Cell-The Unit of Life: Chapter-08

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CELL- THE UNITIIB OF IIB
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CHAPTER-08 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
CELL-THE UNIT OF LIFE IIB IIB IIB

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01. Biology is the study of living organism on this planet. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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The detailed description of their forms & appearance only brought out their diversity. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cell theory that emphasized the unity underlying this diversity is the cellular IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
organization of all life forms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
When we look around, we observe both living & non-living things are present. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Then we must have a question? ie. What is it that make organism living or animate or
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what is that non-living or inanimate does not have which is present in living organism. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The answer to this is the presence of basic unit of life - the cell in all living organism. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
A cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all living organisms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The cell is the basic unit of life in all living organisms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Study of form, structure and composition of cell is called as cytology. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. All organisms are composed of cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Some are composed of a single cell and are called unicellular organisms e.g. Amoeba. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. The others are composed of many cells and are called multicellular organisms e,g, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Man, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Unicellular organisms have capacity of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(i) independent existence and (ii) performing the essential functions of life. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure independent living. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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07. Hence, cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 Various discoveries : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Robert Hooke coined the term ‘cell’. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Robert Hooke ( 1965) discovered the dead form of cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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He first time observed cells in piece of dead cork cells. ( actually it was the cell wall).
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He also described in his book “ Micrographia. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
He also known as ‘father of cytology’ IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek ( 1974) first saw and described a live cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
y Anton van Leeuwenhoek first described many micro-orgnisms, blood cells and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
spermatozoa in detail. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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He used term “Animalcule”for it. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
He also known as ‘father of Micro-biology’ IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIBTHE UNIT OF LIFE
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Robert Brown discovered the nucleus.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB W. Flemming described chromatin in nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB C. de. Duve discovered lysosomes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.2 CELL THEORY
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. He observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB tissues of the plant.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Theodore Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. He reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB membrane’.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. He also concluded that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals and plants are composed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of cells and products of cells.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. This theory however, did not explain the formation of new cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). It is also called as Cell Lineage
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give a final shape to cell
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB theory.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. Cell theory as today is:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Other statements for-final/modern cell theory.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It is also known as Cell doctrine or cell principle.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Cell is structural & functional unit of life.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Total activities of cell responsible for activity of organism.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Cell shows transformation of energy.
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Cell contain nucleic acid , cytoplasm & organelles.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Growth of organism due to increase in size & no. of cells
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Objections over CELL THEORY
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Bacteria & cynobacteria do not have nucleus & other membrane bounded organelles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Viruses are acellular and do not contain cellular machinery.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB RBC & sieve tube cells live without nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Protozoans & many thallophytes have uninucleate differentiated body ie can not
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB divided in to cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.3 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. The onion cell which is a typical plant cell, has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and just within it is the cell membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. The cells of the human cheek have an outer membrane as the delimiting structure of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the cell.
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03. Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. This nucleus contains the chromosomes which contain the genetic material, DNA. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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05. Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells without a IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
membrane bound nucleus are prokaryotic. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Dodge ( 1964) recognised mesocaryotic organisation in dinoflagellates. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 All cell contain: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Cytoplasm-In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid matrix called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cytoplasm is present. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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07. It occupies the volume of the cell.
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08. The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Various chemical reactions occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. Ribosomes- are non-membrane bound organelles found in both eukaryotic as well IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
as prokaryotic cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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11. Within the cell, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
organelles, chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on RER IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12 Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound distinct structures IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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13. The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
14. Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centriole which IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
helps in cell division. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
15. Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities. (Figure 8.1) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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16. Mycoplasmas are the smallest cell (only 0.3 μm in length) while bacteria could be 3 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to 5 μm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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17. The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 18. Among multicellular organisms, human RBC is about 7.0 μm in diameter.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 19. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Largest unicellular eukaryotic cell-Acetabularia alga. ( 10 cm)
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Largest plant cell-Remie fibre (Boehmeria nevia)
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Smallest cell –Mycoplasma laidlawii.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Largest cell human beings- Eggs/ Ovum.
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Smallest cell human beings-Sperm.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Virus is acellular and connecting link between living and non-livings
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) is present at Hyderabad.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 20 . The cells may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread like, or even irregular.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 21. The shape of the cell may vary according to their functions.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB PROKARYOTIC CELLS
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells. (Figure 8.2)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. They may vary greatly in shape and size.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical), vibrio
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. The organisation of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar even though they
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB show a wide variety of shapes and functions.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in mycoplasma.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. The fluid matrix filling the cell is the cytoplasm.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. There is no well-defined nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The genetic material is basically naked, not enveloped by a nuclear membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. In addition to the genomic DNA (the single chromosome/circular dsDNA), many
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB bacteria have small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA. These smaller DNA are
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB called plasmids.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. The plasmid DNA gives certain unique phenotypic characters to such bacteria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. One such character is resistance to antibiotics.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. The plasmid DNA is used to control bacterial transformation with foreign DNA.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. Nuclear membrane is not found in prokaryotes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. All organelles except ribosome found in eukaryotes are absent in prokaryotic cells.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 16. Prokaryotes have some unique structures e.g. mesosome.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. Mesosome is specialised differentiated form of cell membrane. It is the characteristic
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 18. Mesosomes are infoldings of cell membrane.
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In procaryotic cells, membrane bound cell organelles are absent so that there is a IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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single membrane that surrounds the cell.
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In prokaryotes, DNA is naked and variously coiled in the cytoplasm commonly called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
genophore, nuclear body or Nucleoid or incipient nucleus or Fibrilar nucleus or IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
prochromosome. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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The nucleoid conatains a single prochromosomme (Haploid) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Histones are absent ,but polyamines are present. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Plasmids are self replicating,extra chromosomal double stranded, circular, naked IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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DNA e.g. F-plasmids (fertility factor),R-plasmids (resistance to one or more IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
antibiotics),Col-plasmids (Colicinogenic factor-toxic to related bacteria). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Plasmids are used in genetic engineering and biotechnology. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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8.4.1 Cell Envelope and its Modifications
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bacterial cells, have a chemically complex cell
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB envelope.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure i.e., the outer
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB glycocalyx, middle cell wall and the inner plasma membrane.
