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Mobile Computing Unit 1

Unit 1 Introduction to Mobile


Communication and Computing
Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Significance of Mobile Communications
1.3 Applications
1.4 Mobile and Wireless Devices
1.5 History of Wireless Communication
1.6 Simple Reference Model
1.7 Summary
1.8 Terminal Questions
1.9 Answers

1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, you can observe people having communication devices in their
pocket. These devices are not only capable of talking and browsing internet
but are also capable of editing and processing text, video and multimedia.
People who are nomadic demand a communicating device that has multiple
features. People want a mobile network with a wireless link to transport data
to and from their near and dear ones. We need computing devices and
networks that can support mobility.
These days, computers, networks and mobile devices have become a
necessity everywhere. We rely on them for banking, shopping, storing and
sending all kinds of sensitive and important data. The knowledge of mobile
communication and computing would allow us to learn the underlying
technologies that support wireless devices with mobility.
In this unit, you will read about the significance of mobile communications,
about the applications and characteristics of mobile and wireless devices.
You will also read about the history of wireless communication and
get brief introduction about the simple reference model used in
communication.

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Objectives:
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 explain the significance of mobile communication
 discuss the applications of mobile communications
 discuss the various types and forms of mobile and wireless devices
 write the timeline in the development of wireless communications
 describe simple reference model used for communication

1.2 Significance of Mobile Communications


You can observe that a large number of software, hardware and networked
system in this world is contributed by mobile communications. Almost
everyone in this world are subscribers of mobile communications. Most of
the subscribers use mobile devices with internet. There are plenty of mobile
applications that use internet. So there are new possibilities with new
threats in mobile communications that need to be considered. This
technology has fully been integrated into everybody's life almost all the time
and almost anywhere. Hence mobile communication has become a very
significant subject of study.
Mobility can be seen from two aspects. They are (i) user mobility and
(ii) device portability. User mobility means mobility of users and it is due to
the users who communicate through wireless means “anytime, anywhere,
with anyone”. Device portability is due to the mobility of the devices which
can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network.
The terms-wireless and mobile are two different concepts. User mobility
refers to a user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication
services at different places, i.e., the user can be mobile, and the services
will follow him or her. One of the examples of the mechanism that supports
user mobility is simple call-forwarding solutions known from computer
desktops supporting roaming. That is any computer logged into the network
from anywhere can connect to other communicating device and can
communicate.
Device portability refers to the communication device which can move with
or without a user. Such devices in the network have to ensure
communication even if the device is moving.

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As an example, mobile phone system supports device portability where the


device from one radio transmitter (also called a base station) is connected
to the next if the signal becomes too weak and maintains connectivity.
The term wireless is used with regard to the devices. Wireless devices
access a network or other communication partners without a wire. Wireless
communication occurs due to transmission of electromagnetic waves
through ‘the air’ or vacuum. Hence a communication device can be (i) Fixed
and wired (ii) Mobile and wired (iii) Fixed and wireless (iv) Mobile and
wireless.
i) Fixed and wired: This type of devices are fixed in some place and are
connected through wire both for communication and power usage. For
example, desktop communication is fixed to a place and connected
through wires.
ii) Mobile and wired: This type of devices are capable of moving from one
place to another but are connected through wire for power usage and
communication. For example, laptop can move from one place to
another but can be connected to the network via the telephone network
and a modem.
iii) Fixed and wireless: This type of devices are fixed in one place but are
connected to the network wirelessly. For example, in historical buildings
computer systems are fixed in one place and are connected to network
through Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
iv) Mobile and wireless: This type of devices are mobile and are connected
to network in a wireless mode. For example, Personal Digital Assistant
(PDA) is wireless as well as mobile. Today’s most successful example
for this category is GSM with more users increasing day by day.
Due to the nature of devices which may be wireless or mobile, it has
become very important to integrate wireless networks into existing fixed
networks.
Self Assessment Questions
1. Mobility can be seen from two aspects. They are (i) _______________
and (ii) _____________________.
2. A user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication
services at different places is referred to as __________________.

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3. Communication devices which can move with or without a user is


referred to as __________________.
4. Wireless communication occurs due to transmission of _____________
waves through ‘the air’ or vacuum.

