. During

D-1
the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Korite (Eid al-Fitr), Muslims fast
during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be inter-
rupted. Many restaurants are closed during the day and there may be restric-
tions on smoking and drinking. Some disruption may continue into Korite
itself. Korite and Tabaski (Eid al-Adha) may last from two to ten days,
depending on the region

D-2
APPENDIX E:
Language

Arabic
Arabic is considered by Muslims to be the language of Allah. The Qur’an
is written in Arabic and is spoken by over 197 million persons worldwide.
Arabic belongs to the Semitic branch of Afro-Asiatic languages. All
Arabs have as their mother tongue some local variety of Arabic. These
vernaculars differ markedly. The local vernacular is used in everyday
commerce, but rarely written. Contrasting to the local vernaculars is
standard, or formal Arabic, which is used for writing and formal speech.
Because the standard Arabic must be learned at school, large sectors of
the Arab people do not command it sufficiently to use it themselves,
although radio and other media are gradually spreading its comprehen-
sion. Standard Arabic has remained remarkably stable.
In grammar and basic vocabulary the Arabic literature produced from
the 8th century to the present is strikingly homogeneous; the works of
the medieval writers differ from modern standard Arabic hardly more
than Shakespeare's language differs from modern English. Standard lit-
erary Arabic is capable of expressing the finest shades of meaning. The
vernaculars in their present form cannot perform the same task. If they
were adapted, such a development would fatally split the unity of the
Arab world. Today, tensions exist between the standard language and
the vernaculars, particularly in imaginative literature. In drama, the
demand for realism favors the vernacular, and many poets are tending
toward their mother tongue. In the novel and short story, the trend is
toward having the characters speak in the vernacular while the author
uses formal language. However, some of the most celebrated living nov-
elists and poets write exclusively in the standard language.

E-1
Alphabet
The Arabic alphabet is written from right to left but numerals are written
from left to right. There are 28 characters, all of which are consonants,
and 10 numerals. Vowels are unwritten, although three markers are used
to ensure proper pronunciation. While there is no capitalization in Ara-
bic, each letter has a different form depending on where it falls in the
word-at the beginning, the middle, the end, or standing alone.
Arabic is a Semitic language; its structure and grammar are different
from English. Words are formed from roots by changing the vowels
between the consonants, which usually begin and end the word. For
example, the word for book is Ketab and the word for library is Makta-
bah. The root is K - T - B.
Key Phrases
English Arabic
Can you help me momkin tisa’idini
Do you speak English haal taataakaalaam Englizi
Excuse me asfaa
Good morning sobah alKher
Good night laylaa saaidaa
Goodbye maa al saalamaa
Hello marhaba
How kayf
How are you keef halaak
How much/many kaam
Hurry bisor’aa
I don’t understand aana laa aafhaam
I’m hungry aana gaa’anaa
I’m lost aana toht
I’m thirsty aana aatshan
I’m tired aana taa’aabanaa
No laa

E-2
 English Arabic
No smoking maamnoo’ al taadkheen
Please min faadlaak
Thank you shokran
Welcome aahlaan wa saahlaan
What ma
What does this mean ma maa’ni haaza
What is this ma esm haaza
When maati
Where aayn
Which ay
Who maan
Why limaza
With the grace of God al hamdu allah
Yes aywaa
Vocabulary
English Arabic
American Embassy sifaara amrikiya
Arm (body) zaara
Bandage aasaabe
Beach al shati
Big kaabir
Blanket Baataniye
Book ketab
Boots boot
Bridge al koobri
Building al maabni
Coat mi’taf
Cold Barid
Early mobaakir
Exit khorooj
Entrance Dokhool

E-3
English Arabic
Far baa’id
Fast saari’
First Aid Kit ilbah is’aafaat aawaalliyaa
Flashlight baatariyaa
Gloves jowanti
Gulf khaalij
Harbor al mina
Hat kobaa’aa
Head raa’aas
Heavy taagil
Highway taarig
Hospital mostaashfi
Hot sakhen
Insect Repellent tarid lilhaashaarat
Knife saakin
Late mit’akher
Leg sag
Light khaafif
Map khaarita
Market Sook
Matches ood sagab
Medicine Daava’
Mosque al jami’
Near Kaarib
New Jaadid
Old gaadim
Open maaftuh
Police bolis
Radio radyo
Right sahh
River al naahr
Soap saboon

E-4
 English Arabic
Small saagir
Sea al baahr
Seacoast shati al Baahr
Shoes hiza
Shut maa’ful
Slow bati
Taxi taaksi
Toilet al twaaleet
Tower al borj
Watch sa’aah
Wrong gaalaat
Military Vocabulary
English Arabic
Aircraft ta’ereh
Aircraft Carrier hameleh ta’erat
Air Defense defa’ javi
Airfield motar
Ammunition zaakhireh
Amphibious baar ma’i
Antiair artillery maadfa’iyeh modade al-ta’erat
Antilanding defense defa’ zed al-aabrar
Antitank artillery maadfa’iyeh modade al-daababat
Army jish
Artillery maadfa’iyeh
Aviation tiran
Battalion kaatibeh
Battleship baraajeh
Bomb gaanbaaleh
Camouflage taamooyeh
Cruiser (ship) torad
Chemical Weapon saalah Kimavi

E-5
English Arabic
Coastal Defense defa’ saheli
Corps filg
Destroyer (ship) maadmor
Division faaraageh
Engineer mohandes
Garrison hamieh
Gun maadfa
Handgrenade gaanbeleh baadwiyeh
Headquarters giadeh
Helicopter helicoopter
Howitzer hawetzer
Infantry mosha’e
Latitude khat al-aarad
Longitude khat al-tool
Machinegun reshash
Map khaariteh
Military aaskaaria
Mine al-laagam
Minefield haagl al-laagam
Mortar haven
Nuclear Weapon saalah noovi
Platoon faasileh
Radar radar
Reconnaissance ’estaatla’
Rifle bandgiyeh
Submachinegun reshash gaasir
Tank daababeh
Tactics taktiki
Torpedo toorpid
Topography toboografia
Weapon saalah
Weather al-taages

E-6
Arabic Alphabet

E-7
APPENDIX F:
International Road Signs

40
Crossroads Maximum speed No through road Road narrows

S TO P

Fallen/falling rock No entry for Motorway Stop and give way

vehicular traffic

ONE WAY Tourist

information

Low flying aircraft or One way street Tourist

sudden aircraft noise No left turn information point

Cable height
Traffic signals No u-turn 16’ - 6”

Overhead cables, Failure of

Maximum height traffic light signals

Sharp deviation

F-1
APPENDIX G:
Deployed Personnel’s Guide to Health Maintenance

DoD-prescribed immunizations and medications, including birth control

pills, should be brought in sufficient quantity for deployment’s duration.

Only food, water, and ice from approved U.S. military sources should be
consumed. Consuming food or water from unapproved sources may
cause illness. Food should be thoroughly cooked and served hot.

Thorough hand-washing before eating and after using the latrine is

highly recommended, as is regular bathing. Feet should be kept dry and
treated with antifungal powder. Socks and underwear should be changed
daily; underwear should fit loosely and be made of cotton fiber.

Excessive heat and sunlight exposure should be minimized. Maintaining

hydration is important, as are following work-rest cycles and wearing
uniforms properly. Sunglasses, sunscreen (SPF 15 or higher), and lip
balm are recommended. Drinking alcohol should be avoided. Personnel
with previous heat injuries should be closely monitored.