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Difference Between Gram +ve Bacteria and Gram –ve Bacteria
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB No. Gram + ve Bacteria Gram-ve Bacteria
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01 Remain coloured blue or purple with Do not retain the stain when washed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Gram stain ie Crystal Violet even after with absolute alcohol & show red or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB washing with absolute alcohol or ace-
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tone.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02 The wall is single layered. The wall is two layered.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Outer mem¬brane is absent. Outer membrane is present
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB The thickness of wall is 20-80 nm. ( LPS –lipopolysaccharides)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB The thickness of wall is 8-12 nm
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03 Thick peptidoglycan layer with embed- Thin peptidoglycan layer with no Te-
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ded Teichoic acid. ichoic acid.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04 Capsule is mostly absent. Capsule is mostly present.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05 More sensitive to antibiotics. Less sensitive to antibiotics.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Each layer of the envelope performs distinct function. However they act together as a
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04. Bacteria can be classified into two groups on the basis of the differences in the cell
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB envelopes and their response to Gram’s stain.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. The bacteria which take up the gram stain are Gram positive and the others that do not
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB are called Gram negative bacteria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB a) Glycocalyx :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among different bacteria.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It consists of only polysaccharides and some time oligopeptides along with polysaccharides.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. It could be a loose sheath called the slime layer in some bacteria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Functions of slime layer- adhesion ,protects cell from loss of water , nutrients
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB , viral attack.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB while in others it may be thick and tough, called the capsule. (persistent layer
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB around cell wall)
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Presence of capsule in bacteria such bacteria called as encapsulated bacteria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Functions of capsule- adhesion ,protection against phagocytosis and antibiotics.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. It is made up of oligosaccharides and sticky in nature.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB b) Cell wall :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. It is thick , rigid middle layer of cell envelope in almost bacteria.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. The cell wall determines the shape of the cell.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. It also provides a strong structural support to prevent the bursting or collapsing of the
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Cell Wall is present in bacteria and cyanobacteria but absent in mycoplasma or PPLO. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
chemically composed of Peptidoglycan (murein or mucopeptide) forms the structural IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
network of the bacterial cell wall. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Glycan part form backbone & composed of polymer of NAG ( N-acetyl glucosamine) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and NAM (N-acetyl muramic acid). Linked with beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Four amino acids are that form short peptide chain attached to NAM only. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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c) Plasma Membrane : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Innermost layer of cell envelope . The plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and interacts with the outside world. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. This membrane is structurally similar to that of the eukaryotes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Functions- Nutrient transport , site for respiration , photosynthesis , cell wall IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Cholesterol is absent ,but cholesterol like Hapanoids present. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
d) Mesosomes: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01 A special membranous structure is the mesosome. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. It is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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03 The mesosome are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
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04 Functions- They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
daughter cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. They also help in respiration, secretion processes, to increase the surface area of the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
plasma membrane and enzymatic content. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
e) Chromatophores- In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there are other IIB IIB IIB
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membranous extensions into the cytoplasm called chromatophores. They contain IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
pigments. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Chromatophore is considered as analogous to chloroplasts. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Respiratory Enzymes in prokaryotes usually lie in contact with cell membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Bacterial plasma membrane is metabolically active as it takes part in respiration, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
synthesis of lipids and cell wall components. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Chromatophores of green bacteria are called chlorosomes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Photosynthetic pigments are bacteriochlorophyll, bacterio-phaeophytin (bacterio- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
viridin) and carotenoids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Mesosomes is considered as analogous to mitochondria. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Mesosomes is also known as chondrioid. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Mesosomes has two types- 1) central / septal mesosomes 2) peripheral / lateral IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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f) Plasma Membrane : cytoplasm is complex, colloidal fluid containing ribosomes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
, enzymes, t-RNA, inorganic & organic matter. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Cyclosis, sap vacuoles and all membrane bounded organelles are absent. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 Flagella : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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01. Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile.
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02. Motile bacteria have flagella. They are thin filamentous extensions of cell wall. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Bacteria show a range in the number and arrangement of flagella. i.e. Monotrichous ,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Amphitrichous ,Lophotrichous , Cephalotrichous & Peritrichous.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts – filament, hook and basal body.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. The filament is the longest portion and extends from the cell surface to the outside.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Bacterial flagella is made up of globular protein called flagellin
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Bacterial flagella is single stranded ,9+2 fibrillar organisation absent.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Pili and fimbriae:(organ of adhesions) :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a role in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB motility.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein (Pilin).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. The fimbriae are small bristle like fibres coming out of the cell.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. In some bacteria, they help in attaching the bacteria to rocks in streams and to the host tissues.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Difference between Pili and Fimbriae
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Sr. Pill Fimbriae
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB i) They occur only in Gram negative They are found in both Gram +ve and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB bacteria. Gram -ve bacteria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ii) Pili are longer and broader. Fimbriae are shorter and narrow.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB iii) They help in conjugation. They take part in adhesion.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB iv) Formation of pili is controlled by F Formation of fimbriae is controlled by a
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB plamid or fertility factor. nucleoid gene.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
v) They are tubular structures. They are bristle-like solid structures.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.4.2-Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Ribosomes :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. In prokaryotes, ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. They are made of two subunits - 50S and 30S which together form 70S prokaryotic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ribosomes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Function- Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA & form a chain called polyribosomes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB or polysome.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosomes in bacteria are of two types, fixed and free.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Fixed ribosomes are attached to the plasma membrane while free ribosomes occur
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB free in the cytoplasmic matrix.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosomes are nucleoprotein ( RNA+ Protein)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Inclusion bodies :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB inclusion bodies.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. These are not bound by any membrane system and lie free in the cytoplasm, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
e.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The membrane of gas vacuole is impermeable to water but is permeable to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
atmospheric gases. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Gas vacuoles store metabolic gases & provide buoyancy & protection from harmful IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
radiations. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Food Reserve : Blue green algae have cyanophycean starch or lipid globules & IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cyanophycin or protein granules. In bacteria, starch is replaced by glycogen. Protein IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
granules are present. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5 EUKARYOTIC CELLS IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. In eukaryotic cells, there is an extensive compartmentalisation of cytoplasm due to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
