Iec 60943-2009

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
BSI British Standards
Guidance concerning the per-

missible temperature rise for
parts of electrical equipment,
in particular for terminals
NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW
raising standards worldwide™

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009 BRITISH STANDARD
National foreword
This Published Document is the UK implementation of IEC/TR 60943:2009. It
supersedes BS IEC 60943:1998 which is withdrawn.
The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical Committee
PEL/32, Fuses.
A list of organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on
request to its secretary.
This publication does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users are responsible for its correct application.
© BSI 2009
ISBN 978 0 580 58348 3
ICS 29.020
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from

legal obligations.
This Published Document was published under the authority of

the Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 30 June 2009
Amendments issued since publication
Amd. No. Date Text affected

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
IEC/TR 60943
®
Edition 2.1 2009-03
TECHNICAL
REPORT
RAPPORT
TECHNIQUE
Guidance concerning the permissible temperature rise for parts of electrical

equipment, in particular for terminals
Guide concernant l’échauffement admissible des parties des matériels

électriques, en particulier les bornes de raccordement
INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
COMMISSION
ELECTROTECHNIQUE
INTERNATIONALE PRICE CODE
CODE PRIX CK
ICS 29.020 ISBN 2-8318-1029-8
® Registered trademark of the International Electrotechnical Commission

Marque déposée de la Commission Electrotechnique Internationale
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
–2– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
CONTENTS
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................6
Section 1: General
1 General..............................................................................................................................................8
1.1 Scope and object ....................................................................................................................8
1.2 Reference documents ............................................................................................................8
1.3 Definitions ...............................................................................................................................9
1.4 Symbols ..................................................................................................................................9
Section 2: Theory
2 General considerations concerning the nature of electric contact and the calculation and
measurement of the ohmic resistance of contacts..........................................................................10
2.1 Electric contacts and connection terminals ..........................................................................10
2.2 Nature of electric contact......................................................................................................10
2.3 Calculation of contact resistance..........................................................................................12
3 Ageing mechanisms of contacts and connection terminals ............................................................16
3.1 General .................................................................................................................................16
3.2 Contacts of dissimilar metals................................................................................................17
3.3 Oxidation ageing mechanisms .............................................................................................19
3.4 Results concerning ageing of copper contacts.....................................................................21
3.5 Usage and precautions to be taken in the use of contact materials .....................................24
4 Calculation of temperature rise of conductors, contacts and connection terminals ........................25
4.1 Symbolic representations .....................................................................................................25
4.2 Temperature rise ΔT s of a conductor with respect to the temperature Te
of the surrounding medium...................................................................................................27
4.3 Temperature rise ΔTo o in the vicinity of the contact: temperature rise
of connection terminals.........................................................................................................28
4.4 Temperature rise of the elementary contact points ..............................................................28
Section 3: Application
5 Permissible temperature and temperature rise values....................................................................29

5.1 Ambient air temperature Θ a .................................................................................................29
5.2 Temperature and temperature rise of various equipment components ...............................30
5.3 Temperature and temperature rise of conductors connecting electrical equipment ............38
5.4 Temperature and temperature rise of connection terminals for electrical equipment –
Influence on connected conductors......................................................................................39
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –3–
6 General procedure to be followed for determining permissible temperature

and temperature rise .......................................................................................................................40
6.1 Basic parameters..................................................................................................................40
6.2 Method to be followed for determining maximum permissible temperature
and temperature rise ............................................................................................................40
Annex A Numerical examples of the application of the theory and other data ....................... 42
Annex B Physical characteristics of selected metals and alloys ......................................................... 45
Annex C Physical characteristics of fluid dielectrics ........................................................................... 46
Annex D nformation on the reaction of contact metals with substances in the atmosphere .............. 47
Annex E Temperature rise of a conductor cooled by radiation and convection in the vicinity
of a terminal ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Annex F List of symbols used in this report ........................................................................................ 57
Annex G Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 59
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
–4– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION

__________
GUIDANCE CONCERNING THE PERMISSIBLE TEMPERATURE RISE

FOR PARTS OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT,
IN PARTICULAR FOR TERMINALS
FOREWORD
1) The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising
all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of the IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, the IEC publishes International Standards. Their preparation is
entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested in the subject dealt with may
participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-governmental organizations liaising
with the IEC also participate in this preparation. The IEC collaborates closely with the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by agreement between the two
organizations.
2) The formal decisions or agreements of the IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an
international consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation
from all interested National Committees.
3) The documents produced have the form of recommendations for international use and are published in the form
of standards, technical reports or guides and they are accepted by the National Committees in that sense.
4) In order to promote international unification, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC International
Standards transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional standards. Any
divergence between the IEC Standard and the corresponding national or regional standard shall be clearly
indicated in the latter.
5) The IEC provides no marking procedure to indicate its approval and cannot be rendered responsible for any
equipment declared to be in conformity with one of its standards.
6) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this International Standard may be the subject
of patent rights. The IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
The main task of IEC technical committees is to prepare International Standards. In

exceptional circumstances, a technical committee may propose the publication of a technical
report of one of the following types:
• type 1, when the required support cannot be obtained for the publication of an
International Standard, despite repeated efforts;
• type 2, when the subject is still under technical development or where for any other
reason there is the future but no immediate possibility of an agreement on an International
Standard;
• type 3, when a technical committee has collected data of a different kind from that
which is normally published as an International Standard, for example "state of the art".
Technical reports of types 1 and 2 are subject to review within three years of publication to
decide whether they can be transformed into International Standards. Technical reports of
type 3 do not necessarily have to be reviewed until the data they provide are considered to be
no longer valid or useful.
IEC 60943, which is a technical report of type 3, has been prepared by IEC technical
committee 32: Fuses.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –5–
This consolidated version of IEC 60943 consists of the second edition (1998) [documents
32/142/CDV and 32/148/RVC] and its amendment 1 (2008) [documents 32/187/DTR and
32/188/RVC].
The technical content is therefore identical to the base edition and its amendment and has
been prepared for user convenience.
It bears the edition number 2.1.
A vertical line in the margin shows where the base publication has been modified by
amendment 1.
Annexes are for information only.
The committee has decided that the contents of the base publication and its amendments will
remain unchanged until the maintenance result date indicated on the IEC web site under
"http://webstore.iec.ch" in the data related to the specific publication. At this date,
the publication will be
• reconfirmed,
• withdrawn,
• replaced by a revised edition, or
• amended.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
–6– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
INTRODUCTION
a) The temperature rise encountered in electrical assemblies as a result of the various losses
in the conductors, contacts, magnetic circuits, etc. is of growing importance as a result of
the development of new techniques of construction and operation of equipment.
This development has been particularly significant in the field of assemblies, where
numerous components dissipating energy (contactors, fuses, resistors, etc.), in particular
modular devices are found within enclosures of synthetic materials which are somewhat
impermeable to heat.
This temperature rise results in a relatively high temperature of the basic elements
constituting the electric contacts: a high temperature favours oxidation at the contact
interface, increases its resistance and thereby leads to further heating, and thus to an even
higher temperature. If the component material of the contact is unsuitable or insufficiently
protected, the contact may be irreparably damaged before the calculated useful life of the
equipment has expired.
Such temperature rises also affect connection terminals and the connected conductors, and
their effects should be limited in order to ensure that the insulation of the conductors
remains satisfactory throughout the life of the installation.
b) In view of these problems, this report has been prepared with the following objectives:
– to analyze the various heating and oxidation phenomena to which the contacts, the
connection terminals and the conductors leading to them are subjected, depending on
their environment and their arrangement;
– to provide elementary rules to product committees to enable them to specify permissible
temperatures and temperature rises.
c) Attention is drawn to the precautions to be taken for sets of components when parts are
grouped together in the same enclosure.
The attention of users should be drawn particularly to the fact that the temperature rise of
terminals permitted by particular switchgear standards results from conventional situations
during type tests; these can differ appreciably from the situations met with in practice, which
have to be taken into account, particularly because of the temperatures permitted by the
insulation of the conductors which may be connected to the terminals under normal
conditions.
d) Attention is drawn to the fact that in the relevant product standards, the permissible
temperature and temperature rise for the external terminals are measured during
conventional type tests and therefore they may not reflect the actual situation likely to occur
in normal use.
Suitable precautions should then be adopted to avoid exposure to temperatures that may
affect the life of materials adjacent to the terminals of components.
In this case, it is essential to distinguish the concept of "external ambient temperature"
which prevails outside the enclosure from that of "the temperature of the fluid surrounding a
part" which comprises the external ambient temperature plus the internal temperature rise
due to the parts. These concepts, as well as other complementary concepts such as the
thermal resistance of an enclosure, are dealt with in clause 5 and explained by means of
numerical examples.
In order to facilitate complete calculation, this report links up the temperature of the fluid
surrounding a component to the external ambient temperature by the introduction of the
concept of "coefficient of filling" and gives a numerical example (5.2.3.2) which specifies the
values of the coefficient of filling to be used in several practical cases.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –7–
The quantities involved in calculating contact constriction resistance are subject to wide
variations due to the physical conditions and degree of contamination of the surface in
contact. By calculation alone, therefore, the contact resistance can be estimated to an
accuracy of no better than an order of magnitude.
More precise and more accurate values should be obtained by direct measurement on given
items of electrical equipment, because in practice it is often the case that other incalculable
degradation mechanisms predominate.
This report is not meant to give guidance on the derating of components.
It is strongly advised that the reference literature quoted at the end of this report be studied
before attempting to apply the data to a practical problem.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
–8– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
GUIDANCE CONCERNING THE PERMISSIBLE TEMPERATURE RISE

