November 2017

Initial Public Offerings

An Issuer’s Guide (US Edition)
 Contents
INTRODUCTION 1
What Are the Potential Benefits of Conducting an IPO? 1
What Are the Potential Costs and Other Potential Downsides of
Conducting an IPO? 1
Is Your Company Ready for an IPO? 2
GETTING READY 3
Are Changes Needed in the Company’s Capital Structure or
Relationships with Its Key Stockholders or Other Related Parties? 3
What Is the Right Corporate Governance Structure for the Company Post-IPO? 5
Are the Company’s Existing Financial Statements Suitable? 6
Are the Company’s Pre-IPO Equity Awards Problematic? 6
How Should Investor Relations Be Handled? 7
Which Securities Exchange to List On? 8
OFFER STRUCTURE 9
Offer Size 9
Primary vs. Secondary Shares 9
Allocation—Institutional vs. Retail 9
KEY DOCUMENTS 11
Registration Statement 11
Form 8-A – Exchange Act Registration Statement 19
Underwriting Agreement 20
Lock-Up Agreements 21
Legal Opinions and Negative Assurance Letters 22
Comfort Letters 22
Engagement Letter with the Underwriters 23
KEY PARTIES 24
Issuer 24
Selling Stockholders 24
Management of the Issuer 24
Auditors 24
Underwriters 24
Legal Advisers 25
Other Parties 25

i Initial Public Offerings

THE IPO PROCESS 26
Organizational or “Kick-Off” Meeting 26
The Due Diligence Review 26
Drafting Responsibility and Drafting Sessions 27
Filing with the SEC, FINRA, a Securities Exchange and the
State Securities Commissions 27
SEC Review 29
Book-Building and Roadshow 30
Price Determination 30
Allocation and Settlement or Closing 31
Publicity Considerations 31
LIABILITY 34
Section 11 of the Securities Act 34
Section 12(a)(2) of the Securities Act 34
Section 10(b) of the Exchange Act 34
ONGOING OBLIGATIONS AS A PUBLIC COMPANY 36
SEC Reporting 36
Section 16 38
Beneficial Ownership Reporting 39
Corporate Governance 41
Other Considerations 41
APPENDICES 43
APPENDIX 1 44
NYSE and NASDAQ Non-quantitative Listing Requirements 44
APPENDIX 2 53
NYSE And NASDAQ Quantitative Listing Standards 53
APPENDIX 3 60
EGC and Smaller Reporting Company Disclosure Accomodations 60
APPENDIX 4 63
Indicative IPO Timetables 63

mayer brown ii
 If you have any questions regarding initial public offerings, please contact any of our US Capital Markets partners listed below
or your regular contact at Mayer Brown.

DAVID S. BAKST WILLIAM T. HELLER IV

+1 212 506 2551 +1 713 238 2684
[email protected] [email protected]

MICHAEL L. HERMSEN
JOHN P. BERKERY +1 312 701 7960
+1 212 506 2552 [email protected]
[email protected]

EDWARD S. BEST PHILIP J. NIEHOFF

+1 312 701 7843
+1 312 701 7100
[email protected]
[email protected]

JENNIFER J. CARLSON LAURA L. RICHMAN

+1 650 331 2065 +1 312 701 7304
[email protected] [email protected]

DAVID A. SCHUETTE
JEFFREY M. DOBBS +1 312 701 7363
+1 713 238 2697
[email protected]
[email protected]

ROBERT F. GRAY, JR.

+1 713 238 2600
[email protected]

The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Catherine Henderson in the preparation of this guide.

iii Initial Public Offerings

Introduction
For most companies and their owners, an initial public • The need to facilitate the transition from an “owner-
offering (IPO) is a “once-in-in-a-lifetime” event that repre- managed” company to a more widely-held company
sents the culmination of many years of hard work and with a professional (non-owner) management team,
personal investment. The IPO provides stockholders and frequently in connection with succession planning in
management of the company with a significant sense of family-owned or otherwise closely-held companies.
accomplishment and represents one of the most important • The desire to provide value to stockholders through a
milestones in the corporate evolution of a company. spin-off or carve-out of a particular division or line of
An IPO, however, frequently also brings with it a sense of business.
upheaval as significant changes are often required to be made • The desire to enhance the profile and standing of the
to the way a company operates and conducts itself – mem- company with customers, suppliers, lenders and other
bership in the new “public” world brings with it legal and investors, and as an attractive employer.
compliance obligations and challenges.
Being a public company can have significant benefits,
This guide provides an overview of some of the key issues with including:
which we believe all directors, members of senior manage-
• Access to a much broader investor base, consisting of
ment, general counsels and other key decision makers
both institutional and retail investors.
involved with a potential US domestic IPO candidate should
• Access to the public capital markets as an additional
be familiar and focuses on the public offering process in the
source of capital, through both subsequent equity
United States and listing on the New York Stock Exchange
offerings and potential debt offerings, possibly on more
(NYSE) or the Nasdaq Stock Market (Nasdaq) and life as a
favorable terms than those available in the private equity,
public company. However, it is not intended as a comprehen-
debt or loan markets.
sive treatment of the subject matters covered by this guide or
of all matters relevant to an IPO. This guide is also not • Increased liquidity for existing stockholders, including
intended as a substitute for legal advice, and we encourage employees of the company who may have acquired shares
our readers to reach out to the authors of this guide or any of as part of their compensation arrangements.
the other key members of our US Capital Markets Practice • The ability to use the listed shares of the company as all or
before taking any action. part of the consideration for an acquisition.

European issuers should consult our guide Initial Public • An enhanced ability to attract and retain key talent for
Offerings—an Issuer’s Guide (European Edition) and Asian the company through equity incentive arrangements
issuers should consult our guide Initial Public Offerings—an for executives and other employees, including restricted
Issuer’s Guide (Asia Edition) for additional information that shares, stock options or similar arrangements.
foreign private issuers organized under the laws of those • A generally enhanced company profile and increased
jurisdictions should consider when contemplating an initial confidence in the company by investors, creditors, cus-
public offering in the United States. tomers, suppliers and other stakeholders in the company,
deriving from public company status and the resulting
What Are the Potential Benefits of Conducting enhanced transparency and disclosure.
an IPO?
What Are the Potential Costs and Other
There are a number of different reasons why a company may
Potential Downsides of Conducting an IPO?
consider an IPO, including:
While being a public company can offer many advantages, the
• The need to raise additional capital to fund growth, either owners of a private company should not make the decision to
organically or through acquisitions. conduct an IPO lightly and will need to carefully consider the
• The need to provide existing stockholders with a “liquid- various costs and other potential downsides that can come
ity event” and an option to “exit” all or part of their with being a public company, including:
investment.

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 • The costs resulting from an IPO: conducting the IPO itself The company’s “equity story” needs to be considered—
as well as the ongoing costs of being a public company. investors must be provided with facts, figures and details as
These include costs of maintaining a public company to why they should consider purchasing shares in the
board and management team, costs of ongoing reporting company. The financial advisers, together with the company
obligations, listing fees, costs of the company’s auditors, and its owners, will need to develop the equity story by
costs of legal advisers and other general compliance focusing on the position of the company as a growth or
costs. income play, its position within its market and sector and its
• The loss of control by the existing owners: accom- strengths, strategy, track record and business plan, together
modating the potentially divergent interests of other with macro data. All of this must be clearly and convincingly
stockholders, adhering to a new set of rules and regula- outlined in a management presentation or other document at
tions, meeting requirements for increased transparency, the outset of the process for the benefit of the financial and
including disclosure of beneficial ownership of stock- legal advisers involved in the proposed IPO. Management will
holders, management compensation and related party need to ensure that any key assumptions and projections are
transactions, and the potential for a hostile takeover of supported with independent information (to the extent
the company. possible) in order to allow the company’s underwriters and
other financial advisers to assess the feasibility of an IPO.
• Exposure to potential liability under the US securities laws
in connection with the IPO and ongoing SEC reporting
requirements.
• Exposure to potential scrutiny and activism by public
stockholders and other interested parties.

Is Your Company Ready for an IPO?

Once the owners of a private company have determined that
the benefits of “going public” outweigh the downsides, the
company and its stockholders, together with their respective
financial, accounting and legal advisers, need to consider
whether the company is ready for an IPO or whether the
company would benefit from remaining a private company for
the time being.

The ideal IPO candidate tends to exhibit some or all of the

following characteristics:

• A clearly defined strategy.

• A track record of sound financial performance and a solid
balance sheet.
• Market leading positions, favorable industry trends and
growth prospects.
• A large potential customer base and products or services
that are attractive and accepted by the market.
• An experienced management team with a proven track
record.

2 Initial Public Offerings

Getting Ready
Prior to “going public”, the owners and management of a • Establishing or reviewing, together with its auditors, the
potential IPO candidate, in consultation with their advisers, company’s internal controls and creating procedures to
must implement a corporate governance structure and other support the on-going public reporting of the company
internal procedures and guidelines that are suitable for its life post-IPO.
as a public company. In addition, the period leading up to the • Reviewing and amending and implementing appropriate
IPO is also an opportune time to consider what, if any, changes compensation and incentive and pension arrangements.
the owners and management of a potential IPO candidate
• Reviewing the company’s policies for corporate com-
should make to the company in the near to long-term future.
munications and establishing a formal investor relations
In considering any necessary or desirable changes, it is program.
important to bear in mind that many changes—those that • Creating, reviewing and updating a website suitable for a
require stockholder consent under applicable corporate law public company.
or under the listing rules of the exchange on which the shares To avoid unnecessary costs and delays, these issues should be
of the company will be listed—may be much easier and less considered sufficiently in advance of the formal IPO “kick-off”
costly and time-consuming to implement prior to the IPO meeting, and we encourage companies to start discussions
when the company may still be more closely held and not yet with legal advisors to plan for changes prior to commencing a
subject to the relevant proxy disclosure rules. In practice, formal IPO process.
certain changes may be very difficult to implement after the
IPO, once the company has a potentially large percentage of
Are Changes Needed in the Company’s Capital
public stockholders with possibly divergent agendas and
Structure or Relationships with Its Key
incentives.
Stockholders or Other Related Parties?
Key steps in getting ready for an IPO may include, for example: The listing requirements of the applicable securities
• Simplifying the company’s capital structure. exchange, coupled with investors’ expectations about
acceptable arrangements, may require significant changes to
• Moving assets out of or into the entity that will be listed or
be made to a company’s capital structure and to its relation-
its subsidiaries.
ship with its existing stockholders. The company and its
• Intra-group restructuring to make the company operate in
owners, with support from their financial and legal advisers,
a more tax efficient manner.
should scrutinize their respective positions and various
• Formalizing and properly documenting any existing relationships in the initial IPO stages and then determine the
relationships and commercial dealings between the nature of any changes that may be required, how to make any
company and its pre-IPO owners. necessary changes and what arrangements will or should
• Addressing internal “housekeeping” matters, such as continue after the IPO. Most, if not all, issues can typically be
reviewing and amending the company’s charter and addressed and there are few true “deal killers.” However, the
bylaws, committee charters or other organizational time it takes to agree upon and implement certain changes
documents. should not be underestimated, and this process should start
• Putting in place a corporate governance structure suit- in earnest as soon as a decision has been made to proceed
able for a public company, including a board of directors with the IPO.
with independent members and various committees.
ANALYZING AND SIMPLIFYING THE EXISTING
• Reviewing and organizing the company’s financial and
CAPITAL STRUCTURE
corporate records.
Many potential IPO candidates will have raised capital in the past
• Creating financial statements that comply with US
from investors in private offerings. Where companies have been
generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)
funded by venture capital, there may have been multiple funding
and with the rules of the US Securities and Exchange
rounds. As a result, it is not uncommon to find IPO candidates
Commission (SEC).
with highly complex capital structures that may be comprised of

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 multiple classes of common and preferred stock. While in a • Place restrictions on actions of the stockholders and the
pre-IPO world the existence of many different share classes may company.
be acceptable, the circumstances for a listed company are very • Define how company decisions are made.
different. It may therefore be necessary to significantly simplify
• Determine who gets to nominate or appoint directors.
the share capital structure of the IPO candidate and, ideally,
• Define the circumstances in which stockholders can sell
convert or collapse the different classes of shares into a single
shares in the company or under which the company can
class of common stock on or before the IPO date. Venture
issue new shares.
capital documents will typically provide for the conversion of
multiple classes or series of common and preferred stock into a Again, while certain types of stockholders’ agreements and
single class of common stock upon the completion of a arrangements may be typical and workable for a private
“qualifying” IPO. It is important to understand the parameters company, it may be necessary to terminate or substantially
of a “qualifying” IPO to ensure that the contemplated IPO will revise them on or prior to the IPO date. On the other hand, if
meet these parameters. there will continue to be a “controlling stockholder” after the
IPO, market expectations may require that this relationship
The rights of the holders of the different share classes and the
be formalized and appropriate protections for non-control-
interaction of those rights across the different classes can be
ling/minority stockholders be put in place.
highly complex. If these are not structured and documented
properly at the time of each funding round, certain classes of Key stockholders of an IPO candidate and their affiliates may
stock or even individual stockholders may effectively be able also be significant customers or suppliers of the company or
to block necessary or desirable changes to the company’s may have other significant relationships with the company.
capital structure, creating potentially significant holdout For example, the founder or controlling stockholder of the
value for the relevant investors even when the relevant early IPO candidate, rather than the company itself, may be the
round investors may otherwise have been significantly legal owner of key operating assets or intellectual property
diluted as a result of subsequent funding rounds and only rights that the company relies on to operate its business.
hold a small economic stake in the company. Matters can be Formalizing and properly documenting these “related party
further complicated by the existence of options, warrants or transactions” and commercial arrangements among the
convertible bonds. company and its pre-IPO owners on “arm’s-length” terms
and properly describing them in the IPO prospectus can be
A stock split or reverse stock split may be necessary to
crucial for the success of the IPO. This may involve entering
achieve a target price per share in the IPO or a threshold
into formal, long-term, purchase, supply or licensing agree-
number of shares available for trading post-IPO. Care should
ments or transferring key assets to the company.
be taken to ensure that the company has an authorized
capitalization large enough to support conversion of senior The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (Sarbanes-Oxley Act)
securities, future financings and acquisitions and compensa- prohibits a company from extending or maintaining credit, or
tion under employee equity plans. Changes in capital structure arranging for the extension of credit, in the form of a personal
may create complicated accounting, tax or securities law issues loan to any of its executive officers, with limited exceptions. It
that require many months of preparation. In addition, may not be obvious whether an extension of credit by a
structural changes must be adequately explained to potential company to an executive officer is a personal loan, rather than
investors and may impact the presentation of financial a short-term loan related to a business purpose, such as a
statements. cash advance for business-related travel to pay anticipated
expenses. Any personal loans to executive officers will have to
REVISITING RELATIONSHIPS WITH KEY be repaid prior to the filing of a registration statement with
STOCKHOLDERS AND OTHER RELATED PARTIES the SEC. As a result, any loans should be reviewed sufficiently
The company and its key stockholders are often parties to a far in advance of the filing of the registration statement to
stockholders’ agreement that governs their relationship. permit the executive officer to obtain a loan from another
Stockholders’ agreements usually include provisions that: source, if necessary.

4 Initial Public Offerings

What Is the Right Corporate Governance means that the relevant director must not have any material
Structure for the Company Post-IPO? relationship with the company or its management, other than
his or her role as a director. Only non-executive directors can
Corporate governance structures that may be appropriate,
therefore be independent, but other relationships with the
and may even have proven to be highly effective for a
company or company management may also negate
particular private company, may be unsuitable for a company
independence, including:
once its shares are publicly listed. The company and its
owners, with support from their financial and legal advisers, • Other employment or consulting relationships with the
will therefore need to carefully review and, in all likelihood, company.
supplement or possibly even completely replace, existing • Ownership of or an executive role at a (significant)
corporate governance structures in preparation for a customer or supplier of the company.
proposed IPO. Factors that may influence the post-IPO
• Family relationships with senior members of company
corporate governance structure include:
management.
• Requirements under federal securities laws.
US stock exchange listing rules set out a non-exhaustive list of
• The rules of the stock exchange(s) on which the company’s criteria to determine whether a director is not “indepen-
shares will be listed, including corporate governance dent.” Companies sometimes supplement those lists with
requirements. additional criteria set forth in governance guidelines or other
• The expectations of investors and the investment policies.
guidelines of key institutional investors.
Significant share ownership or the fact that a particular
• Market practice for similar listed companies. director may have been appointed by a particular stock-
• The requirements of the underwriters for the IPO. holder may not necessarily be problematic. However, where
• The type of board, both in terms of size and composition, there will continue to be one or more dominant or control-
the company needs to be successful as a public company. ling stockholders in a company post-IPO, it may also be
necessary to ensure a minimum number of directors remain
In practice this means, at the very least, a company propos-
independent from controlling stockholder(s) to protect the
ing to list its shares on a stock exchange should have an
interests of the public minority stockholders and make sure
appropriate mix of executive and non-executive directors
that no individual or small group of individuals dominate the
on its board. These directors must have the right skills, as
board’s decision making. This is particularly important
well as suitable personal and professional backgrounds to
where a significant stockholder or its affiliates are also
run a public company. In addition to having board members
significant customers or suppliers of the company and
with relevant industry and geographic expertise, the
where independent directors will have to confirm the “arm’s
company and its owners are likely to want to appoint a
length” nature of any future transactions with the stock-
minimum number of directors who have served on the
holder or its affiliates.
boards of other public companies, are financially literate,
and have experience with public company reporting. Other The precise number of independent directors to be
considerations such as the racial, gender and age diversity appointed depends on the synthesis of factors such as the
of the board may also be factors in determining the perfect size of the company, the exchange on which the shares will be
balance for a particular company. listed and market practice. In any case, the process of
identifying and recruiting the right director candidates can
Subject to limited exceptions, the boards of directors of
take considerable time and effort and should be started as
public companies are required, under applicable listing rules
soon as a decision to conduct an IPO has been made. In
to be comprised of at least a majority of “independent”
addition to specialist search companies, the underwriters for
directors. These rules have been enacted to avoid potential
the IPO are often able to assist with introducing possible
conflicts of interest and to ensure that the board can properly
candidates to the company.
exercise its supervisory role. “Independence” in this context

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 Other corporate governance questions that frequently arise The SEC will review an IPO company’s financial statements to
in connection with an IPO include: ensure compliance with its requirements. One of the areas
that receives a great deal of scrutiny is the company’s revenue
• Whether the roles of chairman of the board and chief
recognition practices. The SEC will often raise questions to
executive officer should be performed by a single
ensure that the company is not recognizing revenues until all
individual or split between two individuals.
of the applicable GAAP revenue recognition criteria have
• Whether the chief financial officer should be a director. been satisfied. Some SEC questions can be avoided by
• Whether the company should adopt any anti-takeover benchmarking the IPO company’s accounting policies and
defenses such as advance notice bylaws, supermajority disclosures against those of other companies in the same
voting requirements or blank check preferred stock. industry as the IPO company.

The applicable corporate governance regime may also require

that various board committees be established prior to the IPO, Are the Company’s Pre-IPO Equity Awards
if they are not already in existence. These typically include Problematic?
compensation, nominating/corporate governance and audit Another area that receives a great deal of SEC scrutiny is the
committees. Depending on the industry in which the company granting of equity-based awards, such as stock options or
operates, additional committees may be appropriate, including restricted stock, to employees prior to the IPO, particularly in
risk, investment, environmental or technology/R&D commit- the 12 to 18 months before the date the registration state-
tees. The charters and composition of these committees ment is filed with the SEC. If the option strike price or the price
should be considered, and the company’s legal advisers at which the equity is sold to the employee is less than the fair
should work with the company and its other advisers to agree market price (presumed to be the mid-point of the antici-
on their scope and content. pated offering range disclosed in the registration statement),
the SEC will require the company to recognize the difference
The non-quantitative listing requirements for NYSE and
as compensation expense that will be amortized over a period
Nasdaq-listed companies are contained in Appendix 1 to
of time, which can result in an embarrassing restatement of
this guide.
financial statements, be a drag on future earnings and
adversely affect the timing of the IPO. If a company is antici-
Are the Company’s Existing Financial pating making significant equity awards pre-IPO,
Statements Suitable? contemporaneous independent appraisals or concurrent
Financial statements for private issuers are not necessarily third-party investments can be used to support the fair
prepared to meet GAAP’s stringent requirements or the market price in responding to SEC comments.
requirements of the SEC. Preparing financial statements
The company should analyze prior equity grants for securi-
meeting those requirements can take considerable time and
ties law compliance, as all offers of securities must either be
effort.
registered under the Securities Act of 1933 (Securities Act)
Public company financial statements must be audited by an or qualify for an exemption from registration. Most equity
independent auditor registered with the US Public Company grants by private companies qualify for an exemption from
Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), a nonprofit corpora- registration under Rule 701 under the Securities Act, but the
tion supervised by the SEC, and the auditor must meet the company’s legal advisors should confirm that the exemption
SEC’s strict independence requirements. If the company’s has been satisfied and remediate any missing documentation
current accounting firm does not meet these requirements, or approvals.
the company will need to retain a different accounting firm.
How Can the Company’s Employees Benefit from and
The underwriters may also suggest that a company retain a
Participate in the IPO?
new accounting firm if the company’s current auditor is not
nationally recognized. The search for a different accounting One of the many advantages of an IPO is that it enables direct
firm, if needed, should begin early in the IPO planning process employee participation in the financial performance of the
as the need to re-audit the company’s financial statements company. Most IPO candidates will therefore establish,
could cause delays. effective as of the IPO date, long-term equity-based incentive

6 Initial Public Offerings

plans for employees. If properly structured, these plans align The approach to investor relations will change once the
the interests of the company and its employees and serve as company has formally announced its intention to go public
an important tool to recruit and retain top talent. Of course, and certainly once the company’s shares are listed and
these plans need to be structured to comply with applicable publicly traded on a stock exchange. In particular, the
local laws in those jurisdictions where particular participating company becomes subject to ongoing reporting obligations
employees reside. requiring it to publish formal annual and quarterly reports
and to publicly announce material developments that may
Companies will sometimes set aside a portion of the IPO
affect the price of the company’s shares on a real-time basis.
shares to be offered on a priority basis in a “directed share”
Any material misstatements or omissions in these reports or
program or offering to employees, customers, suppliers and
announcements, delays in publishing any required reports or
other friends of the company. Issuers often see these
delays in making required announcements, or inaccurate,
programs as a way to reward employees and business
unapproved or selective disclosure of material, non-public
partners for their loyalty and to keep their interests aligned
information either orally or in writing (e.g., disclosure of
with the company going forward. Determining the persons to
information by unauthorized employees or even ad hoc
whom the directed share program will be offered is a
statements by senior management in response to questions
balancing act. Directed share programs are typically small,
with investors, analysts or journalists – possibly even in a
comprising no more than five to ten percent of the shares
social context) can have a significant impact on the compa-
offered in the IPO. If the group of offerees is too large, the
ny’s share price. These disclosures can also damage a
plan may become unwieldy and offerees may be disappointed
company’s reputation and expose both it and the individuals
because they are unable to purchase the number of shares
involved to potential civil and criminal liability for securities
that they desire. On the other hand, the existence of the
fraud, market manipulation, insider trading or other offenses.
directed share program will be disclosed in the company’s
prospectus, so employees and suppliers that were not The IPO candidate must begin to review the company’s
included in the group of offerees may be upset that they were policies for corporate communications in the initial stages of
excluded. the IPO process, establishing a formal investor relations
program and creating or updating a website suitable for a
There are strict rules regarding the use of written communi-
public company. Many companies find it helpful to engage the
cations, including emails, in offering shares, including through
services of a specialist investor relations firm during and after
a directed share program. The SEC will often ask to see any
the IPO process to assist the company with the various press
such communications to ensure compliance with the offering
releases, presentations, question-and-answer briefings, the
restrictions. It is important, therefore, to have legal counsel
creation of a dedicated investor relations website and
review any of these types of communications prior to their use.
arranging press interviews and coverage.

