4.2 Biodiversity Notes

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YOUR NOTES
4.2 Biodiversity ⬇
CONTENTS
4.2.1 Biodiversity
4.2.2 Sampling to Determine Biodiversity
4.2.3 Practical: Investigating Biodiversity Using Sampling
4.2.4 Measuring Species Richness & Species Evenness
4.2.5 Simpson's Index
4.2.6 Genetic Diversity
4.2.7 Factors Affecting Biodiversity
4.2.8 Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity
4.2.9 Methods of Maintaining Biodiversity
4.2.10 Conservation Agreements
4.2.1 BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be thought of as a study of all the variation that exists within and between
all forms of life
Biodiversity looks at the range and variety of genes, species and habitats within a particular
region
It can be assessed at three different levels:

The number and range of different ecosystems and habitats
The number of species and their relative abundance
The genetic variation within each species
Biodiversity is very important for the resilience of ecosystems, in that it allows them to
resist changes in the environment
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YOUR NOTES
Ecosystem or habitat diversity

This is the range of different ecosystems or habitats within a particular area or region
If there is a large number of different habitats within an area, that area is likely to have high
biodiversity
A good example of this is a coral reef. They are very complex with lots of
microhabitats and niches to be exploited
If there are only one or two different habitats within an area, that area is likely to have low
biodiversity
Large sandy deserts typically have very low biodiversity as the conditions are
basically the same throughout the whole area
Species diversity
An ecosystem such as a tropical rainforest that has a very high number of different species
would be described as being species-rich
Species richness is the number of species within an ecosystem
Species diversity includes the number of different species in an ecosystem, and also the
evenness of abundance across the different species present (known as species
evenness)
The greater the number of species in an ecosystem, and the more evenly
distributed the number of individuals from each species, the greater the species
diversity
For example, an ecosystem can have a large number of different species but some
species may be very rare (may only have a few individuals) in that particular
ecosystem. As a result, the ecosystem does not necessarily have high species
diversity
Ecosystems with high species diversity are usually more stable than those with lower
species diversity as they are more resilient to environmental changes
For example in the Pine forests of Florida, the ecosystem is dominated by one or
two tree species. If a pathogen comes along that targets one of the two dominant
species of trees, then the whole population could be wiped out and the ecosystem it is
a part of could collapse

YOUR NOTES
Genetic diversity
The genetic diversity within a species is the diversity of alleles and genes in the
genome of species
Although individuals of the same species will have the same genes they will not necessarily
have the same alleles for each gene
Genetic diversity is measured by working out the proportion of genes that have more than
one form (allele) and how many possible alleles each gene has
There can be genetic differences or diversity between populations of the same species
These differences may arise because the two populations occupy slightly different
ranges in their habitat and so are subject to slightly different selection pressures that
affect the allele frequencies in their populations
Genetic diversity can also be observed within a single population

Genetic diversity in a species is important as it can help the population adapt to, and
survive, changes in the environment
The changes could be in biotic factors such as new predators, pathogens and
competition with other species
Or the changes could be through abiotic factors like temperature, humidity and
rainfall
Genetic diversity is limited in populations that are very small or isolated

Inbreeding in small, isolated populations leads to a high proportion of individuals
being homozygous (e.g. AA to aa) for many genes, resulting in lower genetic
diversity
This can mean that genetic diseases caused by recessive alleles can become
more common in these populations

YOUR NOTES
4.2.2 SAMPLING TO DETERMINE BIODIVERSITY

Sampling to Determine Biodiversity
Measuring the different levels of biodiversity within an ecosystem can be challenging
Finding out which species live in an ecosystem and the size of the populations requires the
identification and cataloguing of all organisms present to build a species list
This is possible for areas that are very small or where the species are very large like trees
However, for larger and more complex ecosystems like rainforests, it is simply impossible to
find, identify and count every organism that exists there
When this is the case, different samples of the area can be taken and used to make an
estimate for the total species numbers in the area
Sampling
Sampling is a method of investigating the abundance and distribution of species and
populations
There are two different types of sampling:

Random
Non-random
In random sampling, the positions of the sampling points are completely random or due to
chance
This method is beneficial because it means there will be no bias by the person that is
carrying out the sampling that may affect the results
In non-random sampling the positions of the sampling points are chosen by the person
carrying out the sampling
There is a possibility that the person choosing could show bias towards or against
certain areas
Individuals may deliberately place the quadrats in areas with the least species as
these will be easier and quicker to count
This is unrepresentative of the whole area
When a sampling area is reasonably uniform or has no clear pattern to the way the
species are distributed then random sampling is the best choice

YOUR NOTES
Random sampling
Some ecosystems are very complex with large numbers of different species of different sizes
For the sake of logistics, random sampling is often used to estimate the distribution and
abundance of species
The distribution of a species describes how it is spread throughout the ecosystem
The abundance of a species is the number of individuals of that species
When carrying out sampling, square frames called quadrats can be used to mark off the
area being sampled
Quadrats are square frames made of wood or wire
They can be a variety of sizes eg. 0.25m2 or 1m2
They are placed on the ground and the organisms within them are recorded
They can be used to measure the distribution and abundance of plants or slow-
moving animals
Using a quadrat to investigate population size or distribution