presence of membrane bound organelles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Eukaryotic cells possess an well organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Eukaryotic cells also have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Their genetic material is organised into chromosomes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. All eukaryotic cells are not identical. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Plant and animal cells are different. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. The plant cells possess cell walls, plastids and a large central vacuole which are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
absent in animal cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. On the other hand, animal cells have centrioles which are absent in almost all plant IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cells.(Figure 8.3) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cell wall is present in plants, fungi & some protists but absent in animal cells & IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
some protists. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
A plant cell consists of cell wall and protoplast. Protoplasm of a cell is called protoplast. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 Cell organelles: are the intracellular membrane bounded or non-membranous IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
structures specialized for specific functions. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Organelles increase efficiency of cellular process. (division of labour) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Cell wall IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Endomembrane system (Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Mitochondria IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Plastids 05. Ribosomes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Cytoskeleton 07. Cilia and Flagella IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Centrosome and Centrioles 09. Nucleus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. Microbodies IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 11
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Cytoplasm is colourless, homogenous, translucent, amorphous and colloidal fluid.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Smallest-largest-longest :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Largest cell Organelle in plant and animal cell : Nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Second largest cell Organelle in plant cell : Chloroplast.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Second largest cell Organelle in animal cell : Mitochondria
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Smallest cell Organelle : Ribosome,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Cell Membrane
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. The cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in a bilayer.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. The lipids are arranged within the membrane with the hydropolic, polar head towards
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the outer sides and the hydrophobic, nonpolar tails towards the inner part.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Due to this, the non polar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
environment.(Figure 8.4)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Hydrophobic region of lipid bilayer provide resistance to hydrophilic & polar mol. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Hydrophobic mol. can easily pass if it is very small. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cell membrane is Selective permeable to allow specific molecules in & out of cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. In addition pospholipids membran also contains cholesterol.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phosphoglycerides6. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Biochemical investigation clearly revealed that the cell membranes also possess protein IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and carbohydrate. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably in different cell types. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 per cent IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
protein and 40 per cent lipids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Depending on ease of extraction the membrane proteins can be classified as integral IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
or peripheral. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of membrane while the integral proteins are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
partially or totally buried in the membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. An improved model of the structure of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nicolson (1972) widely accepted as fluid mosaic model. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
11. According to this, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid helps in the lateral movement of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
proteins within the bilayer. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12. This ability to move within the membrane is measured as its fluidity. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Some special points for cell membrane: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Fluid mosaic model described as “Protein icebergs in sea of lipids” by singer IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and Nicolson IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 13
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Phospholipids bilayer is quasifluid & provide fluidity because it is rich in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB unsaturated fatty acid which are liquid in nature.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • The lipid molecules are amphiatic or amphipathic i.e. they possess both polar
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB hydrophilic and nonpolar hydrophobic ends.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Cholesterol provide stability at high temperature in animal cells(fluidity
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB buffer)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Only Phospholipids show flip-flop movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Protein & lipid both show rotational & lateral diffusion.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Eukaryotic membrane contain cholesterol , but in prokaryotes Hapanoides.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • The glycolipds and glycoproteins glycocalyx(cell coat) on the outer surface of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB plasma membranes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • The glycocalyx helps in cell recognition, enzyme activity, antigen specificity,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB blood grouping, immune response etc
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • All membranes, whether external or internal are now called cell membranes or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB biomembranes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Functions –
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13 The fluid nature of the membrane is also important for the functions like cell growth,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB formation of intercellular junctions, cell division, Bulk transport 1) Endocytosis
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 2) Exocytosis (secretion) etc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. One of the most important functions of the plasma membrane is the transport of the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB molecules across it.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. The membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either side of it.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
16. Many molecules can move across the membrane without need of energy. This is
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB passive transport.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB along the concentration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 18. Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower concentration.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 19. As the polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB carrier protein of the membrane to promote their transport across the membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 20. A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their concentration
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentration
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Other models of cell membrane:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1) Lipoidal model-proposed by Overton.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 2) Gorter and Gradels lipid Bimolecular model (1925)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • According to this membrane are composed of Lipid bilayer only.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 3) Lamellar model (PLLP) ( 1935) : Butter Sandwitch Model.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • This model proposed by Danilli and Davson ,also called as Trilaminar / Trilayered/
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Butter Sandwitch Model.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • According to this bilayered phospho lipid is sandwitched in between two layer of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB proteins.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
14
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• The bilayered lipids is 35 (Å) thick , whereas each layer of protein is 20(Å), so IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
plasma membrane is 75 (Å) thick 75-100(Å) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Polar heads are held together by electrostatic forces. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Non-polar tails are held together by Vander Walls forces. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4) Unit Membrane Model- proposed by J. David Robertson. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• According to this all cellular and organelle membranes are structurally & IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
functionally similar. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cell Wall : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Cell wall is the non-living rigid structure covering the plasma membrane of fungi and plants. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Algae have cell wall. It is made of cellulose, Galactans , Mannose minerals like IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
calcium carbonate.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. In other plants, it consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. The cell wall of a young plant cell is the primary wall. It is capable of growth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. The growth gradually diminishes when the cell matures and the secondary wall is IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
formed on the inner (towards membrane) side of the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. The middle lamella of cell wall is mainly made up of calcium pectate. It holds or IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
glues the different neighbouring cells together. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. The cell wall and middle lamellae may be crossed by plasmodesmata which connect IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Functions of cell wall : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Cell wall gives shape to the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. It protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. It also helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. It provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cell wall present in Plants, Bacteria & Fungi (Chemically different). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The fungal cell wall is generally composed of chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(NAG) units. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The algal cell wall is made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
calcium carbonate. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The bacterial cell wall mainly composed of Peptidoglycans (Polysaccharide + amino IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
acid). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
this helps in their survival in extreme condition. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Dinoflagellates cell wall has stiff cellulose plate on the outer surface. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
In Euglenoids, instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