How Should Investor Relations Be Handled? The need for effective communication with the company’s
Among the benefits of being a private company is that there investors and other stakeholders does not end on the date of
is rarely any need to regularly engage with public investors, the IPO, and many would argue it only begins. The company will
analysts or the media, and there are no public reporting need to continue to work effectively with its investors in order
obligations. Private companies, even those of significant to fully realize many of the benefits of being a public company.
size, typically do not have full-time personnel dedicated to Strong communications can engage investors and keep them
interacting with public investors, securities analysts or the updated about the company’s strategy and progress in
media. To the extent financial information is shared with executing its plans, as well as ensuring that they are not sur-
third parties at all, it is generally limited to the company’s prised by any unexpected developments. It will also accrue to
finance/accounting department providing limited financial the benefit of management and the board in the event an
information to lenders under existing credit facilities on a activist investor agitates for a change in the company’s
confidential basis. To the extent there are any regular or strategy.
formal dealings with the media, these typically support the
company’s sales and marketing efforts.

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 It’s important that, post-IPO, the company maintains an The NYSE and Nasdaq both have initial quantitative listing
effective investor relations program. This involves: standards that an issuer must satisfy at the time of listing and
continued quantitative listing standards that apply after the
• Implementing best practices regarding disclosure polices
initial listing. Appendix 2 to this guide sets forth the initial and
and procedures.
continued quantitative listing requirements for the NYSE
• Establishing and maintaining close relationships with and for Nasdaq’s three market tiers. The NYSE and Nasdaq
investors and the media. also impose substantive corporate governance require-
• Regularly bringing senior management to meet with ments on listed companies. There are exceptions and
investors. phase-ins for some of these corporate governance require-
• Developing processes for earnings and key announce- ments for IPOs and controlled companies (i.e., companies
ments and reports. for which 50 percent or more of the voting power to elect
directors is held by an individual, a group or another com-
In the early days after its IPO, a company is likely to consult pany). The non-quantitative and quantitative listing
more frequently with its legal advisers to determine what requirements for NYSE and Nasdaq listed companies are
announcements are required, when they should be made and contained in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 to this guide.
what they should contain. A post-IPO company is also likely to
require enhanced assistance from its legal advisers and The underwriters will assist the IPO candidate in selecting a
investor relations consultants in the preparation of its initial securities exchange upon which to list the company’s shares.
regulatory filings, such as annual and quarterly reports. Among the factors considered will be the markets on which
other companies in the IPO candidate’s industry are listed,
Which Securities Exchange to List On? the exchange’s listing requirements and the initial and
ongoing fees charged by the exchange.
There are more than 20 national securities exchanges in the
United States. Some specialize in certain types of securities or The IPO candidate will typically select a market before the
the securities of certain types of issuers. The trading volume registration statement is filed with the SEC, as the listing
is small on several of these exchanges. For most IPO issuers, application is generally submitted to the selected exchange at
the choice comes down to either the NYSE or Nasdaq, which the same time that the registration statement is filed with the
has three markets tiers: (i) Nasdaq Global Select Market SEC. As soon as the market is selected, the company should
(large cap), (ii) Nasdaq Global Market (mid cap) and (iii) select a trading symbol and reserve it with the chosen
Nasdaq Capital Market (small cap). exchange to ensure that the symbol is available when trading
begins several months later.

8 Initial Public Offerings

Offer Structure
In advising companies and their owners in connection with As a general rule, investors like “growth stories” that involve
capital markets transactions, we are frequently asked for our the injection of at least some “new money” into the company
views on the matters described below. We have therefore to support concrete and plausible plans for expansion
attempted to address these matters based on the personal through organic growth or acquisitions. However, an IPO
experiences of the authors of this guide. As these matters are candidate should not include primary shares or raise
primarily of a non-legal nature, we recommend that potential additional capital in an IPO just for the sake of perception as
IPO candidates and their owners also solicit input from the the additional shares will dilute future earnings per share if
underwriters and other financial advisers retained in the proceeds are not profitability reinvested. In particular,
connection with any proposed IPO. primary shares may be less important as a selling point in
connection with a private equity exit, as it may be easier to
Offer Size explain the rationale for the current private equity stock-
Determining the appropriate total offer size for an IPO will holder exiting. If a company determines that it is necessary to
require the careful consideration of a number of factors, raise additional equity capital in the future, it may do so in one
including: or more follow-on equity offerings after the IPO when it
actually needs the additional capital.
• The current and anticipated future funding needs of the
company and plans to issue additional shares, including in Allocation—Institutional vs. Retail
connection with employee incentive plans or as potential
The allocation of shares to investors in an IPO depends on the
acquisition currency for future M&A transactions.
specific distribution objectives of the company and the
• The target proceeds from the IPO for any selling quality of interested investors. In some cases, emotional
stockholders. factors may also play a role. For example, strong name or
• Any minimum offering size, market capitalization and brand recognition of the company and its products or
“free float” requirements imposed by potential investors services may translate into high demand, and presumably
or applicable stock exchange listing rules or the com- better pricing, for the company’s shares.
pany’s charter or existing stockholder agreements for the
The final allocation, including the split between the institu-
IPO to qualify as a “qualifying IPO.”
tional and retail tranches, is ultimately agreed between the
• Any voting thresholds for key corporate decisions company and the bookrunner(s) for the IPO immediately
imposed by applicable corporate law. prior to pricing (i.e., after completion of the roadshow). It is
• The short- and mid-term target/minimum ownership important that the company considers relevant investor
percentage of the selling stockholders/current owners of selection criteria in the initial stages of the process with input
the company following the IPO. from various stakeholders, including the proposed under-
writers. The company should also consider sharing
Primary vs. Secondary Shares information with the bookrunner(s) about potential investors
Determining the appropriate split between primary and it might already know and would like to invite to participate in
secondary shares involves similar considerations as those the IPO.
involved in determining the total offer size. The decision also Investor quality is influenced by a number of factors and
depends on the “equity story” described in the prospectus. depends on many non-legal considerations, including:
“Primary offering” or “primary shares” refers to the portion
of an offering comprising newly issued shares by the com- • The importance of a particular investor as a valuation
pany, whereas “secondary offering” or “secondary shares” leader—rather than as a valuation follower.
refers to the portion of the offering comprising shares being • The investor’s ownership levels in the particular industry
sold by existing stockholders. The term “secondary offering” sector—is the investor a natural holder rather than a
can also refer to a follow-on offering of shares after the IPO. likely seller?

mayer brown 9
 • The investor’s investment philosophy— is the investor a
long-term holder or a short-term trader?
• Participation of the investor in the roadshow.
• Transparency of the investor’s purchase intentions.
• Potential deal feedback and price indications from the
investor.

Distribution objectives may include:

• Limited flipping—stable “buy-to-hold” investor base.

• Absence of hedge funds.
• An appropriate mix of institutional and retail
stockholders.
• Breadth of ownership across target institutions.
• Desire for after-market trading of the shares to com-
mence at a premium to the IPO price.

It is usually fruitless to try to pre-determine the ultimate split

between the institutional and retail tranches at the outset of a
transaction, as the actual split depends on many non-legal
considerations, as well as prevailing market conditions at the
time of the launch of the IPO.

For legal and logistical reasons, IPOs are typically structured

to permit a retail offering only in either a single jurisdiction
(the company’s “home jurisdiction,” which is typically also
the jurisdiction in which the company’s shares will be listed)
or, at most, one or two additional jurisdictions.

10 Initial Public Offerings

Key Documents
An IPO typically requires the preparation of the following key day of the fiscal year during which it had total annual gross
documents: revenues of $1.07 billion or more; (B) the last day of the fiscal
year following the fifth anniversary of its initial public offering
• Form S-1 Registration Statement (registering the offer and
date; (C) the date on which it has, during the previous
sale of securities).
three-year period, issued more than $1 billion in non-convert-
• Form 8-A Registration Statement (registering the class of ible debt; or (D) the date on which it is deemed to be a “large
securities for ongoing reporting requirements). accelerated filer” (i.e., the common equity held by non-affili-
• Underwriting agreement. ates has a market value of more than $700 million).
• Lock-up agreements. The rules of the securities exchange on which the company’s
• Legal opinions and negative assurance letters. securities will be listed also require that certain information
• Comfort letters. be disclosed in the registration statement.
• Engagement Letter. In addition to the specific requirements of Form S-1 and of the
Each of these documents is described in more detail below. applicable securities exchange, the disclosure must satisfy the
standards under the general anti-fraud provisions of US law.
The company, its directors and officers, the underwriters, and
Registration Statement
other parties involved in an offering must always ensure that
Offerings of securities to the public in the United States must
the offering document:
be registered with the SEC under the Securities Act. The
document filed with the SEC in connection with an IPO is a • Does not contain a misstatement of a material fact.
registration statement on Form S-1. The Form S-1 cross-refer- • Does not omit to state a material fact necessary in order
ences to SEC Regulation S-K, which contains the substantive to make the statements made not misleading.
disclosure requirements for non-financial portions of the
Material misstatements or omissions in the offering docu-
registration statement and to SEC Regulation S-X for financial
ments expose the company, its officers, directors and auditors,
statement requirements. Regulation S-K and Regulation S-X
the underwriters and any other offering participants to
provide scaled disclosure for smaller reporting companies. A
potential liability under applicable anti-fraud laws, which are
smaller reporting company is a company with a public float of
discussed below under “The IPO Process—Liability.” Reviewing
less than $75 million or no public float and revenues of less than
the prospectus carefully is the primary responsibility of the
$50 million in the preceding fiscal year.1 The Jumpstart our
company’s management team.
Business Startup Act (JOBS ACT) created a new category of
companies called emerging growth companies (EGCs). EGCs The Form S-1 consists of two parts: the prospectus (the
also are eligible for a variety of disclosure accommodations, disclosure document provided to potential investors) and
including certain of the scaled accommodations available to information not required in a prospectus (which is not
smaller reporting companies and additional exemptions from required to be delivered to potential investors but is available
other disclosure requirements. The publicity restrictions for on the SEC’s website).
EGCs are also not as onerous as they are for non-EGCs, as
discussed below under “The IPO Process—Publicity PART I—INFORMATION REQUIRED IN A PROSPECTUS
Considerations.” An EGC is a company with total annual gross The prospectus is a disclosure document intended to
revenues of less than $1.07 billion. The SEC is required to provide potential investors with material information
adjust the EGC revenue threshold every five years to reflect necessary to make an informed decision whether to invest in
inflation, with the next adjustment scheduled to occur in the shares of the company.
2022. An issuer remains an EGC until the earliest of: (A) the last
In addition to providing potential investors with information
1 The SEC has proposed amending the definition of smaller reporting
about the proposed offering, the prospectus can also protect
company so that a company with a public float of less than $250 the company, its officers, directors and auditors, the underwrit-
million or a company with no public float and less than $100 million in ers and any other offering participants from liability under
revenues in the prior fiscal year would qualify.

mayer brown 11
 federal securities laws for alleged material misstatements or Each of these sections and related disclosure requirements is
omissions in connection with the offer and sale of the shares. described briefly below. The disclosure requirements are
subject to a number of important exceptions and qualifica-
SEC rules require that information contained in a prospectus
tions, all of which are not discussed below. As noted above,
be presented in a clear, concise, understandable manner. The
Regulations S-K and S-X contain scaled disclosure for smaller
SEC requires the use of plain English principles in the organiza-
reporting companies and EGCs. The discussion below
tion, language and design of the front and back cover pages,
generally describes the requirements for issuers that do not
the summary and the risk factors section of a prospectus.
fall into either of those categories. A summary of the accom-
Nevertheless, it is common to use plain English principles
modations for EGCs and smaller reporting companies is
throughout the prospectus. The SEC has published A Plain
contained in Appendix 3 to this guide.
English Handbook: How to create clear SEC disclosure
documents to assist companies in creating documents using Summary. (S-K Item 503) The summary has a marketing
plain English principles.2 focus and provides (i) a brief description of the company’s
business and strategy and key investment highlights, (ii) a risk
The prospectus contains, among other sections:
factor summary, (iii) an offering summary and (iv) summary
• A summary of the company and its results of operations, financial data. The company and underwriters spend
its financial condition and the offering. considerable time on the summary section since it is the first
• A description of the risks associated with an investment in section that investors will read in determining whether to
the shares. purchase shares in the IPO.

• A discussion of the use of proceeds from the offering. Risk Factors. (S-K Item 503) The risk factors section of the
• A capitalization table. prospectus includes a discussion of the factors making an
investment in the IPO speculative or risky. The discussion
• Dilution.
must be concise and organized logically. The risk factors
• Selected financial information.
should be described in order of importance, and the section is
• “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial often divided into subsections, such as:
Condition and Results of Operations” (MD&A), which
provides management’s analysis of current trends and • Risks related to the business of the issuer.
recent financial performance of the company. • Risks related to the industry in which the issuer operates.
• A description of the company’s business, including • Risks related to an investment in the common stock of the
strengths and strategies of the company, and of the issuer.
industry and markets in which the company operates.
Specific risk factors may include:
• Biographies of executive officers and directors.
• The issuer’s lack of an extensive operating history.
• Information about compensation of executive officers and
directors. • Any lack of profitable operations in recent periods.

• A description of any related party transactions. • The company’s current or anticipated financial position.

• Information about principal and any selling stockholders. • Prospects for success of the company’s proposed busi-
ness or new business lines.
• A description of the company’s capital stock.
• The company’s ability to successfully implement the
• A discussion of shares eligible for future sale.
strategy described elsewhere in the prospectus.
• A description of the underwriting arrangements.
Issuers should review the types of risks that public companies
• Historical financial statements.
in the issuer’s industry include in their filings. SEC comment
letters can also be a valuable resource in determining the
SEC’s views on risk factors appropriate to companies in
2 The handbook is located at the SEC’s website at https://www.sec.
gov/pdf/handbook.pdf. particular industries or situations.

12 Initial Public Offerings

The risk factors section has a dual purpose: both good and bad. In addition, the company and its
management will have plenty of opportunities to “sell” the
• To inform investors of any material risks related to an
IPO to securities analysts and key investors in person during
investment in the IPO.
analyst sessions and the investors roadshow that will be
• To insulate the company, its directors, officers and audi- organized by the underwriters for the IPO.
tors, the underwriters and any other offering participants
from potential civil and criminal liability in the event of a Use of Proceeds. (S-K Item 504) The use of proceeds
decline in the price of the shares post-IPO due, directly or section describes the intended use of the net proceeds from
indirectly, to the occurrence of one or more of the risks the offering. If any material part of the proceeds is to be used
disclosed. to discharge indebtedness, the terms of the debt need to be
described in this section.
If allegations of inadequate disclosure in the prospectus or
allegations of securities fraud are made, the ability to point to Capitalization. The capitalization table shows the long-term
a specific risk factor in the prospectus highlighting the debt and equity of the company on an actual basis and as
possibility that the relevant adverse event or development adjusted to show the effects of the offering and the use of
might occur is a significant advantage. proceeds. The capitalization table is not required by SEC
rules, but it is useful for marketing purposes to provide a
Companies should not simply present generic risks that could
snapshot of the company’s financial position, both before and
apply to any company or any offering but need to explain how
after the IPO.
each particular risk affects the particular company or
offering. Risk factors should also avoid including “mitigating” Dilution. (S-K Item 506) When there is a substantial disparity
language (i.e., language that “waters down” the risk or serves between the public offering price in the IPO and the effective
to minimize its impact or likelihood). In other words, qualify- cash cost to officers, directors, promoters and affiliated
ing language or explanations indicating that investors should persons of common equity acquired by them during the past
not be overly concerned about a particular risk because it is five years, the company is required to include a comparison of
already being somehow addressed or mitigated by the issuer, those amounts and the net tangible book value per share both
or because the likelihood of its actual occurrence is low, before and after the IPO, and the amount of the increase in net
should be avoided. tangible book value attributable to, and the amount of the
dilution being absorbed by, purchasers in the IPO.
The risk factors section of the prospectus frequently
receives a high level of attention by the issuer, the under- Selected Financial Information. (S-K Item 301) The
writers, their advisers and the SEC, for different reasons. selected financial table shows the amounts for various line
The uninitiated owners and management of an IPO candi- items in the income statement and balance sheet of the issuer
date, in particular, may initially be alarmed by the number of for the last five fiscal years (or such shorter period of time that
risk factors and the one-sided and unbalanced nature of the the issuer has been in existence) and for any interim periods
risk factors section and may be concerned that the negative (three-, six- or nine-month periods) since the end of the last
overall tone of the section may convey an unfair and overly fiscal year and the corresponding period in the prior year. Only
negative image of the company and its prospects, which a small number of line items from the income statement and
could distract from the positive marketing message of the balance sheet is required, but it is more common to include
IPO. However, institutional and experienced retail investors most of the line items from the income statement in the
are accustomed to lengthy risk factors and are not typically selected financial table.
deterred by descriptions of ordinary risks. There are other
EGCs are not required to present selected financial data for
sections of the prospectus that are better suited to convey
any period prior to the earliest audited financial statement
the potential benefits and prospects of the company and an
period included in the registration statement. Smaller
investment in the IPO, such as the business section, which
reporting companies are not required to include selected
typically includes a separate “strengths and strategy”
financial information in a registration statement. See
subsection, and the financial Information or MD&A section,
Appendix 3.
which will include a subsection that describes any known
trends and the key factors affecting the company’s results,

mayer brown 13
 MD&A. (S-K Items 303 and 305) The MD&A (Management’s With regard to focus and content of the MD&A, the SEC
Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of emphasizes that:
Operations) is a key part of all prospectuses. Because of its
• In deciding on the content of the MD&A, companies
importance, the SEC has, over the years, issued extensive
should focus on material information and eliminate
rules, as well as detailed interpretive guidance regarding the
immaterial information that does not promote under-
content, format and purpose of the MD&A.
standing of companies’ financial condition, liquidity, and
In SEC Release No. 33-8350, the SEC states that purpose of the capital resources, changes in financial condition and
MD&A section is to provide readers information necessary to results of operations—both in the context of profit and
gain an understanding of a company’s financial condition, loss and cash flows.
changes in financial condition and results of operations. The • Companies should identify and discuss key performance
MD&A requirements are intended to satisfy three principal indicators, including non-financial performance indicators,
objectives: that their management uses to manage the business and
• To provide a narrative explanation of a company’s finan- that would be material to investors.
cial statements that enables investors to see the company • Companies must identify and disclose known trends,
through the eyes of management. events, demands, commitments and uncertainties that
• To enhance the overall financial disclosure and provide are reasonably likely to have a material effect on financial
the context within which financial information should be condition or operating performance.
analyzed. • Companies should provide not only disclosure of informa-
• To provide information about the quality of and potential tion responsive to the technical requirements for an
variability of a company’s earnings and cash flow so that MD&A under the relevant SEC rules, but also an analysis
investors can ascertain the likelihood that past perfor- that explains management’s view of the implications and
mance is indicative of future performance. significance of that information and that satisfies the
objectives of the MD&A.
The MD&A should not be a recitation of financial statements
in narrative form or an otherwise-uninformative series of Potential investors should be able to read and understand the
technical responses to the MD&A requirements, neither of MD&A on a standalone basis, so the MD&A often starts with
which provides this important management perspective. an “Overview” that briefly outlines the company and its
business.
The SEC expressly encourages early top-level involvement by
a company’s management in identifying the key disclosure This discussion is typically followed by “Key Drivers/Factors”
themes and items that should be included. that have affected the company’s past performance and that
management expects to affect the company’s results of
With regard to overall presentation of the MD&A, the SEC operations going forward. These key drivers may relate to the
emphasizes the following points: economy as a whole, the industry in which the issuer operates
• Within the universe of material information, companies or factors unique to the specific issuer. They may include:
should present their disclosure so that the most impor- • Revenue drivers (such as cyclicality or seasonality of
tant information is most prominent. demand, competitive developments, loss of patent
• Companies should avoid unnecessary duplicative protection or introductions of new products or services).
disclosure that can tend to overwhelm readers and act • Cost drivers (such as fluctuations in raw material prices or
as an obstacle to identifying and understanding material changes in labor costs).
matters.
• The impact of strategic initiatives (such as acquisitions,
• Many companies would benefit from starting their MD&A divestitures or restructurings).
with a section that provides an executive-level overview
• External factors (such as exchange rate fluctuations).
that provides context for the remainder of the discussion.

