COORDINATES IN SPACE

A Project Work Report

By

Tilak Neupane

Stream: Science – Section: D9

NEB Registration Number:_________

Submitted to
The Department of Mathematics
Kathmandu Model Secondary School
Bagbazar, Kathmandu,
Nepal
 Declaration

I hereby declare that the report presented in this project report has been done
by myself under the supervision of Mr. Chuda Prasad Pokharel, and has not been submitted
elsewhere for any examination.

All sources of information have been specifically acknowledged by references

to authors or institutions.

Signature:

Name of Student: Tilak Neupane

Stream: Science – Section:D9

Date:
 Subject Teacher’s Recommendation

The project work report entitled ‘COORDINATES IN SPACE’ submitted

by Tilak Neupane, of Kathmandu Model Secondary School Bagbazar ,Kathmandu, Nepal is
prepared under my supervision as per the procedure and format requirements laid by the
Department of Mathematics, Kathmandu Model Secondary School, as the partial
fulfilment of the requirements of the internal evaluation of grade XI. I, therefore,
recommend the report for evaluation.

Signature:

Name of Subject Teacher: Mr.Chuda Prasad Pokharel

Date:
 ENDORSEMENT
We here by endorse the project work report entitled ‘ COORDINATES IN SPACE’ submitted by Tilak
Neupane of, Kathmandu Model Secondary School ,Bagbazar, Kathmandu,
Nepal in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
MATHEMATICS subject internal evaluation of grade XI.

Signature: Signature:

Mr.Chiranjiwee Gyawali Dr.Nagendra Aryal

Department of Mathematics
Date:
Date:
 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance, support and assistance
from many people and I am very fortunate to have received all this all along the completion of
this project. Whatever I have done in this project is the courtesy of such guidance and support,

I respect and thank my teacher, Mr.Chuda Prasad Pokharel for giving me the opportunity to do
the project titled ‘Coordinates in space’. He deserves the utmost credit for the outcome of this
project for he has guided me in each and every step which ultimately led to the completion of
this project.

Furthermore, I owe my profound gratitude to all the teachers of the Department of Mathematics
and the head of the department, who have contributed in this project by providing me with the
details needed on the topic and expanding the horizon of the information in this project hereby
making it more precise and informative.

I would also like to thank all my friends and colleagues Saugat Gurung, Vivid Chaudhary,
Sangam Gautam, Samriddha Hamal, Samyam Yonzon, Yukta Shree Dhital, Swikriti Bhattarai,
Sukriti Lamichhane.Sonbee Bista and Sijal Acharya who have contributed their parts and helped
complete this project as a whole.

I would also like to thank my parents who have been encouraging and supportive throughout my
project journey and also helped me maintain balance between the time to be given for the project
and time for learning and doing assignments.

At last but not the least, I would like to thank the entire Kathmandu Model Secondary School
management for providing us with an opportunity to make a project on such a fascinating topic
which helped us to enlighten ourselves with the topic. It helped me to increase my knowledge
too.
-Tilak Neupane
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page I
Declaration II
Subject Teacher’s Recommendation III
Endorsement IV
Acknowledgement V
Table of Contents VI
Abbreviations VII
CHAPTERI:INTRODUCTION 1.

1.1.Historical Development 1.
1.1.1Background 1.
1.1.2Reason of origin 2.
1.1.3Objectives 4.
1.2 Methods 5.
1.3.Limitations 5.

CHAPTERII:RESULTSANDANALYSIS
2.1 Direction Cosines 7.
2.2 Direction Ratios 8.
2.3 Basic Formulae 9.
2.4 Projection 13.
2.5 Direction ratios and Direction cosines of line joining two points 17.

CHAPTERIII:APPLICATION,SUMMARYANDCONCLUSION
Application 19
Summary 22
Conclusion 23

BIBLIOGRAPHY 24
 CHAPTERI:INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

1.1.1 Background

The very first mentions of 3D geometry are found in the classical texts on early
mathematics by Euclid(325 BC-265 BC). In his series of books titled The
Elements(300 BC), Euclid vaguely discusses the foundational ideas of studying
objects in the material world that do not align with the 2D plane of categories. In
later sections of the text, Euclid studies what he calls “regular solids’(platonic
solids, he discusses the properties of these objects and expands on their
descriptions, mainly on the Tetrahedron, Cube, Octahedron, Dodecahedron, and
Icosahedron, etc, all of which served as bases to understanding the mathematical
nature of 3D objects.