which makes their body flexible. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Plant cell wall : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cellulose is a main constituent of cell wall but addition to cellulose - Hemicellulose, cutin, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
pectin, lignin, suberin are also presents in cell wall. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cellulose microfibrils and macrofibrils arranged in layers to form skeleton of cell wall. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 15
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB In between these layers, other substances like pectin, hemicellulose may be present
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB which form matrix of cell wall.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Middle Lamella is a thin, amorphous and cementing layer between two adjacent cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Middle lamella is the first layer which is deposited at the time of cytokinesis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Secondary wall is laid inner to the primary wall.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It is made up of at least 3 layers, sometimes more. They are named as S1, S2, S3, Sx,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB etc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB The innermost layer of the secondary wall is sometimes is called tertiary wall.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Plasmodesmata :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB The cytoplasmic bridges between adjacent cells are called Plasmodesmata.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB A plasmodesmata consists of a fine pore or canal in the cell walls and middle lamella
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of two adjacent cells which is lined by plasma membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Plasmodesmata are useful in transfer of stimuli, nutrients and other materials between
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB adjacent cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  8.5.3 Endomembrane System
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Each of the membranous organelles has distinct structure and function.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Yet many of these are considered together as an endomembrane system because
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
their functions are coordinated.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. The endomembrane system include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB lysosomes and vacuoles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Since the functions of the mitochondria, chloroplast and peroxisomes are not coordinated
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB with the above components, these are not considered as part of the endomembrane system.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.5.3.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cells shows the presence of a network of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm called the endoplasmic reticulum
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (ER). (Figure 8.5)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Hence, ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments, i.e., luminal
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (inside ER) and extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ER is two types: Rough & Smooth
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ( RER)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Origen-It may develope from outer-membrane of nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. The ER commonly shows ribosomes on their outer surface.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The endoplasmic reticulun having ribosomes on their surface is called rough
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB endoplasmic reticulum (RER) , therefore appear as rough structure.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribophorin protein present on the surface of ER.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Generally it include cisternae & few tubules.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) are also called granular endoplasmic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB reticulum.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05 They are extensive and continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
16
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. RER is commonly found in the cells which are actively involved in protein synthesis IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
& secretion. ( eg. Pancreas, Liver ,& Goblet cells) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Post-translational modification of protein- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ie.- protein folding , glycosylation, cleavage of signal peptide. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Packaging & inracellular transport, or extracellular transport. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum ( SER). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Origen – It may develope from RER IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and are called smooth endoplasmic IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
reticulum (SER). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Ribophorins absent and therefore ribosome does not attached to surface of membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It consist vesicles & tubule IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) are also called agranular endoplasmic IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
reticulum. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 17
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for synthesis of lipid and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Cholesterol.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. In animal cells, lipid-like steroidal hormones are synthesised in SER.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Detoxification of drugs and pollutant with the help of Cytochrome –P450.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Synthesis and storage of Glycogen in liver cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Storage of calcium.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Visual pigments from Vit-A in retinal cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Endoplasmic Reticulum is also act as cytoskeleton,& provide mechanical support to
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB cytoplasmic matrix.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It take part in nuclear envelope formation in telophase.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Microsomes- fragments of ER obtained at high speed centrifugation & fragmentation
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Nissls granules-RER of nerve cells called as Nissls granules.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Sarcoplasmic reticulum- SER that occur in skeletal & cardiac muscle cells.( that
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB store Calcium & release during muscle contraction)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.5.3.2 Golgi apparatus
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Origen- mainly from SER.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Camillo Golgi (1898) first
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB observed densely stained
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB reticular structures near the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. These were later named
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Golgi bodies after him.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. They consist of many flat,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB disc-shaped sacs called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB cisternae of 0.5 mm to 1.0
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB mm diameter. (Figure 8.6)w
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The cisternae are stacked
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB parallel to each other.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB In Golgi body 4 types
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of structure is found -
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Cisternae, Vesicles, Vacuole
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and Tubules
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Different number of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB cisternae are present in a Golgi complex.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. They have distinct convex ‘cis’ or ‘the forming face’ and concave ‘trans’ or ‘the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB maturing face’.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. The cis and the trans faces of the organelle are entirely different, but interconnected.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
18
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Functions- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the ER are modified in the cisternae of the Golgi IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
apparatus ie Post- translational modification of proteins IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1. Protein folding
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2. Glycosylation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
3. Gycosidation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. Formation of glycoproteins & glycolipids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
11. Golgi apparatus mainly perform the function of Packaging materials and delivered IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(transfer) to the intra-cellular targets or secreted outside the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Materials to be packaged as vesicles released from the ER , fuse with the cis face & IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
move towards the trans face ,therefore Golgi apparatus remains in close association IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
with ER. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 Other function of golgi apparatus: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
New cell wall (cell plate) formation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Acrosome formation of sperm during spermiogenesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lysosome formation- vesicles of golgi complex & ER both take part in synthesis of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
primary lysosome ( GERL system) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Vitellogenesis – it act as center around which yolk is deposited. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Golgi complex is also called as lipochondrian or dictyosomes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• The invertebrates and plant cells usually have small several Golgi complexes called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
dictyosomes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• It is absent in prokaryotic cells, in mature RBC and sperm IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• They are found in large number in secretory and glandular cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• All the macromolecules which are to be sent out side the cell, move through the golgi IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
body. So golgi body is termed as “Director of macromolecular traffic in cell” or middle IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
men of cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5.3.3 LYSOSOMES : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. These are single membrane bound vesicular structures. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lysosomes discovered by De Duve in Liver of rat cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lysosome observed by Novikoff (1956) under TEM. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. They are formed by the process of packaging in the golgi apparatus. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. The isolated lysosomal vesicles are very rich in almost all types of hydrolytic IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases, carbohydrases, phosphotases, sulphatases
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and lysozyme). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
All enzymes found in lysosome requires acidic ph. for their action, hence called acid IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