Uniforms should be worn properly (blouse boots). DEET should be

applied to exposed skin and uniforms treated with permethrin; per-
methrin is not intended for use on skin. Proper treatment and wear of
uniform, plus application of DEET to exposed skin, decreases the risk of
diseases transmitted by biting insects.

Overcrowded living areas should be avoided. Ventilated living areas and

avoiding coughing or sneezing toward others will reduce colds and other
respiratory infections. Cots or sleeping bags should be arranged “head
to toe” to avoid the face-to-face contact that spreads germs.

Contact with animals is not recommended. Animals should not be kept

as mascots. Cats, dogs, and other animals can transmit disease. Food
should not be kept in living areas as it attracts rodents and insects, and
trash should be disposed of properly.

G-1
Hazardous snakes, plants, spiders, and other insects and arthropods such
as scorpions, centipedes, ants, bees, wasps, and flies should be avoided.
Those bitten or stung should contact U.S. medical personnel.
All sexual contact should be avoided. Properly used condoms offer some
protection from sexually transmitted diseases but not full protection.
Stress and fatigue can be minimized by maintaining physical fitness,
staying informed, and sleeping when the mission and safety permits.
Alcohol should be avoided as it causes dehydration, contributes to jet
lag, can lead to depression, and decreases physical and mental readi-
ness. Separation anxiety, continuous operations, changing conditions,
and the observation of human suffering will intensify stress. Assistance
from medical personnel or chaplains is available.
Additional Information
Water
If unapproved water, as found in many lakes, rivers, streams, and city
water supplies must be used in an emergency, the water may be disin-
fected by:
■ Adding calcium hypochlorite at 5.0 ppm for 30 minutes;
■ Adding Chlor-Floc or iodine tablets according to label instructions;
■ Heating water to a rolling boil for 5 to 10 minutes; or
■ Adding 2 to 4 drops of ordinary chlorine bleach per quart of water
and waiting 30 minutes before using it.
Either U.S. military preventive medicine or veterinary personnel should
inspect bottled water supplies. Bottled water does not guarantee purity;
direct sunlight on bottled water supplies may promote bacterial growth.
Water in canals, lakes, rivers, and streams is likely contaminated; unnec-
essary bathing, swimming, and wading should be avoided. If the tactical
situation requires entering bodies of water, all exposed skin should be
covered to protect from parasites. Following exposure, it is important to
dry vigorously and change clothing.

G-2
Rodents
Rodents should not be tolerated in the unit area; they can spread serious
illness. Diseases may be contracted through rodent bites or scratches,
transmitted by insects carried on rodents (such as fleas, ticks, or mites),
or by contamination of food from rodent nesting or feeding. Personnel
can minimize the risk of disease caused by rodents by:
■ Maintaining a high state of sanitation throughout the unit area;
■ Sealing openings 1/4 inch or greater to prevent rodents from entering
unit areas;
■ Avoiding inhalation of dust when cleaning previously unoccupied
areas (mist these areas with water prior to sweeping; when possible,
disinfect area using 3 ounces of liquid bleach per 1 gallon of water).
■ Promptly removing dead rodents. Personnel should use disposable
gloves or plastic bags over the hands when handling any dead animal
and place the dead rodent/animal into a plastic bag prior to disposal.
■ Seeking immediate attention if bitten or scratched by a rodent or if
experiencing difficulty breathing or flu-like symptoms.
Insects
Exposure to harmful insects, ticks, and other pests is a year-round,
worldwide risk. The following protective measures reduce the risk of
insect and tick bites:
■ Use DoD-approved insect repellents properly;
■ Apply DEET on all exposed skin;
■ Apply permethrin on clothing and bed nets;
■ Tuck bed net under bedding; use bed net pole;
■ Avoid exposure to living or dead animals;
■ Regularly check for ticks;
■ Discourage pests by disposing of trash properly; eliminate food stor-
age in living areas; and
■ Cover exposed skin by keeping sleeves rolled down when possible,
especially during peak periods of mosquito biting (dusk and dawn);
keep undershirts tucked into pants; tuck pant legs into boots.

G-3
Uniforms correctly treated with permethrin, using either the aerosol spray-
can method (reapply after sixth laundering) or with the Individual Dynamic
Absorption (IDA) impregnation kit (good for 6 months or the life of the uni-
form) will help minimize risks posed by insects. The date of treatment
should be labeled on the uniform.
Bed nets should be treated with permethrin for protection against biting
insects using either the single aerosol spray can method (treating two bed
nets) or the unit’s 2-gallon sprayer. All personnel should sleep under
mosquito nets, regardless of time of day, ensure netting is tucked under
bedding, and use poles to prevent bed nets from draping on the skin.
DoD-approved insect repellents are:
IDA KIT: NSN 6840-01-345-0237
Permethrin Aerosol Spray: NSN 6840-01-278-1336
DEET Insect Repellent: NSN 6840-01-284-3982
Hot Weather
If heat is a threat in the area, personnel should:
■ Stay hydrated by drinking water frequently;
■ Follow work-rest cycles;
■ Monitor others who may have heat-related problems;
■ Wear uniforms properly;
■ Use a sun block (SPF 15 or higher), sunglasses, and lip balm;
■ During hot weather, wear natural fiber clothing (such as cotton) next
to the skin for increased ventilation;
■ Seek immediate medical attention for heat injuries such as cramps,
exhaustion, or stroke. Heat injuries can also occur in cold weather;
■ Avoid standing in direct sunlight for long periods; be prepared for
sudden drops in temperature at night, and construct wind screens if
necessary to avoid blowing dust or sand.
Sunscreens:
Sunscreen lotion: NSN 6505-01-121-2336
Non-alcohol lotion base sunscreen: NSN 6505-01-267-1486

G-4
WORK/REST TABLE
EASY MODERATE HARD
WORK WORK WORK
WBGT Water Water Water
Heat Index Work / Intake Work / Intake Work / Intake
Cat (o F) Rest (Qt/Hr) Rest (Qt/Hr) Rest (Qt/Hr)
1 78 – 81.9 NL 1/2 NL 3/4 40/20 min 3/4
2 82 – 84.9 NL 1/2 50/10 min 3/4 30/30 min 1
3 85 – 87.9 NL 3/4 40/20 min 3/4 30/30 min 1
4 88 – 89.9 NL 3/4 30/30 min 3/4 20/40 min 1
5 > 90 50/10 min 1 20/40 min 1 10/50 min 1
The work/rest times and fluid replacement volumes will sustain per-
formance and hydration for at least 4 hours of work in the specific heat
category. Individual water needs will vary +/- (plus/minus) 1/4 qt/hr.
NL = no limit to work time per hour. Rest means minimal physical
activity (sitting or standing) and should be done in shade if possible.
Caution: Hourly fluid intake should not exceed 1 ½ quarts. Daily
intake should not exceed 12 quarts. Note: MOPP gear adds 10o to
WBGT Index.
Food
High risk food items such as fresh eggs, unpasteurized dairy products,
lettuce or other uncooked vegetables, and raw or undercooked meats
should be avoided unless they are from U.S. military approved sources.
Those who must consume unapproved foods should choose low risk
foods such as bread and other baked goods, fruits that have thick peels
(washed with safe water), and boiled foods such as rice and vegetables.
Human Waste
Military-approved latrines should be used when possible. If no latrines
are available, personnel should bury all human waste in pits or trenches.