Euclid’s regular solids

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Only after a couple of centuries, notable and comprehensible work was done in the
field, starting from the development of Analytic Geometry which occurred during
the Enlightenment. The development of the 2D plane of coordinates propounded
by French polymath and philosopher Rene Descartes(1596-1650) in his work ‘La
Géométrie’ gave way to several new fields in mathematics.

1.1.2 Reason of Origin

The system of the 2D plane of coordinates was later improved by mathematicians

following Descartes. This improvement led to the synthesis of the 3D coordinate
plane. This achievement provided depth to geometry by expanding its field to the
mathematical study of abstract and complex objects. Following this development,
other mathematicians like Pierre de Fermat(1607-1665) and Leonhard Euler(1707-
1783) worked on the enhancement of subjects under the 3D plane and developed
several concepts and principles of 3D geometry.

3D coordinate plane 2D coordinate plane

2
In the early 1800s, Inspired by the relationship between the algebra of complex
numbers and plane geometry, William Rowan Hamilton(1805-1865) sought an
algebra for the application of three-dimensional geometry. In his thesis, Hamilton
used the properties of 3D geometry to describe vector and scalar quantities, which
led to the development of vector calculus and modern mathematics in general.
Hamilton also propounded the quaternion through the usage of 3D mechanics.

Fig:Hamiltonian Quaternion in 3D space

From the early 1900s 3D geometry gradually expanded its field of study. As The
Industrial Revolution commenced, developments in the fields of technology,
architecture, and machinery were accelerated. Due to this 3D geometry was met
with more practical usage and remains to this day at large a critical school of
mathematics.

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1.1.3 Objectives

1.1.3.1 Objective of the project

After, the completion of this project the students will be able to:

i. Explain the practical applications of three dimensional geometry in

various sectors related to everyday life.
ii. Elucidate the basic terminologies and concepts of three dimensions
geometry with examples.
1.1.3.2 Objectives of development of three dimensional geometry

The objectives of 3D geometry can be enlisted as follows:-

a. To allow description of the position, orientation, and movement of objects in

three dimensions using coordinates and vectors.
b. Facilitate in study the properties of three-dimensional shapes and their
relationships with each other.
c. To define the 3D shapes of the objects like a cube, cone, cuboid, skew lines,
sphere etc.
d. To represent a point, a line, or a plan uniquely in three dimensions with the
use of three axes: x, y & z.

1.2 Methods
4
For the completion of this project, we mainly relied on the secondary sources such
as books, websites and the documents found online including some ebooks.
Primarily, the information of this project is based on websites.

We had visited the websites, used pdfs as enlisted below:

• https://byjus.com
• https://www.wikipedia.org
• https://brainly.in
• https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/lemh205.pdf
• https://www.toppr.com
• https://byjus.com/

1.3 Limitations

1.3.1. Limitations of the study

First of all, it is important to acknowledge that this is a project prepared by the

students primarily with the help of secondary sources. So, it may lack the
simplicity and clarity of the language as it would have if it were prepared by a
professional. Also, the content may be lacking in certain areas as we primarily
relied on secondary sources and had no firsthand experience before the starting of
the project. It is solely based on the information we gathered by surfing about and
researching in the internet about the topic.

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1.3.2 Limitations of three dimensional geometry

Although,3D geometry has been able to address the limitations of 2D geometry

and help contribute in the expansion of field of mathematics it still has some
limitations. Some of the limitations of 3d geometry are:

a. Representing highly complex or irregular surfaces can be challenging in 3D

geometry, as traditional methods may struggle to capture intricate details.
b. It is difficult to visualize objects in three dimensions. This is because our
brains are wired to process information in two dimensions, and we have to
rely on our imagination to visualize objects in three dimensions.
c. It is difficult to represent complex shapes in three dimensions. For example,
it is difficult to represent a human face in three dimensions using simple
geometric shapes.