hydrolases. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. The enzymes are optimally active at the acidic pH (at pH 4-5). by pumping H+ or IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
protons in to them. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. These enzymes cause digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lysosome are also called sucidal bags, recycling centres and disposal bags ,because IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of autolysis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 19
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Types of Lysosomes / Polymorphism :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Polymorphism is the phenomenon of exsistence of more than one morphological or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB physiological form. There are four types of lysosomes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Primary Lysosome (Protolysosome) or storage granules :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB These are newly formed lysosomes from golgi complex by GERL system. These
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
lysosomes store enzyme Acid Hydrolases in the inactive form.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Secondary lysosome :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB When the primary lysosome fuses with the other vacuoles (pinosome /phagosome)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB then it is called secondary lysosome. It contains active enzymes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They are also called heterophagosome or digestive vacuoles or phagolysosome.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Residual bodies : (Tertiary Lysosome)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Thses are those lysosomes in which only indigestable food materials have been left.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Secondary lysosome + Undigested food = Residual body.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB These may be eliminated by exocytosis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Autophagic vacuole / Autophagolysosome:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They are produced by fusion of a number of primary lyosomes around worn out or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB degenerate intracellular organelles, dead cells diseased cells etc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Functions:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Intracelluar digestion- it is intracellular digestion may involve:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1) Autophagy –itracellular digestion of cytoplasmic material ,dead & old cells ,damaged
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB cells , excess & damaged organelles. (Autolysis-refers to digestion of own cells &
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB therefore called as suicidal bags of cell.)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Metamorphosis- autolysis occur during amphibians & insect metamorphosis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Autolysis –also occur during Starvation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 2) Hetrophagy- it is intake of exogenous material ( harmful bacteria) in to cells &
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB breakdown by enzymes through endocytosis. (it may be phagocytosis or pinocytosis)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Defence mechanism ( hetophagy) – engulfment of pathogens & harmful substance
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB by WBC cells through phagocytosis
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Extracellular digestion- it is the digestion of extracellular matrix or unwanted
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB substance by secretion of enzymes through exocytosis. ( eg-Osteoclast digest
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB unwanted part of bone during bone erosion process.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Crinophagy-Excessive secretory granulesof hormone in endocrine glands may be
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB digested by lysosome .this event is called as crinophagy.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Lysosome also help in eggs membrane digestion during fertilization.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Formation of Lysosome is collective function of golgi body and E.R.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Lysosome are found in abundant in Phagocytic and WBC, Kuffer’s cells, pancreatic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB cells, liver cells & Fungi.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • They are absent in prokaryotic cells, RBC and sperm, higher plants.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • In bacteria space in between cell wall and cell membrane act as a lysosome
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (periplasmic space).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
20
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Lysosomes arise from system of GERL - (Golgi Associated Endoplasmic Reticulum). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• GERL=E.R.-Golgi body-Lysosome IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5.3.4 Vacuoles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. It contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. The vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the volume of the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. In plants, the tonoplast promotes the transport of a number of ions and other materials IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
against concentration gradients into the vacuole. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Hence the concentration of these materials is significantly higher in the vacuole than IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
in the cytoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for excretion and osmoregulation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. In many cells like protist cells, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
particles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Vacuoles are non-cytoplasmic areas present inside the cytoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Vacuoles are generally absent in animal cells and meristematic cells in plants. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cell of permanent tissue in plants have well developed vacuoles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Vacuoles are believed to be formed from ER. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Types of vacuoles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Depending upon the contents and functions, vacuoles are of four types— sap vacuoles, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles & gas vacuoles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sap Vacuoles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are fluid filled vacuoles or vesicles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
In mature plant cells, the small vacuoles fuse to form a single large central IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
vacuole. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The fluid present in the sap vacuoles is often called sap or vacuolar sap. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, esters, proteins, waste products and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
water soluble pigments called anthocyanins and anthoxanthins . IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Contractile Vacuoles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They occur in some protistan and algal cells found mostly in fresh water. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
A contractile vacuole has a highly extensible and collapsible membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Contractile vacuoles take part in osmoregulation and excretion. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Food Vacuoles :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formed by fusion of phagosome and a lysosome. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They occur in the cells of protozoan protists, sponges, coelenterates and phagocytes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of higher animals. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The food vacuole contains digestive enzymes with the help of which nutrients are
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
digested. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The digested materials pass out into the surrounding cytoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 21
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Gas Vacuoles :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It is also called as Pseudovacuoles /Air vacuoles
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They are found only in prokaryotes and some eukaryotic cells
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Gas vacuoles not only store gases but provide buoyancy, mechanical stength and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB protection from harmful radiations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.5.4 Mitochondria:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Discovered by Kolliker(1880) in striated flight muscle cells in insect.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Richard Altman in 1890 described as organelles “ bioblast”.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Term mitochondria used by Carl Benda (1897)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01 Mitochondria ( sing: mitochondrion) are not easily visible under microscope without
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB staining.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02 The number of mitochondria per cell is variable depending on the physiological
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB activity of the cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Mitochondria show considerable variations in shape and size.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Structure of mitochondrion-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Typically it is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-1.0 μm (average
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 0.5μm) and length 1.0-4.1μm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the outer membrane
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and the inner membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB The outer membrane is permeable while inner mitochondrial membrane is selectively
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB permeable.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. The mitochondria also have outer and the inner compartment.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07 The inner compartment is called the matrix.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08 The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of the mitochnodria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called the cristae ( sing: crista)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB towards the matrix. (Figure 8.7)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. The cristae increase the surface area.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Inner mambrane & cristae bears ETC. and elementary particles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Elementary particles are also known as or oxysome or F1–particles or F0–F1
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB particles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB These are considered as functional unit of mitochondria.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. The two membranes have their own specific enzymes for the mitochondrial functions.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. The matrix also possesses single circular DNA (mt-DNA) molecule, a few RNA
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the components required for the synthesis of proteins.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Therefore mitochondria consider as a semi-autonomous self replicating organelle.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Mitochondria of mammals have 55s type of ribosomes (35s+25s)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. The mitochondria divide by fission.(amitosis)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  Function-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP.Hence they are called ‘power
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB houses’of the cell.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
22