YOUR NOTES
Quadrats of different sizes can be used depending on what is being measured and what is
most suitable in the space the samples are being made in
Quadrats must be laid randomly in the area to avoid sampling bias

This random sampling can be done by converting the sampling area into a grid
format and labelling each square on the grid with a number
Then a random number generator is used to pick the sample points
Once the quadrat has been laid on the chosen sample point the abundance or percentage
cover of all the different species present can be recorded
Using a quadrat to investigate the percentage cover of two species of grass. There may
be some squares lacking any species and other squares with multiple species – this
means the total percentage cover of a single quadrat can sometimes be over or under
100%

YOUR NOTES
Quadrats are suitable for sampling plants or slow-moving animals
For many animal species, however, it is not possible to use quadrats to measure their
distribution and abundance
In these cases, other techniques involving other items of equipment are necessary,
including:
Sweeping nets: these are large, strong nets with a fine material (very small holes)
that are used to catch flying insects and insects that live in long grass by sweeping
the net back and forth through the grass
Pitfall traps: these are cans or jars that are buried in the ground that are used to
catch ground-dwelling (often nocturnal) insects and other invertebrates as they fall
into the trap
Pooters: these are small plastic or glass containers with two tubes sticking out that
are used to suck up small insects and other small invertebrates. The first tube is
placed over the insect and the second tube is used by the scientist to create suction
Tullgren funnel: these are funnels with a light bulb above and a container below
that are used to collect invertebrates that live in leaf litter or soil. The leaf litter or soil
is placed in the funnel and the light and heat forces the invertebrates to move down
until they drop into the container
Kick-sampling: this technique is used to catch freshwater invertebrates living in

streams or rivers. A net in placed on the stream-bed so that the water is flowing into it
and the stream-bed just above the net is churned up by the scientist (using their foot)
for a set period of time. The invertebrates are carried by the stream into the net

YOUR NOTES
Example of how a pitfall trap can be used
An example of how a pooter can be used

YOUR NOTES
An example of how a Tullgren funnel can be used
Example of how kick-sampling is done

YOUR NOTES
Non-random sampling
Random sampling is not always possible or may take an impractically long time. In these
cases, non-random sampling may be more suitable
There are three main types of non-random sampling:

Opportunistic sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
Opportunistic sampling involves picking and choosing sampling locations based on various
non-random factors. For example, students on a field trip may be told they can only
collect samples from locations that are nearby, easy to reach, and safe
Stratified sampling involves matching the number of sampling locations in a particular

habitat with the relative proportion of area that habitat covers in the whole area being
studied. For example, if 10% of a dense woodland being sampled is actually made up of
grassy clearings, then 90% of the sample locations should be in the woodland habitat and
10% in the grass habitat
Systematic sampling is used when there is a clear change in the physical conditions
across the area being studied
For example, there may be changes in altitude, soil pH or light intensity
Methods using transects can help show how species distribution changes with the
different physical conditions in the area
A transect is a line represented by a measuring tape, along which sample are taken
For a line transect:

Lay out a measuring tape in a straight line across the sample area
At equal distances along the tape, record the identity of the organisms that
touch the line. For example, every 2m
This produces qualitative data
For a belt transect:

Place quadrats at regular intervals along the tape and record the abundance or
percentage cover of each species within each quadrat
This produces quantitative data

YOUR NOTES
A line transect and belt transect is carried out in the field

YOUR NOTES
4.2.3 PRACTICAL: INVESTIGATING BIODIVERSITY USING

SAMPLING
Practical: Investigating Biodiversity Using Sampling
Apparatus
Quadrat
Random number generator
Method for choosing sample sites

Mark up a grid on a map or a to-scale drawing of the area being studied and label the grid
with coordinates
It is important that the area is big enough to get a representative estimate for the
specific habitat/ecosystem
Use a random number generator to choose a set of coordinates

This is done to avoid sampling bias which could lead to over or under-estimation
(either subconsciously choosing areas that are easier to access or that look like they
contain individuals)

YOUR NOTES
Getting measurements from quadrats

The contents within quadrats can be counted using different measurements
Population density, percentage cover and species frequency are all different ways of counting
and recording the number of different species and individuals present within a quadrat
Calculating population density (number of individuals per m2):

Place a quadrat at the generated coordinate
Count the number of individuals in each quadrat
Use a running mean to determine the number of quadrats required to get a representative
sample:
Calculate the mean number of individuals per quadrat for the first two quadrats
found, then the mean of the first three, then the mean of the first four and repeat
until there is no further significant change in the mean
To calculate the estimated population size for the whole area or habitat, divide the
whole area by the area of one quadrant, then multiply this value by the mean number
of individuals per quadrat
Calculating the abundance of a species using percentage cover

(%):
Usually used for plants
Place a grid quadrat (a square frame split into 100 smaller squares) at this coordinate
Each square of a grid quadrat is equivalent to 1% cover
Count the number of squares in each quadrat within which the species occupies over half
the square
If 30 squares contain the species, the percentage cover is 30%
This method is subjective and therefore the same person should make the
estimate for all samples to control this variable
Calculating the abundance of a species using frequency (%):