14 Initial Public Offerings

The “key drivers/factors” described in the MD&A must be contingent obligations) may be required. There are at least
consistent with related discussions elsewhere in the offering two scenarios where this information should be included:
document, in particular the risk factors section and the
• Companies that are, or are reasonably likely to be, in
“strengths and strategies” described in the business section.
breach of these covenants must disclose material
This is then typically followed by one of the most promi- information about that breach and analyze the impact on
nent (and often very time-consuming to produce) portions the company if material.
of the MD&A—a narrative, line-by-line comparison and • Companies with debt covenants that limit, or are reason-
discussion of the issuer’s “Results of Operations” for the ably likely to limit, their ability to undertake financing to
three most recently completed financial years plus any a material extent must discuss the covenants in question
interim periods. If the “Key Drivers/Factors” subsection is and the consequences of the limitation to the company’s
well drafted, the explanations provided in this subsection financial condition and operating performance.
as to the reasons for any significant changes in individual
line items over the periods under review should match the The issuer then discusses off-balance sheet arrangements
key factors and not come as a surprise to the reader. The under a separate subheading, and in tabular form under
discussion must focus on the company’s consolidated another subheading, information about the maturity profile
results of operations, as well as the results of operations of the company’s contractual obligations. The “Contractual
for each reportable business segment. Obligations” subsection should cover long-term debt
obligations, lease obligations and purchase obligations.
EGCs and smaller reporting companies may limit this Smaller reporting companies are not required to include the
discussion to those years for which audited financial state- contractual obligations table. See Appendix 3.
ments are included, plus any interim periods included in the
registration statement. See Appendix 3. The company must also discuss quantitative and qualitative
disclosures about market risk. The company should catego-
The issuer must also provide information about its “Liquidity rize market risk-sensitive instruments into those entered into
and Capital Resources.” To the extent material, this informa- for trading purposes and those entered into for purposes
tion should include: other than trading purposes and provide separate quantita-
• Historical information regarding sources and uses of cash, tive information, to the extent material, with respect to
focusing on each of the major sections of the company’s interest rate risk, foreign currency exchange rate risk,
statement of cash flows. commodity price risk and other relevant market risks, such as
equity price risk. A smaller reporting company is not required
• An evaluation of the amounts and certainty of cash flows.
to include this discussion in its registration statement. See
• The existence and timing of commitments for capital Appendix 3.
expenditures and other known and reasonably likely cash
requirements. The company may need to include a discussion of its
“Significant Accounting Policies/Critical Accounting
• A discussion and analysis of known trends and
Estimates.” Many estimates and assumptions involved in the
uncertainties.
application of GAAP have a material impact on reported
• A description of expected changes in the mix and relative financial condition and operating performance and on the
cost of capital resources. comparability of that information over different reporting
• Indications of which balance sheet or income statement or periods. This subsection should address any material
cash flow items should be considered in assessing liquidity. implications of uncertainties associated with the methods,
• A discussion of prospective information regarding the assumptions and estimates underlying the company’s critical
company’s sources of and needs for capital, except where accounting measurements. This disclosure should supple-
otherwise clear from the discussion. ment, not simply duplicate, the description of accounting
A discussion and analysis of material covenants related to the policies that are already disclosed in the notes to the financial
issuer’s outstanding debt (or covenants applicable to the statements. The disclosure should provide greater insight
companies or third parties in respect of guarantees or other into the quality and variability of information regarding the

mayer brown 15
 company’s financial condition and operating performance. the cash from the offering will be sufficient for the
While accounting policy notes in the financial statements company’s needs and whether it will be necessary to
generally describe the method used to apply an accounting raise additional capital in the next six months.
principle, the discussion in the MD&A should present a • Financial information about geographic and reporting
company’s analysis of the uncertainties involved in applying a segments.
principle at a given time or the variability that is reasonably
• A narrative description of the company’s business for each
likely to result from its application over time. It should address
reportable segment, focusing on:
specifically why its accounting estimates or assumptions bear
»» The principal products produced and services
the risk of change (for example, because there is an uncer-
rendered, the principal markets for, and the methods
tainty attached to the estimate or assumption or that it just
of distribution of, the products and services.
may be difficult to measure or value).
»» A description of the status of a product or segment
Equally important, companies should address the questions and if there has been a public announcement of a new
that arise once the critical accounting estimate or assumption product or segment that would require an investment
has been identified by analyzing to the extent material, such of a material amount of assets or that is otherwise
factors as: material.
• How the company arrived at the estimate. »» The sources and availability of raw materials.
• How accurate the estimate/assumption has been in the »» The importance and duration and effect of all patents,
past. trademarks, licenses, franchises and concessions
• How much the estimate/assumption has changed in the held.
past. »» Seasonality.
• Whether the estimate/assumption is reasonably likely to »» Practices of the company and the industry relating to
change in the future. working capital items.

Since critical accounting estimates and assumptions are »» Dependence of the segment upon a single customer,
based on matters that are highly uncertain, this section or a few customers, naming any customer that
should cover their specific sensitivity to change based on accounts for 10 percent or more of the company’s
other outcomes that are reasonably likely to occur and would consolidated revenues.
have a material effect. »» The dollar amount of firm backlog orders.

Business. (S-K Items 101, 102 and 103) The business section »» A description of any material portion of the business that
of the prospectus provides information about the company’s may be subject to renegotiation of profits or the
business operations, the products it makes or the services it termination of contracts at the election of the
provides, as well as factors that affect its business. It also government.
provides information regarding the adequacy and suitability »» The principal markets in which the company competes,
of the company’s properties and any plans for future changes. the company’s main competitors in those markets, the
Drafting the business section requires significant factual basis of competition and the company’s competitive
input from the issuer, including senior management, and can position.
be time-consuming. • The amount spent during each of the last three fiscal years
on research and development activities.
Among other things, the business section contains:
• The material effects that compliance with environmental
• Technical details about the company, including the date laws may have upon the capital expenditures, earnings
of formation, legal form and a discussion of its history and competitive position of the company.
and development over the past five years.
• The number of company employees.
• If the company has not received revenue from opera-
• A discussion of material contracts.
tions during each of the three years preceding the date
of filing of the registration statement, the company • Information relating to materially important properties
must discuss its plan of operations, including how long owned or leased by the company.

16 Initial Public Offerings

• A description of any pending material legal proceedings. principal financial officer and three other most highly com-
• A description of the regulatory environment in which the pensated executive officers, as discussed below in the next
company operates. section.

The disclosure requirements for smaller reporting compa- Executive Compensation. (S-K Item 402) The executive
nies are less onerous that described above. See Appendix 3. compensation section discusses the compensation of the
company’s principal executive officer, principal financial
The business section is a key opportunity for the issuer to officer and the next three most highly compensated executive
present its “equity story” and explain its operations and officers. The company is not required to disclose the compen-
business prospects to potential investors. The section sation of an employee that is not an executive officer, even if
generally includes a separate subsection towards the that employee earns more than one or more of the executive
beginning describing the company’s strengths and competi- officers whose compensation is discussed. Information with
tive advantages as well as management’s strategy for respect to former executive officers may also need to be
capitalizing on those strengths in pursuing future growth of discussed. The persons whose compensation is disclosed are
the business. This “strengths and strategy” subsection commonly referred to as “named executive officers.” This
frequently receives a very high level of attention and scrutiny section includes a compensation discussion and analysis
by all offering participants, as it impacts the core marketing (CD&A), which is a narrative description of the material
message for the IPO. For this reason, the lead underwriter for information about the compensation objectives and policies
the IPO, with input from the company’s management as well for the named executive officers. The company is required to
as the relevant industry coverage team, may prepare the describe what the compensation program is designed to
initial draft of the “strengths and strategy” subsection for reward, each element of compensation, why the company
review and comment by the company and its counsel. chose to pay each element, how the company determines the
Management. (S-K Item 401) This section provides bio- amount for each element and how each element and the
graphical information for each of the company’s directors and company’s decisions regarding that element fit into the
executive officers for at least the last five years, including in the company’s overall compensation objectives and affect
case of directors, any specific experience, qualification, decisions regarding other elements.
attributes or skills that lead to the conclusion that such person In addition, the company is required, in specified tabular
should serve as a director of the company. The disclosure format, to disclose compensation for each of the named
must identify which of the directors are independent and also executive officers during the past fiscal year (although if the
on which of the audit, compensation and nominating commit- information was previously included in a filing with the SEC,
tees of the board of directors each director serves. the information could be required for up to three fiscal years)
The SEC defines an executive officer of a company as its in a summary compensation table that includes salary, bonus,
president, any vice president in charge of a principal business stock awards, option awards, non-equity incentive plan
unit, division or function (such as sales, administration or compensation, change in pension value and non-qualified
finance), any other officer who performs a policy making deferred compensation earnings and all other compensation.
function or any other person who performs similar policy Other required tables show for the named executive officers,
making functions for the company. In some cases, executive grants of plan-based awards during the most recently
officers of subsidiaries may be deemed executive officers of completed fiscal year, outstanding equity awards at the end
the company if they perform such policy making functions for of the most recently completed fiscal year, option exercises
the company. Determining who is an executive officer can and stock vested during the most recently completed fiscal
have important consequences. For example, executive year, pension benefits as of the most recently completed
officers are subject to liability for short-swing profits under fiscal year end and nonqualified deferred compensation as of
Section 16 of the Exchange Act of 1934 (Exchange Act), as the most recently completed fiscal year. Finally, issuers must
discussed below under “Ongoing Obligations as a Public disclose amounts that would be payable to the named
Company—Section 16,” and the company is required to executive officers upon their termination or a change of
disclose the compensation of the principal executive officer, control of the company, assuming that the termination or

mayer brown 17
 change of control had occurred at the end of the most total assets at year end for the last two completed fiscal years.
recently completed fiscal year. Narrative disclosure accompa- The information must be provided for the current and
nying certain tables is required to provide additional material preceding fiscal years. Smaller reporting companies are not
factors necessary to understand the information disclosed in required to disclose their procedures for review and approval
those tables. or ratification of related party transactions. Smaller reporting
companies must list all parents of the smaller reporting
To the extent that risks arising from the company’s compen-
companies, showing the basis of control and as to each parent,
sation policies and practices for its employees are reasonably
the percentage of voting securities owned or the other basis of
likely to have a material adverse effect on the company, the
control by its immediate parent.
company must discuss its policies and practices of compen-
sating its employees, including non-executive officers, as they Principal and Selling Stockholders’ Table. (S-K Items 403
relate to risk management practices and risk-taking and 507) The stockholders’ table presents in tabular form,
incentives. before and after the IPO, the number of shares and percent-
age of any equity securities of the company or its subsidiaries
SEC rules also require that information regarding director
beneficially owned by each of the named executive officers
compensation be disclosed in tabular format.
and directors and the executive officers and directors as a
EGCs and smaller reporting companies are not required to group. The company must also show the number of shares and
present more than two years of information in the summary percentage of each class of voting securities of the company
compensation table and need only provide information for for any person or entity known to beneficially own more than
the principal executive officer, next two most highly compen- five percent of such securities. Similar information must be
sation executive officers and up to two additional persons no shown for any stockholder selling shares in the IPO.
longer serving as executive officers at year end. EGCs and
Description of Capital Stock. (S-K Item 202) The descrip-
smaller reporting are also not required to include a CD&A, the
tion of capital stock section describes the company’s equity
grants of plan-based awards table, the option exercises and
capital structure as set forth in the company’s governing
stock vested table, changes in present value of pension
documents, with a detailed description of the rights and
benefit, a discussion of compensation policies relating to risk
privileges of the various classes of equity. It also includes a
management or the pension benefits table.
description of any anti-takeover measures that the company
Related Person Transactions. (S-K Item 404) This section may have adopted.
describes any transaction or series of related transactions,
Shares Eligible for Future Sale. This section describes the
during any of the company’s last three completed fiscal years
numbers of shares that will become eligible for sale immedi-
and the current year, or any currently proposed transaction,
ately following the IPO, after the expiration of the lockup
in which the company was or is to be a participant and the
period (for those shareholders that signed lockup agree-
amount involved exceeds $120,000 and in which any related
ments), upon satisfaction of any applicable Rule 144 period,
person had or will have a direct or indirect material interest. A
and after expiration of any other restrictions on transfer that
related person means any officer or director of the company,
may be applicable to the shares. As sales of substantial
any immediate family member of a director or executive
numbers of shares into the market can have an adverse effect
officer of the company or any beneficial owner of more than
on the price of the stock, it is important that shareholders be
five percent of the company’s voting securities or any
made aware of these dates.
immediate family member of such holder. The company is
also required to disclose its policy and procedures relating to Underwriting. (Items 505 and 508) This section describes
the review, approval or ratification of any related person the underwriting arrangements between the company and
transactions, and identify any transactions for which the the underwriters, including the makeup of the underwriting
policy and procedures were not followed. syndicate and any underwriter conflicts of interest. It also
describes the lock-up agreement and various selling restric-
The threshold related person transactions disclosure for
tions in jurisdictions where the shares may be offered outside
smaller reporting companies is the lesser of $120,000 or one
the United States.
percent of the average of the smaller reporting companies’

18 Initial Public Offerings

Financial Statements. Issuers normally must provide: • Information about sales of unregistered securities during
the two years preceding the date of filing of the registra-
• Audited financial statements that cover the latest three
tion statement with the SEC.
financial years, except for the balance sheet for the earli-
est of the three years. • Financial statement schedules.

• Unaudited financial statements that cover any stub • Undertakings.

periods (3-, 6- or 9-month periods) since the last audited • Exhibits, such as the underwriting agreement, the
financial statements included in the prospectus and company’s charter and bylaws, or other constituent
comparative financial statements for the comparable documents, material agreements, legal opinions and
stub period in the preceding financial year. consents from experts and legal counsel. The SEC has
• Pro forma financial information with respect to any signifi- procedures by which the company can request confi-
cant events, such as major acquisitions or dispositions. dential treatment for commercially sensitive portions of
exhibits. It is important to identify early in the IPO process
EGCs and smaller reporting companies are required to whether a company will seek confidential treatment for
include only two years of audited financial statements rather portions of any exhibits because these requests take a
than three years. See Appendix 3. significant amount of time (typically between two and
Financial statements for a non-public company, even if three months) to resolve with the SEC and the SEC will not
prepared in accordance with GAAP, often don not comply declare the IPO registration statement effective until it
with the SEC’s financial statement requirements. Preparing has granted the confidential treatment or the company
SEC-compliant financial statements and anticipating issues discloses the information.
that the SEC may raise is more time consuming than one • Signatures. The registration statement must be signed
might expect. See “Getting Ready—Are the Company’s by the principal executive officer, the principal financial
Existing Financial Statements Suitable?” above. Therefore, a officer, the principal accounting officer and at least a
company should consult its external auditors as soon as majority of the members of the board of directors. The
possible about the accounting, reporting and compliance signature page often includes a power of attorney, or
implications of a potential IPO. there is a separate power of attorney that will be filed as
an exhibit to the registration statement, giving power
Other Sections. The prospectus will include other sections,
to sign amendments to the registration statement to
such as a forward-looking statement disclaimer, dividend
named officers of the company on behalf of each person
policy, material tax considerations, legal matters, experts,
who signed the original filing. This avoids the logistics of
changes in independent registered public accounting firm
locating directors on short notice to obtain a signature
and where you can find additional information. In addition,
for an amendment.
certain industries, such as banking, oil and gas, mining,
The company is not required to deliver Part II of the registra-
insurance and real estate, may require another level of
tion statement to prospective investors.
industry-specific disclosure as set out under specific SEC
disclosure guides. Expert reports may also be required in the
prospectus. Form 8-A – Exchange Act Registration
Statement
PART II – INFORMATION NOT REQUIRED IN A A requirement for listing shares on a securities exchange is
PROSPECTUS that the class of shares be registered with the SEC under
In Part II of the registration statement the company includes: Section 12(b) of the Exchange Act. The registration state-
ment for accomplishing this is a Form 8-A. The Form 8-A is
• A reasonably detailed itemized listing of offering very short, typically only three or four pages, primarily
expenses. because the substance of the disclosure required by the form
• Information concerning the indemnification of directors is incorporated by reference to the description of compa-
and officers of the company provided by state law and ny’s capital stock contained in the registration statement on
the company’s charter and bylaws or other constituent Form S-1.
documents.

mayer brown 19
 A class of shares is registered under the Exchange Act only The underwriting agreement sets out the relationship and
once (unless the class was de-registered, in which case a arrangements—in particular the allocation of potential liability
new Exchange Act registration statement will be required), arising from the offer and sale of securities—among the
unlike registration under the Securities Act, which registers underwriters for the IPO, the issuer and any selling
the sale of a specified number or dollar amount of shares. stockholder(s). In the underwriting agreement, the company
When the dollar amount or number of shares has been sold, agrees to issue and sell, and any selling stockholders agree to
the company must file a new Securities Act registration sell, a specified number of shares to the underwriters. Subject
statement before additional shares are sold to the public. to specified conditions, the underwriters agree to purchase the
agreed number of shares from the company and the selling
By registering a class of shares under the Exchange Act, the
stockholders at an agreed price at closing (typically 3-5
company and its officers and directors and, in some cases, its
business days after the signing of the underwriting agreement).
shareholders will become subject to additional requirements
such as the SEC’s proxy rules and tender offer rules, Section The underwriting commitment given by the underwriters can
16 short swing profit liability and beneficial ownership take one of two forms:
reporting, which are discussed below under “Ongoing
• A “firm commitment” to underwrite, in which the
Obligations as a Public Company.” The company will also
underwriter takes up any shares that are not purchased by
become subject to periodic reporting requirements of the
investors, or
Exchange Act. While a company that has filed a registration
statement has an obligation to file quarterly, annual and other • A “best efforts” obligation, where the underwriters are
reports with the SEC following the effective date of the required to use their best efforts to sell the shares but are
registration statement, it can cease filing those reports under no legal obligation to take up any shortfall in sales.
without any further action or consent from the SEC or other The underwriting agreement also includes numerous
third parties provided that certain conditions are met. When representations and warranties made by the issuer covering
the Form 8-A becomes effective, the company is required to matters such as the company’s business and the complete-
file quarterly, annual and other reports under the Exchange ness and accuracy of the prospectus and other offering
Act with the SEC. While a company can take action to materials. One of the most important provisions from the
deregister under the Exchange Act, the deregistration cannot perspective of the underwriters is an agreement by the issuer
be effective until the exchange on which the company’s to indemnify the underwriters for any losses resulting from
securities are listed agrees, thus ensuring that so long as the any material misstatements or omissions in the offering
company’s securities are listed on a securities exchange there materials. Any stockholders selling shares in the offering are
will be an informed marketplace. also required to make at least some representations, for
example, with regard to their capacity to enter into the
Underwriting Agreement underwriting agreement and title in the shares they are selling
and are required to indemnify the underwriters with respect
OVERVIEW
to limited information.
The underwriting agreement is typically entered into at the
Where the selling stockholders hold a significant stake in the
end of the offering process, usually after the marketing of the
company pre-IPO or are otherwise involved in the strategic
shares (i.e., the “roadshow”) and when the underwriters and
or day-to-day management of the company, they may also
the company are prepared to “price” the offering (i.e.,
be required to provide representations, warranties and
commit to the exact number of shares to be sold and to a fixed
indemnities with regard to the company’s business and the
price per share) based on the feedback from investors as to
completeness and accuracy of the offering materials – at
the number of shares that they are willing to purchase and at
least with regard to those portions of the prospectus that
what prices. However, the underwriters usually want the
relate to them.
underwriting agreement to be in a final, agreed form earlier
than pricing, especially where an engagement letter has not Upon execution of the underwriting agreement, the under-
been executed. writers take on the risk of distributing the shares to investors
where they have given a firm commitment to underwrite.

20 Initial Public Offerings

Should they not be able to find enough investors to acquire potentially lead to an over-supply of shares in the market
the shares that are the subject of the offering, they will have to – that may ultimately put some downward pressure on the
acquire the shortfall themselves. share price.