1.3 Applications
There are many applications that use wireless networks and mobile
communications and are benefitted from it. Few of the examples of
applications are given below:
1. Vehicles: Vehicles would require wireless communication systems and
mobility aware applications. Music, news, road conditions, weather
reports, and other broadcast information can be received in vehicles
through various modes of wireless communication viz. Digital Audio
Broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. A Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) phone can offer voice and data
connectivity with 384 Kbit/s. Current position of the car is determined via
the global positioning system (GPS). Vehicles can get help of
communication networks with a fixed infrastructure like cellular phones
(GSM, UMTS) and it can be interconnected with trunked radio systems
(TETRA) and wireless LANs (WLAN). Satellite communication links can
also be used in vehicles for communication.
2. Business: In business, communication is required to access company’s
database, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of their
travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. Laptop can be
turned into a true mobile office which is mobile and at the same time
capable of communicating to other devices with instant access.
3. Replacement of wired networks: Wireless and mobile communications
can be used to replace wired network which appears cumbersome.
Wired networks are replaced with wireless networks in places like
historic buildings where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or
floors. Wireless networks can be used for remote sensors, for
tradeshows, or in historic buildings.
4. Infotainment: Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at
any appropriate location. Wireless networks can be applied for the use
of internet through which you can get information about a city; use it as a

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travel guide; entertain through ad-hoc gaming networks etc.


5. Location dependent services: It is very important for an application to
‘know’ something about the location near it so that the user can use the
services available nearby its location. Services that might depend on the
actual location are as follows:
 Follow-on services: An example of this type of service can be the
function to forward calls to the current user location. Other example
of follow-on services can be – you can get the same desktop
environment wherever you are in the world.
 Location aware services: This type of services makes the services
available to the user within its location. For example, printer can be
detected in different places where the user goes, for example in a
hotel, and can print what the user wishes.
 Information services: This service provides information to the
mobile user about the location where he/she is located. For
example, information like ‘restaurant in that location are providing
discount’ can be provided to the user in that location.
 Support services: This services support the mobile devices by the
mechanisms for immediate calculation, state information, cache
contents etc.
Self Assessment Questions
5. The current position of a car is determined via the global positioning
system (GPS). (True/False)
6. Laptop can be turned into a true mobile office. (True/False)
7. The services available to the user within its location is known as
_______________________.

1.4 Mobile and Wireless Devices


There are many mobile and wireless devices available in the market. More
such devices in advanced form would be available in future too. Such
devices are different in terms of size, shape, weight, or computing power.
These devices are advanced in terms of CPU, memory, display, input
devices etc. There are no clear separation between possible device types
(e.g. smart phones, embedded PCs, Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs)
etc.…)

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Let us briefly study some of the devices which are mobile and wireless in
different forms:
 Sensor: It is a very simple wireless device that acts as a sensor
transmitting state information. For example, switch sensing the office
door can be used to send information whether the door is open or closed
to the mobile devices inside the office.
 Embedded controllers: These are complex controllers in any
appliances (for example, keyboards, mouse, headsets, washing
machines, coffee machines, hair dryers and TV sets etc.) and are used
for certain purposes. For example, embedded controller inside a TV set
would mute the TV volume as soon as the phone starts ringing.
 Pager: It is a very simple receiver, a pager can only display short text
messages, has a tiny display, and cannot send any messages. Pagers
can even be integrated into watches. The tremendous success of mobile
phones, has made the pager virtually redundant in many countries.
 Mobile phones: These types of phones are found as basic phone as
well as a smart phone. Basic phones can allow user to call, talk, and
send/receive messages whereas smart phones are available with full
colour graphic display, touch screen, Internet browser and all facilities as
in Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs).
 Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs): These type of devices act as
mobile phones and have simple versions of office software (calendar,
note-pad, mail). The typical input device is a pen, with built-in character
recognition translating handwriting into characters.
 Pocket computer: The next step toward full computers is the pocket
computers offering tiny keyboards, color displays, and simple versions of
programs found on desktop computers (text processing, spreadsheets
etc.).
 Notebook/laptop: Finally, laptops offer more or less the same
performance as standard desktop computers; they use the same
software – the only technical difference being size, weight, and the
ability to run on a battery. If it is operated mainly via a sensitive display
(touch sensitive or electromagnetic), the devices are also known as
notepads or tablet PCs.