Place a frame quadrat at multiple coordinates generated
Count the number of quadrats that contain the species

If 3 out of 10 quadrats contain the species the frequency is 30%

YOUR NOTES
Interpreting results from quadrats

The results from the quadrats can be used to calculate the predicted frequency and density
of a species within an area
Species density indicates how many individuals of that species there are per unit area
The number of individuals counted across all quadrats is divided by the total area of
all the quadrats
For example, if 107 bluebells were found across 50 quadrats that are 1m2 each the
species density would be 107/50 = 2.14 individuals per m2
It can sometimes be difficult to count individual plants or organisms. When this is the case
percentage cover of the species within the quadrat can be estimated instead
The quadrat is divided into 100 smaller squares. The number of squares the species is
found in is equivalent to its percentage cover in that quadrat
For example, if grass is found in 89 out of 100 squares in the quadrat then it has a
percentage cover of 89%
Species frequency is the probability that the species will be found within any quadrat in the
sample area
The number of quadrats that the species was present in is divided by the total
number of quadrats and then multiplied by 100
For example, if bluebells were found in 18 out of 50 quadrats the species frequency
would be (18/50) x 100 = 36%

YOUR NOTES
How to estimate percentage cover of one or more species using a quadrat
Limitations of using quadrats

Quadrats and transects can only be used for sessile and immobile species (eg. plants and
slow-moving animals)
Some species can be counted to find their abundance but others that are very small or in
high numbers require abundance to be calculated using percentage cover or frequency
techniques
The frequency technique shows how common a species is but it does not give
information on the estimated number of individuals or the size of the population
Percentage cover and frequency, when used together, give a good picture of the
distribution of a species
If a species had a high mean percentage cover but a low frequency it would suggest
the species lives in groups in preferred areas of the habitat
This can be used to answer questions such as: does the species prefer light or dark
and wet or dry areas etc.

YOUR NOTES
The mark-release-capture method: estimating population sizes of

mobile animals
The two sampling methods described above are only useful for non-motile (sessile)
organisms
Different methods are required for estimating the number of individuals in a population of
motile animals
The mark-release-capture method is used
For a single species in the area:

The first large sample is taken. As many individuals as possible are caught,
counted and marked in a way that won’t affect their survival e.g. if studying a
species of beetle, a small amount of brightly coloured non-toxic paint can be applied
to their carapace (shell)
The marked individuals are returned to their habitat and allowed to randomly mix
with the rest of the population
When a sufficient amount of time has passed another large sample is captured
The number of marked and unmarked individuals within the sample are counted
The proportion of marked to unmarked individuals is used to calculate an estimate

of the population size
The formula for the calculation is:
N = (n1 × n2) ÷ m2
Where:
N = population estimate
n1 = number of marked individuals released
n2 = number of individuals in the second sample (marked and unmarked)
m2 = number of marked individuals in the second sample
Worked Example
Scientists wanted to investigate the abundance of leafhoppers in a small grassy meadow. They used
sweep nets to catch a large sample of leafhoppers from the meadow. Each insect was marked on its
underside with non-toxic waterproof paint and then released back into the meadow. The following day
another large sample was caught using sweep nets. Use the figures below to estimate the size of the
leafhopper population in this meadow.
• No. caught and marked in first sample (n1) = 236
• No. caught in second sample (n2) = 244
• No. of marked individuals in the second sample (m2) = 71

YOUR NOTES
Step One: Write out the equation and substitute in the known values
N = (n1 × n2) ÷ m2
N = (236 × 244) ÷ 71
Step Two: Calculate the population size estimate (N)
N = 57,584 ÷ 71
N = 811

YOUR NOTES
Results from mark-release-capture

When using the mark-release-capture method, there are a few assumptions that have to be
made:
The marked individuals are given sufficient time to disperse and mix back in fully
with the main population
The marking doesn’t affect the survival rates of the marked individuals (e.g. doesn’t
make them more visible and therefore more likely to be predated)
The marking remains visible throughout the sampling and doesn’t rub off
The population stays the same size during the study period (i.e. there are no
significant changes in population size due to births, deaths or migrations into or out of
the main population)

YOUR NOTES
4.2.4 MEASURING SPECIES RICHNESS & SPECIES EVENNESS

Measuring Species Richness & Species Evenness
One measure of biodiversity is the species diversity in a given area
There are two key components of species diversity:

Species richness
Species evenness
Species richness is a measure of the number of different species within a given area
An area with a greater number of species will have a greater species richness
For example, a tropical rain forest has a very high number of different species so it
would be described as being a species-rich area
However, species richness can be a misleading indicator of diversity as it does not take into
account the number of individuals of each species
Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species within
a given area
An area in which all the species have similar abundances will have a greater species
evenness
In the example below, Area 1 and Area 2 both contain 4 tree species
However, Area 2 is actually dominated by one species and in fact, one of the species
is very rare (only one individual)
Although the two areas have exactly the same species richness, Area 1 has a
higher species evenness (and therefore a higher overall species diversity) than
Area 2
This example illustrates the limitations of using just species richness on its own
Conservationists often favour the use of an index of diversity (known as Simpson’s

Index) as it takes into account both species richness and evenness

YOUR NOTES
Area 1 and Area 2 have the same species richness but different species evenness. As it
has a higher species evenness, the overall species diversity of Area 1 is higher than that
of Area 2, as species diversity takes both richness and evenness into account.
Exam Tip
To measure species richness you simply count the number of different species present.
To measure species evenness you count the number of different species present and the
number of individuals of each species (basically any sampling method that takes into
account the abundance of each species).