FOR PARTS OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT,
IN PARTICULAR FOR TERMINALS
Section 1: General
1 General
1.1 Scope and object
This report is intended for guidance in estimating the permissible values for temperature and
temperature rise of component parts of electrical equipment carrying current under steady
state conditions.
This report applies to electrical power connections and materials adjacent to them.
This report is concerned with the thermal effects of currents passing through connections,
therefore there are no voltage limits to its application.
This report is only applicable when referred to in the appropriate product standard.
The extent and manner to which the contents of this report are used in standards is the
responsibility of individual Technical Committees.
Whenever "permissible" values are stated in this report, they mean values permitted by the
relevant product standard.
The present report is intended to supply:
– general data on the structure of electric contacts and the calculation of their ohmic
resistance;
– the basic ageing mechanisms of contacts;
– the calculation of the temperature rise of contacts and connection terminals;
– the maximum “permissible” temperature and temperature rise for various components, in
particular the contacts, the connection terminals and the conductors connected to them;
– the general procedure to be followed by product committees for specifying the permissible
temperature and temperature rise.
1.2 Reference documents
IEC 60050(441):1984, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) – Chapter 441: Switch-

gear and controlgear and fuses
IEC 60085:1984, Thermal evaluation and classification of electrical insulation

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –9–
IEC 60216-1:1990, Guide for the determination of thermal endurance properties of electrical
insulating materials – Part 1: general guidelines for ageing procedures and evaluation of the
test results
IEC 60364-4-42:1980, Electrical installations of buildings – Part 4: Protection for safety -

Chapter 42: Protection against thermal effects
IEC 60694:1996, Common specifications for high-voltage switchgear and controlgear standards
IEC 60721-2-1:1982, Classification of environmental conditions – Part 2: environmental

conditions appearing in nature. Temperature and humidity
IEC 60890:1987, A method of temperature-rise assessment by extrapolation for partially type-

tested assemblies (PTTA) of low voltage switchgear and controlgear
IEC 60947-1:1988, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 1: General rules
1.3 Definitions
Definitions of terms used in this report may be found in the International Electrotechnical
Vocabulary. For the purposes of this technical report, the following terms also apply:
1.3.1
ambient air temperature Θ a
the temperature, determined under prescribed conditions, of the air surrounding the complete
device [IEV 441-11-13]
NOTE For devices installed inside an enclosure, it is the temperature of the air outside the enclosure.
1.3.2
contact (of a mechanical switching device)
conductive parts designed to establish circuit continuity when they touch and which, due to
their relative motion during an operation, open or close a circuit or, in the case of hinged or
sliding contacts, maintain circuit continuity [IEV 441-15-05]
NOTE Do not confuse with "IEV 441-15-06 Contact (piece): one of the conductive parts forming a contact."
1.3.3
connection (bolted or the equivalent)
two or more conductors designed to ensure permanent circuit continuity when forced together
by means of screws, bolts, or the equivalent [3.5.10 of IEC 60694]
1.4 Symbols
A list of symbols used in this report is given in annex F.

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 10 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
Section 2: Theory
NOTE This theory applies to both "contacts" and "connections" as defined in 1.3.2 and 1.3.3. For convenience,
only the word "contact" only is used in this section to cover both applications.
2 General considerations concerning the nature of electric contact and

the calculation and measurement of the ohmic resistance of contacts
2.1 Electric contacts and connection terminals
Electric contact, in its simplest and most general configuration, results from contact
established between two pieces of (usually metallic) conducting material. In the case of
connection terminals, these are the terminal itself and the conductor which is connected to it.
The active zone is the contact "interface" which is the region where the current passes from
one piece to the other. It is in this area that the contact resistance occurs, causing heating by
Joule effect, and it is also where ageing occurs through chemical reaction with the surrounding
atmosphere.
2.2 Nature of electric contact
When one piece of metal is applied to another, contact is not made over the whole apparent
contact area, but only at a certain number of points called "elementary contacts".
The effective total cross-sectional area of these contacts is equal to the effective contact area
S a 1) if the possible presence of impurities is ignored (dust, etc.) at the contact interface.
There is also a fine layer of air or of oxide normally present, the effect of which upon the
contact resistance will be examined later (see 2.3).
In the following, for ease of calculation and for a better understanding of the contact
mechanisms, the simplifying assumption is made that there are n elementary contacts on the
apparent contact area, uniformly distributed, of average constant radius a (see figure 1). The
average distance between these elementary contacts is l.
The effective contact area is then:
Sa = n π a2
──────────
1) For an explanation of the symbols used in this report, see annex F.

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 11 –
IEC 1 286/97
Figure 1 – Illustration of apparent contact and effective contact areas
The contact area S a depends upon how hard the contacts are pressed against each other, i.e.
upon the force applied, the surface state of the contacts, and the hardness of the material
used.
For the forces normally found in electrical technology, the contact area is, in practice, the area
over which the force applied reaches the ultimate strength of the contact material characterised
by the "hardness" of that material.
In fact, the asperities on each of the two surfaces before they are brought into contact and
which are due to previous preparation of the surface are of small dimension (of the order of
1/100 mm) and are crushed even by small forces of the order of 0,1 N.
Assuming that the pressure exerted upon the contact area is equal to the contact hardness of
the metal (H), then the following equation is obtained:
F
=ξ H
Sa
However, this equation applies only for a contact force of F ≥ 50 N, in fact:
F
S a = nπ a ² =
ξ H
where ξ is a dimensionless "coefficient of flatness" dependent upon the state of the surfaces in
contact, usually having a value of between 0,3 and 0,6 for normal forces, but which can be
much smaller after extensive polishing of the contact surfaces against each other.
As a result, the elementary contact radius a is given by the equation:
F
a = (1)
nπξH
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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The number n of elementary contacts can be worked out approximately by the formula:
n = nk H 0,625 F 0,2 (2)
where n k ≈ 2,5 × 10 –5 (SI units)
The above expression gives only the order of magnitude of the number of elementary contacts.
Values of n k can differ significantly from the value estimated, for example between 0,5 × 10 –5
and 30 × 10 –5 (SI units).
2.3 Calculation of contact resistance
Contact resistance is made up of two components:
a) constriction resistance, due to the drawing together of the lines of current as they pass
through the elementary contacts;
b) film resistance, corresponding to the film of oxide or of adsorbed molecules at the interface.
2.3.1 Calculation of the constriction resistance
Consider (see figure 2) an idealised elementary contact of radius a. If the electrical conductors
are large in relation to the elementary contact, the lines of current are hyperbolae with foci
located at the ends of the elementary contact diameter and the equipotential surfaces are
flattened ellipsoids of the same foci.
IEC 1 287/97
Figure 2 – Equipotentials and lines of current at an elementary contact point

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 13 –
The resistance R (a,l) between the point of contact (heavy broken line in figure 2) and the semi-
ellipsoid of major semi-axis l (l being the average distance between neighbouring elementary
contacts and ρ the resistivity of the metal) is equal to half the contact resistance, and is written:
ρ l 2 −a 2
R(a,l ) = arctan
2π .a a
If l is large compared with a, which is the more common case:
ρ
R(a, l )( l / a → ∞ ) =
4a
since the constriction resistance is the sum of both halves
ρ
R( e) = (3)
2a
For an actual contact comprising n relatively widely spread elementary contact points, the
constriction resistance is thus:
ρ
Re = (4)
2na
2.3.2 Calculation of the film resistance
The elementary contact points generally do not have a corrosion-free interface. Indeed, any
initially pure metal surface becomes covered with a molecular layer of oxygen, leading in a few
minutes to the formation of a homogeneous layer of oxide a few nanometres thick. If this layer
is sufficiently compact and uniform, it protects the metal to some extent, the oxidation can then
stop and the metal is "passivated"; this is particularly the case with aluminium and stainless
steel at ordinary temperatures.
For other metals (copper, nickel and tin in the presence of oxygen; silver in the presence of
sulphurous gases), the formation of this first layer of reaction product produced by oxidation or
corrosion slows up the subsequent reaction which nevertheless continues, but more and more
slowly.
For certain other metals (iron), the "oxidation" speed is more or less constant because the
surface is not protected by the layer formed.
The main formulae for surface chemical reactions giving the thickness s formed as a function
of time t and thermodynamic temperature T are contained in annex D for different metals.
They are derived from the general formula:
⎛ w ⎞
s = X ⋅ exp ⎜ − ⎟⋅ t (5)
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
If the activation energy w is expressed in electronvolts, it is necessary to multiply w by 1,6021 ×

10 –19 J/eV. X is a constant and k is the Boltzmann constant.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 14 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
This thin layer of oxide does not present a purely ohmic resistance to the passage of the
current, such as could be evaluated by the formula:
ρ × length
cross-sectional area
The electrons can in fact pass through it by a "tunnel-effect" mechanism.
The "tunnel resistivity" σ o ( surface resistivity ), which is used to characterize the conductive
properties of this layer, is expressed in Ω m 2 ( see table 1 for typical values). Tunnel resistivity
depends on the nature of the oxide (or other products of reaction with the atmosphere) and its
thickness. Its thickness generally does not exceed 10 nm.
If the layer of "oxide" covers the actual contact area S a uniformly, the apparent resistance R i
between the two faces is written:
σo
Ri =
Sa
In the case of n elementary contacts of radius a , the resistance R i , due to the layer of oxide at
the interface, is expressed by the equation:
σo σo
Ri = = (6)
total area in contact n π a2
Table 1 – Typical values of tunnel resistivity
Metal State σo
Ω m2
Copper New 2 × 10 –12 to 3 × 10 –11
Oxidised 10 –10
10 –12 to 4 × 10 –11
Tinned
Silver 4,6 × 10 –13 to 4 × 10 –12
exceptionally up to 2,5 × 10 –11
Aluminium 7 × 10 –11 to 10 –9
The values obtained are low for new contacts. The minimum value of 4,6 × 10 –13 for silver
corresponds to the limit thickness of two adsorbed mono-molecular layers of oxygen, i.e.
2 × 0,272 nm = 0,54 nm.
2.3.3 Expression of the total contact resistance
The contact resistance R c is the sum of the constriction resistance R e (equation (4)) and the
film resistance R i (equation (6)), i.e:
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 15 –
ρ σ0
Rc = + (7)
2na nπa 2
If n and a in this equation are replaced by their values:
n= n k H 0,625 F 0,2 with n k ≈ 2,5 × 10 –5 (SI units)
F
a= with ξ = 0,45
nπξH
we obtain the following expression for R c :
ρ πξ
Rc = H 0,1875 F −0,6 + σ o ξHF −1
2 nk
This formula, applied to the different contact metals, gives the values of k 1 and k 2 shown in
table 2.
If one metal is thinly plated onto another, the hardness must be taken as that of the plating and
the resistivity as that of the base metal.
In the case of contacts of dissimilar metals, the overall resistance is the average of the
resistance calculated using the constants for each metal.
Table 2 – Typical values of contact resistance constants, calculated for relatively clean
surfaces (For substitution in: R c = k 1 F –0,6 + k 2 σ 0 F –1 )
Constriction resistance k 1 Film resistance k 2