G-5
 Cold Weather
If cold weather injuries are a threat in the area, personnel should:

■ Drink plenty of fluids, preferably water or other decaffeinated beverages;

■ Closely monitor others who have had previous cold injuries;
■ Use well-ventilated warming tents and hot liquids for relief from the
cold. Watch for shivering and increase rations to the equivalent of
four MREs per day;
■ Not rest or sleep in tents or vehicles unless well ventilated; tempera-
tures can drop drastically at night;
■ Dress in layers, wear polypropylene long underwear, and use sun-
glasses, scarf, unscented lip balm, sunscreen, and skin moisturizers;
■ Insulate themselves from the ground with tree boughs or sleeping
mats and construct windscreens to avoid unnecessary heat loss; and
■ Remember that loss of sensitivity in any body part requires immediate
medical attention.

G-6
 First Aid
Basic Lifesaving
Those caring for injured persons should immediately:
■ Establish an open airway,
■ Ensure the victim is breathing,
■ Stop bleeding to support circulation,
■ Prevent further disability,
■ Place dressing over open wounds,
■ Immobilize neck injuries,
■ Splint obvious limb deformities, and
■ Minimize further exposure to adverse weather.

Injuries and Care

Shock
■ Symptoms:
❏ Confusion
❏ Cold, clammy skin
❏ Sweating
❏ Shallow, labored, and rapid breathing
❏ Rapid pulse
■ Treatment:
❏ An open airway should be maintained.
❏ Unconscious victims should be placed on their side.
❏ Victims should be kept calm, warm, and comfortable.
❏ Lower extremities should be elevated.
❏ Medical attention should be sought as soon as possible.

G-7
Abdominal Wound
■ Treatment:
❏ Exposed organs should be covered with moist, clean dressing.
❏ Wound should be secured with bandages.
❏ Displaced organs should never be reintroduced to the body.
Bleeding
■ Treatment:
❏ Direct pressure with hand should be applied; a dressing should be
used if available.
❏ Injured extremity should be elevated if no fractures are suspected.
❏ Pressure points may be used to control bleeding.
❏ Dressings should not be removed; additional dressings may be
applied over old dressings.
■ Tourniquet:
❏ NOTE: Tourniquets should only be used when an injury is life
threatening.
❏ A 1-inch band should be tied between the injury and the heart, 2 to
4 inches from the injury, to stop severe bleeding; wire or shoe
strings should not be used.
❏ Band should be tight enough to stop bleeding and no tighter.
❏ Once the tourniquet is tied, it should not be loosened.
❏ The tourniquet should be left exposed for quick visual reference.
❏ The time that the tourniquet is tied and the letter “T” should be
written on the casualty’s forehead.
Eye Injury
Treatment:
■ Embedded objects should not be removed; dressings should secure
objects to prohibit movement.
■ Bandages should be applied lightly to both eyes.
■ Patients should be continuously attended.

G-8
Chest Wound
Symptoms:
■ Sucking noise from chest
■ Frothy red blood from wound
Treatment:
■ Entry and exit wounds should be identified; wounds should be cov-
ered (aluminum foil, ID card).
■ Three sides of the material covering the wound should be taped, leav-
ing the bottom untaped.
■ Victim should be positioned to facilitate easiest breathing.
Fractures
Symptoms:
■ Deformity, bruising
■ Tenderness
■ Swelling and discoloration
Treatment:
■ Fractured limb should not be straightened.
■ Injury should be splinted with minimal movement of injured person.
■ Joints above and below the injury should be splinted.
■ If not in a chemical environment, remove clothing from injured area.
■ Rings should be removed from fingers.
■ Check pulse below injury to determine blood flow restrictions.
Spinal, Neck, Head Injury
Symptoms:
■ Lack of feeling and/or control below neck

Treatment:
■ Conscious victims should be cautioned to remain still.
■ Airway should be checked without moving injured person’s head.

G-9
■ Victims who must be moved should be placed, without bending or
rotating victim’s head and neck, on a hard surface that would act as a
litter (door, cut lumber).
■ Head and neck should be immobilized.

Heat Injuries
Heat Cramps
Symptoms:
■ Spasms, usually in muscles or arms
■ Results from strenuous work or exercise
■ Loss of salt in the body
■ Normal body temperature

Heat Exhaustion
Symptoms:
■ Cramps in abdomen or limbs
■ Pale skin
■ Dizziness, faintness, weakness
■ Nausea or vomiting
■ Profuse sweating or moist, cool skin
■ Weak pulse
■ Normal body temperature
Heat Stroke
Symptoms:
■ Headache, dizziness
■ Red face/skin
■ Hot, dry skin (no sweating)
■ Strong, rapid pulse
■ High body temperature (hot to touch)

G-10
Treatment:
■ Victim should be treated for shock.
■ Victim should be laid in a cool area with clothing loosened.
■ Victim can be cooled by sprinkling with cool water or fanning
(though not to the point of shivering).
■ If conscious, victim may drink cool water (2 teaspoons of salt to one
canteen may be added).
■ Seek medical attention immediately; heat stroke can result in death.
Burns
Burns may be caused by heat (thermal), electricity, chemicals, or radia-
tion. Treatment is based on depth, size, and severity (degree of burn). All
burn victims should be treated for shock and seen by medical personnel.
Thermal/First Degree
Symptoms:
■ Skin reddens
■ Painful
Treatment:
■ Source of burn should be removed.
■ Cool water should be applied to the affected area.
Thermal/Second Degree
Symptoms:
■ Skin reddens and blisters
■ Very painful
Treatment:
■ Source of burn should be removed.
■ Cool water should be applied to the affected area.
■ Blisters should not be broken.
■ A dry dressing should cover the affected area.

G-11
Thermal/Third Degree
Symptoms:
■ Charred or whitish looking skin
■ May burn to the bone
■ Burned area not painful; surrounding area very painful
Treatment:
■ Source of burn should be removed.
■ Clothing that adheres to burned area should not be removed.
■ A dry dressing should cover the affected area.
Electrical Burns
Treatment:
■ Power source must be off.
■ Entry and exit wounds should be identified.
■ Burned area should be treated in accordance with its severity.
Chemical Burns
Treatment:
■ Skin should be flushed with a large amount of water; eyes should be
flushed for at least 20 minutes.
■ Visible contaminants should be removed.
■ Phosphorus burns should be covered with a wet dressing (prevents air
from activating the phosphorous)

Cold Injuries
Hypothermia
Symptoms:
■ Body is cold under clothing
■ Victim may appear confused or dead

G-12
Treatment:
■ Victim should be moved to a warm place.
■ Wet clothing should be removed; victim should be dressed in warm
clothing or wrapped in a dry blanket.
■ Body parts should not be rubbed.
■ Victims must not consume alcoholic beverages.
Frostbite
Symptoms:
■ Skin appears white or waxy
■ Skin is hard to the touch
Treatment:
■ Victim should be moved to a warm place.
■ Affected area should be warmed in 104 to 108° F (40° C) water for
15 to 30 minutes (NOT hot water).
■ Affected area should be covered with several layers of clothing.
■ Affected area must not be rubbed.
■ Victim must seek medical attention.
Emergency Life-Saving Equipment
Equipment may be improvised when necessary. Following is a list of
possible uses for commonly found items.
Shirts = Dressings/Bandages
Belts, Ties = Tourniquets, Bandages
Towels, Sheets = Dressings/Bandages
Socks, Panty Hose, Flight cap = Dressings/Bandages
Sticks or Tree Limbs = Splints
Blankets = Litters, Splints
Field Jackets = Litters
BDU Shirts = Litters/Splints
Ponchos = Litters/Bandages
Rifle Sling = Bandages
M-16 Heat Guards = Splints

G-13
APPENDIX H:
Individual Protective Measures

Security Threats
Individual protective measures are the conscious actions which people
take to guard themselves against physical harm. These measures can
involve simple acts such as locking your car and avoiding areas where
crime is rampant. When physical protection measures are combined
they form a personal security program, the object of which is to make
yourself a harder target. The following checklists contain basic individ-
ual protective measures that, if understood and followed, may signifi-
cantly reduce your vulnerability to the security threats overseas (foreign
intelligence, security services, and terrorist organizations). If you are
detained or taken hostage, following the measures listed in these check-
lists may influence or improve your treatment.