YOUR NOTES
4.2.5 SIMPSON'S INDEX

Simpson's Index of Diversity
Once the abundance of different species in an area has been recorded the results can be
used to calculate the species diversity or biodiversity for that area
Species diversity looks at the number of different species in an area (species richness)
but also the evenness of abundance across the different species in that area (species
evenness)
Simpson’s index of diversity (D) can be used to quantify the biodiversity of an area
Simpson’s index
The formula is:
Where:
n = total no. of organisms for a single species
N = total no. of organisms for all species
To calculate Simpson’s Index:

Step 1: First calculate n / N for each species
Step 2: Square each of these values
Step 3: Add them together and subtract the total from 1
To understand what the value of D means you need to know the following:
The value of D can fall between 0 and 1
Values near 1 indicate high levels of biodiversity
Values near 0 indicate low levels of biodiversity

YOUR NOTES
Worked Example
Samples of different insect species in a back garden were collected using sweep nets and
identification keys. Use the data to calculate Simpson’s Index.
The results and working out are seen in the table below. The figures have been rounded to
three decimal places for columns 3 and 4
D = 1 – 0.172 = 0.828
As the value of D is much closer to 1 than 0, it can be said that this is a relatively high value
for biodiversity.

YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
Remember, you will be provided with the formula for Simpson’s Index in the exam so you do
not need to recall this.

YOUR NOTES
4.2.6 GENETIC DIVERSITY

Assessing Genetic Diversity
The genetic diversity within a species is the genetic variation that exists within a species
Although individuals of the same species will have the same genes at the same loci they
will not necessarily have the same alleles for each gene
The gene pool is comprised of all the alleles of all the genes within a species
There can be genetic differences or diversity between populations of the same species
which increases the size of the gene pool
This may be because the two populations occupy slightly different ranges in their
habitat and so are subject to slightly different selection pressures that affect the allele
frequencies in their populations
Genetic diversity within a single population can also be observed
Diversity in a species is important as it creates a larger gene pool which can help the
population adapt, and survive changes in the environment
The changes could be biotic factors such as new predators, pathogens and
competition with other species or they could be abiotic factors like temperature,
humidity and rainfall
Genetic diversity can be assessed using several different measurements:

The proportion of polymorphic gene loci
The number of loci that have two or more alleles
The proportion of the population that is heterozygous for any specific gene
locus
Allele richness
The number of different alleles that exist for specific genes
All three measurements involve determining whether there are multiple alleles at a locus.
Phenotypes can sometimes be used to identify the presence of multiple alleles
For some genes, when each different allele is expressed in the phenotype of an individual
they produce observable differences
For other genes, different alleles do not always produce an observable change in the
phenotype of individuals
In this situation, the DNA sequences or the protein products of the alleles must be
examined and compared
Note that some of the differences discovered might not be of major importance

YOUR NOTES
Calculating the proportion of polymorphic gene loci

Genetic polymorphism occurs when there are two or more alleles present at a single loci
The rarest allele will have a frequency greater than 1% or greater than 5%
These numbers are of no particular significance, they have been randomly chosen by
scientists
A monomorphic locus is one that does not have multiple alleles

Sometimes tables of data will refer to monomorphic loci as having one allele
A polymorphic locus is one that has multiple alleles

The most common allele must have a frequency less than 95% or 99%
If the most common allele has a frequency greater than 99% then the other allele(s)
are extremely rare and likely to disappear
In order to assess the genetic diversity of a species population, scientists must identify a
number of gene loci to investigate
They identify how many of these gene loci are polymorphic
The number of polymorphic gene loci is then divided by the total number of loci being
investigated
The equation for calculating the proportion of polymorphic gene loci (P) is:
P = number of polymorphic gene loci ÷ total number of loci investigated
Worked Example
There are many different registered pedigree dog breeds that exist. A conservationist
stated that the degree of inbreeding that has occurred in some of the older breeds could be
problematic as it likely reduces genetic diversity.
Scientists investigated 100 gene loci in 2 different breeds. For breed A (the older breed), 59
out of 100 gene loci were found to be polymorphic at the 0.95 level. For breed B, 87 out of
100 gene loci were found to be polymorphic at the 0.95 level. Calculate P for both breeds
and evaluate whether the results support the conservationist’s statement.