Metal
× 10 –6 × 10 6
Copper 90 247
Brass 360 450
Aluminium 130 135
Almelec 150 135
Silver 81 225
Tin 400 22,5
Nickel 420 585
Silvered copper 88 225
Tinned copper 57 22,5
Tinned aluminium 93 22,5
Silvered brass 310 225
Tinned brass 200 22,5
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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2.3.4 Electrical resistance of contacts when new
Tinned copper contacts theoretically show the lowest resistance compared with other kinds of
contacts. However, this is only true provided two conditions are met: the layer of tin must be
sufficiently thin to prevent its resistivity from being involved, and sufficiently thick for the
hardness involved to actually be that of the tin. In practice, the resistivity obtained in the case
of new tinned contacts is comparable with that of silvered copper and slightly less than that of
copper. However, in the case of tinned contacts of the flexible type or those subject to
vibration, account must be taken of "fretting corrosion" phenomena on the layer of tin,
mentioned in 3.5.
Constriction resistance is particularly high in the case of tin and nickel, which rules out the use
of these materials in the solid state.
Film resistance is high in the case of nickel and nickel-plated copper, which may be admissible
in certain cases, bearing in mind the good corrosion resistance of nickel in corrosive
atmospheres (battery rooms, atmospheres containing H2 S etc.).
2.3.5 Measurement of contact resistance
Contact resistance measurement is useful either for development tests or as routine tests to
check production by comparison with a specimen which passed the temperature-rise test.
Contact resistance is usually measured by injecting a d.c. current through the junction (so as to
avoid effects of inductance), and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the junction.
For comparison purposes, it is important to measure the voltage drop at a defined location.
Measuring the contact resistance with a current much smaller than the normal current in
service could give incorrect values, in particular when spring-loaded contacts have been
operating on “no-load”.
In addition, the voltage of the test supply should be sufficient to break down any possible
surface layer, without exceeding the working voltage of the equipment under test. Care should
be taken to avoid errors due to thermo-electric effects.
3 Ageing mechanisms of contacts and connection terminals
3.1 General
The ageing of closed electric contacts not subjected to arc erosion (the case with terminals in
particular) is essentially due to the reaction of the metals with the surrounding environment at
the contact interface.
This reaction can be:
– of electrochemical origin (corrosion): as with bi-metallic contacts having incompatible

electrochemical potentials in the presence of significant humidity (> 50 % r.h.);
– of chemical origin: the oxidation being due to the ambient medium (oxygen in the air,
sulphurous vapours such as H 2 S or SO 2 ).
These two aspects are covered in this report.

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 17 –
In addition, there are thermo-mechanical effects, involving stress relaxation, creep and
dimensional variations, which are also thermally activated, and have the effect of reducing
contact force and increasing contact resistance, but these are not included in this report. This
complex degradation process is in principle difficult to model, because it is dependent on
design and materials of manufacture. For certain devices, for example connectors, the effects
are so complicated and varied, that no general simple temperature-dependent degradation
curve exists.
3.2 Contacts of dissimilar metals
IEC 1 288/97
Figure 3 – Contact between dissimilar metals in the presence of humidity

(water adsorption)
Corrosion of contacts of dissimilar metals M 1 and M 2 will occur if the following conditions are
met:
a) different metals – The difference in electrochemical potential between terminals A and B

before contact must in practice be in the order of 0,35 V or more;
b) presence of an electrolyte – The film of water adsorbed on the surfaces in contact as a
result of ambient humidity can play this role;
c) presence of an oxidising agent – The term "oxidising" is taken here in the general sense of
transfer of electrons, whose presence is necessary to depolarise the cell formed and allow
the passage of current. Ambient air is sufficient;
d) contact closed, in order to conduct the corrosion current.
The potential differences appearing at the contact surfaces of M1 and M 2 in figure 3 with the
contacts open are given in table 3.
Table 3 – Voltages developed on bimetallic junction
Values in millivolts
negative pole
positive pole
Silver 0 150 170 190 190 210 230 250 260 330 470 480 510 560 710 720 770 770 790 1090 1100 1110 1590
Nickel 0 020 040 040 060 080 100 110 160 320 330 360 410 530 570 620 620 640 940 950 960 1440
Monel (30 % Cu) 0 020 020 040 060 080 090 160 300 310 340 390 540 550 600 600 620 920 930 940 1420
Cu/Ni (70/30) 0 0 020 040 060 070 140 280 290 320 370 520 530 580 580 600 900 910 920 1400
Copper 0 020 040 060 070 140 260 290 320 370 520 530 580 580 600 900 910 920 1400
Silver solder 0 020 040 050 120 260 270 300 350 500 510 560 560 580 880 890 900 1380
Bronzes* 0 020 030 100 240 250 280 330 480 490 540 540 560 860 870 880 1360
Red bronze 0 010 080 220 230 260 310 460 470 520 520 540 840 850 860 1340
Brasses* 0 070 210 220 250 300 450 460 510 510 530 830 840 850 1330
– 18 –
Stainless steel* 0 140 150 180 230 380 390 440 440 460 760 770 780 1280
Tin 0 010 040 090 240 250 300 300 320 620 630 640 1120
Sn-Pb eutectic 0 030 080 230 240 290 290 310 610 620 630 1110
Sn-Ag solder 0 050 200 210 260 260 280 580 590 600 1080
Lead 0 150 160 210 210 230 530 540 550 1030
Cast Iron 0 010 060 060 080 380 390 400 880
Mild steel 0 050 050 070 370 380 390 870
Al alloys* 0 0 020 320 330 340 820
Aluminium 0 020 320 330 340 820
Cadmium 0 300 310 320 800
Galvanised Fe 0 010 020 500
Zinc alloys* 0 010 490
Zinc 0 450
Mg alloy* 0
NOTE The above values are for guidance only. More exact values may apply for specific grades of metals and the value specified by the supplier should
be used, if available. Otherwise consult specialized textbooks .
* Typical values.
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Acceptable combinations to avoid corrosion should have potential differences less than
350 mV; the lower, the better.
It can be seen that the potential differences developed between dissimilar contacts of the
principal contact materials are low, apart from silver-tin and silver-aluminium combinations
which should be avoided, particularly in corrosive atmospheres.
3.3 Oxidation ageing mechanisms
Since each terminal or contact in fact consists of the joining of numerous small elementary
contact points, it is here that the corrosion mechanisms operate. There are two processes of
oxidation, both of which may take place simultaneously:
– the side surfaces of the elementary contact points are progressively attacked, reducing the
cross-section of the conducting area;
– the layer of oxide of surface resistivity σ o gradually thickens
These two mechanisms are considered below.
3.3.1 Reduction in cross-section of the elementary contacts
IEC 1 289/97 IEC 1 290/97
Figure 4 – Elementary contact point Figure 5 – Oxidation of an

of radius a elementary contact point
On a non-oxidised contact an elementary contact point of radius a is considered (see figure 4).
The contact surface AA´ contains relatively little air, which is partly expelled by the closure of
the contact, and is sufficient only to produce slight oxidation.
By contrast, the side surfaces such as BC and BĆ´ are exposed to the air and are subject to
progressive oxidation.
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As a result, the elementary contact radius gradually decreases and the contact resistance rises
(see figure 5).
In fact, the reduction in cross-section to which this type of oxidation leads is so slow that
several decades would be needed to bring about a major deterioration of the contact, even at
high temperatures. However, experience shows that this is not so in practice and that another
physical phenomenon must be involved; in fact, it is frequently found that contacts subjected to
current cycles deteriorate more quickly than those carrying a constant current. These cycles
result in differential thermal expansion at the contact area which leads to micro-movements of
the faces in contact with each other.
Because of these small relative movements, which may also be caused by electrodynamic
vibrations or mechanical shock, the contact width AA´ shown in figure 5 may be reduced to DD´
(see figure 6). The surfaces AD and DÁ´ (initially protected) are now exposed to corrosion
and, when the contacts return to their initial position, the non-oxidised region in contact is very
small.
This apparently causes a considerable increase in the effect of oxidation at the point of
contact. The effects of micro-movement are thus equivalent in this case to an acceleration of
the oxidation.
This phenomenon is obviously more serious on electrically closed contacts (see 1.3.2) than on
tightened-down connection terminals.
IEC 1 291/97
Figure 6 – Influence of a relative micro-movement on the oxidation of an elementary contact
3.3.2 Growth in the layer of oxide at the contact interface
The second ageing mechanism is as follows (see figure 7).
It is assumed that, as a result of the contact movements (stress, vibration, shock) and through
diffusion through the interstices of the two surfaces (1) and (2), the oxygen has partial access
to these surfaces and creates an additional film of oxide between the two parts in contact,
which increases the surface resistivity of the layer of oxide at the interface and, consequently,
increases the contact resistance.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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IEC 1 292/97
Figure 7 – Oxidation of the opposite faces of a contact
If the contact surfaces were assumed to be freely exposed to the ambient air, the contact
resistance would very quickly (in a few hours) reach prohibitive values even at very low contact
temperatures. It is clear that the surfaces in contact offer each other mutual protection which
slows down the oxidation speed, the molecules of oxygen in this case only being able to diffuse
very slowly.
3.3.3 Discussion and synthesis of these two ageing processes
The reduction of the area in electric contact and the increase in surface resistivity are two
ageing phenomena which may occur simultaneously.
They depend:
– in general, upon the structure of the contact and the nature of its atmosphere;
– more particularly:
• upon the intensity of the stresses leading to micro-movements, such as thermal stresses
due to the current cycles or to electrodynamic variations and vibrations,
• upon the concentration of the oxidising element in the contact atmosphere.
In practice, it is somewhat difficult to identify the part played by each of these two phenomena,
and the analysis can only take into account one mechanism at a time. However, the results are
so close for each of the hypotheses that it is possible to draw a common conclusion, whatever
the manner in which the ageing of the contact or terminal occurs.
3.4 Results concerning ageing of copper contacts
When the dominant ageing mechanism is oxidation of the copper by the oxygen in the air, it is
possible to construct a mathematical model representing the behaviour of the contacts as a
function of time; a model which can be validated by short duration experimental tests. The
main results which can be drawn from this analysis are given below; in general, it is possible to
separate the influence of the temperature rise due to the actual current flowing between the
contacts from the influence of the ambient temperature (temperature of the fluid surrounding
the contact).
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Other degradation mechanisms can significantly affect the ageing rate. These are not
considered in the following analysis, because they are at present not amenable to
mathematical treatment. The method below can be used in initial paper studies, but it is
emphasized that it is necessary to make developmental tests, because in many cases the other
mechanisms predominate.
3.4.1 Influence of temperature rise
A contact or terminal subject only to aerial oxidation will have its life reduced by one half if its
temperature rise increases by Δ i (K), Δ i being given as a function of the initial temperature rise
(empirical results, such as those in figure 8, assist this estimation). Δ T i is the temperature rise
of the component relative to the surrounding fluid.
In general, when the temperature rise of a contact or terminal passes from a value Δ T i1 to a
value Δ T i2 , the life is multiplied by an ageing factor K i which for moderate differences between
Δ T i1 and Δ T i2 is expressed as:
ΔTi1 − ΔTi2
Ki = 2 x where x =
Δi
(8)
Doubling constant
10
doubling constant
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 10 100 1000
Temperature rise (K)
temperature rise (K)
IEC 1 293/97
Figure 8 – Doubling constant Δ i as a function of temperature rise