Foreign Intelligence and Security Services

■ Avoid any actions or activities that are illegal, improper, or indiscreet.
■ Guard your conversation and keep sensitive papers in your custody at
all times.
■ Take it for granted that you are under surveillance by both technical
and physical means, including:
❏ Communications monitoring (telephone, telex, mail, and radio)
❏ Photography
❏ Search
❏ Eavesdropping in hotels, offices, and apartments
■ Do not discuss sensitive matters:
❏ On the telephone
❏ In your room
❏ In a car, particularly in front of an assigned driver

H-1
■ Do not leave sensitive personal or business papers:
❏ In your room
❏ In the hotel safe
❏ In a locked suitcase or briefcase
❏ In unattended cars, offices, trains, or planes
❏ Open to photography from the ceiling
❏ In wastebaskets as drafts or doodles
■ Do not try to defeat surveillance by trying to slip away from follow-
ers or by trying to locate “bugs” in your room. These actions will
only generate more interest in you. If you feel you are under surveil-
lance, act as naturally as possible, go to a safe location (your office,
hotel, U.S. Embassy), and contact your superior.
■ Avoid offers of sexual companionship. They may lead to a room raid,
photography, and blackmail. Prostitutes in many countries report to
the police, work for a criminal organization, or are sympathetic to
insurgent or terrorist organizations; in other words, are anti-U.S. Oth-
ers may be employed by an intelligence service.
■ Be suspicious of casual acquaintances and quick friendships with
local citizens in intelligence/terrorist threat countries. In many
countries, people tend to stay away from foreigners and do not
readily or easily make contact. Many who actively seek out friend-
ships with Americans may do so as a result of government orders or
for personal gain.
In your personal contacts, follow these guidelines:
■ Do not attempt to keep up with your hosts in social drinking.
■ Do not engage in black market activity for money or goods.
■ Do not sell your possessions.
■ Do not bring in or purchase illegal drugs.
■ Do not bring in pornography.

H-2
■ Do not bring in religious literature for distribution. (You may bring one
Bible, Koran, or other religious material for your own personal use.)
■ Do not seek out religious or political dissidents.
■ Do not take ashtrays, towels, menus, glasses, or other mementos from
hotels or restaurants.
■ Do not accept packages, letters, etc., from local citizens for delivery
to the U.S.
■ Do not make political comments or engage in political activity.
■ Do not be lured into clandestine meetings with would-be informants
or defectors.
■ Be careful about taking pictures. In some countries it is unwise to
take photographs of scenes that could be used to make unfavorable
comparisons between U.S. and local standards of living or other cul-
tural differences. Avoid taking any photographs from moving buses,
trains, or aircraft.
The following picture subjects are clearly prohibited in most coun-
tries where an intelligence or terrorist/insurgent threat is evident:
❏ Police or military installations and personnel
❏ Bridges
❏ Fortifications
❏ Railroad facilities
❏ Tunnels
❏ Elevated trains
❏ Border areas
❏ Industrial complexes
❏ Port complexes
❏ Airports

H-3
Detention

Most intelligence and security services in threat countries detain persons

for a wide range of real or imagined wrongs. The best advice, of course,
is to do nothing that would give a foreign service the least reason to pick
you up. If you are arrested or detained by host nation intelligence or
security, however, remember the following:
■ Always ask to contact the U.S. Embassy. You are entitled to do so
under international diplomatic and consular agreements, to which
most countries are signatories.
■ Phrase your request appropriately. In Third World countries, how-
ever, making demands could lead to physical abuse.
■ Do not admit to wrongdoing or sign anything. Part of the detention
ritual in some threat countries is a written report you will be asked or
told to sign. Decline to do so, and continue demanding to contact the
Embassy or consulate.
■ Do not agree to help your detainer. The foreign intelligence or security
service may offer you the opportunity to help them in return for releas-
ing you, foregoing prosecution, or not informing your employer or
spouse of your indiscretion. If they will not take a simple no, delay a
firm commitment by saying that you have to think it over.
■ Report to your supervisor immediately. Once your supervisor is
informed, the Embassy or consulate security officer needs to be
informed. Depending on the circumstances and your status, the
Embassy or consulate may have to provide you assistance in depart-
ing the country expeditiously.
■ Report to your unit’s security officer and your service’s criminal inves-
tigative branch upon returning to the U.S. This is especially important
if you were unable to report to the Embassy or consulate in country.
Remember, you will not be able to outwit a foreign intelligence organi-
zation. Do not compound your error by betraying your country.

H-4
Foreign Terrorist Threat
Terrorism may seem like mindless violence committed without logic or
purpose, but it is not. Terrorists attack soft and undefended targets, both
people and facilities, to gain political objectives they see as out of reach
by less violent means. Many of today’s terrorists view no one as inno-
cent. Thus, injury and loss of life are justified as acceptable means to gain
the notoriety generated by a violent act in order to support their cause.
Because of their distinctive dress, speech patterns, and outgoing person-
alities, Americans are often highly visible and easily recognized when
they are abroad. The obvious association of U.S. military personnel with
their government enhances their potential media and political worth as
casualties or hostages. Other U.S. citizens are also at risk, including
political figures, police, intelligence personnel, and VIPs (such as busi-
nessmen and celebrities).
Therefore, you must develop a comprehensive personal security pro-
gram to safeguard yourself while traveling abroad. An awareness of the
threat and the practice of security procedures like those advocated in
crime prevention programs are adequate precautions for the majority of
people. While total protection is impossible, basic common sense pre-
cautions such as an awareness of any local threat, elimination of predict-
able travel and lifestyle routines, and security consciousness at your
quarters or work locations significantly reduce the probability of suc-
cess of terrorist attacks.
To realistically evaluate your individual security program, you must
understand how terrorists select and identify their victims. Terrorists
generally classify targets in terms of accessibility, vulnerability, and
political worth (symbolic nature). These perceptions may not be based
on the person’s actual position, but rather the image of wealth or impor-
tance they represent to the public. For each potential target, a risk versus
gain assessment is conducted to determine if a terrorist can victimize a
target without ramifications to the terrorist organization. It is during this

H-5
phase that the terrorist determines if a target is “hard or soft.” A hard
target is someone who is aware of the threat of terrorism and adjusts his
personal habits accordingly. Soft targets are oblivious to the threat and
their surroundings, making an easy target.
Identification by name is another targeting method gathered from air-
craft manifests, unit/duty rosters, public documents (Who’s Who or the
Social Register), personnel files, discarded mail, or personal papers in
trash. Many targets are selected based upon their easily identifiable
symbols or trademarks, such as uniforms, luggage (seabags or duffle
bags), blatant national symbols (currency, tatoos, and clothing), and
decals and bumper stickers.