YOUR NOTES
Step 1: Calculate P for breed A
P = number of polymorphic gene loci ÷ total number of loci investigated
P = 59 ÷ 100
P = 0.59
Step 2: Calculate P for breed B
P = 87 ÷ 100
P = 0.87
Step 3: Determine if results support the statement
The older breed A has a lower P value than breed B. This suggests that it has lower genetic diversity
which could be caused by inbreeding. More studies would need to be carried out on a larger number
of breeds in order to prove this statement true.
Limitations of P
The proportion of polymorphic genetic loci (P) does not illustrate the allele richness of a
breed or species
A study that looked at different blood proteins in dogs found that all genetic loci were
polymorphic, P = 1. However, the number of alleles for each gene locus was not the
same, it varied from 2 to 11
Due to the limitations of P other methods can be used to assess genetic diversity
Comparing the amino acid sequences of proteins
This is a useful method when investigating allozymes
Allozymes or alloenzymes are slightly different forms of the same enzyme.

Each allozyme is coded for by a different allele and they function in a slightly
different manner
Comparing DNA sequences

Due to the fact that the genetic code is degenerate, the amino acid sequence
of two alleles could be the same but their DNA base sequence could be
different
Nearly all of the genetic diversity assessment is now done at the level of
base sequences
Scientists usually focus on specific sequences in nuclear DNA and

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

YOUR NOTES
4.2.7 FACTORS AFFECTING BIODIVERSITY

Factors Affecting Biodiversity
Human population growth
The global human population has been growing exponentially for the last 150 years
There are many reasons for this exponential growth, including:

Improved technology leading to an abundance of food = increase in birth rate
Improved medicine, hygiene and health care = decrease in death rate
The human population is growing exponentially

YOUR NOTES
Humans use many resources from the Earth such as land (for settlements and agriculture),
water, wood and fossil fuels
As the human population increases and countries become more economically developed,
our requirement for these natural resources also increases
This is having a harmful effect on many aspects of the environment, including aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems, and our atmosphere and climate
The damage to these ecosystems is negatively impacting the species and habitats
contained within them
This means that a conflict exists between human needs and the conservation of
biodiversity
The main factors affecting biodiversity today are:

Habitat destruction
Overexploitation
Hunting
Agriculture
Climate change
Habitat destruction
Many human needs lead to natural environments being destroyed
When land is cleared for agriculture, industry, energy production housing, transport, leisure
facilities, waste disposal and water storage, this results in:
Habitat loss (plant and animals completely lose their habitats)
Habitat fragmentation (habitats are divided into small areas – populations living
within these separated habitat fragments are more likely to suffer from
inbreeding or local extinction)
Deforestation is one of the most damaging forms of habitat destruction, as forest habitats
often have the highest levels of biodiversity
Marine habitats are also being destroyed, including:

Coral reefs (some people use dynamite as an extreme way to catch fish, which
damages corals)
Sea beds (fishing practices such as trawling, where nets are dragged along the sea
bed, destroy this important habitat)
Overexploitation
Many of the natural resources exploited by humans are actually being overexploited (they
are being used up faster than they can be replaced)
For example, much deforestation is unsustainable as trees are removed but are not
replaced by replanting. Even if they are replanted, the rate at which trees are being
removed far exceeds the rate at which they are growing back
Fish stocks are also being overexploited, which is also having a knock-on effect on
organisms that feed on these fish species, such as marine mammals and seabirds

YOUR NOTES
Hunting
Hunting is another form of overexploitation, as many wild, non-farmed species of animals
are being hunted and removed more quickly than their wild populations can be
replenished
An example is the hunting of animals for ‘bush meat’ in developing countries
(including the hunting of primates such as monkeys and chimpanzees, as well as
other mammal and reptile species)
Agriculture
After the second world war, there was a massive change in how food was produced
There was a need to produce more food, at a quicker rate
It was then that modern farming practices began:

Farms became more specialised so they grew only one crop or raised one type of
livestock (monoculture)
There was a switch to growing cereal crops rather than vegetables
Fields were made bigger to accommodate machinery via the removal of

hedgerows and stonewalls
More land was made Arable by draining wetland and filling in ponds
The use of fertilisers and pesticides massively increased
Most of these modern farming techniques have had a major negative impact on the level
of biodiversity present in farmed areas
Monocultures support much lower levels of biodiversity compared to natural
habitats or even natural grazing land (that has a large variety of plant species present
which can support a much greater range and number of insect species and bird
species)
Hedgerows represent an important habitat for many insects, small mammals and
birds, which can nest there. As hedgerows are being increasingly removed, this
habitat and the biodiversity it supports is lost
Fertilisers can leach into waterways, causing eutrophication, which can lead to
the death of many aquatic invertebrate and fish species
Pesticides (e.g. insecticides) used on crops kill insect pests but also kill many non-
target species, including important insect pollinators like bees