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The mobile and wireless devices of the future will be more powerful, less
heavy, and will comprise new interfaces to the user and to new networks.
However, energy supply is still the big problem not yet solved. The higher
the performance of the device, the faster it drains the batteries (assuming
the same technology). Furthermore, wireless data transmission consumes a
lot of energy.
Effects of device portability
Portable devices are mobile and are generally capable of communicating
with wireless technology. The main factors that affect portable devices are:
 Power consumption: Portable devices are power hungry. They have
limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due to limited
battery capacity. Power is consumed mainly by the processor of
devices.
 Loss of data: There is a higher probability for the loss of data due to
defects in devices and the theft of devices. A proper mechanism needs
to address these issues.
 Limited user interfaces: Portable devices need to be naturally smaller
in size and hence there is a compromise between size of fingers and
portability of devices. Portable devices require integration of character/
voice recognition, abstract symbols etc.
 Limited memory: Memory of portable devices are limited when
compared to fixed computers. Alternatives like flash-memory or others
can help to address these issues.
Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks
When we compare wireless networks with the fixed networks, we can
observe both the advantages and disadvantages of wireless over fixed
networks. Wireless networks help in communication even if the user and
devices are mobile within the network. At the same time it has greater
technical difficulty when compared to fixed networks that needs to be
overcome. Fixed networks are better than wireless networks when it comes
to the speed of data transmission and restrictive regulations of frequencies.
Few of the challenges and technical points that need to be considered in
wireless networks are as follows:
 Higher loss-rates due to interference: In wireless networks, there are

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several reasons to higher loss-rates for transmitted data (or higher bit
error rates) when compared to fixed networks. Some potent reasons are
due to electrical engines and lightning.
 Restrictive regulations of frequencies: Signals in wireless networks
need to be propagated within certain frequency band. But frequencies
required for wireless communications are coordinated by international or
national regulatory body due to technical and political reasons. A very
limited amount of frequencies are offered for use in wireless networks.
Hence available frequencies need to be used more efficiently by
introducing new modulation schemes and demand-driven multiplexing
Techniques.
 Lower transmission rates: Data transmission rates are also low when
compared to fixed networks. Data transmission rates are in the rate of
some Mbit/s. Currently, data transmission rates for e.g., 53Kbit/s with
GSM/GPRS or about 150 Kbit/s using EDGE are available. With the
advancement of technology, transmission rates can be improved in
future.
 Higher delays, higher jitter: There are higher delays for connection
setup time with GSM in the seconds range. Several hundred
milliseconds of delay is observed for other wireless systems. Higher jitter
is also observed in wireless systems when compared to the fixed
system.
 Lower security, simpler active attacking: Since radio interface is
accessible to everybody, any technical experts can attack the wireless
system that can give rise to security issues.
 Always shared medium: Wireless networks utilize shared medium like
air. Hence, a secured access mechanism needs to be developed.

Self Assessment Questions


8. Which of the following devices display short text messages, has a tiny
display, and cannot send any messages?

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(a) pager
(b) Mobile phones
(c) Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs)
(d) Embedded controllers
9. Power in a portable devices is consumed mainly by the ____________
of devices.
10. Frequencies required for wireless communications are coordinated by
the international or national __________________ body due to
technical and political reasons.
11. Wireless networks utilizes shared medium like _________ in some
space (area).

1.5 History of Wireless Communication


In the earlier days, people used light, heliographs and flags for
communication. During 150 BC, in Polybius, Greece, people used smoke as
a signal for communication.
In 1794, Claude Chappe introduced optical telegraph for communication. In
1831, Faraday demonstrated electromagnetic induction and J. Maxwell
(1831-79) developed wave equations (1864) for the theory of
electromagnetic Fields. H. Hertz (1857-94) demonstrates with an
experiment the wave character of electrical transmission through space in
1888, in Karlsruhe, Germany.
In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates wireless telegraphy using long
wave transmission with a high transmission power. In 1907, a commercial
transatlantic connections is introduced with a huge base stations. In 1915,
people started using wireless voice transmission between New York and
San Francisco in USA. In 1920, Marconi discovered short waves which
propagate due toreflection at the ionosphere. In 1926, people of Hamburg –
Berlin started using train-phone on the line where wires were parallel to the
railroad track. In 1928, TV is introduced to broadcast news across the
Atlantic. In 1933, E. H. Armstrong introduced Frequency modulation
technique for radio communication.
In 1971, 11000 customers of A-Netzin Germany used analog
communication with the frequency of 160MHz for mobile station.In 1972,
B-Netz in Germany, setup a connection from the fixed network to the

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location aware mobile station.