Travel Security
Travel on temporary duty (TAD/TDY) abroad may require you to stay
in commercial hotels. Being away from your home duty station
requires increasing your security planning and awareness; this is espe-
cially important when choosing and checking into a hotel and during
your residence there.
The recent experiences with airport bombings and airplane hijacking
suggest some simple precautions:
■ You should not travel on commercial aircraft outside the continental
U.S. in uniform.
■ Prior to traveling by commercial aircraft, you should screen your
wallet and other personal items, removing any documents (that is,
credit cards, club membership cards, etc.) which would reveal your
military affiliation.
NOTE: Current USMC policy requires service members to wear two
I.D. tags with metal necklaces when on official business. Also, the
current I.D. card must be in possession at all times. These require-
ments include travel to or through terrorist areas. In view of these
requirements, the service member must be prepared to remove and

H-6
 conceal these and any other items which would identify them as mil-
itary personnel in the event of a skyjacking.
■ You should stay alert to any suspicious activity when traveling.
Keep in mind that the less time spent in waiting areas and lobbies,
the better. This means adjusting your schedule to reduce your wait at
these locations.
■ You should not discuss your military affiliation with anyone during
your travels because it increases your chances of being singled out as
a symbolic victim.
■ In case of an incident, you should not confront a terrorist or present a
threatening image. The lower profile you present, the less likely you
will become a victim or bargaining chip for the terrorists, and your
survivability increases.

Hostage Situation
The probability of anyone becoming a hostage is very remote. However,
as a member of the Armed Forces, you should always consider yourself
a potential hostage or terrorist victim and reflect this in planning your
affairs, both personal and professional. You should have an up-to-date
will, provide next of kin with an appropriate power-of-attorney, and take
measures to ensure your dependents’ financial security if necessary.
Experience has shown that concern for the welfare of family members is
a source of great stress to kidnap victims.
Do not be depressed if negotiation efforts appear to be taking a long time.
Remember, chance of survival actually increases with time. The physical
and psychological stress while a hostage could seem overpowering, but
the key to your well-being is to approach captivity as a mission. Main-
taining emotional control, alertness, and introducing order into each day
of captivity will ensure your success and survival with honor.
During interaction with captors, maintaining self respect and dignity can
be keys to retaining status as a human being in the captor’s eyes. Com-
plying with instructions, avoiding provocative conversations (political,

H-7
religious, etc.), and establishing a positive relationship will increase sur-
vivability. Being polite and freely discussing insignificant and nonessen-
tial matters can reinforce this relationship. Under no circumstance
should classified information be divulged. If forced to present terrorist
demands to the media, make it clear that the demands are those of the
captor and that the plea is not made on your behalf. You must remember
that you are an American service member; conduct yourself with dignity
and honor while maintaining your bearing.
Hostages sometimes are killed during rescue attempts; consequently,
you should take measures to protect yourself during such an action.
Drop to the floor immediately, remain still and avoiding any sudden
movement; select a safe corner if it offers more security than the floor.
Do not attempt to assist the rescuing forces but wait for instructions.
After the rescue, do not make any comment to the media until you have
been debriefed by appropriate U.S. authorities.

H-8
APPENDIX I:
Dangerous Animals and Plants

African Garter Snake

Description:
Adult length usually 0.4
to 0.6 meter; moderately
slender snake. Back-
ground color generally
uniform black or gray-
black. Head not distinct
from the neck.
Habitat:
Found in coastal forests, high-level grasslands, or arid savannas.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Non aggressive, nocturnal snake that spends its days hiding under stones
or in burrows. Sluggish, bites only in self-defense.
Venom’s effects:
Venom likely neurotoxic. Not considered lethal to man.
Burrowing Asp
Description:
Adult length is usually
less than 0.9 meter; rela-
tively slender snake.
Background color var-
ies; usually uniform dark
purplish-brown to black
above. Short, conical
head, not distinct from the neck; snout broad, flattened, often pointed.

I-1
Fangs are well-developed and comparatively large in relation to the size
of its head. Eyes minute with round pupils. Tail ends in distinct spine.
Habitat:
Rain forests and savanna. Commonly lives under stones or in burrows.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
May emerge at night, particularly after rain. Likely to bite if touched.
Venom’s effects:
Venom primarily hemotoxic. Victims may experience intense local pain,
swelling, and, in some instances, necrosis.
Boomslang
Description:
Adult length usually
from 1.2 to 1.5 meters
(3- 5 feet); relatively
slender. Background
varies from black to
green; no blotches or
distinct spots. Short,
stubby head and enor-
mous emerald eyes. Scales strongly keeled and overlapping.
Habitat:
Most commonly found in dry woodland, thorn scrub, savannahs, and
swamps near water. Not found in rain forest regions or true desert.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Diurnal; spends most of its time in trees and shrubs. Notably non
aggressive and shy; quickly retreats if surprised. If cornered or
restrained, inflates neck to more than twice its usual size.
Venom’s effects:
Potently hemotoxic; can cause severe bleeding internally and from
mucous surfaces. Deaths reported.

I-2
Black-necked
Spitting Cobra
Description:
Adult length is from
1.2 to 2.2 meters, maxi-
mum of 2.8 meters.
Body color highly vari-
able, ranging from
pinkish tan in some
geographical areas to
uniform black in others.
Habitat:
Found in moist savanna; shelters in abandoned termite mounds, rodent
burrows, or hollow tree trunks.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Generally nocturnal, although juveniles active during day. Terrestrial yet
fairly aquatic, good climber. Will usually flee if disturbed. When pro-
voked, raises up, spreads hood, and may spit at intruder’s face.
Venom’s effects:
Venom primarily cytotoxic, causing serious local tissue damage. Large
specimens can spit venom up to 3 meters, aiming at the eyes. The venom
does not affect unbroken skin, but can cause great pain and possible tissue
destruction in the eyes. Has caused permanent blindness in humans.
West African
brown spitting cobra
Description:
Adult length usually
0.5 to 0.8 meters, maxi-
mum of 1.4 meters.
Background is usually
red-brown, brown or

I-3
maroon; orange-brown on the flanks and light orange-brown on the
belly. The underside of the neck has a broad dark band that may form a
complete ring on some specimens. This dark marking reportedly is less
distinct in larger specimens.
Habitat:
Primarily dry savanna and semi-desert areas; reportedly not found either
in extreme desert or dense woodland habitats.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Apparently both nocturnal and diurnal (primarily juveniles); reportedly
found under logs, rocks, other ground cover, or in holes when not active.
Primarily terrestrial, but will climb into low bushes. Fast moving and
alert, it will usually try to escape when encountered. However, if cor-
nered, it will rear up, spread its narrow hood, and, if further provoked,
spit twin jets of venom at its perceived foe.
Venom’s effects:
Not well characterized; an average wet venom yield of 100 milligrams
has been reported. As with other spitting cobras, the venom may be
more cytotoxic than neurotoxic in effect. The effectiveness of available
antivenins is not known.
Egyptian Cobra
Description:
Adult length usually
from 1.5 to 2 meters
(5-6.5 feet), maximum
of 3 meters (10 feet).
Background color usu-
ally yellow-gray to
brown or blue-black,
but extremely variable.
Belly yellowish with dark blotches. Most specimens have dark brown or
black band across the throat.