YOUR NOTES
The decline of the bumblebee

Bumblebees are essential pollinators that pollinate wildflowers and valued crops such as
oilseed rape and peas
Almost a quarter of the European bumblebee species are threatened with extinction
There has been a very rapid decline in bumblebee numbers in recent years
Bumblebees require habitats with a large number of flowering plants to ensure a supply of
pollen and nectar all year round. Examples of this are hedgerows, field margins and
grasslands
It has been suggested that the extensive farming of crops and the use of pesticides are
contributing to this decline
The monoculture of crops reduces plant diversity for bumblebee habitats
Although they are not the target species, pesticides can have a negative effect on
bumblebees
Biodiversity vs profit
A high yield and profit are two factors that make farming economically viable
Farming practices that maintain or increase biodiversity can be expensive, labour intensive,
time-intensive. They can also reduce the yield of crops and livestock
For example, if a farmer stops using pesticides on crops, the number of bumblebees
will increase but the number of pest species that destroy crops will also increase
which will reduce crop yield and profit
This means that the farmer will have to charge more for his produce, in what is a very
competitive market
It is difficult to find the balance between conservation and farming due to these knock-
on effects

YOUR NOTES
Climate change
Human-caused climate change is causing weather patterns to change and the frequency
of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, typhoons, floods and droughts, to
increase
It is feared that climate change is now occurring too fast for many species to be able
to adapt to these changes, which could result in many species becoming extinct and
a major decline in biodiversity
Global warming (a result of climate change) is causing many species to move towards the
poles or to higher altitudes
However, these species may not be able to compete with, or may even out-compete,
the species already present in these habitats, with either result leading to decreased
biodiversity
Some species (such as plant species) may not be able to move or change their
distributions fast enough to adapt to increasing temperature and may go extinct as a
result
Global warming (and the human-generated CO₂ that is the primary cause of this) is also
threatening marine biodiversity:
Increasing atmospheric CO₂ is leading to more CO₂ dissolving in seawater,
decreasing its pH (known as ocean acidification). This is negatively affecting
organisms that require calcium carbonate for shells (e.g. plankton and coral polyps)
Increased ocean temperatures have also led to an increased frequency of coral-

bleaching events, where the tiny organisms that live inside corals and help keep
them alive leave due to temperature stress. Without these organisms, the corals
die and are broken down, eventually leading to the loss of whole coral reefs and as a
result, the loss of the huge amount of biodiversity that depends on them

YOUR NOTES
4.2.8 REASONS FOR MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY

Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the range and variety of genes, species and habitats within a particular
region
It is made up of three components:

Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Global biodiversity has a major impact on humans and all other species on the planet
There are many reasons for maintaining biodiversity:
1. Moral and ethical
2. Ecological
3. Environmental
4. Economic
5. Aesthetic
6. Agricultural
Moral & ethical reasons

Many people believe that humans have a moral obligation to prevent the manmade loss of
biodiversity
Humans share the planet with millions of others species and they have no right to cause
the extinction of other species
As humans are the most intelligent species on the planet the responsibility falls upon their
shoulders to protect and value all of the organisms on the planet

YOUR NOTES
Ecological reasons
Biodiversity has a major effect on the stability of an ecosystem
A more diverse ecosystem is better able to survive and adapt to
environmental changes or threats
For example, if the temperature of a species-rich lake rises due to global warming:
Some species of fish in the ecosystem are unable to cope with the change while
others can
The fish that are able to cope will survive, reproduce and keep contributing to the
ecosystem
Within communities there are keystone species that have a larger impact on the
ecosystem than others
When these species are lost there are several knock-on effects
Bush elephants in the African savannah are a keystone species

They graze in a very extreme way, knocking over and eating several species of tree
This destruction of vegetation actually helps to maintain the ecosystem
Elephant dung also provides a habitat for many important fungi and insect species
When elephants were legally hunted for their ivory, their numbers reduced and
scientists observed a major negative impact on the savannah
Environmental reasons
Humans need diverse ecosystems because of the essential environmental services they
provide
Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help to reduce the greenhouse
effect and climate change
Microorganisms digest and break down the masses of organic waste that are produced by
larger organisms
Humans have irrigation and drinking water thanks to the transpiration of plants and their
contribution to the water cycle
Different fungi and bacteria species are a major part of the nutrient cycle that allows for
nutrients to reenter the soil for further plant growth
Plants are producers in food webs. They are both a direct and indirect energy source for
humans through fruit, vegetables and meat

YOUR NOTES
Economic reasons
Ecosystems have a lot of economic value
Many of the medicines used today have originated from plants, fungi and bacteria
For example the cancer-fighting drug paclitaxel is sourced from Pacific and Himalayan
Yew Trees
The Himalayan Yew has declined in numbers due to over-harvesting for fuel and
medicine
Due to the large number of drugs that have already been sourced from nature it is
reasonable to assume that there are other drugs, yet to be found in nature, that could
be used in the future
Ecotourism a major source of income for many countries

Many tourists travel to and spend money in National parks so they can see wildlife
Increased tourism in a country contributes to the economy and provides jobs
Ecosystems have also made major contributions to the field of science and technology
The specific enzyme used in DNA sequencing was first discovered in thermophilic
bacterium found in a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park, USA
Aesthetic reasons
Humans find great joy and pleasure in the beauty of nature
It provides inspiration for creatives such as photographers, poets, musicians and artists
There is a strong argument for preserving biodiversity because of its aesthetic benefits
Agricultural reasons
Most of the crops that humans grow are very uniform with low genetic diversity
The wild relatives of crops can provide a source of genetic diversity to rescue crops
that are affected by disease or other disasters
Many of the wild relative species are under threat due to habitat destruction and climate
change
All of the world’s potato crop comes from a single species