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Also called as ATP-mill or furanaces or storage batteries in cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mitochondria are stained by Janus green -B. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Second largest organelle in animals and third largest in plants. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are absent in prokaryotes, anaerobic eukaryotes and mature RBCs. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Perimitochondrial space (Intermembrane space) is rich in coenzymes and enzymes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
required for oxidation of fats. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
All mitochondria of cell called as chondriome IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mt –DNA that is rich in G-C ratio. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Orthodox state of mitochondria- inactive form IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Condensed state- Active form IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mesosomes and mitochondria are analogous organ IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The outer mitochondrial membrane has ‘porin’ channels proteins. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Some sessile particles attached to outer membrane are known as “subunit of parsons”. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
If outer membrane of mitochondria is removed then it is called mitoplast. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mitochondria present in the middle piece of sperm are called nebenkern IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.8.5 Plastids: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
These are Double membrane,DNA containing largest organelles in plant cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Discovered by Haeckel (1865) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Plastids are found in all plant cells ,algal cells and in euglenoides.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. These are easily observed under the microscope as they are large. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. They bear some specific pigments, thus giving specific colours to the plants. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and leucoplasts. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. The pigments trap light energy essential for photosynthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 23
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB others are present. This gives the part of the plant a yellow, orange or red colour.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids of different shapes and sizes with stored
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB nutrients.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. They are of three types-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB i) Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch), e.g., potato;
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ii) Elaioplasts store oils and fats and iii) Aleuroplasts store proteins.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Origen –All plastids originated from Pro-plastids (sac like non-lamellar structure)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB All plastids are interchangeable , but chromoplast do not change to other form.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Chloroplasts:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Majority of the chloroplasts of the green plants are found in the mesophyll cells of the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB leaves.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like organelles
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. They have variable length of (5-10mm) and width (2-4mm).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Their number varies from 1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas (a green alga) to 20-40
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB per cell in the mesophyll.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Structure of chloroplast-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. The chloroplasts are double membrane bound - the outer and mmebrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. The inner chloroplast membrane is relatively less permeable.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. A number of organised flattened membranous sacs called the thylakoids are present in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the stroma. (Figure 8.8)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana (singular:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB granum) or the intragranal thylakoids.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. There are also flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae which connect the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB thylakoids of the different grana.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
24
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
11. The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12. Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
13. The stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
carbohydrates and proteins. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
14. It also contains small, double-stranded, circular DNA molecules and ribosomes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
15. The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Function- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Chloroplast act as site for photosynthesis. Therefore also called as Autoplast / IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
photosynthetic apparatus/ Kitchen of cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Chloroplasts are semi-autonomous and self replicating organelles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Thylakoids are the structural elements of the chloroplast. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Inner membrane of thylakoids contains ‘Quantasomes’ ( discovered by Park & IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Biggins) act as functional unit of photosynthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
it has double stranded,circular DNA called as cp-DNA/ plastidome. ( G-C rich ratio) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Thylakoid membranes possess photosynthetic pigments and coupling factors. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Coupling factors are involved in ATP synthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The outer membrane of chloroplast has porins and is permeable while inner IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
membrane is selectively permeable. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
RUBP Carboxylase or Carboxydismutase is the most abundant protein in the world. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Rubisco forms 16% proteins of the chloroplast. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mitochondria Chloroplasts IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are colourless cell organelles. Chloroplasts are green organelles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They occur in plants, animals, fungi They occur in plants and some protists. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and protists.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are found in all cells of eukaryotic They are present only in green cells IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
3
organisms exposed to light. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are generally cylindrical in Chloroplasts are generally disc-shaped. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
outline.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Pigments do not occur in mitochondria. The membranes of thylakoids possess IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
5
chloroplylls and carotenoids IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mitochondria do not take part in the Chloroplasts are the centres of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
6 conversion of light energy into chemical conversion of solar energy into chemi- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
energy. cal energy. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They liberate energy by breaking down They store energy by building up or- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
7
of organic food. ganic food. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Organic food is broken down to produce Carbon dioxide and water are used for IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8 carbon dioxide and water. synthesis of organic food in the process IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of photosynthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
9 Mitochondria consume oxygen. Chloroplasts liberate oxygen.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 25
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.5.6 Ribosomes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed under the electron microscope
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB as dense particles by George Palade in animal cell 1953. (therefore called as Palade
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB particles)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Robinson and Brown discovered in plant cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. They are not surrounded by any membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Each ribosomes has two subunits, larger & smaller subunit.(Fig 8.9)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. The subunits of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S while that of 70S ribosomes are 50S
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 30S. (Fig 8.8)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Here ‘S’ (Svedberg’s Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It indirectly is a measure of density and size.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Function – site for protein synthesis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosomes are the smallest and largest in number organelles in a cell.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosome are also called as “Organelle within an organelle” or “Protein factory
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of cell”.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosome are found in all types of cells (except mature mammalian RBC)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB In prokaryotes, ribosomes are attached with plasma membrane and some are
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB scattered in the cytoplasm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB In eukaryotes, ribosomes are scattered in the cytoplasm and attached to endoplamic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
reticulum and outer nuclear membrane.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Magnesium ion is essential for the binding the ribosome sub units.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosome is mainly of 2 types - Prokaryotic Ribosome (70S) & Eukaryotic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ribosomes (80s)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Many ribosomes get attached with mRNA & known as polyribosome/polysome/
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ergosome.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ribosome is composed of RNA and Protein (Ribonucleoprotein)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB S=Svedberg unit or Sedimentation rate indirectly is a measure of density and size
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
26
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Chemical Composition of Ribosomes : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Type 70s- 60% r-RNA+ 40% Protein 80s - 40% r-RNA + 60% Protein IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Smaller 50s- r-RNA 23 s, 5s 60s- r-RNA 28s, 5.8s, 5s IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Larger 30s- r-RNA 16 s, 40s - r-RNA18s IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5.7 Cytoskeleton IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cytoplasm is collectively called the cytoskeleton. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Functions-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in many functions such as mechanical support, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cytoskeletal structures are extremely minute, fibrous and tubular structures which IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
form the structural frame-work inside the cell. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cytoskeletal structures maintain shape of the cell and intra cellular transport and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