I-4
Habitat:
Various habitats include flat land, scrubby bushes, grass clumps, irri-
gated fields, rocky hillsides, old ruins, and in vicinity of villages. Sea
level to 1,600 meters (5,250 feet) elevation. Not found in rain forests or
extreme desert conditions.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Nocturnal; emerges at dusk, but often seen basking in sun near its retreat
in early morning. Often occupies abandoned rodent burrows or termite
mounds. While not overtly aggressive, when threatened, will rear and
spread an impressive hood up to 12 centimeters (4.7 inches) across.
Venom’s effects:
Venom primarily neurotoxic, acting on nerves controlling respiratory
muscles. Untreated cases may result in respiratory failure and death.
Puff Adder
Description:
Adult length is usually
from 0.6 to 1 meter
(2 to 3 feet), to a maxi-
mum of 1.5 meters
(5 feet); thick, heavily
built snake. Back-
ground color varies
from bright to light
yellow, yellow-brown,
orange-brown, light brown, or gray. Belly yellowish white to gray with
black blotches. Rough-scaled appearance and alternating pattern of dark
and light chevron-shaped markings.
Habitat:
Most widely distributed venomous snake in Africa; encountered almost
anywhere, at both low and high elevations, except in rain forests and
extreme desert conditions.

I-5
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Diurnal and nocturnal; known to bask in early mornings or late after-
noons. Comparatively slow-moving and sluggish; relies on immobility
and camouflage to escape detection. Bad tempered and excitable; when
disturbed, makes long deep hissing noise and may lash out viciously.
Venom’s effects:
Many serious bites reported; only a small portion prove fatal. Venom is
potent cytotoxin, attacking tissue and blood cells. Symptoms include
extreme pain with swelling and large blisters in region of the bite.
Eastern Rhombic
Night Adder
Description:
Adult length usually 0.4 to
0.6 meter, maximum of 1.0
meter; moderately stocky
snake. Background varies
from gray to olive to pinkish
brown; patterned with gray, black, or brown chevrons or spots. Belly usu-
ally gray, but may be cream or yellow. Solid dark "V" marking on head.
Habitat:
Open woodland, grassland, and savanna near water or other damp areas.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Nocturnal, but spends much time basking during day and/or sheltered in
trash piles, rock crevices, and other hiding places. Generally non aggres-
sive and docile, seldom attempting to bite except under extreme provo-
cation. When threatened, will either flatten head and body or inflate
itself with air, make several frantic strikes, and then glide away quickly.
Venom’s effects:
Mildly cytotoxic and usually not dangerous, but may cause acute discom-
fort. Bite usually results only in local pain, swelling, and lymphadenophy.

I-6
Sahara desert viper
Description:
Adult length usually
0.3 to 0.4 meter. Back-
ground generally yel-
lowish, gray, or brown,
with row of dark spots
along back. Head lacks
suborbital "horns."
Habitat:
Found in sand dunes, loose sand, and in desert shrubs from sea level up
to about 300 meters elevation.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Active at night; usually spends day buried in sand at base of scrub. Not
usually aggressive. When provoked, gathers body into coil and rubs
sides together to produce hissing noise.
Venom’s effects:
Venom mild cytotoxic and neurotoxic components. Bites reportedly
painful, but usually not serious.
Horned desert viper
Description:
Adult length usually
0.5 to 0.6 meter, maxi-
mum of 0.9 meter.
Background generally
yellowish, yellowish
brown, pale gray, pink-
ish, or pale brown,
with rows of dark spots
along back. Belly
whitish. May have long spine-like horns above the eyes.

I-7
Habitat:
Found in deserts where there are rock outcroppings and fine sand, often
in very arid places; however, may be found near oases.
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Nocturnal. Can make itself almost invisible by wriggling down into
loose sand. Hides in rodent holes and under stones. When angered, rubs
inflated loops of body together to make rasping hiss. Can strike quickly
if disturbed.
Venom’s effects:
Venom primarily hemotoxic. Local symptoms include edema, redness,
internal hemorrhage, and areas of gangrene. Venom has coagulant prop-
erties at low concentrations, anticoagulant properties at high concentra-
tions. Fatalities rare.
White-bellied
carpet viper
Description:
Adult length usually
from 0.3 to 0.7 meters;
fairly stout snake.
Background color vari-
able, usually brown,
gray, or reddish; may
have series of oblique
pale crossbars, interspersed with dark spaces, along back. Usually has a
row of triangular or circular markings with pale or white edging on each
side. Belly white. Head pear-shaped; top covered with small scales.
Habitat:
Found in arid savanna, semidesert, and well-vegetated wadis. Not found
in true desert, but is commonly found on desert’s edge, oases, and ele-
vated vegetated areas within deserts.

I-8
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Terrestrial, although occasionally climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or
wet surfaces. Moves relatively quickly. Primarily nocturnal; most active
during first few hours of darkness. Hides in holes, under logs, rocks, and
brush piles during daytime. When confronted, quickly assumes figure-
eight coil, rubbing inflated loops of body together to make a distinctive
noise similar to sawing wood. If further agitated, will strike continu-
ously and vigorously; may even move toward an aggressor.
Venom’s effects:
Little known of composition or toxicity of venom. It is likely similar to
that of other African carpet vipers, which cause local swelling, incoagu-
lable blood, and spontaneous bleeding in severe cases. Venom of carpet
vipers generally slow-acting.
West African
Carpet Viper
Description:
Adult length usually
0.3 to 0.5 meter (1-1.5
feet). Its background
color is usually brown
or gray or shades in
between. Generally of
two conspicuous dorsal patterns: a series of dark irregular crossbars on
lighter background or a series of pale saddles with darker background,
lighter on sides. Most have characteristic line of small white "eye-spots"
along flanks. Belly pale, usually with brown or reddish spots. Head
pear-shaped; top covered with small scales. Tail short. Scales rough and
heavily keeled, giving impression of fine ridges running length of body.
Habitat:
Savanna, well-wooded areas, and forest edges. Hides in holes, under
logs, rocks, and brush piles during day.

I-9
Activity and behavioral patterns:
Terrestrial, although occasionally climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or
wet surfaces. Moves quickly. Primarily nocturnal; most active during
first few hours of darkness. When confronted, quickly assumes figure-
eight coil, rubbing inflated loops of body together to make a distinctive
noise similar to sawing wood. If further agitated, will strike continu-
ously and vigorously; may even move toward an aggressor.
Venom’s effects:
Major source of snakebites and fatalities reported throughout region;
venom highly toxic to man. Venom primarily hemotoxic; internal and
external hemorrhages common, as well as pain and swelling at bite site.
Arthropods
Fat-tailed scorpion
Although scorpions in
the region are capable
of inflicting a painful
sting, only the
amoreuxi and the Fat-
tailed scorpion (shown
here) are known to be
life-threatening.
Habitat:
The Fat-tailed scorpion is found in dry and desert areas, usually in stony
soils, cactus hedges and arid mountainous regions and high plateaux.
Also found on steep slopes of drifting sand dunes. Avoids humidity.
Often found hear human habitations (such as in cracks in walls).
Venom’s effects:
It is one of the most potent scorpion venoms in the world. The species
causes several deaths each year.