This lack of species diversity makes the crop highly susceptible to disease
There are over 100 species of wild potatoes that grow in the Andes
These Andean species act as a source of alleles for disease resistance
These alleles have been introduced to the potato crop through gene technology
and interbreeding

YOUR NOTES
Summary of reasons for maintaining biodiversity table

YOUR NOTES
4.2.9 METHODS OF MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY

Methods of Maintaining Biodiversity
An endangered species is a species that is being threatened with extinction
Conservation of endangered species can be approached in several different ways
Ideally a species should be kept in their natural habitat as all the support systems they
need to maintain life already exist there
National parks and marine parks are examples of conservation methods that do this
When it is not possible to do this endangered species can be captured and placed in
captivity for conservation efforts
Zoos and botanic gardens take part in conservation programmes
Scientists have also come up with several methods to try and ensure the long-term
survival of endangered species through frozen zoos and seed banks
Conserved areas
National parks are areas within countries where the wildlife and environment are
protected
Governments control these areas and pass legislation to ensure their protection
There are several restrictions

Humans access is strictly controlled
Industrial activities such as agriculture and building are tightly regulated
Hunting is limited or completely prohibited
Marine parks are protected areas of water that have been set up for the conservation of
endangered marine ecosystems and species
They also have restrictions to prevent overfishing and pollution
Public engagement with conservation efforts is important for long term success:
National and Marine parks can attract thousands of tourists each year which increases
money and awareness for the conservation effort
Involving members of the local community in the management of protected areas can
provide jobs and increase acceptance of the parks
Some of the profits made from parks can be used to improve the health and
education standards in the nearby communities to illustrate the benefits of having
such areas nearby

YOUR NOTES
Galapagos Islands
A large proportion of the land and water surrounding the Galapagos Islands is protected. Humans are
not allowed to travel to many of the islands in the National park and fishing is illegal in the Marine
park areas. Management of these areas is shared between locals and conservation experts. Since it
was established over 50 years ago, there have been strong efforts made to remove invasive species
and increase native species. Rats and goats are captured and removed and the alien plant species
elephant grass is dug up and destroyed while giant tortoises are being reintroduced.
Conservation in captivity
Zoos can also contribute towards the conservation of endangered animal species
Captive breeding programmes can breed individuals of a species so their offspring can be
released into the wild
Zoos are an invaluable resource for scientific research

Scientists are able to closely study animal’s genetics, behaviours and habitat needs
There are some problems with zoos and their role in conservation:
Captive breeding of small species populations can reduce genetic diversity
Certain animal species will not breed in captivity
Not all zoos can provide adequate habitats for animals with specific needs
There are stories of both success and failure when it comes to zoos and conservation:
The oryx is an antelope-like species that was saved from extinction and reintroduced
into the wild in Africa thanks to zoos and captive breeding programmes
Pandas have been in captive breeding programs for over 60 years and not a single
panda has been reintroduced into the wild
Botanic gardens are the plant equivalent of zoos
They use cuttings and seeds collected from the wild to establish a population of the
endangered species in captivity
Methods of tissue culturing and cloning can also be used to obtain large numbers of plants
from a small sample size
The captive population can be used in the future for reintroduction into habitats where they
have become rare
Research is a major role of botanic gardens

They investigate reproduction and growth in different plant species so that they can
be grown in captivity
If the plants original habitat no longer exists they try to find suitable new habitats
Both zoos and botanic gardens are instrumental to education

They help to raise awareness of vulnerable, endangered species and conservation
efforts worldwide

YOUR NOTES
Storing genetic material for Conservation

If a species becomes extinct in the wild then traditional conservation methods are no longer
useful
New technology has provided ways of storing the genetic material of endangered
species so that it is not lost forever
Frozen zoos store genetic material from animals (eggs, sperm, tissue samples etc) at very
low temperatures so that they can be kept for a very long time
Ideally samples are collected from different individuals of the same species to
maintain the gene pool
The temperature used is roughly -196oC
A large amount of genetic material can be stored in a relatively small space
In the future genetic materials from extinct animal species could be used to breed
and reintroduce a species through IVF and genetic engineering
The San Diego Zoo in the USA has frozen zoo facilities
A seed bank is a facility that conserves plant diversity by drying and storing seeds in a
temperature controlled environment
Usually, seeds of the same species are collected from different sites to maintain the
gene pool
If the plant species goes extinct then the seeds can be used to grow them again
Seeds can only be stored for so long. After a certain period of time the stored seeds
are grown into plants and fresh seeds for storage are taken from those plants
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway has almost 1 million species of plant
seed. It is located in the Arctic Circle with ideal environmental conditions
Many organisations send seeds from crop plants to be stored there for safekeeping
Some plants have seeds that can not be frozen such as coffee and cocoa plants
In order to preserve the genetic diversity of these plants successive generations must
be grown or tissue cultures taken

YOUR NOTES
Summary of conservation of endangered species table
Exam Tip
Remember all of the conservation efforts made to stop a species going extinct is pointless if
they don’t have a natural habitat to return to. Conserving whole ecosystems is essential
for the long term survival of species.
Areas like tropical rainforests and coral reefs have exceptional biodiversity but they are
currently under threat from industrial development, pollution and exploitation.