movement of cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are of three types :- microfilaments, intermediate filaments and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
microtubules IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1) Microfilament: ( size 6-7 nm)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
made up from contractile protein Actin and occur in only plant & animal cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Help in cleavage furrow formation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cytoplasming streaming (cyclosis) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2) Intermediate filaments:(size 10 nm) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
made up of non-contractile structural proteins .( keratin, Desmin , vimentin) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Provide stability.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
3) Microtubules: ( size 25nm) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
made up of tubulin (13-protofilaments) present only in animal cell cytoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Help in cell plate formation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
motility (movement) of cilia / flagella IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
spindle fiber during cell division. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
centrioles IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5.8 Cilia and Flagella: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Cilia ( sing: cilium) and flagella( sing: flagellum) are hair-like outgrowths of the cell IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Cilia are small structures which work like oars. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. They cause the movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. The flagella in prokaryotic bacteria are structurally different from that of the eukaryotic IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
flagella. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 Internal structure of cilium and flagellum-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. The electron microscopic study of a cilium or the flagellum show that they are covered IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
with plasma membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 27
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Their core is called the axoneme.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. The axoneme possesses a number of microtubules running parallel to the long axis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially arranged peripheral
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB microtubules, and a pair of centrally located singlet microtubules.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. Such an arrangement of axonemal microtubules is called as the 9+2 array. (Figure
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.10)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. The central tubules are connected by bridges ( a double bridge) & is enclosed by a
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB central sheath.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. The sheath is connected to one of the tubules of each peripheral doublets by a radial
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB spoke( Dynein protein) Thus, there are nine radial spokes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers (A-B linkers composed of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Nexin protein).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. Both the cilium and flagellum come out from centriole-like structure called the basal
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB bodies.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Basal body is also called as Blepharoplast , Basal granule or Kinetosome,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Basal body of Flagella and cilia are protoplasmic outgrowth that occur on the free
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB surface of the cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1) Cilia-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB No .of cilia is more.(3000-14000)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Present in epithelium of respiratory tract , renal tubules , ciliata group of protis
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They beat co-ordinated manner ie. synchronomous or matachronous.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They show pendular movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Power stroke & Recovery stroke for locomotion.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB True cilia are Kinocillia ,where as Stereocilia cilia like structure without basal
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB body.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cilia also perform locomotion, sensory ,aeration, feeding, circulation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 2) Flagella-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB No .of flagella is less ( 1-4)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
28
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Present in many protista ,motile algae ,spermatozoa of animals ,zoospores, and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
gametes of thallophytes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
present at one end of body /organ. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They beat independently. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They show un-dulatory movement. (wavelike) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Power stroke & Recovery stroke for locomotion IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
flagella perform locomotion only.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u A-subtubules has two side arms or lateral arms composed of dynein protein. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Out of these outer dynein arm has hook. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Inner dynein arm shows ATPase activity , which generate force for movement IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
thus it is considered as locomotory motor for cilia IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The cilia and flagella move by sliding of the doublet fibrils against one another. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mg++, Ca++ and ATP are required for this.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5.9 Centrosome and Centrioles: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
centrioles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. They are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The pair of centriole is called diplosome. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Centrioles and centrosphere collectively called centrosome or cytocentre or central IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
apparatus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other. (at right angle IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(900) to each other) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Each centriole has an organisation like the cartwheel. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. They are made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Each of the peripheral fibril is made up of three sub fibril called as triplet. (from IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
outside to inside these sub fibril named as C, B, A) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07 The adjacent triplets connected by A-C proteinaceous linkers. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is also proteinaceous and called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the hub. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 29
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The hub is connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets by radial spokes made of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB protein.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. They form spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell division in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB animal cells.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Centrioles help in cell division by forming microtubules organising center
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (MTOC).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Centrioles are absent in prokaryotes, some protozoan protistans lacking cilia or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB flagella (e.g. amoeba), diatoms, red algae, higher fungi, higher gymnosperms
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and angiosperms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They are present in all animal cells except mature mammalian RBCs
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 8.5.10 Nucleus:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB I. Nucleus is cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown (1831).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB II. Later the material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes ( eg-acetocarmine) & given
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the name chromatin by Walther flemming.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB III. Two types of chromatin material have been recognized when stained with Feulgen
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB stain i.e. Hetrochromatin and Euchromatin
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB IV. Normally, a cell has only one nucleus but some cells have more than one. ( eg
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB -binucleate in Paramecium)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB V. Some mature cells lack nucleus. E.g. mammalian RBC & sieve tube cells of vascular
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB plants
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Figure 8.11- Microscopic Structure of nucleus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB  The interphase nucleus contains:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1) Nuclear envelope 2) Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm) 3) Chromatin 4) Nucleolus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1) Nuclear envelope:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB i. Electron micrography revealed that nuclear envelope is a double membrane ie outer &
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB inner with a space between (10 - 50 nm) called as perinuclear space.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ii. It is a barrier between the materials in the nucleus & cytoplasm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
30
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iii. Outer membrane usually continuous with the ER & also bears ribosomes on it. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iv. Nuclear envelope has nuclear pores formed by the fusion of its two membrane. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
v. These are the passages for the movement of RNA & protein between nucleus & IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cytoplasm IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2) Nuclear matrix (Nucleoplasm): IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleoplasm is nuclear matrix contain Nucleolus & chromatin.( term given by IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Strasburger1882) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleoplasm is transperant, semifluid colloidal substance, ground substance of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
nucleus. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nuclear matrix is a network of proteinaceous fibrils IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Fibrous lamina / nuclear lamina- peripheral part of nucleoplsm IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
3) Nucleous: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
i) The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleolus (discovered by Fontana & term by Bowman) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ii) The nucleolus is not bounded by any membrane.So the content of nucleolus is IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
continuous the nucleoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Function. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iii) Nucleolus is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis. (Ribosome factory of cell) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iv) Larger and more numerous nucleoli are present in cells which are actively carrying out IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