The underwriters earn the fees for their services and the That said, a greenshoe option can be a valuable tool that can
underwriting risk they take by underwriting an IPO from the benefit the issuer, any selling stockholders and the underwrit-
price difference between the price at which they agree to ers by increasing the overall size of the IPO and facilitating
purchase the shares from the issuer and any selling stock- stabilization activities within the 30 days following the listing.
holders and the public offering price at which the shares will Their use, typically at the 15 percent level, has become
be sold by the underwriters to investors. This is known as the standard in IPOs.
“underwriting spread” or “underwriting discount.”
Lock-Up Agreements
GREENSHOE OPTION The underwriters usually expect the company, any significant
An underwriting agreement for an offering of common stock stockholders (whether or not selling shares in the IPO), the
usually includes a “greenshoe option” or over-allotment directors and executive officers, to agree to “lock-up” up their
option allowing the underwriters to purchase additional shares for a specified period of time. In the case of the
shares from the issuer and/or the selling stockholders. This company, the lock-up restricts its ability to issue any new
option facilitates the underwriters’ ability to “short sell” securities, other than in connection with a greenshoe option
shares at the agreed public offering price: that is, to sell more or its equity incentive programs or upon conversion of
shares to investors than the fixed number of shares initially outstanding convertible securities. In the case of stockhold-
agreed with the issuer and the selling stockholders in the ers, directors and executives, a lock-up restricts their ability
underwriting agreement. This can help the underwriters to sell shares for an agreed period after the IPO. The existence
stabilize the trading price of the shares in the after-market and duration of lock-up agreements can be important factors
immediately following the IPO and might therefore have a in the investment decision of key institutional investors,
positive impact on the achievable IPO price, in that the especially if there is a large “overhang” (that is, a large existing
underwriters may be able to agree to a higher/more aggres- stockholder that could potentially sell a large stake in close
sive IPO price with a greenshoe option rather than without proximity to the IPO, flooding the market with additional
one. shares, thereby increasing pricing pressure on the newly listed
shares). In addition to concerns about a potential oversupply
The greenshoe option may vary in size but must not normally
and the resulting downwards pressure on the trading price,
exceed 15 percent of the original number of shares offered.
even smaller volume sales by “insider” stockholders (such as
This is due to applicable securities laws and requirements of
directors, officers or large stockholders) could potentially be
the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) and the
misinterpreted as a lack of confidence in the company or
fact that the sale of more than an additional 15 percent of
share price and disrupt a potentially volatile market in the
shares could arguably be considered material information
shares of the company in the period immediately following
that may require the issuer and underwriters to go back to
the IPO.
investors in the IPO and give them an opportunity to recon-
sider their investment decision. This is particularly the case A lock-up period of 180 days for both the issuer and key
should the issuer agree to sell additional primary shares stockholders has become an almost universal minimum
pursuant to the greenshoe option because any such addi- standard for IPOs, but the period can sometimes be longer. In
tional shares would further dilute the other stockholders. some instances, lock-up agreements may contain a “waterfall
Raising a significant amount of additional capital for the issuer provision” whereby a limited number of shares are released
may also be inconsistent with the “equity story” and the “use from the lock-up over a period of time. The lead underwriters
of proceeds” described in the offering documents. This can also typically waive the lock-up, although this is rarely
concern is less relevant for secondary shares, i.e., to the done, except in connection with a subsequent public offering
extent the greenshoe option is provided by one or more that occurs within the lock-up period. FINRA rules requires
selling stockholders, although a significant increase in the that any waiver by the underwriters of a lock-up period be
total offer size, by way of the greenshoe option, could publicly disclosed.

mayer brown 21
 Legal Opinions and Negative Assurance Letters The underwriting agreement will also typically provide that
the lawyers for both the underwriters and the issuer will
Various sections of the US federal securities laws impose
deliver certain legal opinions to the underwriters as a
liability on an issuer, its officers and directors, the underwrit-
condition to closing, for example, with regard to due
ers and other offering participants in a securities offering if
organization of the issuer, due authorization of the shares,
the registration statement or the prospectus contains:
no violation of the company’s organization documents or of
• Any untrue statement of a material fact or any laws or agreements by which the issuer is bound,
• An omission of a material fact. accuracy of the disclosure in specified portions of the
prospectus and the due authorization, execution and
The nuances of the potential liability are discussed below
delivery of the underwriting agreement by the company.
under “The IPO Process – Liability.”

If successful, private litigants may be awarded damages or Comfort Letters

may seek to rescind the transaction and obtain a refund of the “Comfort letters” are typically provided by the issuer’s
original purchase price. Certain of the liability provisions auditors upon the “pricing” (signing of the underwriting
contain a due diligence defense discussed below. In an action agreement), representing another key component of the
under Section 10(b) or Rule 10b-5, a plaintiff must show underwriter’s due diligence defense. The comfort letter
(among other things) that the defendant acted with “scien- follows a standard format prescribed by the relevant
ter,” meaning an intent to defraud, deceive or manipulate. accounting body (e.g., AU Section 634, “Letters for
Generally, courts have found recklessness to satisfy the Underwriters and Certain Other Requesting Parties,”
scienter requirement, but not simple negligence or even promulgated by the PCAOB, which is often referred to by its
inexcusable negligence. former name, SAS 72 (Statement of Accounting Standards
Under the US securities laws, the underwriters and certain (SAS) 72)). In the comfort letter, the auditors of the issuer
other offering participants (such as the officers and directors typically:
of the issuer) can avoid liability if they can demonstrate that • Reaffirm their independence and that they stand by their
they have conducted a reasonable investigation into the affairs audit opinion for the issuer’s audited financial statements,
of the issuer before selling the shares. This is known as the “due included in the prospectus.
diligence defense.” See “The IPO Process – Liability.” To
• Describe any review procedures they have performed on
support the due diligence defense, the underwriters, their
any interim financial information included in the pro-
lawyers and the lawyers of the issuer conduct a thorough
spectus or on any internal management accounts for any
review of the affairs of the issuer. This is known as a “due
“stub periods” between the date of the latest audited or
diligence investigation.” While Section 10(b) and Rule 10b-5 do
reviewed financial statements of the issuer and the date
not contain a due diligence defense, the fact that the defen-
of the prospectus.
dants conducted an effective due diligence investigation can
• Describe any additional “agreed upon procedures” they
be used to show that the defendants did not act with scienter.
have conducted with regard to the issuer’s financial
The underwriting agreement will typically provide that the information included in the prospectus.
lawyers for both the underwriters and the issuer will deliver • Provide “negative assurance” as to the absence of mate-
“negative assurance letters” to the underwriters as a rial changes with regard to certain specified financial line
condition to closing. These letters indicate that, subject to a items, since the date of the most recent financial state-
number of qualifications and exceptions, nothing came to the ments included in the prospectus.
attention of the lawyers during the course of their work on
the offering and as a result of their due diligence investiga- To facilitate the comfort letter process, the lawyers for the
tions to cause them to believe that the prospectus was underwriters prepare a “circle-up” of the prospectus for the
materially incomplete, inaccurate or misleading. auditors, circling those (financial) figures which they expect
the auditors to cover and provide “comfort” on. The exact

22 Initial Public Offerings

coverage of the comfort letter as well as the level of comfort (including a due diligence investigation), the offering docu-
on particular figures are then negotiated between underwrit- ment has been prepared and cleared by the SEC and the
ers’ counsel and the auditors. underwriters and the issuer have entered into a formal
underwriting agreement as described above.
At the closing of the offering, the auditors provide a “bring-
down” comfort letter to reverify that the original comfort However, the underwriters may nevertheless have a very
letter is still valid as of the closing date. legitimate interest in asking for at least a certain level of
exclusivity and protection in the form of the engagement
Engagement Letter with the Underwriters letter before they invest significant time, money and other
Occasionally during the initial phase of the IPO process, the resources assisting the company to prepare for an IPO.
lead underwriters may request that the company enter into Otherwise, they run the risk that the issuer could bring in
an engagement letter. The engagement letter essentially sets other underwriters at the last minute and either significantly
out: dilute their share of the overall IPO fees or replace them
altogether once all the “heavy lifting” has already been
• The proposed role of the underwriters. completed. The underwriters may even have put their own
• The fee structure pursuant to which the underwriters will reputation behind the IPO in private/informal conversations
be remunerated if the IPO closes. with potential investors (known as “pre-marketing”). At the
• Whether the underwriters will underwrite the IPO and, if same time, the company may not want to be fully tied to a
so, on what basis. particular underwriter or set of underwriters too early in the
IPO process and may also have an interest in preserving at
• Expenses to be reimbursed by the company, including if the
least some degree of flexibility over other aspects of the IPO
IPO does not occur.
process. Companies should consult their legal counsel in
• The protection for the underwriters if legal proceedings connection with the negotiation of the engagement letter
are brought against them in connection with the IPO and consider the timing of its signing very carefully.
process, typically in the form of a broad indemnity and
contribution from the issuer.

Some of these provisions, once agreed in the engagement

letter are also mirrored in the underwriting agreement signed
later in the process, so it is important that the company is
properly advised even at this early stage. In addition, the
engagement letter often contains some form of exclusivity
provision guaranteeing the lead underwriters participation in
any IPO during the exclusivity period at a specified minimum
level or percentage of the overall economics for the under-
writers. At the same time, the underwriters will not, and
cannot, commit to actually underwrite any shares at any price
or guarantee a successful IPO in the engagement letter, which
may be signed many months before the company is ready for
the IPO. The underwriters are only legally bound to partici-
pate in the IPO once all preparations have been completed

mayer brown 23
 Key Parties
The following discussion provides a brief overview of the need to convey information relating to the company’s vision for
various parties involved in IPO. the future and its financial position. Other members of the
management team—for example, heads of divisions/product
Issuer areas, the general counsel (if there is one), the human resources
The “issuer” is the legal entity whose shares are offered to manager, the investor relations officer—also have roles in
investors and subsequently listed on the relevant stock explaining what their respective departments do, how they
exchange. The sales of newly issued shares by the issuer (where function and how they fit into the broader corporate struc-
the issuer receives the proceeds from the sale of the shares) is ture and strategy. These team members also need to be
known as a “primary offering.” available to respond to due diligence queries that may arise.

To manage the IPO process efficiently, some companies appoint

Selling Stockholders an internal project manager responsible for overall coordination
Existing stockholders of a company may use the IPO as a both from an internal and external perspective. This person
liquidity event to sell some or all of their shares. These needs to be intimately familiar with the company, its business
stockholders are commonly referred to as “selling stockhold- and personnel and must also have sufficient authority to make
ers.” The offering of the shares that are sold by the selling decisions and get others to respond to requests.
stockholders is known as a “secondary offering” (as opposed
to a “primary offering”). Auditors
Selling stockholders will be parties to the underwriting The company’s auditors must be independent. In an IPO
agreement and be asked to give assurances to the underwriters process, they are responsible for assisting the company in
on certain issues in the form of representations, warranties and preparing its financial statements and any required pro forma
indemnities. See also “Key Documents—Underwriting financial information.
Agreement” above. They are also required to provide the comfort letters to the
Selling stockholders who retain shares in the company will be underwriters as described under “Key Documents—Comfort
requested to enter into lock-up agreements to prevent them Letters” above.
from disposing of more shares in the after-market. See also
“Key Documents—Lock-Up Agreements” above. Underwriters
The underwriters play a central role before and following the
Management of the Issuer IPO. Their role goes far beyond the basic agreement to sell
The issuer’s management—particularly the chief executive shares on either a “firm commitment” or “best efforts” basis
officer (CEO) and the chief financial officer (CFO)—will be (see also “Key Documents—Underwriting Agreement”
heavily involved in the IPO process. Their active participation in above). Among other things, the lead underwriters are also
the process is a key determinant in ensuring that the IPO is responsible for and assist with:
successful and is not delayed. An IPO places a heavy time and • Conducting due diligence with management and the
resource burden on the company’s organization, given manage- auditors.
ment has an existing business to run in addition to dealing with
• Attending drafting sessions and raising queries generally.
the IPO. Senior management must attend management
• Drafting marketing materials (e.g., investor presentations)
presentations and due diligence sessions focusing on the
to address queries that investors may have.
business. The CEO and the CFO typically attend a number of
drafting sessions on the prospectus with their counsel and the • Developing the “equity story” with the company’s
broader group of IPO advisers. The CFO will be heavily engaged management and positioning the company in the market.
with the accountants in the preparation of the financial state- • Recommending a particular securities exchange for listing.
ments and various financial models. The CEO and the CFO also • Providing advice on market conditions and on the timing of
have central roles in the roadshows with investors, where they the IPO.

24 Initial Public Offerings

• Coordinating and organizing roadshow meetings. The legal advisers assist their respective clients in the
• Advising on the optimum allocation of shares. preparation of the prospectus, conduct due diligence,
manage relationships with securities regulators and stock
• Recommending the offer price range.
exchanges, draft and negotiate the underwriting agreement
Following completion of the IPO, the underwriters further and ensure the smooth completion of the transaction. They
assist in maintaining an orderly market in the newly listed are also required to provide legal opinions and negative
shares, including by using “stabilization” techniques. assurance letters to the underwriters as described under
“Key Documents – Legal Opinions and Negative Assurance
The lead underwriters responsible for overseeing the entire
Letters” above. Although any company of sufficient size to
offering and for coordinating the activities of the other
consider an IPO will previously have engaged external lawyers
underwriters are sometimes called “lead managers” or
for general corporate and commercial matters, potential IPO
“global coordinators.” To the extent a single underwriter
candidates may often have to find new counsel with the
takes the lead role on an IPO, this can be indicated by appoint-
relevant experience and expertise for advice on the IPO.
ing this underwriter as “sole” lead manager or global
coordinator or by simply listing the name of that underwriter
to the top left where the names of the members of the Other Parties
underwriting syndicate are listed on the cover page of the In addition to the main parties described above, other parties
prospectus (the “left lead”). Other underwriters with less will often be involved in an IPO. For example, the company
prominent roles in the IPO process and a smaller economic needs to appoint a registrar and transfer agent to administer
stake in the IPO may be referred to as “co-managers.” its stock transfer records following the IPO, count votes at
Practices and descriptions of roles can vary considerably stockholder meetings, deal with stockholder proxies and
depending on factors such as the size of the IPO, the specific corporate representatives who attend meetings, arrange
nature of the offering and the involvement of a particular payment of dividends and deal with other corporate actions.
underwriter in different aspects or portions of the offering. A financial printer is typically retained to help with the
professional typesetting of the prospectus and to print
In selecting underwriters, the company should consider
physical copies of the preliminary and final prospectuses to
factors such as the particular underwriter’s involvement in
distribute to potential investors. Other professional parties
offerings by companies in the same industry as the company,
involved may include internal control advisers, market
the underwriter’s commitment to provide post-IPO market
research consultants and investors/public relations
support and the standing in the investment community of the
consultants.
underwriter’s analyst that will follow the company post-IPO.
Given the amount of time that company management and the
underwriters will spend together during the IPO process, it is
important that management and the underwriters get along
and work well together on a personal level.

Legal Advisers
Separate legal advisers are retained by the issuer and by the
underwriters. While legal counsel to the issuer may be able to
represent the selling stockholders, institutional selling
stockholders will typically retain separate counsel.
Depending on the jurisdiction of organization of the issuer
and proposed securities exchange for listing, there may also
be separate “local counsel” to both the issuer and the
underwriters.

mayer brown 25
 The IPO Process
Organizational or “Kick-Off” Meeting room of a similar company in a similar industry. Areas of
interest in most document request lists include the issuer’s
Once a team has been assembled, a kick-off meeting is
corporate structure and organization, board minutes, finance
organized to officially launch the IPO process. This meeting
and accounting procedures, governmental authorizations,
generally includes the following activities:
stockholder information, presentations and reports from the
• Introduction of the working group: The working group is issuer, material agreements and other documents relating to
introduced and their respective roles and responsibilities intellectual property, tax issues, assets, cybersecurity,
are defined. environmental issues and current and pending litigation.
• Timetable: The meeting sets a tentative timetable and sets
After receiving a due diligence request list, the issuer begins
out the key milestones, as well as deliverables expected
preparing a data room containing documents responsive to
from the various working group members.
the due diligence request list as well as any documents not on
• Discussion of key terms of the offering: These include the the due diligence request list but deemed by the issuer to be
size and structure of the offering, use of proceeds, etc. material. The location of the data room itself varies, based on
• Discussion of other key issues: These include legal, regula- the location of the documents and the parties that need to
tory, accounting, publicity guidelines and other issues review the documents. For most issuers, it is more efficient
that have implications for the successful completion of and economical to make the documents available for review
the IPO. via a secure, password-protected website, accessible only to
• Presentation by management: A presentation on the busi- those parties involved in the offering. For certain issuers, it is
ness, financial and other aspects of the issuer is generally more efficient and economical to set up a space at their place
given by the senior management of the issuer. of business where all of the documents may be reviewed.

When a critical mass of the documents have been assembled,

The Due Diligence Review issuer’s counsel and underwriters’ counsel will begin reviewing
In order to better understand the business of the issuer and to them. The issuer will continue to add material to the data
assist in drafting an accurate and meaningful prospectus, the room as documents are located or are created. During the
underwriters, their counsel and the issuer’s counsel course of the review, counsel may raise questions with
simultaneously conduct an extensive review of the legal, company representatives and may request additional
business and financial aspects of the issuer’s operations. documents.

The information received during the due diligence process Business due diligence. Underwriters, underwriters’ counsel
facilitates the drafting of the prospectus and helps to ensure and issuer’s counsel will also conduct a series of meetings
that all material aspects of the issuer’s business are properly with senior management of the issuer. These meetings afford
disclosed. The due diligence exercise also helps to ensure that the underwriters and their legal counsel the opportunity to
disclosure contained in the prospectus is accurate and based understand the operational and strategic aspects of the
on the most current data available. issuer’s business and the industry in which the company
operates and to raise issues identified during drafting
The due diligence review also serves to establish a record that
sessions and the legal due diligence process. These meetings
the underwriters have made a reasonable investigation upon
also serve to facilitate review and discussion of the
which their defense against potential liability can be based.
prospectus.
See “The IPO Process—Liability.”
The underwriters may conduct interviews with the major
Legal due diligence. The underwriters and their counsel
suppliers, subcontractors, customers and bankers of the
provide the issuer with a list of documents they would like to
issuer as well as experts and other professional parties
review. This due diligence request list is comprehensive and
engaged by the issuer. In appropriate circumstances, business
broad. As the requesting party is not fully apprised of the
due diligence will also involve visits to the company’s manu-
issuer’s documentation, the list necessarily includes a range
facturing and other important or strategic sites.
of items that counsel would normally expect to find in the data

26 Initial Public Offerings

Financial due diligence. Financial due diligence involves the which will enable the first drafting session to occur shortly
issuer’s finance, accounting and treasury departments. It after the meeting.
typically includes a review of the issuer’s full year and interim
Among the most effective methods of gathering and
financial statements, results of operations, projections, cash
processing drafting comments is an in-person drafting
flow, indebtedness and other aspects of the issuer’s financial
session, although drafting sessions are sometimes held
condition. Underwriters and their counsel focus their review
electronically or virtually. Drafting sessions typically take
on factors driving the issuer’s finances and significant changes
place over the course of one or two days, and multiple
in the issuer’s financial position from year to year and period to
drafting sessions will be required during the course of the IPO
period. In addition, financial due diligence focuses on the
process. Drafting session participants typically include
issuer’s profit and working capital forecasts. The company will
representatives from the issuer that have in-depth knowl-
be asked to prepare, if it has not already done so, financial
edge and understanding of the business, issuer’s counsel, the
projections and models, which will be reviewed and discussed
independent auditors, underwriters and underwriters’
by underwriters with the company’s senior management.
counsel. The issuer and other parties involved in the transac-
It is also customary to have a due diligence meeting with the tion prepare for drafting sessions by reviewing and
issuer’s external auditors to discuss, among other things, commenting on the draft of the prospectus circulated by
auditor independence from the issuer, any issues identified issuer’s counsel. Depending on the status of the disclosure,
during the audit or review process and the issuer’s internal the drafting sessions may consist of a conceptual review or a
accounting policies, controls and procedures. more detailed page by page review of the prospectus. At
drafting sessions, the majority of the time is devoted to
Other due diligence procedures. Company counsel, with
review and redrafting of the summary, risk factors, MD&A
input from underwriters’ counsel, will prepare a question-
and business sections of the prospectus. Considerably less
naire to be completed by each of the company’s directors,
time is spent during drafting sessions discussing the other
executive officers and holders of five percent or more of the
sections of the prospectus and Part II of the registration
company’s common stock. The questionnaire elicits informa-
statement. Following each drafting session, issuer’s counsel
tion that counsel will use to prepare portions of the
has primary responsibility for preparing the registration
registration statement and also information that underwrit-
statement for redistribution to the working group in prepara-
ers’ counsel will use to prepare the underwriters’ filing with
tion for the next drafting session.
FINRA, discussed in more detail below.

Underwriters generally request legal counsel to issue a Filing with the SEC, FINRA, a Securities
so-called “negative assurance letter,” above under the Exchange and the State Securities
heading “Key Documents – Legal Opinions and Negative Commissions
Assurance Letters.” Obtaining comfort letters from the
issuer’s independent auditors is another procedure used by SEC
underwriters to establish a written record that they have Generally, all documents filed with the SEC must be filed
made a reasonable investigation. Comfort letters serve to electronically via the SEC’s Electronic Data Gathering,
provide comfort on certain financial and accounting data Analysis and Retrieval system (EDGAR). Registration
contained in an offering document—for example unaudited statements and amendments filed with the SEC are available
financial statements and other information. For a discussion immediately on the SEC’s website. Issuers submitting a draft
of comfort letter requirements, see “Key Documents— registration statement confidentially may submit their filings
Comfort Letters” above. through the EDGAR system or through the SEC’s secure email
system. A confidential submission is not considered a “filing”
Drafting Responsibility and Drafting Sessions and is therefore not available on the SEC’s website, until it is
The issuer and its counsel are responsible for preparing the filed, as described below.
initial draft of the prospectus. It typically takes two or more
To file electronically on EDGAR, the issuer must have EDGAR
weeks to complete the draft of the prospectus to be distrib-
access codes. The SEC typically issues access codes within
uted to the working group. Ideally, to keep up momentum the
two business days of receipt of a completed and notarized
draft should be distributed prior to the kick-off meeting,
application from the company.

mayer brown 27
 Prior to filing a registration statement, the issuer must wire weeks for FINRA to issue a “no objection” opinion for an IPO.
the filing fee associated with the registration statement to the
FINRA’s rules require that anything of value received by an
SEC. The amount of SEC filing fee payable in connection with
underwriter within the 180-day period preceding the filing
the IPO is based on the value of the securities to be sold in
date be included in the amount of underwriting compensa-
connection with the IPO. As of October 1, 2016, the current
tion. Examples of items of value that would be included as
fee rate is US$115.90 per US$1,000,000 of securities regis-
underwriter compensation are: discounts or commissions;
tered. The filing fee is reset annually on October 1 of each year.
reimbursement of expenses; the payment of fees and
Issuers are not required to pay the fee at the time of the
expenses of underwriter’s counsel (other than any fees
confidential submission of the draft registration statement,
associated with state securities laws filings, sometimes called
but rather when the registration statement is filed with the
“blue sky” laws) by the company; finder’s fees; wholesaler’s
SEC, as described below.
fees; financial consulting and advisory fees; common or
The Form 8-A may be filed with the SEC concurrently with the preferred stock, options, warrants and other equity securi-
registration statement or anytime thereafter but prior to the ties; special sales incentive items; and rights of first refusal to
effective date of the registration statement. Most often, the participate in future public offerings, private placements or
Form 8-A is not filed until about two weeks prior to the other financings. FINRA’s list of items of value is extensive and
anticipated effective date of the registration statement. This subject to numerous exceptions and qualifications.
allows time for SEC staff to review the Form 8-A and time for
If an underwriter involved in the offering has a conflict of
the company respond to any comments that the staff may
interest, FINRA rules require that the nature of the conflict be
raise. As discussed above, the Form 8-A is quite short and
prominently disclosed and may require that a qualified
contains no substantive disclosure, consequently it is
independent underwriter (which can be a member of the
uncommon for the SEC to have comments on the document.
underwriting syndicate that does not have a conflict) has
The Form 8-A must be filed electronically through the EDGAR
participated in the preparation of the registration statement
system. There is no SEC filing fee for a Form 8-A.
and the prospectus and has exercised the usual standards of
“due diligence” in respect thereto. Among other things, an
FINRA
underwriter has a conflict if (i) the underwriter owns 10
No later than the business day after the registration state- percent or more of the issuer’s common stock or preferred
ment is filed with the SEC, underwriters’ counsel, on behalf of stock or otherwise has the power to direct or cause the
the underwriters, will file with FINRA the registration direction of the management or policies of the company or
statement and supporting documents, including the under- (ii) at least five percent of the net offering proceeds of the
writing agreement, when available. Information is filed IPO, not including underwriting compensation, will be used to
electronically with FINRA through its Public Offering System. reduce or retire the balance of a loan extended by the
The filing fee, which is paid by the company, must be paid at underwriter, its affiliates and its associated persons or will
the time of filing. The current filing fee is $500 plus .015 otherwise be directed to the underwriter, its affiliates and
percent of the proposed maximum aggregate offering price associated persons.
or other applicable value of all securities registered on an SEC
registration statement, but not more than $225,500. SECURITIES EXCHANGE
FINRA is a self-regulatory organization that regulates certain The listing application is typically filed with the applicable
aspects of the US securities industry. Among other things, it securities exchange concurrently with the filing of the
ensures that the underwriting compensation charged by registration statement with the SEC. The application is filed
member firms, which includes virtually all US broker-dealers, with the NYSE in paper and electronically with Nasdaq. The
in a securities offering is fair and reasonable and that any application fee must be paid at the time of filing. It typically
underwriter conflicts of interest are addressed. Member takes four to six weeks for the exchange to complete its
firms are prohibited from participating in an offering unless review and discussions with the company. The SEC will not
FINRA has issued a “no objection” opinion on the compensa- declare the Form 8-A effective until the applicable securities
tion arrangements. FINRA has not publicly stated the exchange certifies to the SEC that the securities are approved
threshold above which underwriter compensation would be for listing, which will occur after all of the exchange’s ques-
deemed unfair or unreasonable. It typically takes two to three tions and comments have been addressed.