I-10
Spiders
Although there are several spider species found in the region that are
capable of inflicting a painful bite, none are considered life-threatening.
Insects
There is little specific information of medical importance regarding
insects. However, nearly all countries have at least one species of moth
having venomous/urticating hairs and/or whose larva (caterpillar) has
venomous spines. Some caterpillars are very hairy (such as puss moths
and flannel moths) and almost unrecognizable as caterpillars, with long
silky hairs completely covering the shorter venomous spines. Others
bear prominent clumps of still, venomous spines on an otherwise
smooth body. Contact with these caterpillars can be very painful. Some
are brightly colored.
Paederus are small (usually 4 to 7 millimeters), slender rove beetles that
do not look like typical beetles and have very short wing covers that
expose most of their flexible abdomens. When crushed, their body fluid
contains an agent that will blister skin on contact. The lesions take about
a week to heal and the area remains painful for two weeks. The substance
is extremely irritating to the eyes; temporary blindness has been reported.
Centipedes
Although area centi-
pedes are capable of
inflicting a painful bite,
none are known to be
life-threatening.
Millipedes
Millipedes do not bite
and in general are
harmless. However, when handled, some larger millipedes (can grow to
more than 50 millimeters long) secrete a noxious fluid that can cause
severe blistering upon contact; some can squirt this fluid at least 2 feet.

I-11
Plants
Rosary Pea
Other names:
Precatory bean, coral pea,
crab’s eyes, lucky beans,
Paternoster beans.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Contains several indole
alkaloids such as abrine
and abrin (a toxalbumin),
which can kill. The
unchewed seeds are imper-
vious and will pass through
the GI tract without harm.
Seeds are attractive and
frequently used to make rosaries, necklaces, etc. Poison can be absorbed
through breaks in the skin if integrity of the hull is compromised; for
example, while stringing beads for a necklace. Onset of toxicity usually
in one to three days. Rosary pea is documented to have a quickly fatal
potential (neurotoxin and hemocoagulant), having killed a child who
thoroughly chewed one seed. Dermatitis can occur from wearing a neck-
lace of stringed beads.
Comments:
The genus includes 17 species of slender, twining vines with a woody
base, usually supported by other plants or a fence. Fruit is a dehiscent
pod; inside the pod are three to five glossy, red and black seeds (used by
many as ornaments). Note: Rosary pea seeds are black at the site of
attachment (hilum) and are easily confused with the much less toxic
Mexican Rhynchosia (piule). The colors are reversed in piule seeds.
Symptoms of toxicity include nausea and vomiting with abdominal
pains, bloody diarrhea, fever, shock, coma. Used in South America and
Africa in folk medicine.

I-12
Modikka
No Photograph Available
Mechanisms of toxicity:
The root is reported to contain prussic acid and a cyanogenic glycoside,
which is destroyed by drying. It also contains a toxalbumin called
modeccin, which is a protein-synthesis inhibitor. The poisonous root is
occasionally mistaken for an edible tuber, especially in situations of
scarce food. Death has occurred after ingestion of the fruit. Symptoms
within one day are mainly due to the hydrocyanic acid; the toxalbumin
results in illness a few days later. Used in India as a “worming” medi-
cine; sap is very irritating. Has been used in Africa to murder.
Comments:
Some species have been used in Africa as medicinals (e.g., for malaria
and leprosy).
Crownflower
Other Name:
Milkweed
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Sap has extremely irritant
effect on the eyes; also
causes an allergic type
contact vesicant skin
reaction. The active prin-
ciples include calcium
oxalate, a proteolytic enzyme, digitalis-like glycosides, and an unidenti-
fied allergen.
Comments:
Flowers are candied by Chinese in Java. Poisonings have resulted in
death. Has been used as arrow poison in Africa. Roots used as chew-
sticks in Africa.

I-13
Croton
Other names:
Ciega-vista,
purging croton.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Long-lasting vesicular
dermatitis results from
contact with the toxic
resin. The cathartic and
purgative properties of
the toxins (croton oil, a "phorbol," in leaves, stems, and seeds) causes
severe gastroenteritis, even death; 20 drops potentially lethal (the oil
applied externally will blister the skin). Many members covered with
hundreds of sticky hairs that cling to the skin if contacted. Contact with
the eyes can be very serious.
Comments:
A wooly-haired annual herb, or evergreen bush, or small tree with smooth
ash-colored bark, yellowish-green leaves, small flowers, and fruit.
Yellow Heads
No Photograph Available
Other names:
Woolly-headed gnidia.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Shrubs or small trees with extremely irritating resin. The root and flower
of many species are strongly purgative; they are the source of the drug
radjo. Some species have been shown to contain mezereine (irritant
resin) and daphnine (an alkaloid).
Comments:
Approximately 140 species found from tropical and southern Africa to the
Arabian peninsula, and from Madagascar to western India and Sri Lanka.

I-14
Rattlepod
Other names:
Rattlebox, rattleweed, chillagoe,
horse poison.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Contains pyrrolizidine alka-
loids (monocrotaline, heliot-
rine, retrosine); can kill. Low-
level ingestions can cause lung
damage; high levels will dam-
age the liver. Some species have
caused toxicity through the con-
tamination of flour or when
incorporated in teas.
Comments:
The fruits are inflated dehiscent legumes (pods) with parchment-like
walls; the ripe seeds come loose within the pods and rattle when shaken.
The flowers are pea-like. Found in open woods, on roadsides, margins,
sandy soils, and fields.
Balogna Sausage Tree
No Photograph Available
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Common in South Africa. The powdered fruit is used as medicine for
numerous ailments (frequently applied externally). The ripe fruit is a
purgative. The fruit can be 12 to 20 inches long and weigh up to 8
pounds. The fruit is regarded as highly poisonous; however, the toxic
principles are not clear. Used by various African groups as a sexual
excitant and in wound treatment. Often the fruit is added to beer to add
intoxicating effect, but this tends to cause headache.

I-15
Comments:
A large tree pollinated by bats; the tree has adapted by developing long
stalks from which the flowers are suspended, hanging in open air so the
bats have easy access.
Heliotrope
Other names:
Cherry pie, scorpion’s tail,
Indian heliotrope.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Contains pyrrolizidine alka-
loids. Cause of large epidemics
(Afghanistan, India) of illness
following ingestion of bread
made with contaminated flour.
The pathologic effects (Budd-
Chiari syndrome) take weeks to
months, and death comes slowly
over years. Has also caused
chronic copper poisoning.
Comments:
A large genus of worldwide dis-
tribution (250 tropical and temperate trees and shrubs).
Kamyuye
No Photograph Available
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Contains latex with a mixture of sequiterpene alcohols. Has long been
used as a medicinal. Used in Africa as a poison. Deaths have occurred
when the bark was used to prepare a medicine for stomach problems.
Comments:
Tropical African aromatic shrub. Source of vanilla-scented oil.