(empirical results on copper contacts)
Example: Consider, for example, a copper electrical contact in air having an initial
temperature rise of 35 K. The doubling constant Δ i is approximately 6 K. If we wish
to overload this contact so that its initial temperature rise is 45 K, all other things
being equal, its life will be reduced by a factor
35− 45
2 6 = 0,315
i.e. its life is divided by approximately 3,2.

NOTE It is unreliable to make calculations based upon an extrapolation of these results outside the region of
experimental values.
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3.4.2 Influence of ambient temperature
All other things being equal, a contact or terminal will have its life reduced by half if the
temperature of the ambient medium surrounding it increases by Δ e (K). Empirical results for Δ e
are given in figure 9 as a function of the initial temperature rise.
In general, when the temperature of the fluid surrounding a contact or a terminal passes from
value T e1 to value T e2 , the life is multiplied by an ageing factor Ke which is expressed as:
Te1 − Te 2
Ke = 2 y w here y=
Δe
Doubling constant
14
13
12
11
10
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Tem perature rise of the contact [K]
IEC 1 294/97
Figure 9 – Doubling constant Δ e expressed as the required temperature rise

of the surrounding fluid, as a function of the temperature rise ΔT i
of the contact (contact material: copper, fluid: air)
NOTE It is unreliable to make calculations based upon extrapolation of these results outside the region of
experimental values.
Thus, for this copper electrical contact with a temperature rise Δ T i of 35 K an increase of
Δ e = 8 K in the temperature of the surrounding air will reduce its life by half.
3.4.3 Combined influence of the temperature rise of the contact and the temperature
rise of the surrounding fluid
When the temperature rise of a contact or terminal and the temperature of the surrounding
medium vary simultaneously, the two effects combine and the overall ageing factor Kth is
expressed as follows:
Kth = 2 [x+y] (9)

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3.5 Usage and precautions to be taken in the use of contact materials
Bare copper tends to deteriorate considerably with time and temperature. It is unwise to
exceed 60 °C to 85 °C (value to be determined according to the use of the metal in the
contacts and according to the nature of the atmosphere), and to use this material for contacts
remaining closed for long periods at their rated thermal current (as on incomer circuit-
breakers). In this latter case, silver-plated copper, the ageing of which is slow in non-
sulphurous atmospheres, is to be preferred.
As an interesting example, we may calculate the resistance of copper and of nickel-plated,

tinned and silver-plated copper contacts for a contact force of 10 N and after 1 000 h exposure
to ambient air (for calculation formula: see 2.3.2).
The following values are obtained:
Table 4 – Comparative values of contact resistance
Material Resistance in mΩ
Bare copper 20
Nickel-plated copper 35
Tinned copper 6,8
Silver-plated copper 0,3
From the table 4, the advantages of tinning or silver plating are clear. Nickel-plating only
appears interesting for polluted atmospheres where silver-plating would be unsuitable.
Considering the different possibilities in more detail:

a) Nickel-plated copper is suitable in the case of corrosive atmospheres or high temperature
contacts, a frequent situation in certain power stations or in railway transport.
b) Tinned copper and tinned aluminium are the preferred materials for low voltages. The low
hardness of tin is interesting in so far as it gives low contact resistances. By contrast, it is
not possible to carry out frequent openings and closures on such contacts for fear of
damaging the tin plating. A standard use of tinned metal is found in the contacts of fuses,
the fuse-links of which are replaced (to restore the supply after the fuse has operated)
creating a new contact surface. Special attention should be given when the temperature of
tin exceeds 105 °C, especially when mated with silver-plated contacts, because of the creep
phenomena which occur above this level.
c) For flexible or bolted tinned contacts subject to vibration, a "fretting corrosion" phenomenon
may occur on the tin plating, rapidly leading to the destruction of the contact, even in the
case of low currents compared with the rated current; it may be preferable in this case to
use bare, silver-plated or nickel-plated contacts.
d) Silver is an excellent contact material which ages slowly except in atmospheres with
sulphurous fumes.
e) Aluminium cannot be used unless its layer of insulating alumina is removed by brushing with
grease or by other special treatment recommended by the manufacturer.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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4 Calculation of temperature rise of conductors, contacts and connection

terminals
4.1 Symbolic representations
Figure 10 represents, as a theoretical example, the temperature variation along two conductors
forming a butt contact.
In the case of real contacts (e.g. a conductor leading to a terminal), the temperature variation
along the conductor is generally not symmetrical.
IEC 1 295/97
Figure 10 – Symbols used for the representation of temperatures and temperature rises;
example chosen: butt contacts
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Figure 11 illustrates a practical case of fuses inside a junction box.
IEC 1 296/97
Figure 11 – Temperature and temperature rise along the axis AA´,

in a junction box containing a fuse
Let us now consider the definition of the main parameters contributing to the maximum
temperature Θ of the contact or the component concerned.
This maximum temperature Θ is the sum of the following terms:
Θ = Θa + ΔTe + Δ Ts +ΔTo +ΔTp
where
Θa is the external ambient temperature, the standard definition of which is given in 1.3.1.
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ΔTe is the temperature rise of the air surrounding the contact or component considered, in relation to
the ambient temperature Θ a ; if the component is inside an enclosure, the temperature of the air
surrounding the component will thus be:
Θ e = Θ a +ΔTe
ΔT s is the actual temperature rise of the conductor (temperature Θ s (°C) or T s (K)) in the absence of
the contact. Electrical contacts and conductors are, in the majority of cases, cooled by radiation
and natural convection, and sometimes by forced convection (air speed over about 0,3 m/s to
0,4 m/s, as in the case of overhead lines or conductors installed out of doors);
ΔT o is the temperature rise in the vicinity of the contact; in fact, the heat in joules produced by Joule
effect in the contact resistance is dissipated along the periphery of the conductor, giving a
decreasing temperature distribution as shown in segments BA and BÁ´ of the curve in figure 10.
The maximum temperature rise occurs when x approaches zero;
ΔT p represents a supplementary temperature rise at the elementary contact points, due to the
opening out of the thermal flux lines from the interfaces between the elementary contact points.
The magnitude of this item is generally small compared with the previous ones.
The formulae for these items are given below.
4.2 Temperature rise Δ T s of a conductor with respect to the temperature T e

of the surrounding medium
The temperature rise of a horizontal infinite single-core conductor in free air in relation to the
ambient temperature is expressed by the general relationship:
ΔTs =
[( Te + ΔTs − 273,15) α + 1] Ro I 2 + rϕ s S r
(10) [Ref.3]
4
( Te + ΔTs ) − Te 4 λ
Bl σε + Nu
ΔTs Dh
NOTE All these temperatures T are expressed on the Kelvin scale.
The dimensionless Nusselt number N u used in the above formula depends upon the method of
cooling.
With natural convection, for the general case of indoor contacts and terminals, we have:
N u = 0,8 (Gr Pr ) 0,05 + 0,35 (Gr Pr ) 0,27 (11a)
where
M 2 βgCp Dh 3ΔTs
Gr Pr = (11b)
μdλ
In general, the temperature rises calculated from equation (10) are proportional to a power
between 1,5 and 2 of the current I , dependent upon surface conditions. (An average value of
1,67 is used in some illustrative calculations below.)
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With forced convection, which is the case with outdoor type contacts and terminals such as line
or substation connections, the following equation shall be used:
N u = 0,65 RE 0,2 + 0,23 RE 0,61 (12a)
where
MνDh
RE = (the Reynolds number) (12b)
μd
The temperature rises are then proportional to the square of the current. For the numerical
calculation of Δ T s it is noted that this term is also in both sides of the equation; its solution is
achieved by successive approximations from any value taken for Δ T s . The convergence is very
rapid and a few repetitions are generally sufficient to obtain Δ T s to within at least 1 K.
The numerical values to be used in the calculations are shown in annexes B and C.
M 2 β gC
NOTE 1 In the calculation of the product G r P r , the quantity p depends only upon the fluid (and upon g)
μdλ
and can be expressed, for atmospheric air, by the approximate experimental formula [Ref.3]:
3,912 × 10 19 (273,15 + Θ e ) –4,69
M
NOTE 2 Similarly, in calculating the Reynolds number, the quantity can be expressed by the relationship:
μd
1,644 × 10 9 (273,15 + Θ e ) –1,78
4.3 Temperature rise Δ T o in the vicinity of the contact: temperature rise of connection
terminals
The equations relating to cooling by radiation and natural convection are given in annex E.
4.4 Temperature rise of the elementary contact points
Finally there is an additional temperature rise at the elementary contacts, due to the opening
out of the lines of thermal flux from the interface of the elementary contacts. The value of this
term is generally low compared with the previous ones; it is expressed as:
I2 ⎛ ρ σ ⎞
ΔTp = ⎜ 2 + 3o ⎟ (13) [Ref.1]
2π 2 n 2 λ c
⎝ 4a a ⎠
where
F
a=
nπξH
n = nk H 0,625 F 0,2
nk = 2,5 × 10−5 (SI units)
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Section 3: Application
5 Permissible temperature and temperature rise values
5.1 Ambient air temperature Θ a
The definition of ambient air temperature is found in 1.3.1. Distribution of ambient air
temperatures are published in IEC 60721-2-1.
NOTE For heated indoor installations (assuming that the switching threshold of thermostats is set at 10 °C) the
mean annual temperature would be approximately 15 °C. These values, especially the mean annual value, are
particularly useful in estimating correctly the ageing of contacts.
Values to be considered:
For the overall installation, apart from "extremely warm dry climates", the normal ambient
temperature condition Θ an often considered in the IEC standards is as follows:
a) the ambient temperature does not exceed 40 °C. Moreover, some national standards state
that the annual average does not exceed 20 °C;
b) minimum values are also considered in product standards, but are not of importance with
regard to permissible temperature rise;
c) the above temperature limits apply at altitudes not exceeding 2 000 m. At altitudes
exceeding 2 000 m the following observations apply:
If an air-cooled unit is to be used at an altitude between 2 000 m and 4 000 m, the
temperature rises measured during a normal test at an altitude below 2 000 m shall not
exceed those in table 6 reduced by 1 % for every 100 m in excess of 2 000 m in altitude of
the site of the installation. This correction is generally unnecessary because the higher
temperature rise at altitude due to the reduced cooling effect of the air is compensated by
the reduced maximum ambient temperature at altitude (see table 5). Consequently the final
temperature is relatively unchanged at a given current.
Table 5 – Maximum ambient air temperature
Altitude Maximum ambient air temperature