28 Initial Public Offerings

STATE SECURITIES COMMISSIONS response process continues until the staff and the company
Prior to 1996, issuers sometimes needed to make filings with resolve all comments. The SEC’s response time usually
various states under state securities or “blue sky” laws. Some becomes shorter with each consecutive amendment. Staff
states also undertook a merit review of the offering. Most comment letters and the company’s responses become
states, however, had exemptions from their filing and publicly available on the SEC’s website 20 business days after
qualification requirements for securities listed or approved the effective date of the registration statement. If a company
for listing on a national securities exchange. In 1996, the US has requested confidential treatment for any information
Congress enacted the National Securities Markets contained in an exhibit, the lawyer reviewing the registration
Improvement Act which, among other things, preempted statement will also review the request for confidential
states from applying registration and qualification require- treatment request. If the staff has any comments on the
ments to “covered securities,” which includes, among others, confidential treatment request, those comments will be
securities that are listed or authorized for listing on certain US contained in a separate letter. Those comments must be
national securities exchanges. As a result, issuers are not cleared or the company must disclose the information for
required to file documents with states for IPOs of common which confidential treatment is requested before the staff will
stock approved for listing on the NYSE or any of the Nasdaq declare the registration statement effective.
market tiers, among others. When the company and the underwriters have addressed all
of the SEC’s comments or are comfortable that responses to
SEC Review any unresolved comments will not result in material changes
Following receipt of the registration statement, the SEC’s to the registration statement, the marketing process begins in
Division of Corporation Finance will assign the filing to one of earnest. Preliminary prospectuses, sometimes called “red
its disclosure offices. Each disclosure office is responsible for herrings” due to the legends printed in red on the cover page
one or more industry groups, so that filings from companies of the preliminary prospectus indicating that the preliminary
within the same industry group are reviewed by staff in the prospectus is not yet complete, are printed. Executives of the
same office. An IPO registration statement is usually assigned company will present to the sales forces of each of the
to a lawyer and an accountant who will review the initial filing managing underwriters and answer any questions that they
and any amendments to the registration statement. The staff may have. After the sales force presentation, investor
reviews filings for compliance with the SEC’s rules and for presentations, called “roadshow” presentations begin. The
deficiencies in explanation and clarity. The staff will often roadshow consists of a series of group or one-on-one
review other public information, including the company’s meetings that the senior management of the company and
website, as well as the registration statement. The SEC’s goal the underwriters hold with key potential investors to present
is to complete its review of the initial filing within 30 days of the investment case for the company. A roadshow can be live
the date of filing or confidential submission. When the staff in person, telephonic, broadcast via the web or recorded. The
identifies instances where it believes a company can improve “red-herring” prospectus is distributed at the same time. The
its disclosure or enhance its compliance with the applicable book-building and roadshow processes are described in more
disclosure requirements, it provides the company with detail below.
written comments. In comments, the staff may request that a
If an issuer has used the confidential submission process, 15
company provide additional supplemental information so the
days before it can begin a roadshow, it must file on the EDGAR
staff can better understand the company’s disclosure or
system (and make publicly available) the original draft
revise the disclosure in the registration statement. The staff
registration statement and all draft amendments and
will discuss with the company and its counsel any comments
resubmit all previously submitted response letters to staff
that the company believes are unclear. A company generally
comments as correspondence on EDGAR. The registration
responds to each comment in a letter to the staff and, if
statement and amendments will immediately be available on
appropriate, by amending its filings. Depending on the nature
the SEC’s website. The company’s correspondence and the
of the issue, the staff’s concern and the company’s response,
staff’s comment letters will be available on the same time-
the staff may issue additional comments following its review
table as they are for companies that did not make use of the
of the company’s response to its prior comments and any
confidential submission procedure.
amendment to the registration statement. This comment and

mayer brown 29
 When the SEC is satisfied that an amended registration The offer price is fixed between the issuer and the book-run-
statement adequately addresses its comments and after ning manager(s) based on the level of interest expressed (the
receipt of clearance from FINRA and the applicable stock number of shares desired and the price(s) that they are willing
exchange, upon written request (called an acceleration to pay) by prospective institutional investors during the
request) of the issuer and the managing underwriters book-building process. In a successful offering, the order
following the roadshow, the SEC will declare the registration book contains orders for more shares than the company and
statement and the Form 8-A effective on a date and at a time selling stockholders, if any, are offering. In that case, the
requested by the issuer and the underwriters. Sales to the number of shares allocated to investors will be “cut back,”
public may commence as soon as the registration statement potentially leading investors to purchase additional shares in
becomes effective, although offers and other publicity about the market leading to a more orderly market.
the proposed IPO are technically permissible as soon as the
Prior to fixing the price, the underwriters and legal counsel
registration statement has been filed.
for the underwriters and the issuer will conduct a bring-down
The entire process from the initial kick-off meeting for an IPO due diligence call with issuer’s management to confirm that
to final SEC clearance typically takes between three and five there has not been any material change to the information
months. For a more detailed indicative timeline of both the contained in the preliminary prospectus and that there have
regular, public SEC review process and the confidential SEC been no material developments concerning the issuer.
review process, see Appendix 4.
The negotiation of the financial terms between the issuer and
the underwriters (including the determination of the public
Book-Building and Roadshow offering price) will be completed either immediately before
Following any pre-marketing, the book-building process or shortly after the registration statement is declared
commences. “Book-building” refers to the pricing and effective. If these negotiations are completed before the
underwriting method typically used on an IPO whereby the registration statement is declared effective, the underwriting
final offer price is fixed and the offer underwritten, after a book agreement will be executed, a final “pricing” amendment to
of preliminary orders has been built at the end of the marketing the registration statement will be filed with the SEC, and,
phase/roadshow. Book-building allows the “bookrunner(s)” immediately after the registration statement is declared
among the underwriters to compile a comprehensive picture effective, the underwriters will complete sales of shares to
of the strength of institutional demand for the shares over a investors identified during the pre-effective period. If the
range of prices by obtaining non-binding expressions of offering is successful, all sales will be confirmed within hours,
interest from potential investors. The aim is to ensure that the or even minutes, of SEC effectiveness.
shares are spread across a wide range of high-quality investors
and that pricing tension is maximized. “Bookrunner” refers to Rule 430A under the Securities Act permits registration
the underwriter(s) responsible for keeping the books for the statements to be declared effective that do not include final
offering – the underwriter(s) responsible for the syndication, pricing information, so long as the registration statement is
marketing, book-building, pricing, allocation and stabilization otherwise complete in all respects. If Rule 430A is being relied
of an offering. upon, the negotiation of the public offering price and
underwriting discount will be completed shortly after the
Book-building is usually conducted at the same time as a registration statement is declared effective. The underwrit-
management roadshow over a period of a few days to two weeks. ing agreement will then be executed and sales confirmed
immediately thereafter. When the parties are relying upon Rule
Price Determination 430A, a copy of the final prospectus, reflecting the agreed-
SEC rules require that the issuer disclose in the registration upon offering price and underwriting discount, must be filed
statement filed with the SEC a good faith estimate of the with the SEC within two business days after the date of
range of the maximum offering price and maximum number determination of the offering price.
of shares to be offered. The SEC Staff generally takes the Following execution of the underwriting agreement, the
position that a good faith price range means a range no larger auditors will deliver a signed comfort letter to the
than $2 (for ranges below $10) or 20 percent of the high end underwriters.
of the range (for maximum prices above $10).

30 Initial Public Offerings

Allocation and Settlement or Closing sufficient time to prepare the necessary documentation and
collect payment for the shares from investors. In 2017, the
After the offering has priced and the underwriting agree-
SEC revised its rules so that market transactions settle in T+2
ment is signed, the underwriters will allocate shares to
days. As of the date of this guide, it is not clear whether the
investors that requested them during the book-building
shorter settlement period will become market practice in
process. Investors are rarely allocated all of the shares in the
underwritten offerings.
IPO that they requested, resulting in investors purchasing
shares in the secondary market after the IPO to round out
their investment. The demand for shares in the secondary Publicity Considerations
market by under-allocated investors is one of the mecha- During the period from the time the issuer reaches an
nisms relied upon by underwriters to ensure an active understanding with the underwriters or makes a decision to
secondary market. When allocation is completed, “when undertake an offering until the time that the registration
issued” trading commences on the listing exchange and statement is declared effective and the prospectus delivery
settlement will occur. obligations have expired (the “registration period”), US
securities laws place certain restrictions on publicity and
The book-running manager(s) typically allocate 15 percent
the release of information and on other market activities by
more shares than the underwriters agree to purchase from
the issuer and persons associated with, or acting on behalf
the issuer and/or the selling stockholders to facilitate
of, the issuer, including the underwriters. Communications
stabilizing the price of the shares once secondary market
in violation of US securities laws and SEC rules are referred
trading beings. If the trading price of the shares goes up, the
to as “gun jumping.”
book-running manager(s) will cover the short sales (i.e., the
shares they sold in excess of the number they agreed to Subject to certain exceptions discussed below, from the
purchase) with shares obtained under their greenshoe or beginning of the registration period and prior to the filing of a
over-allotment option. The issuance of these additional registration statement, it is unlawful for issuers to make oral
shares into the market will typically depress the stock press, or written offers to sell or to solicit an offer to buy any
thus moving the stock price back towards the public offering security. The term “offer” has been broadly construed by the
price. Conversely, If the trading price of the shares goes down, SEC to include not just express offers by an issuer, but other
the book-running manager(s) will cover the short sales with publicity efforts, which “although not couched in terms of an
shares purchased in the open market. The purchase of shares express offer, may in fact contribute to conditioning the
in the open market will reduce the downward pressure on the public mind or arousing public interest in the issuer or the
stock price thus moving the stock price back towards the securities of the issuer,” such as any form of communication,
public offering price. The over-allotment option may be whether in written, oral or electronic form, that:
exercised within a period of 30 days after the offer closes.
• Relates to or concerns the offering.
During this time, the book-running manager(s) or a desig-
• Relates to the performance, assets, liabilities, financial
nated stabilizing manager may be appointed to carry out other
position, revenues, profits, losses, trading record,
permitted stabilization activities in order to maintain or
prospects, valuation or market position of the company.
stabilize the market price of the shares. Underwriting
syndicate stabilizing activities are governed by SEC and FINRA • Might affect an investor’s assessment of the financial
rules. See also “Key Documents – Underwriting Agreement position and prospects of the company.
– Greenshoe Option” above. • Otherwise has the purpose, or reasonably could have the
effect, of “conditioning the market.” (“Conditioning the
“Settlement” or “closing” is the formal issuance and delivery
market” means generating or promoting interest in the
of the shares by the company and the selling stockholders
offering, or influencing or encouraging an investor’s inter-
against payment by the underwriters. It takes place a few
est in the company/the offering or a decision to purchase
business days – frequently three to five business days
the securities in question.)
(referred to as “T+3” or “T+5”) – after pricing, to allow

mayer brown 31
 After a registration statement has been filed and before the information permitted to be disclosed under these rules is
registration period ends, it is also unlawful to deliver a quite limited. Any press conference, meeting or press-related
prospectus relating to the securities that are the subject of materials relating to the offering in any way should be
the registration statement unless the prospectus meets the reviewed by counsel.
technical and detailed disclosure requirements prescribed by
Issuers must also regulate communications made via the
the Securities Act. “Prospectus” is broadly defined under the
Internet or through their websites. During the registration
Securities Act, and has been interpreted by the SEC to include
period, issuers should limit both direct and hyperlinked
written communications, including e-mails and other
information on their websites to prospectuses meeting the
electronic documents, that could arguably encourage the
requirements of the Securities Act and permissible communi-
purchase of a security during the registration period as part
cations under available safe harbors. The posting of regularly
of a selling effort. A quote from an executive of the issuer that
released factual information, such as new product announce-
appears in a newspaper story or on a radio or television
ments, receipt of awards, etc., is generally permitted.
interview can also constitute a “prospectus” in violation of
Principal factors in determining whether information is
this prohibition. Securities Act rules permit issuers and
publicity are whether its release serves a legitimate business
underwriters to use certain types of written offering
purpose independent of the offering and the issuer’s
materials not meeting the requirements of a prospectus,
historical track record of conducting similar activities. Issuers
called “free writing prospectuses,” so long as certain
undertaking an initial public offering should not establish a
conditions are met, including that the information in the free
website contemporaneously with beginning the IPO process,
writing prospectus not conflict with information contained in
as the content could be viewed as conditioning the market,
the registration statement, that in some cases the free writing
without any “ordinary course of business” practice having
prospectus be accompanied or preceded by a preliminary
been established.
prospectus or a final prospectus and that in some cases the
free writing prospectus be filed with the SEC. In addition, subject to certain exceptions, issuers, underwrit-
ers and persons on behalf of whom securities are being
The US securities laws do not require a “news blackout” prior
distributed are also broadly prohibited by SEC Regulation M
to the completion of the offering. However, communications
under the Exchange Act from bidding for or purchasing, or
during the registration period to the press, public or share-
inducing others to bid for or purchase, certain securities until
holders concerning the offering or other non-factual
the subject distribution has been completed. The SEC’s
information concerning the business or future prospects of
trading practices rules, including Regulation M, impose a
the issuer should be carefully considered, generally discour-
number of restrictions particularly relevant to the activities
aged and, in any case, held to a minimum. Such
of underwriters and their affiliates, such as “stabilization,”
communications may be construed as part of a selling effort
“passive market-making” and the publication of analysts’
to “condition the market”, may result in delays in the offering
research reports. A detailed discussion of these regulations is
schedule and may potentially result in serious civil and
outside the scope of this guide.
criminal liability. SEC rules provide that communications
made more than 30 days prior to the filing of a registration The SEC has an active monitoring program and may raise
statement will generally not be considered an offer of a questions during the review process if any publicity concern-
security so long as the communication does not reference a ing an offering appears in the United States, particularly if
securities offering, provided that reasonable steps are taken statements are attributed to an offering participant. As a
to prevent further distribution or publication of such practical matter, the SEC may delay or postpone an offering
communication during the 30 days immediately preceding by imposing a “cooling-off” period for the effects of improper
the date of filing of the registration statement. publicity to dissipate. The SEC also may demand that under-
writers associated with the dissemination of improper
Securities Act Rule 134, which applies to communications
publicity be removed from the selling syndicate. In addition, a
made after a registration statement has been filed, and Rule
purchaser may bring a lawsuit to rescind the purchase of the
135, which applies to all communications made during the
securities—recovering the consideration paid plus interest
registration period, set forth specific information notices
minus the amount of any income received—or to recover
regarding an offering that may be publicly disseminated
damages, if the securities are no longer owned. Additional
without running afoul of the US securities laws. The

32 Initial Public Offerings

liability may arise if publicity relating to the offering is shown qualified institutional buyers as defined in Securities Act Rule
to contain a material misstatement or omission or otherwise to 144A (generally an institution with US$100 million under
violate the anti-fraud provisions of the US securities laws. management) or institutions that are accredited investors as
defined in Securities Act Rule 501(a) (generally an institu-
To ensure compliance with all applicable securities laws and
tional investor with a net worth of US$5 million) either prior
regulations, the issuer’s counsel will typically prepare
to or following the date of filing of a registration statement
publicity guidelines at the outset of a proposed offering. The
with respect to such securities with the SEC. These types of
guidelines are usually reviewed by the underwriters’ counsel
communications are often referred to as “test the waters
and must be adhered to by all offering participants. While all
communications.” The purpose behind the communications
issuer representatives and other offering participants that
is to enable the company to determine investor interest in
are likely to be approached by, or come in contact with, the
investing in the shares prior to the company committing to a
press or securities analysts during the course of the offering
public offering. Underwriters and their counsel typically
should be familiar with the publicity guidelines, it is advisable
prepare guidelines that specify how offering participants may
to appoint one issuer representative to serve as the initial
contact potential investors, the materials that may be used in
point of contact with the press and securities analysts and to
meetings and the conduct of the meetings for the testing the
handle publicity and other broad-based communications
waters process. The underwriters may not solicit offers
during the offering process. When in doubt whether a
during the test the waters process, but they can gauge
proposed communication is permissible or potentially
interest and obtain non-binding indications of interest. Any
problematic under the publicity guidelines, that individual
test the waters communications are not considered “offers”
can arrange for it to be reviewed by the company’s lawyers.
and the company will therefore not have committed a
The restrictions stated in the publicity guidelines should gun-jumping violation.
extend to at least 40 calendar days after the later to occur of
the closing of the IPO or completion of the securities
distribution.

Nevertheless, an EGC or any person authorized to act on

behalf of an emerging growth company may engage in oral
or written communications with potential investors that are

mayer brown 33
 Liability
Section 11 of the Securities Act communication, which includes an untrue statement of
material fact or omits to state a material fact necessary in
The Securities Act can subject an issuer and its directors and
order to make the statements, in the light of the circum-
officers and other parties involved in an offering to substantial
stances under which they were made, not misleading . . .” is
liability. Section 11 of the Securities Act provides that if any
liable for any investment loss suffered by any purchaser of the
part of a registration statement, when that part became
security. Liability is determined for Section 12(a)(2) purposes
effective under the Securities Act, contained an untrue
as of the “time of sale,” which is at the time the investor agrees
statement of a material fact or omitted to state a material fact
to purchase the securities being offered (and before delivery
necessary in order to make the statements therein not
of the final prospectus), not the settlement date.
misleading, any person acquiring such a security can sue: (i)
the issuer; (ii) every person who signed the registration Section 12(a)(2) applies to “offer[ors] or seller[s]” of securities,
statement; (iii) every person who was a director of the issuer which US courts have found to include persons who “solicit
at the time of the filing of that part of the registration state- purchases of securities, motivated by a desire to serve [their]
ment, even if the person did not sign the registration own financial interest.” Accordingly, Section 12(a)(2) has been
statement; (iv) every expert who, with his consent, has been applied to issuers, underwriters, directors, officers and
named in the registration statement as having prepared or principal shareholders. Section 12(a)(2) does not require
certified any portion of the registration statement; and (v) fraudulent intent on the part of the seller, nor must a pur-
every underwriter. Section 11 contains no requirement that chaser prove that it relied on the misstatement or omission,
any such person have acted with fraudulent intent or that any though the purchaser cannot have knowledge of the misstate-
such misstatement or omission have been relied upon by the ment or omission at the time of the purchase.
investor in connection with its purchase. In addition, civil
Like Section 11, Section 12(a)(2) provides a defendant with a
penalties are provided for under Section 11 and criminal
due diligence defense to a lawsuit, although the standard to
penalties are provided for under Section 24 of the Securities
establish the defense under Section 12(a)(2) differs from the
Act.
Section 11 standard. Section 12(a)(2) provides that a defendant
Liability under Section 11 is absolute against the issuer. shall not be liable under that section “if he did not know, and in
However, all other identified persons may be able to avoid the exercise of reasonable care, could not have known, of such
liability for any part of the registration statement not purport- untruth or omission.”
ing to be made on the authority of any expert (e.g., audited
financial statements) if such person had, after reasonable Section 10(b) of the Exchange Act
investigation, reasonable grounds to believe, and did believe,
Section 10(b) of the Exchange Act and Exchange Act Rule
at the time such part of the registration statement became
10b-5 also subject issuers of securities and other participants
effective under the Securities Act, that the registration
in a securities offering to potential liability. Under Exchange
statement contained no material misstatements or omissions.
Act Rule 10b-5, it is unlawful: “(a) to employ any device,
This is referred to as the “due diligence” defense, discussed
scheme, or artifice to defraud, (b) to make any untrue
above in “The IPO Process—The Due Diligence Process.”
statement of a material fact or to omit to state a material fact
necessary in order to make the statements made, in the light
Section 12(a)(2) of the Securities Act of the circumstances under which they were made, not
Section 12(a)(2) of the Securities Act also serves as a basis for misleading, or (c) to engage in any act, practice or course of
liability for participants in a registered public offering of business that operates or would operate as a fraud or deceit
securities. Under Section 12(a)(2), “any person who . . . offers upon any person, in connection with the purchase or sale of
or sells a security . . . by means of a prospectus or oral any security.”