YOUR NOTES
4.2.10 CONSERVATION AGREEMENTS

Conservation Agreements
International cooperation is essential if conservation is to be successful
There are several agreements and authorities that exist within and between countries with
the aim of protecting and conserving species worldwide
IUCN
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is described as “the
global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it”
One of the duties that the IUCN carries out is assessing the conservation status of
animal and plant species around the world
The IUCN has their own classification system
There are several different categories and levels that a species can fall into depending
on their population numbers and the threats and risks to those populations
Scientists use data and modelling to estimate which category each species should be
in
Animals that are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ can be seen online as this
list is made public
The IUCN classification system of species – Scientists are continually updating and
reviewing the conservation status of species

YOUR NOTES
CBD
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro in Brazil in 1992
The convention had three main goals:

The conservation of biological diversity by use of a variety of different
conservation methods
The sustainable use of biological resources
The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
The countries that signed the convention agreed to design and implement national
strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, as well as to organise
international cooperation and further international meetings
CITES
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES) is a global agreement that has been signed by over 150 countries
Its aim is to control the trade of endangered species and their associated products
For example, elephants and their ivory tusks
CITES categorizes endangered and vulnerable species into three appendices:

Appendix I : species that are endangered and face the greatest risk of extinction
(for example, the red panda)
Appendix II: species that are not currently endangered or facing extinction, but
will be unless trade is closely controlled (for example, the venus fly trap)
Appendix III: species included at request of the country that is regulating trade of the
species and trying to prevent its overexploitation (for example, the two-toed sloth
in Costa Rica)
There are different trading regulations that apply to each appendix:

For species in appendix I: all trade in the species and their associated products is
banned
For species in appendix II: trade is only granted if an export permit has been
issued by the involved countries
For species in appendix III: permits are required for regulated trade. Permits are
easier to come by for species in this appendix
Scientists are continuously adding new species and reviewing the status of species already in
the database
There are several concerns about the efficacy of CITES listings

When the trade of a certain endangered species becomes illegal, its price increases
The increased economic value of the species can be a major incentive for people to
break the law

YOUR NOTES
CSS
The Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS) was a scheme dating back to the 1980s that
provided funding (i.e. a financial incentive) to farmers and private landowners in England
who used environmental management strategies to protect and increase the natural
biodiversity on their land
This scheme was replaced by the Environmental Stewardship Scheme (ESS) in 2005
In order to qualify for the scheme, farmers and private landowners have to:
Provide and protect valuable wildlife habitats such as ponds, hedgerows and
buffer zones surrounding farmed areas
Ensure their land is managed well, maintaining its traditional character
Protect any natural resources or historic features present on their land
Conserve any traditional crops or livestock present on their land
Provide visitor opportunities so people can learn about the countryside and how
important it is in sustaining biodiversity


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OCR A Level Biology Revision Notes savemyexams.co.

4.2.2 Sampling to Determine Biodiversity

4.2.3 Practical: Investigating Biodiversity Using Sampling

4.2.4 Measuring Species Richness & Species Evenness

4.2.5 Simpson's Index

4.2.6 Genetic Diversity

4.2.7 Factors Aﬀecting Biodiversity

4.2.8 Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity

4.2.9 Methods of Maintaining Biodiversity

4.2.10 Conservation Agreements

It can be assessed at three diﬀerent levels:

The number of species and their relative abundance

The genetic variation within each species

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Ecosystem or habitat diversity

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Genetic diversity can also be observed within a single population

Genetic diversity is limited in populations that are very small or isolated

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4.2.2 SAMPLING TO DETERMINE BIODIVERSITY

Measuring the diﬀerent levels of biodiversity within an ecosystem can be challenging

There are two diﬀerent types of sampling:

This is unrepresentative of the whole area

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The abundance of a species is the number of individuals of that species

They can be a variety of sizes eg. 0.25m2 or 1m2

Using a quadrat to investigate population size or distribution

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Quadrats must be laid randomly in the area to avoid sampling bias

Then a random number generator is used to pick the sample points

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Quadrats are suitable for sampling plants or slow-moving animals

Kick-sampling: this technique is used to catch freshwater invertebrates living in

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Example of how a pitfall trap can be used

An example of how a pooter can be used

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An example of how a Tullgren funnel can be used

Example of how kick-sampling is done

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There are three main types of non-random sampling:

Stratiﬁed sampling involves matching the number of sampling locations in a particular

For a line transect:

This produces qualitative data

For a belt transect:

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A line transect and belt transect is carried out in the ﬁeld

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4.2.3 PRACTICAL: INVESTIGATING BIODIVERSITY USING

Random number generator

Method for choosing sample sites

Use a random number generator to choose a set of coordinates

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Getting measurements from quadrats

Calculating population density (number of individuals per m2):

Count the number of individuals in each quadrat

Calculating the abundance of a species using percentage cover

Calculating the abundance of a species using frequency (%):

Count the number of quadrats that contain the species