m °C
0 – 2 000 40
2 000 – 3 000 30
3 000 – 4 000 25
d) remark concerning solar radiation:

In the case of units for outdoor installation, the effects of solar radiation must be taken into
account and appropriate measures taken if necessary (roofing protection, forced ventilation,
etc.); this does not mean that the unit concerned can continuously conduct its nominal
thermal current under all sunlight conditions without certain heating limits being exceeded.
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5.2 Temperature and temperature rise of various equipment components
5.2.1 Factors on which temperature rise values are based
The values given in table 6 are applicable to equipment operating at steady-state operating at
continuous rating. They have been assessed as follows.
a) For the permissible temperature rises (see table 6, column A):

– either from long duration tests corresponding to a normal life of about 20 to 40 years, and
hence from the values confirmed by experience;
– or from short duration tests at high rating, the lifetime at normal rating having been
deduced from the rules of ageing defined in 3.4.1 and 3.4.2.
In this case, the mean temperature Θ e of the air surrounding the component corresponds
to the standard mean ambient temperature Θ an of 20 °C.
b) For the maximum temperatures not to be exceeded (see table 6, column B), consideration
of the properties of the materials and components (for example, creep of tin at over 105 °C),
the ambient temperature to be taken into account is the maximum temperature Θ an of
40 °C.
The considered values are only given as indications and as a starting point. For a more precise
determination it is necessary to take into account:
– the operating conditions (continuous, cyclic, for 8 h, etc.) and the thermal time constants of
the components;
– the special operating modes (bimetallic strips which can attain high temperatures, contacts
close to fuses, etc.);
– the type of installation (inside one or more enclosures);
– ambient temperature ranges different from those defined in 5.1 (e.g. tropical zones with
ambients possibly up to 50 °C);
– the methods of use, and in particular of the conductor-terminal connections.
5.2.2 Maximum temperatures and permissible temperature rises
It is necessary to distinguish between two groups of values:
Column A
– Those corresponding to components susceptible to ageing, but whose rapid destruction

temperature is high; for example, the temperature rise of copper contacts is limited to 35 K
even though they can withstand a temperature of almost 150 °C without immediate
destruction. It is evident that in this case the ambient temperature to be used is the mean
temperature during the life of the component, i.e. 20 °C in most cases.
– For components subject to ageing such as contacts, the period of normal life will therefore
depend upon the temperature rise specified in the standards, and on a temperature Θ e of
20 °C of the medium surrounding the component.
Column B
– Those corresponding to components whose temperature must not exceed a certain value,
otherwise very rapid, if not immediate, destruction will occur: in this case, the ambient
temperature to be taken into account is 40 °C. This applies for example to certain insulation
materials, tinned contacts (creep point of tin: 105 °C), springs, etc.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Table 6 below gives typical values used in switch- and fuse-gear standards, making the
distinction between the maximum permissible temperature rise at Θ c = Θ an = 20 °C and the
maximum permissible temperature for Θ an = 40 °C.
For individual items of equipment the values may be slightly different, due to the special needs
of each individual item. For precise values, reference should be made to the appropriate
product standard.
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Table 6 – Typical values of temperature rise and temperature limits*
Column A Column B
Maximum Maximum
Description of component temperature temperature Remarks
rise K u °C
( Θ an = 20 °C) ( Θ an = 40 °C)
Spring Copper and copper alloys

contacts uncoated
– in OG t 35 p
– in NOG t 75 q
– in oil 40
Tinned in OG, NOG t , oil b e 50
Nature of Silver- b, s or nickel-plated b

contact a, c, e – in OG t or NOG t 75 q
– in oil 50
For contactors, in oil 105 Deterioration of the oil
Bolted Copper, aluminium, and their
connections alloys, uncoated
– in OG t 60 q
– in NOG t 75 q
Tinnedb in OG or NOGt , 105 Creep point of tin
Silver- b, s or nickel-plated b
– in OG or NOG t 75 q
– in oil 100 Deterioration of the oil
For contactors, in oil 105 Deterioration of the oil
Terminals d, f,r To be connected to exterior
conductors by screws or bolts
Uncoated 60 q
Tinned b 105 Creep point of tin
Silver- or nickel-plated b 75 q
g, h
Other contact materials
Metallic parts In contact with Insulation class i : Ageing of insulation
Y 90
A 105
E 120
B 130
F 155
H 180
enamel: oil base 100
synthetic 120
j
acting as springs at position of a Permanent deterioration
tin soldering 100 k Breaking
Oil for oil-immersed switchgear l, m 90 Deterioration of the oil

All parts which are metallic or of insulating material in contact with
oil, except for contacts m 100
n
Electric motors and resistance
Manual control components IEC 60364-4-42 :1980

– metallic 55
– non-metallic 65
Surfaces o Expected to be touched in normal operation but not
to be held continuously in the hand
– metallic 70
– non metallic 80
Accessible, but not designed to be touched in
normal operation
– metallic 80
– non metallic 90
* For notes, see following page.

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NOTES
a For connection units in vacuum, the limit values of temperature and temperature rise do not apply to the
components in the vacuum. The other components must not exceed the temperature and temperature rise
values given in Table 6. Maximum acceptable temperature rises in NOGt are the same for silver-plated or
nickel-plated copper as for bare copper, because of the absence of oxygen.
b The following are considered as silver contacts: solid silver contacts, contacts with inlaid
silver strips, silver-plated contacts. In general, for all plated metals, the quality of the
plating must be such that a protective layer remains in the contact zone:
1) after the making and breaking tests (if any);
2) after the permissible short period current test;
3) after mechanical test,
in accordance with the correct specification for each material. If not, the contact must be considered as “bare”.
For nickel-plated contacts, the contact resistance and contact life will be equivalent to those of silver if the
temperature rise is kept within the prescribed limits. This can be achieved by higher contact forces, for
example.
c When engaging parts have different coatings, or one part is of bare metal, the permissible temperatures and
temperature rises shall be:
1) for spring-contacts, those of the surface material having the lowest value permitted in Table 6;
2) for bolted connections, those of the surface material having the highest value permitted in Table 6.
d Values of the tightening torque for screws are given in the appropriate product standard, for example Table IV
of IEC 60947-1:1988.
e For fuses, the temperature rise to be considered can be increased to take into account the proportion of heat
from the fuse element transmitted by conduction to the contacts. Refer to the appropriate specifications for
these components.
f The temperature and temperature rise values are valid even if the conductor connected to the terminals is not
protected by a covering.
g When materials other than those shown in Table 6 are used, their properties shall be taken into consideration.
h Limited by the necessity of not damaging surrounding parts.
i The classification of insulation is given in IEC 60085:1984.
j Temperature shall not reach such a value that the elasticity of the material is reduced.
k This applies when soldering is the main method of joining the two parts; otherwise, this limit may be increased
to 110 °C.
l The measurement must be made in the upper part of the oil.
m It is recommended that particular attention be paid to questions of vaporisation and oxidation when using oil
with a low flash-point.
n Regulations in force.
o For manual control components located inside enclosures which are accessible upon opening the enclosure,
and which are not used frequently, higher temperatures may be allowed.
The distinction between metallic and non-metallic surfaces depends on the thermal conductivity of the surface.
Coats of paint and varnish are not considered to modify the thermal conductivity of the surface. On the other
hand, certain plastic coatings can noticeably reduce the thermal conductivity of a metallic surface and allow it
to be considered as non-metallic.
This rule does not apply to materials which comply with standards which state that the temperature or
temperature-rise limits for accessible surfaces are fixed.
p This limit can be increased to:
45 K – for low voltage supply equipment downstream from meter boxes or rising mains;
– for contactors operating on continuous service.
65 K – for contactors operating on 8 h, intermittent or temporary service, where conditions of use are those
permitted in the appropriate product standards.
q Limited by the necessity of causing no damage to adjacent parts and in particular to the insulation in contact.
r For terminals intended for connection to insulated conductors, see 5.3.2.
s For some low-voltage industrial equipment, the temperature rise is limited only by the need not to damage
surrounding parts.
t NOG = Not oxidizing gas; OG = Oxidizing gas.
u Higher values can be admitted, respecting in any case Note q, if:
– products standards admit higher values,
or
– manufacturers can prove a correct long term ageing behaviour of the contacts. In this case, agreement on
the acceptable values should be reached between the user and the manufacturer.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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5.2.3 The influence of variations in the temperature of the medium surrounding

the component
If the temperature Θ e in the immediate vicinity of a component varies:
– either due to use in a climate different from that defined in 5.1.1,