34 Initial Public Offerings

Private litigants are entitled to bring actions under Rule Because of the scienter, reliance and causation elements, an
10b-5 against any person alleged to have engaged in the action under Rule 10b-5 is more difficult to sustain than an
unlawful conduct specified in that rule. In addition to the action under Section 11 or 12(a)(2) under the Securities Act.
unlawful conduct, the plaintiff must establish that the However, Section 10(b) and Rule 10b-5 have far broader
defendant acted with “scienter,” or an intent to defraud, application than Section 11, which applies only to misstate-
deceive or manipulate. Generally, courts have found ments or omissions in Securities Act registration statements
recklessness to satisfy the scienter requirement, but not at the time of effectiveness, and Section 12(a)(2), which
simple negligence or even inexcusable negligence. In a applies only to prospectuses and oral statements used in a
private action alleging a violation of Rule 10b-5, the plaintiff registered public offering of securities. Rule 10b-5 can apply
must also prove that it relied on the wrongful conduct and to any purchase or sale of a security, including a private
that such wrongful conduct caused the plaintiff’s loss. placement of securities, or secondary market transactions,
However, a plaintiff need not prove that he or she directly including actions or omissions of the issuer, its officers and
relied on the wrongful conduct to the plaintiff’s detriment. directors in violation of that rule that cause a decline in the
Rather, proof of reliance can also be established indirectly price of the issuer’s stock.
pursuant to the “fraud-on-the-market theory,” Under the
fraud-on-the-market theory, courts recognize that the
wrongful conduct served to inflate the price of the stock
artificially, and a plaintiff is permitted to prove reliance
indirectly by virtue of his or her dependence on the market
to set the stock price. Because the misrepresentation
affected the stock price, and the plaintiff bought the stock
based on the affected price, the plaintiff indirectly relied on
the wrongful conduct that misled the market as a whole.

Section 17 of the Securities Act contains a broad anti-fraud

provision, which mirrors closely the language of Rule 10b-5.
Unlike Rule 10b-5, however, actions under Section 17 do not
require proof of fraudulent intent or recklessness, but may be
brought in respect of a person’s negligence. Most US courts
have held that there is no private right of action under Section
17—actions may only be brought by the SEC. The persons
liable and the remedies available under Section 17 are broadly
similar to those under Rule 10b-5.

mayer brown 35
 Ongoing Obligations as a Public Company
The disclosure of accurate, comprehensive and timely SEC Reporting
information about security issuers builds sustained investor
As a result of either a public offering of securities under the
confidence and allows an informed assessment of their
Securities Act or a listing of a company’s shares on a stock
business performance and assets. This enhances both
exchange in the United States, issuers become subject to
investor protection and market efficiency.
periodic and ongoing public reporting as well as other
Listed companies must ensure appropriate transparency for obligations under the Exchange Act. These reporting obliga-
investors through a regular flow of information. This is tions commence immediately upon the effectiveness of a
important not only because they may be required to do so registration statement or a listing and continue until the issuer
under applicable listing rules or legislation but also to build successfully deregisters or its reporting obligation is
strong investor relations in order to be able to fully reap the suspended.
potential benefits of being a public company, such as ready
US domestic issuers must prepare and file annual reports on
access to the capital markets. To the same end, stockholders,
Form 10-K, quarterly reports on Form 10-Q and current reports
or natural persons or legal entities holding voting rights or
on Form 8-K, as well as a proxy statement in connection with the
financial instruments that result in an entitlement to acquire
solicitation of votes for their shareholder meetings.
existing shares with voting rights, will typically also be required
to inform issuers of the acquisition of or other changes in
FORM 10-K
major holdings in listed companies so that the latter are in a
position to keep the public informed. An Annual Report on Form 10-K must be filed with the SEC 60
days after the end of the company’s fiscal year end if the
The specific nature and extent of the obligations that apply to company is a large accelerated filer, 75 days after the end of
the company post-IPO is dictated by: the company’s fiscal year end if the company is an accelerated
• The stock exchange on which the company’s securities filer and 90 days after the end of the company’s fiscal year end
are listed. for all other companies. A large accelerated filer is a company
that has an aggregate worldwide market value of common
• The US federal securities laws.
equity held by non-affiliates of at least $700 million. An
The following section provides an overview of ongoing accelerated filer is a company that has an aggregate world-
obligations applicable to US companies choosing to conduct a wide market value of common equity held by non-affiliates of
US IPO. The discussion is not intended to be exhaustive. at least $75 million but less than $700 million. In both cases, the
market value is determined as of the last day of the company’s
The principal ongoing obligations of, or with respect to, listed
second fiscal quarter. To be a large accelerated filers or an
companies in the United States include:
accelerated filer, the company must also have been subject to
• SEC reporting. the requirement to file periodic reports for at least 12 months
• Section 16—short-swing profits. and have filed at least one annual report with the SEC.

• Beneficial ownership reporting. The information that must be provided in a Form 10-K is
• Compliance with corporate governance rules (for broadly identical to the information required to be
example, stipulating numbers of independent directors). included in the initial registration statement on Form S-1.
Below are the headings of the items requirements for the
• Disclosure rules (for example, Regulation FD (which is
Form 10-K. A detailed discussion of the items is beyond the
designed to prevent selective disclosure and is discussed
scope of this guide.
below) and rules governing Non-GAAP financial
measures).
• FCPA compliance.

36 Initial Public Offerings

Part I The information that must be provided in a Form 10-Q is more
abbreviated than that required in an registration statement or
• Description of the company’s business.
in a annual report on Form 10-K.
• Risk factors.
Below are the headings of the items requirements for the Form
• Unresolved staff comments.
10-Q. A detailed discussion of the items is beyond the scope of
• Description of material properties. this guide.
• Legal proceedings.
Part I – Financial Information
• Mine safety disclosures.
• Unaudited financial statements.
Part II
• MD&A.
• Market for the company’s common equity, related stock- • Quantitative and qualitative disclosures about market
holders matters and issuer purchases of equity securities. risk.
• Selected financial data. • Controls and Procedures.
• MD&A.
Part II – Other Information
• Quantitative and qualitative disclosure about market risk.
• Audited Financial statements and supplementary data. • Legal proceedings.

• Changes in and disagreements with accountants on • Risk factors.

accounting and financial disclosure. • Unregistered sales of equity securities and use of
• Controls and procedures. proceeds.

• Information that should have been reported on a Form • Defaults upon senior securities.
8-K during the company’s fourth fiscal quarter but was • Mine safety disclosure.
not. • Information that should have been reported on a Form
8-K during the fiscal quarter but was not and any material
Part III
changes to the procedures by which shareholders recom-
• Information about directors, executive officers and mend nominees to the company’s board of directors.
corporate governance. • Exhibits.
• Executive compensation.
While financial statements included in a quarterly report on
• Security ownership of certain beneficial owners and
Form 10-Q do not need to be audited, they do need to be
management and related stockholder matters.
reviewed by the company’s auditors.
• Certain relationships, related transactions and director
independence. FORM 8-K
• Principal accountant fees and services. Companies are required to file a current report on Form 8-K
Part IV within four business days following the occurrence of the
following events (other than (i) a Regulation FD disclosure,
• Exhibits and financial statement schedules. which must be furnished simultaneously with an intentional
• Form 10-K summary. public disclosure or promptly for a non-intentional public
disclosure and (ii) those described in the last bullet for
FORM 10-Q which there is no deadline):
Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q must be filed with the SEC 40 • Entry into of a material definitive agreement.
days after the end of the company’s first, second and third fiscal
• Termination of a material definitive agreement.
quarters if the company is a large accelerated filer or an
accelerated filer. All other filers must file within 45 days after the • Filing for bankruptcy or receivership.
end of the company’s first, second and third fiscal quarters. • Mine Safety—reporting of shutdowns and patterns of
violations.

mayer brown 37
 • Completion of an acquisition or disposition of assets. PROXY STATEMENT
• Public announcements of results of operations and The US federal securities laws do not require that a public
financial condition. company solicit proxies from its shareholders in connection
• Creation of a direct financial obligation or an obligation with a shareholders’ meeting—that requirement arises from
under an off-balance sheet arrangement. the securities exchange listing requirements. State corporate
law governs the setting of a record date and the amount of
• The occurrence of triggering events that accelerate or
time between a record date and the meeting date.
increase a direct financial obligation or an obligation
under an off-balance sheet arrangement. When a company does solicit proxies, SEC rules govern the
• Commitment to exit or disposal activities that result in content of the proxy statement and the form of proxy. The
material charges. proxy statement contains, among other things: the date, time
• Determination that a material charge is required to reflect and location of the meeting and how abstentions and broker
impairments. non-votes affect the outcome of each matter voted upon, the
date by which shareholders must submit proposals for
• Receipt of a notice of delisting or failure to satisfy a
inclusion in the company’s next proxy statement and the date
continued listing rule or standard; transfer of listing.
by which shareholders must submit potential nominees for
• Unregistered sales of securities. consideration by the company for election as a director of the
• Material modifications to rights of security holders. company. Other information required in the proxy statement
• Change in the company’s certifying accountant. depends on the matters being voted on at the meeting. For
example, if directors are being elected, then the company
• Non-reliance on previously issued financial statements or
must include background information on each director,
a related audit report or completed interim review.
information relating to corporate governance and executive
• Changes in control of the registrant.
and director compensation information, similar to that
• Departure of directors or certain officers; election of included in the company’s IPO registration statement, CEO
directors; appointment of certain officers; new or modi- pay ratio disclosure, a “say-on-pay” proposal every one, two
fied compensatory arrangements of certain officers. or three years, and a proposal (at least once every six years)
• Amendments to articles of incorporation or bylaws; concerning the frequency of such “say-on-pay” proposals. A
change in fiscal year. detailed discussion of these items and the information
• Temporary suspension of trading under the company’s required for other matters that shareholders are being asked
employee benefit plans. to vote on are beyond the scope of this guide.

• Amendments to the company’s code of ethics or waiver of SEC rules exempt smaller reporting companies and the JOBS
a provision of the code of ethics. Act exempts EGCs from the requirement to hold “say-on-
• Change in shell company status. pay,” “say-on-frequency” and “say-on-golden parachute”
votes, as well as from certain other requirements, such as
• Reporting voting results of matters to a vote of security
CEO pay ratio disclosures. EGCs and smaller reporting
holders.
companies are also permitted to comply with less burden-
• Shareholder director nominations.
some executive compensation disclosure rules than other US
• Various matters relating to asset-backed securities domestic issuers. See Appendix 3.
issuers.
• Regulation FD disclosure. Section 16
• Other material events not required by one of the bullets Section 16 of the Exchange Act requires that officers,
above that the company, at its option, elects to disclose. directors and beneficial owners of more than 10 percent of
the equity securities registered under the Exchange Act
A detailed description of these items is beyond the scope of
(Section 16 Persons) of a company (the Subject
this guide.
Company) file reports on Form 3 with the SEC no later than

38 Initial Public Offerings

the effective date of the Form 8-A or if later, within 10 days of information about actual and potential changes in beneficial
becoming a Section 16 Person. With certain exceptions, ownership by significant stockholders and any plans that such
subsequent acquisitions and dispositions of securities must stockholders may have to change or influence the control or
be reported on a Form 4 within two business days of the date management of the issuer.
of the transaction. Officers and directors are required to
Section 13(d)(1) of the Exchange Act and Rule 13d-1 requires
report certain transactions that occur within six months prior
any “person” who acquires, directly or indirectly, the “benefi-
to an IPO and within six months after ceasing to be an officer
cial ownership” of more than five percent of a class of equity
or director of the Subject Company. Form 5 is used to report
securities registered under Section 12 of the Exchange Act to
transactions that should have been reported on an earlier
file a Schedule 13D with the SEC disclosing certain specified
Form 4 but were not or that were exempt from immediate
information and send copies of the filing to the issuer of such
reporting.
equity securities and each securities exchange where the
Subject to certain exceptions, if a Section 16 Person pur- securities are traded within calendar 10 days of the acquisi-
chases and then sells, or sells and then purchases, equity tion. In certain circumstances, investors who have acquired
securities of the Subject Company within six months resulting shares without the purpose or effect of changing or influenc-
in a profit, that Section 16 Person is required to disgorge the ing the control of the issuer may qualify to file a short form
profit to the Subject Company. If the Section 16 Person does (much less detailed and onerous) report on Schedule 13G,
not disgorge the profits to the Subject Company, another instead of filing a Schedule 13D. Notwithstanding Section
shareholder can request that the Subject Company obtain 13(d)(1), an investor that has not acquired more than two
disgorgement and, if necessary, the shareholder can sue the percent of the class of registered equity securities within the
Section 16 Person to force disgorgement to the Subject preceding 12 months need not file a Schedule 13D, even if such
Company. investor’s acquisitions within such period—when added to
shares acquired more than 12 months previously—exceed
Section 16(c) prohibits a Section 16 person from engaging in
five percent of the class. As discussed below, however, such
short sales of the Subject Company’s securities.
investors must file a Schedule 13G not later than 45 days after
The SEC has adopted several rules under Section 16 that, the end of the calendar year.
among other things, exempt from reporting certain types of
A Schedule 13D must be amended “promptly” if there is any
transactions and exempt some types of transactions from
material change in the facts that have been disclosed. An
the short-swing profit disgorgement provisions of Section 16.
acquisition, or disposition, of one percent or more of the class
Section 16 and the SEC’s rules thereunder are complex, and of securities is deemed material, but smaller acquisitions and
the treatment of transactions for reporting and disgorge- dispositions, and other changes of plans, could be material,
ment purposes is not always obvious. In many instances, depending on the circumstances. The SEC takes the position
outside counsel will need to be consulted to analyze the that “prompt” could mean as soon as the following business
reporting and disgorgement treatment of a transaction by a day. The Schedule 13G amendment requirements vary
Section 16 Person before the transaction is executed in order depending on the nature of the filer.
to ensure proper treatment under these provisions.
BENEFICIAL OWNERSHIP
Beneficial Ownership Reporting Rule 13d-3(a) provides that a person “beneficially owns” a
Acquisition or accumulation of a significant stake—more security if it, directly or indirectly, through any contract,
than five percent—in a class of equity securities registered arrangement or otherwise, has or shares (1) voting power, which
under Section 12 of the Exchange Act (which includes all includes the power to vote, or to direct the voting of, such
companies listed on a US securities exchange) gives rise to security or (2) investment power, which includes the power to
specific disclosure and filing requirements under US law. dispose, or to direct the disposition of, such security, or both. In
Disclosure requirements under Sections 13(d) and 13(g) of addition, a person is deemed to be the beneficial owner of a
the Exchange Act are intended to provide public companies, security if that person has the right to acquire beneficial
their stockholders and the marketplace in general with ownership of such security within 60 days, for example through

mayer brown 39
 the exercise of an option or through the conversion of another or term of directors, or to fill any existing vacancies on the
security. It follows from these provisions that a security may board, (v) any material change in the present capitalization or
have multiple beneficial owners—for example, the person who dividend policy of the issuer, (vi) any other material change in
owns the security and the person who has an option to acquire the issuer’s business or corporate structure, (vii) changes in
that same security within 60 days. All such 5 percent beneficial the issuer’s charter, bylaws, or instruments corresponding
owners must file a Schedule 13D or 13G. In addition, multiple thereto, or other actions which may impede the acquisition of
entities within a given corporate group may be deemed to control of the issuer by any person, (viii) causing a class of
own the same shares and may be required to file jointly. securities of the issuer to be de-listed or to cease to be
authorized to be quoted, (ix) a class of equity securities of the
“PERSON” AND “GROUPS” issuer becoming eligible for termination of registration with
“Person” is defined broadly and includes corporations and the SEC, under the Exchange Act, or (x) any action similar to
other entities, as well as individuals. Section 13(d)(3) further any of those enumerated above. In addition, Schedule 13D
provides that, when two or more persons act as partners of a must also describe any contracts, arrangements, under-
general or limited partnership, syndicate, or other group, for standings, or relationships, with respect to any securities of
the purpose of acquiring, holding, or disposing of securities of the issuer—including the transfer or voting of any security,
an issuer, such group will be deemed one single “person” for loan or option arrangements, puts or calls, and name of the
purposes of Section 13(d). This means that if these persons, in persons with whom such contracts, arrangements, under-
the aggregate, acquire more than five percent of the equity standings or relationships have been entered into. Finally, the
securities of the issuer, they will either need to file one joint exhibits that the reporting person must file with the Schedule
Schedule 13D, or each group member may file a separate 13D include copies of all agreements relating to the sources of
Schedule 13D. Individual persons will only be deemed to funds used to finance the acquisition of the securities, and
constitute a group, and thus one single person under Section copies of all agreements relating to the transactions
13(d)(3), if they have some kind of formal or informal agree- described above.
ment to act together with respect to the equity securities.
However, the case law concerning what actions constitute SCHEDULE 13G
the formation of a group is unsettled. The existence of a As mentioned above, certain types of investors acquiring
group depends on the specific facts and circumstances of beneficial ownership of more than five percent of a class of
the case. registered equity securities may, rather than filing a Schedule
13D within 10 days after the acquisition, file a short-form
REQUIRED INFORMATION disclosure statement on Schedule 13G. The main advantage
The information to be disclosed on Schedule 13D includes of filing on a Schedule 13G is that it requires significantly less
information about the identity or identities of the beneficial information to be disclosed and therefore is less burdensome
owner(s) of the acquired securities, the sources, and amount to prepare. The required disclosure is essentially limited to
of funds used in making the purchases, and the number of information regarding the identity of the filer and the number
shares of such security owned by the beneficial owner(s). In of shares owned. In addition, the requirements for periodi-
addition, the person filing Schedule 13D is also required to cally updating the filing are more limited and depend on the
disclose the purpose of the acquisition of the securities and identity of the filer.
any plans or proposals that the reporting person may have Schedule 13G is available to three types of investors: domestic
that relate to (i) the acquisition by any person of additional “Qualified Institutional Investors” (QIIs), “exempt investors”
securities of the issuer, or disposition of such securities, (ii) an and “passive investors.” Investors that qualify as QIIs include
extraordinary corporate transaction, such as merger, US registered broker-dealers, banks, savings associations,
reorganization or liquidation, involving the issuer or any of its registered investment companies and employee benefit
subsidiaries, (iii) a sale, or transfer, of a material amount of plans, as well as control persons of such entities. Foreign
assets of the issuer or of any of its subsidiaries, (iv) any change institutional investors typically do not qualify as QIIs. To
in the present board of directors, or management of the qualify for a Schedule 13G, as opposed to a Schedule 13D filing,
issuer, including any plans or proposals to change the number

40 Initial Public Offerings

a QII must be able to certify that the securities were acquired to limited exceptions, e.g., controlled companies) to have
in the ordinary course of business and without having had a independent directors on their boards of directors and three
purpose or effect of changing or influencing the control of standing committees comprised solely of independent
the issuer. An “exempt investor” is a person who holds more directors—audit, compensation and nomination/gover-
than five percent of a class of equity securities at the end of a nance. Phase-in rules require only one independent director
calendar year, but who has not made any “acquisition” subject upon closing of the IPO, two within 90 days and three within
to Section 13(d). This includes persons who acquired their one year, in addition to a majority of independent directors
securities prior to the issuer registering the securities under within one year of the IPO closing. Even significant ownership
the Exchange Act—for example, key founding stockholders of shares in the company does not preclude a director being
that acquired shares prior to a potential IPO, persons who considered independent, as independence from executive
acquired securities in a registered stock-for-stock exchange management is seen as the primary issue. However, this does
and persons who have not acquired more than two percent of not apply to audit committee members, for which the fully
a class of securities within a 12-month period. “Passive diluted stock ownership of a director, and entities with which
investors” may qualify to file a Schedule 13G if they own more he or she is affiliated, should not exceed 10 percent of the
than five percent but less than 20 percent of a class of total shares of the company outstanding.
registered equity securities and can certify that the securities
As a practical matter, the company and the underwriters,
were not acquired, or held, with the purpose or effect of
with the assistance of their legal advisers, will confirm the
changing or influencing the control of the issuer.
independence status of the current directors of an IPO
If, after filing a Schedule 13G, a QII or a passive investor candidate prior to commencing the application process,
subsequently determines that it intends to change or based on a variety of regulatory standards and responses to
influence the control of the issuer, or if a passive investor’s director questionnaires prepared by the issuer’s lawyers.
ownership reaches or exceeds 20 percent of the class of Depending on the outcome, it may then be necessary to
equity securities, then such person must file a full Schedule make changes to the composition of the company’s board of
13D within 10 days of this occurrence, and would be subject to directors and to elect new independent directors in
a 10-day “cooling off” period during which the securities may connection with the IPO.
not be voted and beneficial ownership of additional securities
may not be acquired.
Other Considerations
Corporate Governance REGULATION FAIR DISCLOSURE (REGULATION FD)
Regulation FD generally requires SEC-registered companies
GENERAL
to provide all investors with the same information at the same
US domestic issuers are subject to a host of corporate time (that is, selective disclosure to only some investors is
governance rules under applicable US securities laws, SEC prohibited) if the information is material and not previously
rules, the rules of the relevant US stock exchanges and available to the public.
applicable state law. These rules cover matters including
director independence, required board committees, As a result, no company spokesperson, including senior
committee charters, code of ethics, disclosure controls and management and members of the board of directors of
procedures, loans to insiders, whistle-blower policies and public companies, should personally disclose any information
complaint-handling procedures, communication policies that is material and that has not previously been publicly
(e.g., Regulation FD) and insider trading policies. A summary disclosed. This does not mean that company spokespeople
of the NYSE and Nasdaq non-quantitative listing require- may only repeat words that have been lifted verbatim from
ments in contained in Appendix 1 to this guide. press releases or SEC filings, but it does mean that no new
material information should be provided unless it has
INDEPENDENT DIRECTORS previously been disclosed by press release or other broad
dissemination. These rules apply separately from various
Under SEC rules, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the Dodd-Frank
federal laws that impose both civil and criminal liability for
Wall Street Reform Act of 2010 as well as both NYSE and
“insider trading,” including “tipping.”
Nasdaq listing rules US domestic issuers are required (subject

mayer brown 41
 NON-GAAP FINANCIAL MEASURES payments or gifts by a non-US employee, or agent of the
Many companies disclose “Non-GAAP financial measures”, or company, to an official in a developing country, for example,
financial measures not taken directly from their financial could expose the company to expensive and time-consuming
statements that exclude (or include) amounts, or are subject investigations by the SEC or the US Department of Justice
to adjustments that have the effect of excluding (or including) (DOJ).
amounts, that are included (or excluded) in the most directly Consequences for a breach of FCPA include large monetary
comparable measure calculated and presented in accordance penalties and a variety of other sanctions in the United States,
with GAAP in the company’s statement of income, balance including a potential suspension of the right to do business
sheet or statement of cash flows. with the US government. Prohibited payments or gifts are
The SEC has adopted a series of regulations—sometimes often made through middlemen, so the FCPA is drafted
generically referred to as “Reg. G”—designed to address this broadly to pick up the actions of distributors, brokers,
practice in public disclosures and in SEC filings. It has taken suppliers and other agents. As a result, companies listed in the
this step because of perceived abuses and the habit of some United States could incur significant liability as a result of
companies to disclose what the SEC has humorously called actions taken by contract counterparties. For that reason,
“EBT-BS” or “earnings before the bad stuff.” Among other FCPA compliance efforts cannot stop at a company’s own
things, the relevant rules require companies, in the case of doorstep but must extend to its business partners.
SEC filings and earnings announcements required to be To avoid being held liable for corrupt payments made by third
furnished on a Form 8-K, to: parties, the DOJ encourages companies to exercise due
• Present, with equal or greater prominence, the most diligence and to take all necessary precautions to ensure that
directly comparable financial measure calculated and they have formed a business relationship with reputable and
presented in accordance with “GAAP.” qualified partners and representatives.