I-16
Mole Plant
Other names:
Caper spurge, Mexican
fire plant, milkweed, red
spurge, poison spurge,
mala mujer, cypress
spurge, cat’s milk, wart-
wort, sun spurge, cande-
labra cactus, Indian
spurge tree, milkwood,
pencil tree, pencil cactus, rubber euphorbia.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Herbs, often with colored or milky sap, containing complex terpenes;
irritate the eyes, mouth, and gastrointestinal tract, and many cause der-
matitis by direct contact. In some cases rain water dripping from the
plant will contain enough toxic principle to produce dermatitis and kera-
toconjunctivitis; can blind. Some contain urticating hairs (skin contact
breaks off ends and toxic chemicals are injected). The caper spurge has
killed those who mistook the fruit for capers. The Mexican fire plant
was known for having medicinal properties in the first century and has
killed children. Red spurge causes dermatitis. The pencil cactus has an
abundant, white, acrid sap extremely irritating to the skin; has caused
temporary blindness when accidentally splashed in the eyes, and has
killed as a result of severe gastroenteritis after ingestion.
Comments:
Approximately 2,000 species of extremely variable form; may appear as
herbs, shrubs or trees — many are cactus-like. Fruit is usually a capsule
opening in three parts, each one seeded; sometimes a drupe.

I-17
Black Henbane
Other names:
Insane root,
fetid nightshade.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Old well-known medici-
nal and deadly poison
(hyoscyamine, atropine)
with many uses in many
cultures. Tropine alka-
loids in the seeds (in a pod); has resulted in death; dermatitis (low risk).
Comments:
Erect, hairy plant with coarse, hairy stems 1-5 feet tall, native to Europe.
Found in "weed communities" along roadsides on nutrient-rich sandy soils
and loam. Has yellow flowers with violet veins. Fruits are capsules con-
taining many black seeds (can be confused with the poppy plant seeds).
Pokeweed
Other names:
Pokeberry, poke salet.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Mature stems, roots, and
berries are poisonous
(saponins mostly in foliage
and roots). Death possible
if not prepared properly.
Comments:
Young shoot tips, less than 6", eaten in many cultures, including Can-
ada; requires proper preparation (boiled with water changes; water con-
tains toxic substances — kills snails that carry bilharzia). Dye from
berries used to color ink, wine, sweets.

I-18
Poisonvine
No Photograph Available
Other names:
Arrow poison plant.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Seeds have digitalis-like toxins and are used as arrow and spear poison
in Africa.
Comments:
Genus of 38 tropical species of shrubs. Monkeys have died after eating a
few leaves.
Physic Nut
Other names:
Purging nut, pinon, tem-
pate, Barbados nut.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Quickly fatal potential.
Fruit has two or three
black, oily, pleasant tast-
ing, poisonous seeds (also
toxic roots and leaves)
containing a plant lecithin
(a toxalbumin called cur-
cin) which, in contrast to
many of the toxic lecithins,
causes toxicity rapidly
(has caused death —
severe toxicity can follow
ingestion of a single seed);
also has intensely cathartic
oils (some have used the oil for lamps, etc.); has caused fatal intoxica-

I-19
tion. Bark has been used as a fish poison. Also a skin irritant (hairs), as
are all euphorbs.
Comments:
170 species of warm and tropical northern American trees or shrubs,
usually with red flowers. Naturalized worldwide. Fruit is a three-sided
capsule in many species.
Velvet Bean
Other names:
Cowitch, cowhage, pica-pica, ox
eye bean, horse-eye bean.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Many of the species’ pods and
flowers are covered with irritant
hairs (proteolytic enzymes). Can
be dangerous if they become
embedded in the eye. Beans tend
to be foul tasting, even after
thorough boiling, so little danger
of ingestion exists.
Comments:
Many species; widely naturalized.
Swizzle Stick
No Photograph Available
Other names:
Boboro, dinque pinque, African rauwolphia.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Potentially fatal systemic poison. Can cause dermatitis. Contains more
than 40 indole alkaloids (yohimbine, reserpine, etc.), many of which are
vasoactive. Can cause depression lasting months after withdrawal.

I-20
Native to Central America, now widespread in many tropical regions.
Several indole alkaloids. Poisoning known to cause death in Mexico.
Comments:
Swizzle Stick is a small tree, growing to 45 feet. African rauwolphia is a
shrub up to 9 feet.
Poison Ivy
Other names:
Manzanillo, poison oak,
poison sumac, Chinese/
Japanese lacquer tree,
Japanese tallow or wax
tree, scarlet rhus, sumac.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
All contain allergenic
nonvolatile oils known as
urushiols in the resin canals; these oils are highly sensitizing (delayed,
type IV sensitivity) for some individuals
Comments:
All species are deciduous, and the leaves turn red before being shed.
Poison ivy is a climbing or trailing vine with trifoliate, alternate leaves
smooth above and hairy beneath. Poison oak is never a climbing shrub,
alternately three-leafed, smooth above and hairy beneath. Found in dis-
turbed areas and along trails in North America and is a common source
of dermatitis. Poison sumac is a shrub or small tree with 7 to 13 alter-
nate leaflets, and is found in swampy areas of North America. Very few
cases of dermatitis are caused by this species because it inhabits isolated
areas and few people are exposed to it. Some individuals suffer intense,
debilitating reactions from contact with the sensitizing chemicals.

I-21
Strychnine
Other names:
Nuxvomica tree,
Snakewood tree.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
The entire plant, includ-
ing the seeds, contains
the powerfully acting
indole alkaloid strych-
nine, which can kill.
Comments:
Genus of 190 different species of trees, shrubs and vines with berry-like
fruits, found in most tropical regions. Some have edible fruit despite
dangerous seeds. It is a source of curare obtained by stripping and mac-
erating its bark. Curare, now used as a muscle relaxant, was formerly
used as an arrow poison by South American Indians.
Nettle Tree
Other names:
Ortiga brava,
pringamoza.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Trees and shrubs with
powerful stinging hairs.
The intensity of sting
delivered by these plants
is species-variable. The
bushy, tree-like varieties tend to be more irritating. Any contact between
leaves or branches and skin can result in profound burning pain that can
last for more than 24 hours. There is no permanent damage.

I-22
Comments:
35 native species in tropical and southern Africa, and tropical America.
Often used as hedges or local medicinals.
Panama Tree
Other names:
Castano, tartargum.
Mechanisms of toxicity:
Seeds edible, but pods
have internal stiff bristles
that easily penetrate skin,
causing intense irritation.
Comments:
200 tropical species.

I-23
APPENDIX J:
International Telephone Codes

International Telephone Codes

Algeria 213 Malta 356
Australia 61 Mexico 52
Austria 43 Morocco 212
Bahrain 973 Netherlands 31
Belgium 32 Nigeria 234
Brazil 55 New Zealand 64
Canada 1 Norway 47
China 86 Oman 968
Cyprus 357 Philippines 63
Denmark 45 Portugal 351
Djibouti 253 Qatar 974
Egypt 20 Republic of Korea 82
Ethiopia 251 Saudi Arabia 966
Finland 358 Senegal 221
France 33 Seychelles 248
Gabon 241 Singapore 65
Germany 49 Somalia 252
Greece 30 South Africa 27
Hawaii 1 Spain 34
Hong Kong 852 Sweden 46
Indonesia 62 Switzerland 41
Iran 98 Syria 963
Iraq 964 Taiwan 886
Ireland 353 Tanzania 255
Israel 972 Thailand 66
Ivory Coast 225 Tunisia 216
Japan 81 Turkey 90
Jordan 962 UAE 971
Kenya 254 United Kingdom 44
Kuwait 965 United States 1
Libya 218 Yemen 967
Madagascar 261 Zambia 260
Malaysia 60 Zimbabwe 263

AT&T (public phones) 0072-911 On-base 550-HOME or

or 0030-911 550-2USA

J-1
Notes
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Notes
Notes
Notes