– or due to the unit being used inside an enclosure,
it is necessary to take into account:
– either new permissible temperature-rise values,

– or a new rated thermal current value.
The new values shall be established by taking into account:
a) those components the maximum temperatures of which shall not be exceeded (see table 6,
column B);
b) those components the maximum temperature rise of which may be exceeded on condition
that there is an acceptable increase in the allowable ageing (see table 6, column A).
The following hypotheses lead up to equation (14):
– temperature rises are proportional to a power p of the current, between 1,5 and 2,0
dependent upon the emissivity of the surface (cooling by radiation and natural convection 1) ;
an average value of 1,67 has been used in certain calculations in this document;
– in one case considered , the rate of ageing of the contacts was multiplied by two if the
temperature rise Δ T i increased by 6,5 K;
– in the case considered, the rate of ageing was multiplied by two if the mean temperature Θ e
of the medium surrounding the contact increases by 8,5 K.
In other words, 1 h of operation at ambient Θ e with temperature rise Δ T i represents Kth hours of
operation under normal conditions Θ an , Δ T n , Kth being given by the formula:
Θ e −Θ an ΔTi − ΔTn
+
8,5 6,5
K th = 2 (14)
A numerical example in annex A using equation (14) illustrates that the effect of a short period
of overtemperature cannot be compensated by running for a similar period at reduced load at a
lower temperature.
5.2.3.1 The condition where the unit contains components, the maximum permissible
standard temperature Θ n of which may be attained with a maximum ambient
temperature Θ an of 40 °C.
In this case, for any higher ambient temperature Θ a , the rated thermal current I' th of the unit
shall be such that:
1
Θn − Θa p
I ' th = I th if Θ a > 40 ° C (15)
Θ n − 40
where 1,5 < p < 2,0 depending on the emissivity of the surface.
──────────
1) With radiation and forced convection the temperature rises are roughly proportional to the square of the current.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Numerical values of C th are given in table 7 for a variety of ambient temperatures and
maximum permissible temperatures, taking a nominal value of p =1,67.
Table 7 – Correction factors (C th ) for rated current
Θn
(°C)
55 65 70 75 80 90 100 105
Θa
(°C)
45 0,78 0,87 0,90 0,91 0,92 0,94 0,95 0,95
50 0,52 0,74 0,78 0,82 0,84 0,87 0,90 0,90
55 0,00 0,58 0,66 0,71 0,75 0,81 0,84 0,85
The temperature Θ n to be used is the maximum permissible temperature of the component

having the lowest value in the specifications for the unit considered; it is obvious that the
choice shall be made taking into account the main components of the unit and not the
ancillaries (push-buttons, accessible parts which can be touched, etc.) for which special
precautions can be taken.
5.2.3.2 Where the unit is enclosed; assuming as previously that the unit contains
components, the maximum permissible temperature Θ n of which can be attained
with Θ a = 40 °C.
If the unit is put into an enclosure, the temperature of the air inside the enclosure being Θ e the
maximum current I´ th in continuous service will be:
1
Θ − Θe p
I ' th = I th n if Θ e > 40 ° C (16)
Θ n − 40
Consideration of Θ e :
Θ e depends upon ambient temperature Θ a outside the cell (generally measured 1 m from the
walls), on the thermal power transmitted by internal heat sources by radiation and convection,
and on the ventilation of the cell.
For an enclosure with little or no ventilation the following relation between Θ e and Θ a can be
admitted:
Θe = Θa + X ΔΘ
where
Δ Θ is the temperature difference between the higher sources of heat and ambient air
temperature Θ a ;
X is a filling coefficient representing the concentration of the material within the
enclosure.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Experience shows that important heat sources (busbars, fuses) generally reach 100 °C and
that X = 0,25 corresponding to normal filling and leading to an air temperature rise of the
enclosure of 20 K with respect to the ambient temperature.
Hence, in these conditions:
Θ e = Θ a + X (100 – Θ a ), X being equal to = 0,25
From the above hypotheses the correction factor C th is calculated. The rated current ( I´ th ) for
using this unit in an enclosure may be obtained from:
I´ th = C th x I th
where
1
⎛ Θ − (1 − X ) Θ a − 100 X ⎞ p
C th = ⎜⎜ n ⎟
⎟ (17)
⎝ Θ n − 40 ⎠
Tables 8 and 9 give values of correction factor C th , as a function of Θ n and Θ a , for X = 0,25
and for X = 0,3 taking a nominal value for p = 1,67.
Table 8 – Nominal current correction coefficient (C th ) with X = 0,25
Θn
(°C)
55 65 70 75 80 90 100 105
Θa
(°C)
0 1,52 1,33 1,28 1,24 1,21 1,17 1,14 1,13

10 1,28 1,17 1,14 1,12 1,11 1,09 1,07 1,07
20 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
30 0,66 0,81 0,84 0,87 0,88 0,91 0,92 0,93
40 – 0,58 0,66, 0,71 0,75 0,81 0,84 0,85
45 – 0,44 0,56 0,63 0,68 0,75 0,80 0,82
50 – 0,25 0,44 0,54 0,61 0,70 0,75 0,77
55 – – 0,29 0,44 0,53 0,64 0,71 0,73
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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It is also convenient to use the lowest value of Θ n corresponding to the unit considered in the
relevant product standard, to the exclusion of minor components whose maximum permissible
temperatures are low (pushbuttons, accessible surfaces, etc.) which shall be protected by other
means.
NOTE 1 For a very full enclosure, as found particularly in LV, X = 0,3 can be taken, which gives:
Table 9 – Nominal current correction coefficient (C th ) with X = 0,3
Θa
(°C)
55 65 70 75 80 90 100 105
Θn
(°C)
0 1,36 1,22 1,19 1,16 1,14 1,12 1,10 1,09
10 1,12 1,07 1,06 1,05 1,04 1,04 1,03 1,03
20 0,83 0,90 0,92 0,93 0,94 0,95 0,96 0,96
30 0,45 0,71 0,76 0,80 0,82 0,86 0,89 0,89
40 – 0,47 0,58, 0,65 0,70 0,77 0,81 0,82
45 – 0,31 0,47 0,56 0,63 0,71 0,77 0,79
50 – 0,00 0,34 0,47 0,56 0,66 0,72 0,75
55 – – 0,17 0,36 0,47 0,60 0,69 0,71
NOTE 2 The correction factor C th should be systematically applied only when the actual current value for which
the permissible temperature Θ n is obtained is not known. This current value can be higher than the rated current of
the unit.
5.2.3.3 Where the unit contains components whose maximum permissible temperature
is not attained for Θ a = 40 °C
In this case, if the average ambient temperature exceeds 20 °C for long periods, it is possible
to increase the maximum permissible temperature rises without the ageing of the components
concerned being appreciably increased.
Recalling that, all other things being equal:
– the ageing rate of these copper contacts is multiplied by two if the temperature rise Δ T e
increases by 6,5 K;
– the ageing rate is multiplied by two if the temperature Θ e increases by 8,5 K;
– the total temperature rise Δ T comprises the temperature rise Δ T e of the internal atmosphere
plus the temperature rise Δ T i of the component considered in relation to that atmosphere.
Thus the following equation is obtained
ΔT = ΔT e + ΔT i
If ΔTe increases and becomes ΔTé for example, it is necessary to decrease ΔTi to a value ΔTí.
This decrease is less than the increase ΔTe, so that the new value of ΔT, ΔT´ = ΔTé + ΔTí may
finally be increased.
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A numerical example in annex A calculates the acceptable increase in total temperature rise of
a contact when operating in an enclosure at a higher internal ambient temperature.
5.3 Temperature and temperature rise of conductors connecting electrical equipment
5.3.1 Recommended connecting conductors for temperature rise tests
In principle, the connecting conductors shall be arranged and connected up as in normal

service and their cross-sectional area shall be such that no additional heating or cooling is
caused to components of the equipment being tested (notably their connection terminals).
Recommendations for suitable conductors for temperature rise tests can be found in the
relevant product standard.
For more general rules for calculating the temperature of the air surrounding the contacts in an
enclosure, see appropriate product standards (e.g. IEC 60890).
5.3.2 Temperature rise and its effect on organic insulating materials. Thermal ageing
Most organic materials deteriorate when heated. The amount of deterioration depends on the
absolute value of the temperature and the time of exposure at that temperature.
It has been shown that the rate of deterioration within a temperature range appropriate for the
material may be expressed as a logarithmic function of the reciprocal of absolute temperature
in accordance with the Arrhenius law for chemical rate of reaction:
A
log (insulation life) = A' +
( 273 + Ti )
where A and A' are constants for a specific degradation reaction and T i is insulation
temperature in degrees Celsius.
Where more than one degradation process exists, the equation will be more complicated.
Established types of insulating materials have been classified on the basis of long operating
experience but in recent times a wide range of polymers have been introduced and used.
An Arrhenius thermal deterioration curve for any material of specific composition may be
determined by the procedures described in IEC 60216-1 and the life established.
The following should be noted:
a) the characteristics of polymers are determined by their composition. To ensure that the
characteristics of the polymer are maintained, control needs to be ensured throughout the
production process and only chemicals with known composition used;
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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b) the deterioration process of a polymer can be affected by materials with which it is in

contact and the shape of the object to which the polymer is applied. It is recommended that
experiments made to determine the Arrhenius curve for insulating materials should be made
using appropriate samples, e.g. lengths of insulated-coated busbars;
c) temperature and moisture content can affect the mechanical properties of some types of
polymeric insulation. Some are flexible at high temperatures when they can withstand
mechanical shocks, whereas at lower temperatures the same materials can be brittle and
crack when subjected to mechanical shocks such as those associated with short-circuits;
d) account should be taken of any annealing of the conductor during the moulding or curing of
the polymer;
e) insulation life may also be affected by mechanical stress, vibration and environmental
effects.
5.3.3 Busbars placed in parallel
When several bars are placed in parallel, the apparent overall resistivity increases, due to the
skin effect and the effect of proximity of alternating current.
Table 10 gives typical values of the coefficient by which to multiply the permitted 50 Hz to
60 Hz current flowing in a single busbar, in order to obtain the permitted current in a multiple
bar, made up of several elementary bars on edge, for the same temperature rise in both cases.
Table 10 – Correction coefficients; bars edgewise in parallel spacing

approximately equal to bar thickness
Dimensions in millimetres
Size of bars
No. of bars Thickness Thickness Thickness Thickness

in parallel
50 mm 80 mm 100 mm 160 mm
6,3 10 6,3 10 16 6,3 10 16 6,3 10 16
2 1,77 1,72 1,72 1,65 1,61 1,70 1,60 1,50 1,60 1,49 1,45
3 2,27 2,25 2,24 2,12 2,03 2,17 2,02 1,90 2,02 1,95 1,80
4 2,93 2,70 2,69 2,60 2,42 2,64 2,40 2,24 2,40 2,20 2,10
NOTE Similar tables covering other sizes are available from the International Copper Development Association,
and for aluminium from the suppliers of aluminium busbars.
5.4 Temperature and temperature rise of connection terminals for electrical equipment –
Influence on connected conductors
5.4.1 Useful formulae resulting from the above theory
The theory concerning temperature rise of terminals is given in clause E.1.