• Reconcile the differences between the non-GAAP finan- In addition, companies should also be aware of so-called “red
cial measure and the most directly comparable financial flags,” including:
measure calculated and presented in accordance with
• Unusual payment patterns or financial arrangements.
GAAP.
• A history of corruption in the country.
• Disclose the reasons why management believes that pre-
sentation of the non-GAAP financial measure provides • A refusal by the foreign joint venture partner or represen-
useful information to investors regarding the registrant’s tative to provide a certification that it will not take any act
financial condition and results of operations. that would cause a violation of the FCPA.

• To the extent material, disclose the additional purposes • Unusually high commissions or unusual payment terms/
for which management uses the non-GAAP financial deal structures.
measure. • Lack of transparency in expenses and accounting records.

In addition, there are certain non-GAAP financial measures • Apparent lack of qualifications or resources on the part
that may not be used in a filing with the SEC. of the joint venture partner or representative to perform
the services offered.
FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT • Whether the joint venture partner or representative
has been recommended by an official of the potential
One of the highest profile and potentially largest dollar
governmental customer.
compliance risks associated with the US securities laws is the
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). The FCPA generally
prohibits corrupt payments or gifts to foreign (non-US)
officials to obtain or retain business. “Foreign officials”
includes employees of state-owned entities such as public
hospitals, utilities or universities. Companies with US listings,
and thus registrations with the SEC, are subject to potential
liability under the FCPA for their worldwide operations. Illegal

42 Initial Public Offerings

Appendices

mayer brown 43
 Appendix 1
NYSE and NASDAQ Non-quantitative Listing Requirements
The following table summarizes certain of the NYSE and Nasdaq non-quantitative listing requirements for corporate issuers,
primarily corporate governance in nature. Section references under the NYSE column refer to the NYSE Listed Company
Manual and references under the Nasdaq column refer to the Nasdaq Listing Rules. The following table is only a high level
summary of the requirements and should be read in connection with the full text of the applicable rule or regulation. In
addition, many of the requirements set forth below contain exceptions for companies in bankruptcy proceedings, controlled
companies, cooperatives, foreign private issuers, investment companies registered under the Investment Company Act of
1940, limited partnerships, passive investment entities and smaller reporting companies. You should review the text of the
applicable rules or regulations for any such exceptions.

REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ

A company’s board of directors must have a majority Same. (Rule 5605(b))
of independent directors.
Independence is defined in Rule 5605(a)(2) and IM
A company has one year from the date of listing to 5606.
INDEPENDENT comply if the listing is in connection with its IPO.
(Sections 303A.01 and 303A.00)
DIRECTORS
Independence is defined in Section 303A.02.

Regularly scheduled executive sessions are required of Independent directors must have regularly sched-
either: uled meetings at which only independent directors
EXECUTIVE are present. Nasdaq expects that the executive
• non-management directors or
SESSIONS OF sessions will occur at least twice a year, in conjunction
• independent directors. with regularly scheduled board meetings. (Rule
NON-
If a company chooses to hold meetings of non- 5605(b)(2) and IM 5605-2)
MANAGEMENT
management directors, the NYSE recommends that
DIRECTORS the independent directors hold a separate meeting at
least once a year. (Section 303A.03)

A company is required to have an audit committee A company is required to have an audit committee
consisting of at least three members, each of whom: consisting of at least three members, each of whom:
• satisfies the requirements of SEC Exchange Act • satisfies the requirements of SEC Exchange Act
Rule 10A-3; Rule 10A-3;
• is independent as defined in the NYSE’s indepen- • is independent as defined in Nasdaq’s indepen-
dence requirements; and dence rules;
• is financially literate (or will become financially lit- • did not participate in the preparation of the
erate within a reasonable time after appointment). financial statements of the company or any of its
current subsidiaries during the past three years;
In addition, at least one member of the audit commit- and
AUDIT tee must have accounting or related financial
COMMITTEE management expertise. (Sections 303A.06 and • can read and understand fundamental financial
303A.07) statements.

A company that is listing in connection with its IPO In addition, one member of the audit committee
must have at least one independent member by the must have experience that results in his or her
listing date, at least a majority of independent financial sophistication. (Rule 5605(c))
members within 90 days of the effective date of its A company that is listing in connection with its IPO
registration statement and a fully independent must have at least one independent member at the
committee within one year of the effective date of its time of listing, a majority of independent members
registration statement. (Section 303A.00) within 90 days of listing and be fully independent
within one year of listing. (Rule 5615(b)(1))

44 Initial Public Offerings

REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
A company must have a written audit committee A company must have a written audit committee
charter that sets out: charter that specifies:
• The purposes of the committee, which at a • The scope of the committee’s responsibilities
minimum must include: (i) assisting the board’s and how it carries out those responsibilities,
oversight of the company’s financial state- including its structure, processes, and member-
ments, legal and regulatory compliance, the ship requirements.
auditors’ qualifications and independence, and • The committee’s responsibility for receiving a
performance of the company’s internal audit written statement from the outside auditors
department (or third-party providers) and audi- regarding all relationships between the auditor
tors; and (ii) preparing the audit committee report and the company, discussing with the auditor
required by Item 407(d)(3)(i) of Regulation S-K. any relationships or services that may affect the
• An annual evaluation of the performance of the objectivity and independence of the auditor,
audit committee. and taking or recommending that the board
• The audit committee’s duties/responsibilities, take action to oversee the independence of the
which must at a minimum include: auditor.
»» the requirements of Rule 10A-3: • The committee’s purpose of overseeing the
accounting and financial reporting processes
−− oversight of registered public account-
of the company and the audits of the financial
ing firms;
statements.
−− complaints relating to accounting,
• The committee’s specific responsibilities and
internal accounting controls, or auditing
authority to comply with Rule 10A-3(b)(2) - (5) of
matters;
the Exchange Act regarding:
−− authority to engage advisors; and
»» oversight of registered public accounting
−− funding. firms;
»» At least annually, obtaining and reviewing a »» complaints relating to accounting, internal
AUDIT report by the company’s auditors on the accounting controls, or auditing matters;
COMMITTEE auditors’ internal quality control procedures,
»» authority to engage advisors; and
CHARTER any material issues arising from the auditor’s
most recent internal quality control review or »» funding.
any investigation by governmental or (Rule 5605(c)(1) and (3))
professional authorities within the preceding
five years of audits completed by the auditors The audit committee must review and reassess the
and any steps taken to deal with any such adequacy of the audit committee charter annually.
issues, and any relationships between the (Rule 5605(d)(1))
auditors and the company;
»» reviewing and discussing the company’s
financial statements and MD&A disclosure
with management and the auditors;
»» reviewing and discussing the company’s
earnings releases and any financial informa-
tion or earnings guidance given to financial
analysts and credit rating agencies;
»» reviewing and discussing the company’s risk
assessment and risk management policies;
»» holding separate meetings with management,
the company’s auditors and the company’s
internal audit department or third-party
provider;
»» reviewing any audit problems or other issues
and management’s responses with the
auditors;

mayer brown 45
 REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
»» setting specific policies for hiring employees
or former employees of the company’s
auditors; and
»» reporting regularly to the board of directors
any issues that arise regarding the company’s
financial statements, legal and regulatory
compliance, the auditors’ qualifications and
independence, and performance of the
company’s internal audit department (or
third-party providers) and auditors.
(Section 303A.07(b))

For those companies that do not yet have an internal

AUDIT audit function (because they are relying on the one
year transition period), the audit committee charter
COMMITTEE
must also provide that the committee must:
CHARTER
• Assist with board oversight of the design and
implementation of an internal audit function;
• Meet periodically with the company personnel
primarily responsible for designing and imple-
menting the internal audit function; Review with
the independent auditors the company’s plans
for implementing the internal audit function,
including management’s plans for internal audit’s
budget, staff, and responsibilities; and
• Report regularly to the board regarding the design
and implementation of internal audit.
(Section 303A.07(b))

A company is required to have a compensation A company is required to have a compensation

committee comprised entirely of independent committee comprised of at least two directors, each
directors within the meaning of the NYSE’s rules. of whom is independent within the meaning of
(Section 303A.05(a)) Nasdaq’s rules.

In addition, the board must consider all factors In addition, the board must consider all factors
relevant to determining whether a director has a relevant to determining whether a director has a
relationship to the company which is material to that relationship to the company which is material to that
director’s ability to be independent, including: director’s ability to be independent, including:

• the source of compensation of the director, • the source of compensation of the director,
including any consulting, advisory or other including any consulting, advisory or other
COMPENSATION compensatory fee paid by the company to such compensatory fee paid by the company to such
COMMITTEE director; and director; and
• whether the director is affiliated with the company, • whether the director is affiliated with the com-
a subsidiary of the company or an affiliate of a pany, a subsidiary of the company or an affiliate
subsidiary of the company. of a subsidiary of the company. (Rule 5605(d))
A company that is listing in connection with its IPO A company that is listing in connection with its IPO
must have at least one independent member by the must have at least one independent member at the
earlier of the date of the IPO closing or five business time of listing, a majority of independent members
days from the listing date, at least a majority of within 90 days of listing and be fully independent
independent members within 90 days of the listing within one year of listing. (Rule 5615(b)(1))
date and a fully independent committee within one
year of listing. (Section 303A.00)

46 Initial Public Offerings

REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
A company must have a written compensation A company must have a written charter for its
committee charter that sets out: compensation committee that includes, among
other provisions:
• The purpose and responsibilities of the com-
mittee, which must at a minimum include direct • The scope of the committee’s responsibilities
responsibility to: and how it will carry out its responsibilities,
»» review and approve corporate goals and including structure, processes and membership
objectives for CEO compensation, evaluate requirements.
the CEO’s performance in light of these goals • The committee’s responsibility for determining,
and objectives, and either as a committee or or recommending to the board of directors for
together with the other independent determination, the compensation of the CEO
directors of the board, determine and and other executive officers.
approve CEO compensation; • That the CEO may not be present during voting or
»» make recommendations to the board deliberations on his or her compensation.
regarding compensation of the other • That the committee in its sole discretion may
executive officers and incentive compensa- retain or obtain the advice of a compensation
tion and equity-based plans that are subject to consultant, legal counsel or other adviser.
board approval; and
• That the committee is directly responsible for
»» prepare the disclosure required by Item the appointment, compensation and oversight
407(e)(5) of Regulation S-K (the compensa- of the work of any compensation consultants,
tion committee report). legal counsel, and other advisers retained by the
• An annual evaluation of the performance of the committee.
compensation committee. • That the company must provide appropriate
(Section 303A.05(b)) funding for payment of reasonable compensa-
tion to a compensation consultant, legal counsel
COMPENSATION In addition: or adviser retained by the committee; and
COMMITTEE • The committee may, in its sole discretion, retain • The responsibility and authority of the com-
CHARTER or obtain advice of a compensation consultant, mittee to consider the factors below before
independent legal counsel, or other adviser. selecting or receiving advice from any compen-
• The compensation committee must be directly sation consultant, legal counsel or adviser to the
responsible for the appointment, compensation, committee (other than in-house counsel or an
and oversight of any compensation consultant, adviser that provides only specified information):
independent legal counsel, or other adviser. »» the provision of other services to the
• The company must provide appropriate funding, company by the person who employs the
as determined by the compensation committee, compensation consultant, legal counsel or
for payment of reasonable compensation to a adviser;
compensation consultant, independent legal »» the amount of fees received from the
counsel, or other adviser. company by the person who employs the
• Before selecting or obtaining advice from any com- compensation consultant, legal counsel or
pensation advisers (other than in-house counsel), advisor;
the compensation committee must take into
»» the policies and procedures of the person
consideration all factors relevant to that person’s
who employs the compensation consultant,
independence from management, including:
legal counsel or adviser that are designed to
»» the provision of other services to the company prevent conflicts of interest;
by the person who employs the compensation
»» any business or personal relationship of the
adviser;
compensation consultant, legal counsel or
»» the amount of fees received from the adviser with a member of the compensation
company by the person who employs the committee;
compensation adviser, as a percentage of that
»» any stock of the company owned by the
person’s total revenue;
compensation consultant, legal counsel
or adviser; and

mayer brown 47
 REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
»» the conflict of interest policies and proce- »» any business or personal relationship of the
dures of the person who employs the compensation consultant, legal counsel or
compensation adviser; adviser or the person employing the adviser
»» any relationship of the compensation adviser with an executive officer of the company.
with a member of the compensation Compensation advisers do not need to be
committee; independent, but the compensation committee
COMPENSATION »» any stock of the company owned by the must undertake an evaluation of their independence.
COMMITTEE compensation adviser; and (Rule 5605(d)(1) and Rule 5605(d)(3))
CHARTER »» any relationship of the compensation adviser
The compensation committee must review and
with an executive officer of the company.
reassess the adequacy of the compensation
Compensation advisers do not need to be indepen- committee charter annually. (Rule 5605(d)(1))
dent, but the compensation committee must
undertake an evaluation of their independence
(Section 303A.05(c) and related commentary).

A company must have a nominating/corporate Director nominees must either be selected, or

governance committee composed entirely of recommended for the board’s selection, by either:
independent directors. (Section 303A.04(a))
• Independent directors constituting a majority
A company listing in connection with its IPO must have of the board’s independent directors in a vote in
NOMINATING/ at least one independent member by the earlier of the which only independent directors participate; or
CORPORATE date of the IPO closing or five business days from the • A nominations committee comprised solely of
GOVERNANCE listing date, at least a majority of independent independent directors.
members within 90 days of the listing date and a fully
COMMITTEE A company that is listing in connection with its IPO
independent committee within one year of listing.
must have at least one independent member at the
(Section 303A.00)
time of listing, a majority of independent members
within 90 days of listing and be fully independent
within one year of listing. (Rule 5615(b)(1))

48 Initial Public Offerings

REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
A nominating/corporate governance committee must A company must adopt a written charter or board
have a written charter that sets out: resolution, as applicable, addressing the nominations
process and such related matters as may be required
• The purpose and responsibilities of the commit- under the US federal securities laws. (Rule 5605(e))
tee, which must at a minimum include:
»» identifying individuals qualified to become
board members, consistent with criteria
approved by the board, and selecting, or
recommending that the board select, the
director nominees for the next annual
meeting of stockholders;
»» developing and recommending to the board a
set of corporate governance guidelines for
the company; and
»» overseeing the evaluation of the board and
management.
NOMINATING/
• An annual evaluation of the performance of the
CORPORATE nominating/corporate governance committee.
GOVERNANCE (Section 303A.04(b))
COMMITTEE
The NYSE states that the nominating/corporate
CHARTER governance committee’s charter should, but does not
require it to, also include:

• The qualifications of committee members.

• Appointment and removal of committee
members.
• The structure and operations of the committee,
including its authority to delegate any of its
responsibilities to any subcommittees.
• Reporting to the board of directors.
• The sole authority of the committee to engage,
determine the fees and other retention terms
of, and dismiss a search firm to identify director
candidates.
(Section 303A.04(b))

mayer brown 49
 REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
A company must adopt and disclose a code of business A company must adopt a code of conduct for
conduct and ethics for directors, officers and directors, officers and employees that addresses the
employees. Waivers of the code for directors and following matters:
executive officers may be made only by the board or a
board committee. Any such waivers must be promptly • honest and ethical conduct, including the
disclosed to shareholders within four business days. ethical handling of actual or apparent conflicts
of interest between personal and professional
Each company may determine its own policies, but all relationships;
CODE OF listed companies should address the most important • full, fair, accurate, timely and understandable
BUSINESS topics, including: conflicts of interest, corporate disclosure in the periodic reports required to be
opportunities, confidentiality, fair dealing, protection filed by the company; and
CONDUCT AND and proper use of company assets, compliance with
ETHICS • compliance with applicable governmental rules
laws, rules and regulations and encouraging the
and regulations.
reporting of any illegal or unethical behavior.
The code must also provide for an enforcement
The code of business conduct and ethics must contain mechanism.
compliance standards and procedures that will
facilitate the effective operation of the code, including Waivers of the code for directors and executive
prompt and consistent action against violations of the officers must be approved by the board. Any such
code. (Section 303A.10) waiver must be disclosed to shareholders within four
business days. (Rule 5610)
A company must review and evaluate all related party Each company must conduct appropriate review and
transactions (including transactions between officers, oversight of all related party transactions for
directors, principal shareholders, and the company). potential conflict of interest situations by the
CONFLICTS OF The review can be conducted by the audit committee company’s audit committee or another independent
INTEREST/ or another comparable body. body of the board of directors. (Rule 5630)
RELATED PARTY Following the review, the company should determine
TRANSACTIONS whether or not a particular relationship serves the best
interests of the company and its shareholders and
whether the relationships should be continued or
terminated. (Section 314.00)

A company must adopt and disclose corporate Not addressed.

governance guidelines addressing:

• Director qualification standards;

• Director responsibilities;
CORPORATE • Director access to management and, if applicable,
GOVERNANCE independent advisors;
GUIDELINES • Director compensation;
• Director orientation and continuing education;
• Management succession; and
• Annual performance evaluation of the board.
(Section 303A.09)

A company must have an internal audit function, Not addressed.

which may be outsourced to a third-party service
INTERNAL provider other than its independent auditor.
AUDIT Companies applying for a listing in connection
FUNCTION with an IPO must have an internal audit function
in place within one year of the listing date.
(Sections 303A.07(c) and 303A.00)

50 Initial Public Offerings

REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ

ANNUAL A company is required to hold an annual shareholders’ A company is required to hold an annual meeting of
meeting during each fiscal year. (Section 302.00) shareholders no later than one year after the end of
SHAREHOLDER
its fiscal year. (Rule 5620(a))
MEETINGS
A quorum sufficiently high to insure a representative A company must provide for a quorum not less than
vote is required for any meeting of the holders of 33 1/3 percent of the outstanding shares of its
common stock. In authorizing a listing, the NYSE gives common voting stock for any meeting of the holders
careful consideration to provisions fixing any of its common stock. (Rule 5620(c))
proportion less than a majority of the outstanding
QUORUM shares as the quorum for shareholders’ meetings. In
general, the NYSE has not objected to reasonably
lesser quorum requirements in cases where compa-
nies have agreed to make general proxy solicitations
for future meetings of shareholders. (Section
310.00(A))

Actively operating companies are required to solicit A company is required to solicit proxies for all
SOLICITATION proxies for all meetings of shareholders. (Section shareholder meetings. (Rule 5620(b))
OF PROXIES 402.04)

The voting rights of existing shareholders of listed Same. (Rule 5640)

common stock cannot be disparately reduced or
restricted through any corporate action or issuance,
including the adoption of time-phased voting plans,
the adoption of capped voting rights plans, the
VOTING RIGHTS
issuance of super voting stock or the issuance of stock
with voting rights less than the per share voting rights
of the existing common stock through an exchange
offer. (Section 313.00(A))

A company must obtain shareholder approval for A company is required to obtain shareholder
certain issuances of securities, including: approval of certain issuances of securities, including:
• With limited exceptions, if the common stock has, • Acquisitions where the issuance equals 20 per-
or will have upon issuance, voting power equal cent or more of the pre-transaction outstanding
to or in excess of 20 percent of the voting power shares (or 5 percent or more when a related
outstanding before the issuance of such stock party has a 5 percent or greater interest in the
or of securities convertible into or exercisable acquisition target) ((Rule 5635(a));
for common stock or if the number of shares of • Issuances resulting in a change of control (Rule
common stock to be issued is, or will be upon 5635(b));
issuance, equal to or in excess of 20 percent of the
• Equity compensation, including establishing or
number of shares of common stock outstanding
materially amending a plan or other arrangement
SHAREHOLDER before the issuance of the common stock or of
(Rule 5635(c) and IM-5365-1); and
APPROVAL OF securities convertible into or exercisable for
common stock. (Section 312.03(c)) • Private placements where the issuance (together
SECURITIES
with sales by officers, directors or substantial
ISSUANCES • Issuances resulting in a change of control (Section
shareholders) equals 20 percent or more of the
312.03(d));
pre-transaction outstanding shares at a price
• Equity compensation plans and any material less than the greater of book value or market
revisions to those plans (Sections 303A.08 and value. (Rule 5635(d) and IM-5635-3)
312.03(a)); and
• Certain related party transactions greater than
1 percent of the number of shares of common
stock or 1 percent of the voting power outstanding
before the issuance, unless the company qualifies
as an “early stage company” and the transaction
involves a sale of stock for cash (Section 312.03(b)).

mayer brown 51
 REQUIREMENT NYSE NASDAQ
A company’s CEO must promptly notify the NYSE in A company must promptly notify Nasdaq after an
NOTIFICATION OF writing after any executive officer of the company executive officer of the company becomes aware of
NON- becomes aware of any non-compliance with any any non-compliance by the company with any
COMPLIANCE applicable provision of Section 303A. (Section requirements of Rule 5600. (Rule 5625)
303A.12(b))

A company must submit an executed written affirma- Not addressed.

tion each year (within 30 days after annual meeting). It
WRITTEN must also submit an interim written affirmation as and
AFFIRMATION when required by the NYSE’s interim written affirma-
tion form. (Section 303A.12(c))

A company’s CEO must certify to the NYSE each year A company must certify to Nasdaq that it is comply-
(within 30 days after annual meeting) that he or she is ing with certain corporate governance listing
ANNUAL not aware of any violation by the company of NYSE standards at the time of listing. After the initial
CERTIFICATION corporate governance listing standards, qualifying the certification, an updated certification form only
certification to the extent necessary. (Section needs to be filed if the prior certification is no longer
303A.12(a)) accurate due to a change in the company’s status.