Specification of Group Special Mobile (GSM) started in 1982 with a goal of
providing roaming for pan-European digital mobile phone system. In 1983,
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was started. In 1984, Europe
provided CT-1 standard for cordless telephones. In 1986, C-Netz in
Germany offered analog voice transmission with the frequency of 450MHz.
C-Netz made hand-over possible, provided digital signaling and was
able to locate mobile devices automatically. In 1991, Digital European
Cordless Telephone (DECT), known as Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunications, provided specification of DECT. DECT worked within
the range of 100-500m with the frequency band of 1880-1900MHz. It offered
120 duplex channels with 1.2 Mbit/s of data transmission and voice
encryption. In 1992, GSM started functioning with digital technology in the
frequency band of 900MHz and was capable of providing 124 channels. In
Europe, it provided location of mobile devices automatically, with hand-over
between base stations and hence was capable of cellular roaming.
In 1994, E-Netz in Germany introduced Group Special Mobile (GSM) with
1800MHz and designed smaller cells. In 1996, HiperLAN (High
Performance Radio Local Area Network) is introduced.In 1997, IEEE
standard for Wireless LAN is developed as IEEE802.11with the frequency
band of 2.4 - 2.5GHz including infrared with the data speed of 2Mbits/s.
In 1998 the Europeans started Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS) as the European proposal for the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) IMT-2000 (international mobile
telecommunications). In the first phase, UMTS combined GSM network
technology with more bandwidth-efficient CDMA solutions. Mobile
communication was started with 66 satellites (+6 spare) as Iridium system in
1999. In 1999, wireless LANs was standardized with IEEE standard 802.11b
which used 2.4-2.5 GHz and is capable of 11Mbit/s data rate. The same
spectrum is used by Bluetooth, a short-range technology to set-up wireless
personal area networks with data rates less than 1 Mbit/s. The wireless
application protocol (WAP) was started at the same time as i-mode in
Japan. Although WAP did not succeed in the beginning, i-mode became a
tremendous success. In 2000, higher data rates and packet-oriented
transmission for GSM (HSCSD, GPRS) was introduced. The year 2001 was

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the beginning for 3G systems. Cdma2000 was started in Korea in the same
year; UMTS was tested in Europe whereas Foma (almost UMTS) was
started in Japan.
WLAN hot-spots began to spread in 2002. UMTS started in Germany in
2003 along with the DVB-T replacing analog TV. Although WiM axis is not
mobile, it functioned as Digital Subscriber Link in 2005 and first Zig Bee
products came out in the same year. HSDPA starts in Germany as a fast
UMTS download version offering data speed greater than 3 Mbit/s in 2006.
In the same year, WLAN draft for 250 Mbit/s (802.11n) using Multiple Input
Multiple Output (MIMO) and WPA2 appears mandatory for Wi-Fi WLAN
devices. The year 2007 saw over 3.3 billion subscribers for mobile phones.
In the year 2008“real” Internet became widely available on mobile phones
with standard browsers with decent data rates.
In 2010, Long Term Evolution (LTE) was available in some cities with new
frequencies allocated to it. LTE is a new Radio Access Network (RAN) with
significantly improved performance and offer peak data rates up to
300Mbps.
Self Assessment Questions
12. In 1915, people started using wireless _______________ transmission
between New York and San Francisco in USA.
13. In 1984, Europe provided _______________ standard for cordless
telephones.
14. This was started in Germany in 2006 as a fast UMTS download version
offering data speed greater than _________.

1.6 Simple Reference Model


Let us now discuss the basic reference model used to structure
communication Systems. Mobile communication is influenced by layered
reference model.
In Figure 1, you can see a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) which is one of
the example of wireless and portable device. PDA is capable of
communicating with a base station. The base station consists of a radio
transceiver and an interworking unit connecting the wireless link with the
fixed link. Transceiver is the device capable of sending and receiving the
data signal. You can also see the PDA communicating with computer in the
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fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Simple network and reference model (TCP/IP model)

In the fig. 1.1, you can see the TCP/IP model which consists of the protocol
stack implemented below each system. PDA and computer in the figure are
the end systems and they require a full protocol stack. Full protocol stack
consists of application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer,
and physical layer. Interworking unit is the intermediate system between the
two communicating devices and do not necessarily require all the layers as
in the end systems. The Interworking unit consists of network, data link, and
physical layers. According to the basic reference model, only entities at the
same level of the protocol stack communicate with each other. That means,
for example, a transport layer is capable of communicating only with the
transport layer, network with network or physical with physical layer.