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However, the equations for the case most frequently encountered - cooling by radiation and
natural convection as given in E.1 – are generally too complex for practical application unless
computer modelling is employed, e.g. as given in E.2.
5.4.2 Numerical examples
Examples of numerical application of Section 3 are given in annex A.
6 General procedure to be followed for determining permissible temperature

and temperature rise
For a given piece of equipment it is normal to try to determine its optimum conditions of use as
a function of its own characteristics and working conditions: environment, current, rating and
duty.
6.1 Basic parameters
The basic parameters to be taken into account for use of the equipment are as follows:
– the rated characteristics of the equipment as defined in its reference standard;

– the service rating of the equipment (continuous, intermittent, etc., as defined in the
appropriate product standard) and possibly its expected life;
– the environmental conditions: is the component in question in a hot atmosphere, inside one
or more enclosures? Is the ambient medium polluted or not?
6.2 Method to be followed for determining maximum permissible temperature

and temperature rise
The general method to be followed is represented in the chart of figure 12.

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 41 –
Start
Temperature evaluation of the

diferrent components:
– contacts
– terminals
– conductors
– other parts
Determination of
critical component
Can
its maximum Keep the maximum permis-
permissible temperature No sible value for the component
or temperature rise
be reached? considered. Examine the
(see table 6) other components
Yes
Intermittent Rating
Other
Autres
and duty? Special arrangements
[see product
standard]
Does the
maximum reached
Temperature
refer to a temparature rise,
or to a temperature? (see
table 6 column A
or B)
Temperature rise
Increase the maximum permissible

temperature rise taking account of the Keep the maximum
duty and the life of the component permissible values
without the maximum permissible of the table
temperature of the component being
exceeded (see annex A, figure A.1)
The result is the permissible

temperature rise, or temperature
taking the duty into account
Mean Special agreements, e.g.

> 20 °C temperature of the < 20 °C raising of the nominal current
surrounding medium (see 5.2.3.1 and 5.2.3.2 and
(e.g. components in an (see 5.1) tables 8 and 9)
enclosure)
Can a ≈ 20 °C
maximum permissible Yes
temperature
be reached or Keep the standard
exceeded? temperature and temperature
rise values
No
Possible raising of the Derating of the nominal

permissible temperature current (see 5.2.3.1 and
rise (see 5.2.3.3 and 5.2.3.2 and tables 8
annex A, figure A.1) and 9)
Is there any
other component Yes
where temperature or
temperature rise may be
critical?
No
End
IEC 1 297/97
Figure 12 – Chart for determining the maximum permitted temperature

of temperature rise
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Annex A
Numerical examples of the application of the theory and other data
A.1 To calculate the effect of a short period of overtemperature using equation (14)
Consider the case where Θ an = 20 °C and Δ T n = 50 K.
If Θ e = 40 °C and Δ T i = 65 K, Kth = 25,3 is obtained; the life under normal conditions of the
contact will therefore be reduced by 25,3 h in operating for 1 h under these new conditions.
It is evident that this cannot be compensated by operation for the same period at low load and
low temperature. If for example Θ e = 0° C and Δ T i = 35 K, Kth = 0,04 is obtained; 1 hour under
these conditions is equivalent to 0,04 h (approx. 2 min) of normal operation; the gain is only
58 min, compared with the previous reduction in life of 25,3 h.
Therefore it is necessary only to consider conditions where either the ambient temperature or
the temperature rise is increased above normal permissible levels.
A.2 Numerical example of calculation of an acceptable increase in total

temperature rise of a contact when operating in an enclosure
at a higher internal ambient temperature
According to the reasoning in Section III, 5.2.3.3 we see that:
If Δ T e increases by 8,5 K, and if Δ T i is decreased by 6,5 K, Δ T ( = Δ T e + Δ T i ) is increased by

2 K without the ageing of the component being affected.
Calculating this variant in the most general case:
Let:
Θe be the ambient temperature inside the enclosure;

ΔTi be the temperature rise of the component with respect to this temperature;
Θé be a new internal ambient temperature;
Δ T ´ i be a new temperature rise.
The ageing coefficient is calculated from equation (14) as follows:
Θ ' e −Θ e ΔT ' i − ΔTi

+
8,5 6,5
K th = 2
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 43 –
Assuming Δ T e + Δ T i = Δ T n , is the standardized temperature rise,
and putting z = Δ T´ e – Δ T e , the increase in temperature rise of the atmosphere within the
enclosure, it will be found that y = ( Δ T´ e + Δ T´ i ) – Δ T n , the increase in permissible standardized
temperature rise with Kth constant.
The following equation results:
y = ΔT´ e + ΔT´ i - ΔTn = ΔT´ e + ΔT´ i – (ΔT e + ΔT i ) = z + (ΔT´ i – ΔT i )
Hence: ΔT´ i – ΔT i = y – z
Finally:
⎛ z y−z ⎞
⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 8,5 6,5 ⎠
Kth = 2
Which can be expressed as:
ln Kth 2z
y = 6,5 +
ln 2 8,5
The above equation is illustrated graphically in figure A.1.

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 44 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
25
20
15
10
0
0 10 20 30
Kth = 0,5
-5
Kth = 1
Kth = 2
-10 Kth = 4
IEC 1 298/97
y = Permitted increase in maximum standardised temperature rise [K]

z = Increase an ambient temperature [K]
NOTE This apparently illogical conclusion arises because a smaller current is flowing in the contact to produce a
temperature rise which is an extra 4,7 K above the external ambient temperature, but which, as a temperature rise
above the internal ambient temperature (which is 20 K higher) will be (20 – 4,7) K lower.
Figure A.1 – y = f (z). An example of a contact having a permissible standardised temperature rise
of 65 K: if the temperature Θ e (of the enclosure in which it is installed, for example) rises
by 20 K, its permissible temperature rise can be increased by 4,7 K without changing its rate
of ageing and 11,1 K if the ageing rate is permitted to double
Annex B
Physical characteristics of selected metals and alloys
Atomic Atomic- Density Softening Melting Temperature Thermal

Sym- tempe- tempe- Specific heat Total
bol weight number Hardness Temperature Resistivity resistivity conduc- emissivity Remarks
rature rature coefficient tivity
kg/m3 °C °C 108 Pa °C K 10–8 Ω.m 10–3 k–1 J/kg - K W/m . K Nu Oxidized

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
Copper Cu 63,546 29 8 889 190 1 083 3,5 to 7 0 273,15 1,5881 4,265 382 390 Hard-drawn copper
(annealed) 20 293,15 1,7241 3,93 386 387 0,05 0,7 ρ20 °C =1,759 × 10 –8 Ω.m
36,85 310 1,838 3,69 389 382 Copper conductors in cables
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
60 333,15 1,995 394 378 ρ20 °C = 1,8 × 10–8 Ω.m

Brass 70 Cu, 30 Zn 8 530 915 ∼ 10 0 273,15 6 1,53 119
20 293,15 6,2 1,484 377 121 0,04 0,6
Cupro- W, 35 Cu, 0,5 Ni 13 600 15 20 293,15 5,3 6 150 0,1 0,5
tungsten
Aluminium Al 26,9815 13 2 700 150 658 1,5 to 8 0 273,15 2,6 4,383 881 202 Conductors aluminium
(A5L) 20 293,15 2,8264 4,03 891 203 0,07 0,6 cables
36,85 310 3,02 3,77 900 204 ρ20 °C = 3,06 × 10 –8 Ω-m
60 333,15 3,28 910 205
Almélec Al, 0,5 Mg, 0,5 Si 2 700 552 0 273,15 3,016 3,88 Cabled Almélec
(AG5L) 20 293,15 3,25 3,6 890 185 0,07 0,6
– 45 –
ρ20 °C = 3,3 × 10–8Ω-m

36,85 310 3,45 3,39
Al. alloy 2 700 20 293,15 5,5 890 125 0,07 0,6
(AG3)
Ductalex Be, Cu, Mg 2 700 20 293,15 2,826 3,9 890 0,07 Alloy still at experimental
stage
Silver Ag 107,868 47 10 500 180 962 2,6 to 6 0 273,15 1,47 4,08 234 418
20 293,15 1,59 3,77 235
Tin Sn 118,69 50 7 300 100 232 0,45 to 0,6 0 273,15 11 4,47 223,5 62,8 Amorphous state (β)
20 293,15 12 226,4 62,5 0,08 0,55
60 333,15 14 232,2 62,0
Nickel Ni 58,71 28 8 900 520 1453 7,0 to 20,0 0 273,15 5,9 6,9 398 95,2 Pure nickel
20 293,15 6,84 412 92,5 0,02
60 333,15 8,73 442 87,8
Exconal Copper plated aluminium 3 630 20 293,15 2,65 4,1 710 240 0,05 0,7 Contact surface equivalent
(15 % Cu by volume) to annealed copper
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Annex C
Physical characteristics of fluid dielectrics
Pressure Density Thermal Dynamic Compressi- Specific

(bar) Temperature ρ conduc- viscosity bility heat
tivity μd β Cp Remarks
λ
10 5 Pa °C K kg/m 3 W /m - K 10 -5 Pa . s 10 -3 K -1 J/kg - K
Air 1 –23,15 250 1,4133 0,02227 1,599 4,017 1 005,4