52 Initial Public Offerings

Appendix 2
NYSE And NASDAQ Quantitative Listing Standards
NYSE

Initial Quantitative Listing Criteria

US domestic companies, other than real estate investment trusts, closed-end management investment companies and
business development companies, listing on the NYSE are required to meet one of the following IPO financial standards.

FINANCIAL II: GLOBAL MARKET

I: EARNINGS TEST
STANDARDS CAPITALIZATION TEST
ADJUSTED PRE-TAX At least $10 million in the aggregate for the last three
INCOME fiscal years, with at least $2 million in each of the two
most recent fiscal years. Amounts in all three fiscal
years must be greater than or equal to $0; or

If the third fiscal year shows a loss, then at least $12

million in the aggregate for the last three fiscal
years with at least $5 million in the most recent
fiscal year and at least $2 million in the next most
recent fiscal year.

EGCs that have filed only two fiscal years of

financial statements – at least $10 million in the
aggregate for the last two fiscal years, with at least
$2 million in each year.

GLOBAL MARKET $200 million.

CAPITALIZATION

US domestic companies are also required to meet all of the following distribution standards.

DISTRIBUTION STANDARDS
SHAREHOLDERS 400 round lot
PUBLICLY HELD SHARES 1.1 million
MARKET VALUE OF PUBLICLY $40 million
HELD SHARES
MINIMUM SHARE PRICE $4.00

mayer brown 53
 CONTINUED QUANTITATIVE LISTING CRITERIA
A US domestic company can remain listed on the NYSE as long as it satisfies the NYSE’s continued listing requirements. The
NYSE will consider delisting a company if it falls below any of the following criteria:

MINIMUM STOCKHOLDING STANDARD

NUMBER OF TOTAL STOCKHOLDERS 400
OR:
NUMBER OF TOTAL STOCKHOLDERS 1,200

AND and

AVERAGE MONTHLY TRADING VOLUME (FOR THE

100,000 shares
MOST RECENT 12-MONTH PERIOD)

OR:

NUMBER OF PUBLICLY HELD SHARES 600,000

MINIMUM PRICING STANDARD

AVERAGE CLOSING PRICE (OVER A CONSECUTIVE $1.00
30-TRADING-DAY PERIOD)

MINIMUM FINANCIAL STANDARD

AVERAGE GLOBAL MARKET CAPITALIZATION
(OVER A CONSECUTIVE 30-TRADING-DAY PERIOD) $50 million

AND and

$50 million
TOTAL STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY

Even if a company meets the thresholds above, the NYSE will take steps to suspend and delist a company if it is determined that
the company has an average global market capitalization over a consecutive 30-trading-day period of less than $15 million.

54 Initial Public Offerings

NASDAQ
The Nasdaq Stock market has three tiers, the Nasdaq Global Select Market, the Nasdaq Global Market and the Nasdaq Capital
Market. The initial and continued quantitative listing requirements for each tier are summarized below.

NASDAQ GLOBAL SELECT MARKET

Initial Quantitative Listing Criteria

Companies must meet all of the criteria under at least one of the four financial standards below and the applicable liquidity
requirements in the table on the next page. These requirements apply to listing the primary class of securities for an operating
company. Nasdaq has separate listing requirements for closed-end funds, structured products and secondary classes of
securities.

STANDARD 2: STANDARD 3: STANDARD

FINANCIAL STANDARD 1:
CAPITALIZATION CAPITALIZATION 4:ASSETS WITH
REQUIREMENTS EARNINGS
WITH CASH FLOW WITH REVENUE EQUITY

At least $11 million in

PRE-TAX the aggregate in the
EARNINGS prior three fiscal years
(INCOME FROM and
no losses in the prior
CONTINUING
three fiscal years
OPERATIONS and
BEFORE INCOME at least $2.2 million in
TAXES) each of the two most
recent fiscal years
At least $27.5 million in
the aggregate in the
prior three fiscal years
CASH FLOWS
and
no losses in any of the
three prior fiscal years

MARKET Average of at least Average of at least $850

$550 million over the million over the prior 12 $160 million
CAPITALIZATION prior 12 months months
At least $110 million in At least $90 million in the
REVENUE
the previous fiscal year previous fiscal year
TOTAL ASSETS $80 million
STOCKHOLDERS’
$55 million
EQUITY
BID PRICE $4 $4 $4 $4

LIQUIDITY REQUIREMENTS
ROUND LOT 450
SHAREHOLDERS
or
OR
TOTAL SHAREHOLDERS 2,200

mayer brown 55
 Continued Quantitative Listing Criteria
Once listed, companies must meet all of the criteria under at least one of the following three standards below to remain listed.

MARKET VALUE TOTAL ASSETS/TOTAL

FINANCIAL REQUIREMENTS EQUITY STANDARD
STANDARD REVENUE STANDARD
STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY $10 million -- --
MARKET VALUE OF LISTED -- $50 million --
SECURITIES
TOTAL ASSETS -- -- $50 million

AND and

$50 million
TOTAL REVENUE (IN LATEST
FISCAL YEAR OR IN TWO OF THE
LAST THREE FISCAL YEARS)

PUBLICLY HELD SHARES 750,000 1.1 million 1.1 million

MARKET VALUE OF PUBLICLY $5 million $15 million $15 million

HELD SHARES
BID PRICE $1 $1 $1

TOTAL SHAREHOLDERS 400 400 400

MARKET MAKERS 2 4 4

NASDAQ GLOBAL MARKET

Initial Quantitative Listing Criteria

Companies must meet all of the criteria under at least one of the four standards below.

TOTAL ASSETS/
INCOME EQUITY MARKET VALUE
REQUIREMENTS TOTAL REVENUE
STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD*
STANDARD
INCOME FROM CONTINUING $1 million
OPERATIONS BEFORE INCOME
TAXES (IN LATEST FISCAL YEAR
OR IN TWO OF THE LAST
THREE FISCAL YEARS)

STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY $15 million $30 million

MARKET VALUE OF LISTED $75 million
SECURITIES

TOTAL ASSETS AND TOTAL $75 million

REVENUE (IN LATEST FISCAL
and
YEAR OR IN TWO OF THE LAST
THREE FISCAL YEARS) $75 million

56 Initial Public Offerings

 TOTAL ASSETS/
INCOME EQUITY MARKET VALUE
REQUIREMENTS TOTAL REVENUE
STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD*
STANDARD

PUBLICLY HELD SHARES 1.1 million 1.1 million 1.1 million 1.1 million

MARKET VALUE OF PUBLICLY $8 million $18 million $20 million $20 million
HELD SHARES

BID PRICE $4 $4 $4 $4

SHAREHOLDERS (ROUND LOT 400 400 400 400

HOLDERS)

MARKET MAKERS 3 3 4 4

OPERATING HISTORY 2 years

*Currently traded companies qualifying solely under the Market Value Standard must meet the $75 million Market Value of
Listed Securities and the $4 bid price requirement for 90 consecutive days before applying.

Continued Quantitative Listing Criteria

The continued listing requirements for companies listed on the Nasdaq Global Market are the same as those described above
for companies listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market.

mayer brown 57
 NASDAQ CAPITAL MARKET

Initial Quantitative Listing Criteria

Companies must meet all of the criteria under at least one of the three standards below.

EQUITY MARKET VALUE OF LISTED NET INCOME

REQUIREMENTS
STANDARD SECURITIES STANDARD* STANDARD

STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY $5 million $4 million $4 million

MARKET VALUE OF PUBLICLY
$15 million $15 million $5 million
HELD SHARES
OPERATING HISTORY 2 years
MARKET VALUE OF LISTED
$50 million
SECURITIES
NET INCOME FROM CONTINUING
OPERATIONS (IN THE LATEST
$750,000
FISCAL YEAR OR IN TWO OF THE
LAST THREE FISCAL YEARS)
PUBLICLY HELD SHARES 1 million 1 million 1 million
SHAREHOLDERS (ROUND LOT
300 300 300
SHAREHOLDERS)

MARKET MAKERS 3 3 3

BID PRICE $4 $4 $4
OR
CLOSING PRICE** $3 $3 $3

* Currently traded companies qualifying solely under the Market Value Standard must meet the $50 million Market Value of
Listed Securities and the applicable bid price requirement for 90 consecutive days before applying.

** To qualify under the closing price alternative, a company must have (i) average annual revenues of $6 million for three years,
or (ii) net tangible assets of $2 million and a 3-year operating history, in addition to satisfying the other financial and liquidity
requirements listed above.

58 Initial Public Offerings

Continued Quantitative Listing Criteria
Once listed, companies must meet all of the criteria under at least one of the following three standards below to remain listed.

FINANCIAL MARKET VALUE OF LISTED NET INCOME

EQUITY STANDARD
REQUIREMENTS SECURITIES STANDARD STANDARD
STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY $2.5 million -- --
MARKET VALUE OF LISTED
-- $35 million --
SECURITIES
NET INCOME FROM
CONTINUING
OPERATIONS (IN LATEST
-- -- $500,000
FISCAL YEAR OR IN TWO
OF THE LAST THREE
FISCAL YEARS)
PUBLICLY HELD SHARES 500,000 500,000 500,000
MARKET VALUE OF
$1 million $1 million $1 million
PUBLICLY HELD SHARES
BID PRICE $1 $1 $1
PUBLIC HOLDERS 300 300 300
MARKET MAKERS 2 2 2

mayer brown 59
 Appendix 3
EGC and Smaller Reporting Company Disclosure Accomodations
SCALED DISCLOSURE
EMERGING GROWTH COMPANY SMALLER REPORTING COMPANY
REQUIREMENT
AUDITED FINANCIAL • 2 years in a Securities Act registration state- 2 years.
STATEMENTS REQUIRED ment for an IPO of common equity
• 3 years in an IPO of debt securities.
• 3 years in an annual report or Exchange Act
registration statement, unless the company
is also a smaller reporting company.

DESCRIPTION OF BUSINESS Standard disclosure requirements apply. • Development of its business during the
(S-K ITEM 101) most recent three years, including:
»» Form and year of organization;
»» Bankruptcy proceedings;
»» Material reclassification, merger,
sale or purchase of assets; and
»» Description of the business.
• Not required:
»» Seasonality
»» Working capital practices
»» Backlog; or
»» Government contracts.
• Names of principal suppliers.
• Royalty agreements or labor contacts.
• Need for government approval of
principal products and services.
• Effect of existing or probable
governmental regulations.

MARKET PRICE OF AND Standard disclosure requirements apply. Not required to provide the stock
DIVIDENDS ON THE performance graph.
REGISTRANT’S COMMON
EQUITY AND RELATED
STOCKHOLDER MATTERS
(S-K ITEM 201)

SELECTED FINANCIAL DATA Not required to present selected financial data Not required.
(S-K ITEM 301) for any period prior to the earliest audited
period presented in initial registration
statement.

SUPPLEMENTARY FINANCIAL Not required until after IPO. Not required.

DATA (S-K ITEM 301)
MD&A (S-K ITEM 303) May limit discussion to those years for which • May limit discussion to those years for
audited financial statements are included. which audited financial statements are
included.
• Not required to comply with contrac-
tual obligations table requirements in
S-K Item 303(a)(5).

60 Initial Public Offerings

SCALED DISCLOSURE
EMERGING GROWTH COMPANY SMALLER REPORTING COMPANY
REQUIREMENT
QUANTITATIVE AND Standard disclosure requirements apply. Not required, but related disclosure may
QUALITATIVE DISCLOSURE be required in MD&A.
ABOUT MARKET RISK
(S-K ITEM 305)

EXTENDED TRANSITION FOR • May elect to defer compliance with new or Standard disclosure requirements apply.
COMPLYING WITH NEW OR revised financial accounting standards until
a company is not an “issuer”1 as required to
REVISED ACCOUNTING comply with such standards.
STANDARDS • Any decision to forego the extended
transition period is irrevocable.

COMPLIANCE WITH PCAOB • Need not comply with any PCAOB require- Standard requirements apply.
REQUIREMENTS APPLICABLE ments for auditor rotation or auditor
discussion and analysis reports.
TO THE AUDITS OF PUBLIC
• Do not need to comply with other PCAOB
COMPANIES requirements adopted after April 5, 2012
unless the SEC determines the new require-
ments are necessary for protection of the
public.

INTERNAL CONTROL OVER • Not required to provide attestation report Non-accelerated filers, a category that
FINANCIAL REPORTING of the registered public accounting firm. includes smaller reporting companies,
• Not exempt from S-K Item 308(a), but are not required to provide an attesta-
(S-K ITEM 308) tion report of the registered public
newly public company is not required to
comply until it either has filed or has been accounting firm.
required to file an annual report for the
prior fiscal year.

EXECUTIVE COMPENSATION • Permitted to follow requirements for • 2 years of summary compensation

DISCLOSURE (S-K ITEM 402) smaller reporting companies. table information, rather than 3.
• Exempt from principal executive officer pay • Limited to principal executive officer,
ratio disclosure. two most highly compensated execu-
tive officers and up to two additional
individuals no longer serving as
executive officers at year end.
• Not required:
»» Compensation discussion and
analysis;
»» Grants of plan-based awards
table;
»» Option exercises and stock vested
table;
»» Change in present value of
pension benefits;
»» CEO pay ratio;
»» Compensation policies as related
to risk management; or
»» Pension benefits table.
• Description of retirement benefit plans.

mayer brown 61
 SCALED DISCLOSURE
EMERGING GROWTH COMPANY SMALLER REPORTING COMPANY
REQUIREMENT
CERTAIN RELATIONSHIPS Standard disclosure requirements apply. • Lower threshold to disclose related
AND RELATED PARTY party transactions in certain cases.
TRANSACTIONS • Not required to disclose procedures
for review, approval or ratification of
(S-K ITEM 404) related party transactions.
• Additional requirements to disclose
certain controlling entities.
• Required to disclose related party
transactions not only since the
beginning of the last fiscal year, but
also for preceding fiscal year.

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE Standard disclosure requirements apply. Not required to disclose whether it has an
(S-K ITEM 407) audit committee financial expert until its
second annual report following IPO.

Exempt from requirements to disclose

compensation committee interlocks and
insider participation and to provide a
compensation committee report.

RISK FACTORS Standard disclosure requirements apply. Not required in periodic reports.
(S-K ITEM 501(C))

RATIO OF EARNINGS TO Required for same number of years for which it Not required.
FIXED CHARGES provides selected financial data disclosures.
(S-K ITEM 503(D))

SAY ON PAY VOTE UNDER Not required. Required.

SECTION 14A OF THE
EXCHANGE ACT.

SAY ON GOLDEN Not required. Required.

PARACHUTES UNDER
SECTION 14A OF THE
EXCHANGE ACT
PAY FOR PERFORMANCE Not required. Final rules have not been adopted by the
UNDER SECTION 14 OF THE SEC.
EXCHANGE ACT The proposed rules require disclosure,
with certain modifications from the
requirements for large reporting
companies.

REQUIREMENT TO REPORT Standard disclosure requirements apply. Do not need to report unless the amount of
CERTAIN UNREGISTERED securities sold exceed 5 percent of the
number of shares outstanding, rather than
SALES OF SECURITIES ON the standard 1 percent threshold.
FORM 8-K

62 Initial Public Offerings

Appendix 4
Indicative IPO Timetables
PUBLIC SEC REVIEW PROCESS
The following is an indicative IPO timetable. It assumes a public filing of the Form S-1 registration statement as part of the
regular public SEC review process and a reasonably fast overall process. This requires a high level of preparedness by the
company and no material, or unusually extensive SEC comments, following the formal kick-off meeting. A company will
normally have spent significant time and effort getting ready for an IPO before the formal kick-off meeting. See “Getting
Ready” above. While the timeline below gives the impression that certain of the items occur in a short period of time, some of
those items may actually occur over the course of several weeks.

WEEK
• Kick-off meeting
0 • Discuss timing and marketing mechanics

1 • Begin due diligence review

2 • Begin drafting Form S-1

• Continue due diligence

• Continue drafting Form S-1
• Draft underwriting agreement
• Draft comfort letter
3
• Draft legal opinions
• Draft stock exchange application
• Select co-managers/syndicate
• Obtain board approval

• Finalize pre-filing due diligence

• Continue drafting underwriting agreement
• Continue drafting comfort letter
4
• Continue drafting legal opinions
• File Form S-1 with SEC
• File with FINRA

5-6 • Prepare roadshow materials

• Finalize underwriting agreement

• Finalize comfort letter
7 • Finalize legal opinions
• Co-manager due diligence
• Obtain lock-ups

8 • Receive and prepare to respond to SEC comments

9 • Respond to SEC comments and file Amendment No. 1

• File Amendment No.1 with FINRA and respond to FINRA comments, if any
• Finalize free writing prospectus, if any
10 • Finalize roadshow materials
• Update due diligence, as needed

mayer brown 63
 • Receive SEC comments on Amendment No.1
• Finalize valuation, determine price range
11 • Respond to SEC comments and file Amendment No.2
• Print red herrings

• Commence roadshow
12
• Sales force meetings

• Receive SEC comments on Amendment No.2

13
• Respond to SEC comments and file Amendment No.3

14 • Roadshow continues

• Clear SEC
• Clear FINRA
• Clear stock exchange
• File Forms 3
• SEC declares Form S-1 “effective”
15
• Bring-down due diligence call
• Pricing
• Sign underwriting agreement
• Deliver comfort letter
• File 424 prospectus with SEC

• Bring-down due diligence call

16
• Close and settle IPO

64 Initial Public Offerings

CONFIDENTIAL SEC REVIEW PROCESS
The expected timeline under the confidential SEC review process is similar to the timeline for the regular (public) SEC review
process outlined above. However, under the confidential SEC review process, the (public) roadshow for the IPO cannot
commence until 15 days after the registration statement has been formally filed with the SEC. Despite this, if the company
qualifies as an EGC, it and any authorized person acting on its behalf may engage in “test-the waters” communications with
potential investors that are qualified institutional buyers (as defined in Rule 144A) or institutions that are “accredited
investors” (as defined in Rule 501). See also “SEC Registration Process” above.

The following indicative timetable assumes that the company makes its first public filing of the IPO registration statement once:

• The bulk of SEC comments have been resolved through the confidential review process and there is a strong expectation
that it will be possible to complete the review process and finalize the registration statement relatively quickly.
• The underwriters advise the company that market conditions are favorable for a successful IPO and that it is advisable to
commence the roadshow.

The following indicative timetable also assumes that the company makes its first public filing in week 9 or 10 to permit com-
mencement of a public roadshow, consistent with the indicative timetable for the regular, public SEC review described above.
While the timeline below gives the impression that certain of the items occur in a short period of time, some of those items may
actually occur over the course of several weeks.
WEEK
• Kick-off meeting
0
• Discuss timing and marketing mechanics

1 • Begin due diligence review

2 • Begin drafting Form S-1

• Continue due diligence
• Continue drafting Form S-1
• Draft underwriting agreement
• Draft comfort letter
3 • Draft legal opinions
• Draft stock exchange application
• Select co-managers/syndicate
• Obtain board approval

• Finalize pre-submission due diligence

• Continue drafting underwriting agreement
• Continue drafting comfort letter
4
• Continue drafting legal opinions
• Initial confidential submission of draft Form S-1 with SEC
• File with FINRA
5-6 • Prepare roadshow materials
• Finalize underwriting agreement
• Finalize comfort letter
7 • Finalize legal opinions
• Co-manager due diligence
• Obtain lock-ups

8 • Receive and prepare to respond to SEC comments

mayer brown 65
 • Respond to SEC comments and file Amendment No. 1 (FIRST PUBLIC
9 FILING OF FORM S-1 WITH THE SEC)
• Update due diligence, as needed

• File Amendment No.1 with FINRA and respond to FINRA comments, if any
10 • Finalize free writing prospectus, if any
• Finalize roadshow materials

• Receive SEC comments on Amendment No.1

• Finalize valuation, determine price range
11 • Respond to SEC comments and file Amendment No.2
• Print red herrings

• Commence roadshow
12 • Sales force meetings

• Receive SEC comments on Amendment No.2

13 • Respond to SEC comments and file Amendment No.3

14 • Roadshow continues

• Clear SEC
• Clear FINRA
• Clear stock exchange
• File Forms 3
• SEC declares Form S-1 “effective”
15 • Bring-down due diligence call
• Pricing
• Sign underwriting agreement
• Deliver comfort letter
• File 424 prospectus with SEC

• Bring-down due diligence call

16 • Close and settle IPO

1An “issuer” is defined in Section 2(a) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act to mean an issuer whose securities are registered under Exchange Act Section 12, that is required to file reports under Securities
Act Section 15(d) or that has filed a registration statement that has not yet become effective and that it has not withdrawn.

66 Initial Public Offerings

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