protein synthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleolus is attached to the chromatin at a specific region called nucleolar organiser IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
region (NOR). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleolus disappears during nuclear division and reappears after its reformation. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Here rRNA and ribosomal proteins are assembled to form ribosomes which move to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cytoplasm through nuclear pore IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4) Chromatin : Chromatin ( term given by Flemming) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
i). The interphase nucleus has a loose and indistinct network of nucleoprotein fibres IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
called chromatin. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ii). During different stages of cell division, cells show chromosomes in place of the nucleus. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iii). Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, some non-histone IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
proteins and also RNA. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
During cell division, chromatins condense to form chromosomes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iv). A single human cell has approximately two metre long thread of DNA distributed IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
among its forty six (twenty three pairs) chromosomes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
v) Every chromosome has a primary constriction or the centromere. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
vi) On the sides of centromere, disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(Figure 8.11). Centromere holds two chromatids of a chromosome. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 31
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Types of chromosomes :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Based on the position of the centromere,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the chromosomes can be classified into four
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB types. (Figure 8.12)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB a) The metacentric chromosome has middle
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB centromere forming two equal arms of the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB chromosome and shows ‘V’ shape. during
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB anaphase
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB b) The sub-metacentric chromosome has
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB centromere slightly away from the middle
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of the chromosome with one shorter arm and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB one longer arm and shows ‘L’ shape.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB c) The acrocentric chromosome has the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB centromere close to its end with one extremely
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
short and one very long arm and shows ‘J’
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB shape.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB d) The telocentric chromosome has a terminal
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB centromere and shows ‘ i ‘ shape.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB vii) Sometimes a few chromosomes have one or more non-staining secondary constrictions
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB at a constant location.This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the satellite.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Figure-8.12 Types of chromosomes based on the position of centromere.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB At the time of cell division the chromatin material get condensed to form
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
chromosome, thus chromosome is highly condensed form of the chromatin.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Chromosomes are not visible during interphase stage.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB The outermost, thin proteinaceous sheath of chromosome is called pellicle.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Sometimes string with beads like structure are seen on chromatin fibres called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB chromomeres
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
32
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Kinetochores is the actual site of attachement of spindles to chromosomes during IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cell division. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The secondary constrictions are always constant in their positions and can be IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
used as markers. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Part of the chromosome beyond the secondary constriction is termed satellite. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Chromosome with satellite is called SAT chromosomes (SAT = Sine Acid IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Thymonucleinico) or marker chromosomes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Certain secondary constrictions are the sites for the formation of nucleoli and are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
known as nucleolar organizers. (NOR) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The chromosomes having nucleolar organizers are called nucleolar IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
chromosomes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Tip of chromosome is known as telomere,( G- rich repeats )which prevents ends IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
sticking with each other. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Enzyme Telomerase synthesize in telomere part of chromosome.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The ratio of length of the long arm to the short arm of a chromosome is called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
arm ratio IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8.5.11 -Microbodies : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1) Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain various IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
enzymes, are present in both plant and animal cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. They are small cell organelles bounded by single membrane which contain verious IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
enzymes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Microbodies are of three types - peroxisomes ,glyoxysome and spherosome IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Peroxisomes :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The peroxisomes have enzymes for direct oxidation and peroxide synthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Peroxisomes contain peroxidase which catalyze the oxidation of substrates forming IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
H2O2 (Hydrogen peroxide). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Peroxisomes also contain Catalase which quickly degrades H2O2 into water & oxygen.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
H2O2 formed is highly toxic. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Peroxisomes are also involved in beta–oxidation of fatty acids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Peroxisomes are found in both plant and animal cells. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
In mesophyll cells, peroxisomes along with chloroplasts and mitochondria to take part IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
in photorespiration. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Glyoxysomes : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Glyoxysomes occur only in plants especially in fatty seeds (castor seed), guard cells IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of stomata and unripe fruits. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They contain enzymes for oxidation of fatty acids and glyoxylate pathway. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Spherosomes : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They occur in plant cells only. They are major site for lipid storage and synthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cutin & Suberin are synthesized in it. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 33
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB CELL-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB SPECIAL TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB a) Lampbrush chromosomes :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Lampbrush chromosome was first observed by Flemming in amphibian oocyte. in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB diplotene stage of meiosis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They are found in the oocyte of insects, sharks, amphibian, reptiles and birds which
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB produce yolky egg.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Lampbrush chromosome contains main a central main axis formed of DNA, matrix of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB RNA and Proteins which posses series of chromomeres.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Main axis give rise to lateral loops which are composed of DNA, shows active
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB transcription of many genes [yolk formation (vitellogenesis)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB b) Polytene chromosome or Salivary gland chromosome :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • The discovered by Balbiani (1881) in the cell of salivary glands of Chironomus larva of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Dipterian inspect.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • These are also found in malpighian tubles, endosperm antipodal cells, salivary glands of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Drosophila melanogastor.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • The size of polytene chromosomes is 200mm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • They are found in permanent prophase stage.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They become giant due to endomitosis or endoduplication.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB •
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Large swellinge area found on some places of each strand that are called chromosomal
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB puffs (Balbiani rings).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • In puffs DNA is uncoiled and involved in active gene transcription.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB • Polytene chromosome is associated with Insect metamorphogenesis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
34
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LIFEIIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
 Karyotype and idiogram : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Karyotype is a photographic arrangement of complete set of chrosome of cell/ Organism IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
on the basis of size, position of centromere, secondary constriction, size of satellite. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Karyotype can be studied in metaphase of mitosis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Diagrammatic representation of Karyotype is called idiogram. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• In idiogram, chromosomes are arranged in decreasing order of size and Sex chromosomes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are placed in last. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Karyotype may be Asymmetric karyotype and symmetric karyotype IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• The karyotype of different species are compared and similarities in them represent the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
evolutionary relationships. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• Karyotype is helpful in detection of chromosomal abberrations and polyploidy. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
• In research of medical genetics, Forensic science, Cytogenetics and Anthropogenetics. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
uuuu IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEET NOTES 35

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