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 CHAPTERII: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
3-D GEOMETRY AND ITS TERMINOLOGIES
2.1 DIRECTION COSINES
Suppose a line OA makes a certain angles α, β, γ with all the three axes i.e. X-axis,
Y-axis, Z-axis then cosα, cosβ,cosγ are called as direction cosines(dc's) of the line.
They are represented by l, m and n. where;
l=cosα
m=cosβ
n=cosγ
Relation between direction cosines of the line OA is given by:
l2+ m2+ n2 = 1
Also,

cos 2α + cos2β + cos2γ = 1

PROOF:
Let OA= r.
OL
Then cosα = OA
= xr

This gives x = l r ( cosα = l )

Similarly, y = mr and z = nr
Thus,
OA2 = r2

or, x2 + y2 + z2 = r2

or, l2r2 + m2r2 + n2r2 = r2

∴ l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1

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In X-axis: Direction angle made by x-axis with itself it 00 , with y-axis is 900and ,
with z-axis is 900 ( 00 , 900 ,900 ) so,

Direction cosine (1,0,0)

In Y-axis: Direction angle made by y-axis with x-axis is 900 , with itself is 00 , with
z-axis is 900 . (900 , 00 , 900 ) so,
Direction cosine (0,1,0)
In Z-axis: Direction angle made by z-axis with x-axis is 900 with y-axis is 900 ,
with itself is 00 .( 900 , 900 , 00 )
Direction cosine (0,0,1)

2.2 DIRECTION RATIOS

If any three numbers a,b,c (non-zero numbers) is proportional to the direction
cosines (l,m,n) of a line then the three numbers a,b,c are the direction ratios(dr's) of
the given line.
Relation between direction cosines and direction ratios of the line.
2 2 2
l m n l +m +n
a = b
= =± c 2 2 2
a +b +c
1
= ± 2 2 2
( l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 )
a +b +c

a a
l= 2 2 2
=± 2
a +b +c Σa

b b
m= =±
2
2
a +b +c
2 2 Σa

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 c c
n= =±
2
2
a +b +c
2 2 Σa

2.3 SOME BASIC FORMULAE

2.3.1DISTANCE FORMULA
Suppose A and B be two lines in the rectangular axes OX, OY, OZ whose
coordinates are ( x ,y ,z ) and ( x ,y ,z ). Let us draw planes from point A and B
1 1 1 2 2 2
in such a way that the planes will form a rectangular parallelepiped such that AB
will be diagonal.

9
In the given figure:
AH=(x - x1)
2

Similarly,
AD=(y - y1) ,AF=(z - z1)
2 2

We know AHC is a right-angled triangle so by using Pythagoras theorem,

AC2 = AH2 +HC2

=AH2 +AD2 (∵ HC=AD)

=(x 2
- x1) + (y2 - y1)
2
2

In right angled triangle ACB.

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AB2 = AC2 + CB2

=AC2 +AF2

∴ AB = (x - x )2 + (y - y )2 + (z - z )2
2 1 2 1 2 1

∴ r = (x - x )2 + (y - y )2 + (z - z )2 (distance between two points of line is given

2 1 2 1 2 1
by r)

Thus, it gives the distance between the two points of a line in reference to the three
axis.
Furthermore, to find the distance between the origin and the either of the point we
use;

OA = (x - 0)2 + (y - 0)2 + (z - 0)2

Note: Coordinates of the origin are expressed as(0,0,0)

2.3.2 SECTION FORMULAE

Let us consider two points A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2). Consider a point P (x, y,
z) dividing AB in the ratio m:n as shown in the figure given below.

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Let us draw AL, CN, and BM perpendicular to XY plane such that AL || CN || BM
as shown above. The points L, M and N lie on the straight line formed due to the
intersection of a plane containing AL, CN and BM and XY- plane. From point P, a
line segment PR is drawn such that it is parallel to LM.PR intersects AL externally
at P, and it intersects BM at R internally.
Where LNCP and NMRC are parallelograms since their sides are equal to each
other. So, triangle APC and triangle BRC are similar triangle means that the ratio
of their sides is equal.
AC PA
or, CB
= RB
m PA
or, n = RB
m PL-AL
or, n = BM-RM
m CN-AL
or, n = RM-CN
m z-z1
or, =z
n 2 -z

or, m(z - z) = n(z - z )

2 1

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 or, mz -mz = nz - nz
2 1

or, mz +nz = mz + nz
2 1

or, mz +nz = z(m + n)

2 1

mz2+nz1
or, z = m+n

Similarly, in yz and zx plane:

mx2+nx1 my2+ny1
x= m+n
, y= m+n

Thus, the coordinate of R when it divides the line internally

mx2+nx1 my2+ny1 mz2+nz1
R=( m+n , m+n , m+n )

Externally
mx2-nx1 my2-ny1 mz2-nz1
R =( m-n , m-n , m-n )

2.3.3 CENTROID OF A TRIANGLE

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It is the point where the medians of the triangle intersect in the ratio of 2:1.