Let us now discuss the functions of each layer in more detail in a wireless
and mobile environment.
 Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system.
This layer converts stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on

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the sender side. The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the
signals back into a bit stream. For wireless communication, the physical
layer is responsible for frequency selection, generation of the carrier
frequency, signal detection (although heavy interference may disturb the
signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and (depending on
the transmission scheme) encryption. These features of the physical
layer are mainly discussed in Unit 2.
 Data link layer: This layer is used for accessing the medium,
multiplexing of different data streams, correction of transmission errors,
and synchronization of a data frame in the network. You will read more
about it in Unit 3 with different medium access schemes. To summarize,
the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point-to-point connection
between two devices or a point-to-multipoint connection between one
sender and several receivers.
 Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets
through a network or establishing a connection between two entities
over many other intermediate systems. This layer supports addressing,
routing, controls device location and handover between different
networks. You will read about it in more detail in Unit 8 which presents
several solutions for the network layer protocol of the internet (the
Internet Protocol IP).
 Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish
an end-to-end connection. It handles congestion control, flow control
and quality of service in the network.
 Application layer: This layer is situated on top of all transmission
oriented layers. This layer supports service location, multimedia
applications, adaptive applications that can handle the large variations in
transmission characteristics, and wireless access to the World Wide
Web using a portable device. Applications such as video (high data rate)
and interactive gaming etc. are handled by this layer.

Self Assessment Questions


15. Which is the lowest layer in a communication system?
(a) application

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(b) network
(c) data link
(d) physical
16. Transport layer is used in the reference model to establish a/an
_________________ connection.
17. Applications such as video (high data rate) and interactive gaming etc.
are handled by this layer.
(a) application
(b) network
(c) data link
(d) physical

1.7 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important points discussed in this unit.
 User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar
telecommunication services at different places.
 Device portability refers to the communication device which can move
with or without a user.
 A communication device can be (i) Fixed and wired (ii) Mobile and wired
(iii) Fixed and wireless (iv) Mobile and wireless.
 A mobile and wireless devices in different forms are: Sensor, embedded
controllers, pager, Mobile phones, Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs),
pocket computer etc.
 Portable devices are effected by Power consumption, loss of data,
limited user interfaces, limited memory etc.
 In 2000, higher data rates and packet-oriented transmission for GSM
(HSCSD, GPRS) was introduced and the year 2001 was the beginning
for 3G systems.
 According to the basic reference model, only entities at the same level of
the protocol stack communicate with each other.

1.8 Terminal Questions


1. Explain how “wireless and mobile are two different concepts”.
2. Explain any two applications that use wireless networks and mobile

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communications.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks over fixed
networks.
4. Write the timeline in the development of wireless networks.
5. Briefly explain the functions of each layer in the TCP/IP reference
model?

1.9 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. user mobility, device portability
2. User mobility
3. Device portability
4. electromagnetic
5. True
6. True
7. Location aware services
8. (a) a pager
9. processor
10. regulatory
11. air
12. voice
13. CT-1
14. 3 Mbit/s
15. (d) physical
16. end-to-end
17. (a) application

Terminal Questions
1. User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar
telecommunication services at different places whereas Device
portability refers to the communication device which can move with or
without a user. (Refer to section 1.2 for more details)
2. Vehicles and Business can be benefitted from wireless networks and
mobile communications. (Refer to section 1.3 for more details)
3. Wireless networks provide communication even when device or user are
mobile but fixed networks provide a better speed than wireless
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networks. (Refer to section 1.4 for more details)


4. In 1831, Faraday demonstrated electromagnetic induction and
J. Maxwell (1831-79) developed wave equations (1864) for the theory of
electromagnetic Fields. .... (Refer to section 1.5 for more details)
5. Physical layer converts stream of bits into signals that can be
transmitted on the sender side. The physical layer of the receiver then
transforms the signals back into a bit stream. (Refer to section 1.6 for
more details)

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