The coordinate of the centroid is given by

x1+x2+x3 y1+y2+y3 z1+z2+z3
G (x,y,z) = ( , , )
3 3 3

2.4 PROJECTION
The transformation of a point and a line from one plane to another plane by the
connection of corresponding points are called projection. There are certain types of
projection in 3-D space.
They are as follows:

1. PROJECTION OF A POINT ON A PLANE

The projection of a point on a plane is given by drawing a perpendicular
from that point to the line in a plane. It is also called orthogonal projection.

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 2. PROJECTION OF A LINE ON ANOTHER LINE
Projection of a segment of a line on another line is given by drawing the
connecting corresponding points of both lines.
To calculate the projection of line on another line let us consider a line AB
whose projection is to be seen in line PQ. Also, we consider two planes in each
side of the points and we also draw a line AM.

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The projection line on another line is given by (A’B’=AB cosα )

3. PROJECTION OF BROKEN LINE ON ANOTHER LINE

It is the given by the transformation of broken line or non-straight line on
another line.
Let us consider the broken points as A, B, C, …..., J. Their projection will
be the points A’, B’, C’,…......J’ on the line PQ such that
A’B’+B’C’+…..............+I’J’ = A’J’.

4. PROJECTION OF A LINE ON A PLANE

If a line is perpendicular to the plane than its projection will be the point
of intersection on the plane and its direction vector S coincide with the normal
vector N.
If the line is parallel to the plane than its projection will also be parallel to the
plane.
And if the line is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the plane than it will pass
though intersection C and also through the projection B’ which is the projection of
point B onto the plane.

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 5. PROJECTION OF A LINE JOINING TWO POINTS
Let us consider two points A and B having coordinates (x1,y1,z1) and
(x2,y2,z2).

Given,
OT= x
2

OS=x
1

ST= RQ =x -x
2 1

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 RP = r = 2 2
(x2 - x1) + (y2 - y1) + (z2 - z1)
2 (Distance formula)

Let the angle between RQ and MN is θ .

RQ x2-x1
We know, l= cosα = RP
= r

Similarly,
m=y2-y
r
1
n=z2-z
r
1

Condition for perpendicularity between two lines is

cosθ = l l + m m + n n
12 1 2 1 2

x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1

= r
l + r
m + r
n
The projection of RP on MN is

ST=RP COSθ
x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1
= RP( r l + r m + r n)

x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1

=r( r l + r m + r n)

x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1

=r r
l +r r
m +r r
n

= ( x - x )l + (y - y )m + (z - z )n
2 1 2 1 2 1

∴ The projection of RP on MN is ( x - x )l + (y - y )m +
2 1 2 1

(z2 - z1)n

2.5 DIRECTION RATIOS AND DIRECTION COSINES OF LINE JOINING

TWO POINTS

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Let us consider a point A (x and another point B (x . Also let us draw
1,y1,z1) 2,y2,z2)

BD and AE perpendicular to OX. The ΔBCA is a right angled triangle.

OD= x OE= x , ED = AC = x -x
2 1 2 1

AB=r=

2 2 2
(x2 - x1) + (y2 - y1) + (z2 - z1) ……( I )
AC x2-x1
l = cosα = AB = r

Similarly,
y2-y1 z2-z1
m= r
n= r

We get,
l m n 1
=y =z = ( r = (x - x )2 + (y - y )2 + (z - z )2 from I )
x2-x1 2 -y1 2 -z1 r 2 1 2 1 2 1

So (x - x ),(y - y ),(z - z ) are the direction ratios

2 1 2 1 2 1
And
x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1
r
, , r
, r
are the direction cosines of line AB.
Note: The direction ratio of the line OA is (x - 0,y - 0,z - 0)
or (x, y, z)

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 x
x y z
And its direction cosine is AB,AB,AB i.e. 2 2 2
,
x +y +z
y z
2 2 2
, 2 2 2
.
x +y +z x +y +z

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 CHAPTERIII: APPLICATION, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

APPLICATIONS OF 3-D GEOMETRY

In the modern world, with the development of science and technology, it has been
possible to integrate mathematics in various field. The application of geometry and
mathematics is seen widely even in our daily life though we may have not noticed
it. Some of the areas of application of 3-D geometry in our daily life are as follows:

1. Architecture
Three-dimensional geometry plays an important role in deciding the shapes,
sizes, and all strategic and technical decisions while constructing buildings,
bridges, and any other constructions. Infact, there is a separate branch of
geometry which relates architecture and geometry termed as Architectural
Geometry which signifies the intricate relation between Architecture and 3-
D geometry further.

2. Application in Medicine
There are several uses for three-dimensional geometry in the medical field.
The use of 3D printing is among the most well-known applications. Many
medical gadgets, such as those with intricate geometry or features that
correspond to a patient's specific anatomy, are produced using 3D printers.
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 Additionally, clinicians utilise three-dimensional geometry to calculate the
outcomes of numerous medical procedures, diagnoses, and prosthetic and
implant manufacturing decisions. Three-dimensional geometry is used to
account for volumes, areas, and lengths in prosthetic according to the needs
of the human body.

3. Application in Technology
Three-dimensional geometry has a wide range of applications in technology.
One of the most prominent applications is in computer software. It is used to
create the 3D model of the objects which can be used in video games and other
digital media. It is also used in the design of the 3D animation which gives us
thrill as well as in the design of 3D printers. In short, the application of 3D
geometry in technological sector is revolutionising it.

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4. Application of 3D geometry in Astronomy
Three-dimensional geometry is used to measure the speed, velocity,
momentum, direction, relativity and probability of celestial objects and
entities. The use of 3D scanning technology to map the surface of asteroids is
an example.

5. Application of 3D geometry in Aviation

The three dimensional geometry is applied in the checking of the airplanes
and monitoring the air trafficking as well. The condition of the airplanes is
determined by the 3D scanning of its parts and the faulty parts which need
repair are detected. Similarly, if an aircraft goes missing it can also be detected
by the application of 3D geometry.

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 SUMMARY
➢ Direction cosines of line are the cosines of the angle made by the line
with the positive direction of the coordinate axes.
➢ If l, m , n are the direction of cosines of a line then l2+ m2+ n2 = 1.
➢ Direction cosines of line joining two points P(x1,y1,z1) and Q(x2,y2,z2)
is:
x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1
r
, , r
, r

Where, r = (x - x )2 + (y - y )2 + (z - z )2
2 1 2 1 2 1

➢ Direction Ratios are the numbers which are proportional to the

direction cosines of a line.
➢ If l,m,n are the direction cosines and a,b,c are the direction ratios of a
line then:
a a b b c c
l= 2 2 2
=± 2 ,m= 2 2 2
=± 2 ,n= 2 2 2
=± 2
a +b +c Σa a +b +c Σa a +b +c Σa

➢ The distance formula between two points, P(x1,y1,z1) and Q(x2,y2,z2)

is:

PQ = (x - x )2 + (y - y )2 + (z - z )2
2 1 2 1 2 1

➢ The section formula for internal division for A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2,
y2, z2) divided in the ration of m:n by point P (x, y, z) is given by :
mx2+nx1 my2+ny1 mz2+nz1
R=( m+n , m+n , m+n )
for internal division and

mx2-nx1 my2-ny1 mz2-nz1

R=( m-n , m-n , m-n )
for external division.

➢ The point where the medians of the triangle intersect in the ratio of
2:1.is called the centroid. The coordinate of the centroid is given by :

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 x1+x2+x3 y1+y2+y3 z1+z2+z3
G (x,y,z) = ( , , )
3 3 3

CONCLUSION
In a nutshell, three dimension geometry has vast importance and applications in the
modern world. The basic principles of 3D geometry have now become inevitable
in the architectural and medical sector especially as well as the other sectors in the
modern world. From, building houses, designing it to launching satellites, creating
images of our internal organs, the development and application of 3-D geometry
has come a long way. Such vast applications make the 3D geometry quite
important in the modern world.

With the investment of my personal time as well as consistent effort I have

prepared this project work which includes the basic fundamental concepts and
relevant applications of 3D geometry. This project solely aims to make the readers
aware about the various application of 3D geometry in our daily life, some of its
basic concepts and also enable them to express those concepts in their day to day
life. This project has been quite beneficial to me too as while preparing this project
I got to garner the information regarding the history of three dimensional
geometry, its mathematical interpretation and its applications. I hope the readers
will also gain some if not much knowledge from this project.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Algebra and geometry of Hamilton quaternions Govind S. Krishnaswami,
Sonakshi Sachdev
2. https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-wires-white-papers-and-
books/coordinate-system-three-dimensional
3.https://mathigon.org/timeline
4.A History of Mathematics THIRD EDITION Uta C. Merzbach and Carl B.
Boyer
5. https://www.britannica.com/science/analytic-geometry/Analytic-geometry-of-
three-and-more-dimensions
6. https://byjus.com/jee/3d-geometry/
7.https://www.cuemath.com/geometry/3d-geometry
8. https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/lemh205.pdf
9.https://www.toppr.com

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