0 273,15 1,2928 0,02419 1,728 3,67 1 005,6
20 293,15 1,205 0,02585 1,822 3,40 1 006,3
46,85 320 1,1033 0,02779 1,939 3,131 1 007,3
SF6 1,3 20 293,15 7,95 0,01355 1,52 3,33 655

Sulphur 3 20 293,15 18,65 0,01355 1,52 3,33 655
hexa- 5 87,5 360,65 25,3 0,0142 1,82 2,78 766
fluoride Liquid 20 293,15 1371 0,150 29,1 7,1 1 557 Indicative values
Oil 1 20 293,15 870 0,13 26 0,764 1 880 Indicative values

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
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Annex D
Information on the reaction of contact metals with substances

in the atmosphere
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Annex E
Temperature rise of a conductor cooled by radiation and convection

in the vicinity of a terminal
NOTE 1 When the formulae numbers are not prefaced by "E", they are taken from the main text, with the same
number.
NOTE 2 To understand fully the content of this annex, the reader should study references 3, 4 and 5 of annex G.
E.1 Analytical derivation of an equation representing the temperature rise of a

conductor in the vicinity of a terminal in the case of cooling by radiation
and natural convection
As the density of heat-flow rate φ can be expressed by the equation φ = γ Δ T xδ , the differential
equation can take the form:
λcS
( ) − γBΔT δ = 0
d 2 ΔTx
(E.1)
x
dx 2
dΔTx
whose particular solution (satisfying the limit condition → 0 for ΔTx → 0 ) after all
dx
calculations is:
A
ΔTx = 2
( x + C ) δ −1
⎧ 1
⎪ ⎛ 2(δ + 1)λ S ⎞ δ −1
⎪A = ⎜ c ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎪⎪ ⎝ (δ − 1) γB ⎠
where ⎨ (E.2 )
⎪ δ −1
⎪ ⎛ γBAδ (δ − 1) ⎞ δ +1
⎪C = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ W (δ + 1) ⎠
Therefore it can be shown that:
– the supplementary temperature rise of the terminal:
2
⎛ δ + 1 ⎞⎟ δ +1
ΔT0 = ⎜ W (E.3)
⎜ 2λ c SγB ⎟⎠
⎝
– the space constant Δ x at which the temperature rise is divided by e is given by

⎛ δ −1 ⎞
Δx = ⎜ e − 1⎟ C (E.4a)
⎝ 2 ⎠
which may take the following form:
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δ 1 δ
⎛ δ −1 ⎞ 2 δ +1 (δ + 1)
Δx = ⎜ e 2 − 1⎟ ×
δ +1
×
(λ c S ) δ +1
⎜ ⎟ δ − 1 1 δ −1
⎝ ⎠
(γB) δ
δ + 1 W +1
or (E.4b)
δ
Δx = K ×
(λ c S ) δ +1
1 δ −1
(γB) δ
δ +1 W +1
K taking the following values as a function of δ in table E.1:
Table E.1 – Value of K as a function of δ
δ K
1,0 1,0
(conditions in 4.3.1)
1,1 1,050
1,15 1,074
1,20 1,098
1,25 1,122
1,3 1,146
From the equation
A
ΔTo = 2
C δ −1
it can be deduced that
δ −1
⎛ A ⎞ 2
C = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ ΔTo ⎠
Hence:
−2
⎡ ⎤ δ −1
⎢ ⎥
A ⎢ x 1 ⎥
ΔTx = =⎢ + δ −1
⎥
2
⎢ 2(δ + 1) λ c S ⎥
⎡ δ −1 ⎤ δ − 1
⎢ ΔTo 2 ⎥
2 γB
⎢ ⎛ A ⎞ 2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ (δ − 1) ⎥⎦
⎢ x + ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ ΔTo ⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
and
⎛ δ −1 ⎞ 1 2(δ + 1) λ c S
Δx = ⎜ e 2 − 1⎟
⎜ ⎟ δ −1
⎝ ⎠ ΔT 2 (δ − 1) 2 γB
o
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which can take the form:
λ cS
γB
Δx = K ' δ −1
(E.4c)
ΔTo 2
K´ being given as a function of δ in table E.2:
Table E.2 – Value of K´ as a function of δ
δ K´
1,0 1,0
(conditions in 4.3.1)
1,1 1,051
1,15 1,077
1,20 1,103
1,25 1,130
1,3 1,157
E.2 Analogue thermal modelling
E.2.1 Introduction
As an alternative to analytical or numerical equations describing the thermal processes in

electrical installations, the method of analogue network modelling can be used as a powerful
but relatively simple tool. The method is based on the fact that thermal and electrical flow
behaviour are both described with the same type of differential equations. For instance the
equation for thermal heat conduction is fully equivalent to Ohm's law:
dT dV
q = λ0 ⇔ j = k
dx dx
As a result, thermal quantities such as specific heat flow q and temperature T are equivalent to
the electrical quantities current density j and voltage V respectively. Also components such as
thermal and electrical resistors are described with similar expressions.
In the model, the real thermal situation is thus represented by electrical quantities, tabulated
below:
Table E.3 – Equivalent quantities
Reality Model
P Power (W) Current (A)
T Temperature (K) Voltage (V)
R Thermal resistance (l/λ c s) Electrical resistance (l/κs)

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The method has the advantage that no mathematical background or complicated computer
software is needed. Furthermore the relation with real physical components can be recognized
more directly.
For any successful determination of the temperature distribution within electrotechnical

equipment, the following steps are necessary:
– Subdivision of equipment into elements: the necessary size and nature of the element is
determined by the structure of the macroscopic configuration (one-, two- or three-
dimensional) and the variation of material properties.
For continuous processes (during normal load conditions) these conditions are sufficient to
determine equivalent resistor values. For non continuous processes (e.g. inrush or short
circuits) however, the dimensioning is also represented by equivalent capacitors. In this
case, the correct dimensioning of the subdivision into elements is mainly determined by the
relevant time scale and time steps. The element dimensions should be sufficiently small to
ensure that the resulting thermal time constant t = RC is small compared to the time step.
The diffusion thickness is helpful to estimate the part of the total region to be modelled.
– Determination of heat sources, cooling power, conduction and storage: heat sources are to
be defined, e.g. as virtual point sources in contact constrictions or as a longitudinal
continuum as is the case for an electrically heated conductor or more specifically in a fuse.
Dielectric losses and solar heat can also influence the result. Heat extraction by conduction,
convection and radiation should be localised.
– Calculation of electrical equivalent components: electrically generated heat is dependent
upon the square of the current times the resistance, which can be temperature dependent.
For all such thermal sources, equivalent electrical sources can be chosen. Passive
components, representing thermal conduction and heat storage follow immediately from
element dimensions.
– Actual performance of the simulation: as the analogue model is developed, the actual
simulation can be performed with computer programs. Besides own programming, several
commercial packages are available for this purpose.
As a typical example of the possibilities of an analogue model, the temperature rise along a
current carrying conductor will be determined in the following.
E.2.2 Determination of the temperature of a current-carrying conductor in the vicinity

of a contact, using an analogue model
As an alternative to the analytical method which is used in the numerical example in annex A
with equations from annex E.1, an analogue model, based on the common description
possibility of thermal and electrical flow is used in the following.
To enable comparison of results to be made, identical conditions are used to those in

the example in annex A. The conductor is positioned horizontally, has a slightly oxidized
copper surface (emissivity ε = 0,1 and tunnel resistivity σ 0 = 5 × 10 –12 ) without insulation. The
conductor has a cross-section S = 10 mm × 10 mm and a conducting length of 1 m. At one side
the conductor is pressed against another conductor with a force F = 100 N. The conductor
carries a current of 300 A. Natural and forced convection (v = 0,3 m/s) will be considered.
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 52 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
The relevant constants and dimensions are grouped in the following list, copper material
constants are from annex B, air constants at 20 °C are from annex C:
I = 300 [ A] continuous current

l = 1m length of copper bar
2
S = 10 –4 [m ] cross-section of copper bar
B = 0,04 [m] external perimeter of conductor dissipating heat.
D h = 0,01 [m] overall height of conductor
2
Sc = 0,01 ×0,2 ×4 [m ] cooling surface of conductor part 0,2 m
T e = 293,15°C mean temperature of surrounding air
ΔTs temperature rise of the conductor at a large distance from
a contact
ρ o = 1,5881 × 10 –8 [Wm] copper resistivity at 0 °C
α = 4,265 × 10 –3 [K–1 ] temperature resistivity coefficient of copper
R o = ρ o l/ S = 1,5881 × 10 –4 conductor resistance at 0 °C
λ c = 387 [W/mK] thermal conductivity of copper
σ = 5,670 × 10 –8 [Wm –2 K–4 ] Stefan Boltzmann constant
ε = 0 to 1 (here ε = 0,1) emissivity of copper conductor
M = 1,205 [kg m –3 ] mass density of air
–3
β = 3,4 × 10 [K–1 ] compressibility of air
g = 9,81 [ms –2 ] acceleration to gravity
C p = 1006,3 [J kg–1 K –1 ] specific heat of air at constant pressure
λ = 0,02585 [Wm –1 K –1 ] thermal conductivity of air
μ d = 1,822 × 10 –5 [Pa s] dynamic viscosity of air
For the analogue method, the bar will be divided into five parts of 0,2 m each.
The copper bar and the equivalent electrical model are presented in figure E.1.
TTee
PP11
T1 T22
T TT 33 T
T 44 T55
T T 66
P
P7 P 88
P P9
P P 10
P P 11
P 11
7 9 10
R½R
1 1
RR11 R
R 11 RR11 RR11
T1
T T
T 22 TT 3 T
T
T
T 55 TT66
1 44
PP11 P 22 P33
P P 44 PP55 P
P 66
TTee
IEC 1 299/97
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 53 –
Figure. E.1 – Thermal model for the bar and electrical analogue method
The temperature of the environment is represented by the d.c. voltage source T e = 293,15 K.
The Joule heating power values P1 to P6 are represented by positive current sources and power
losses P7 to P11 are represented by negative current sources.
a) Determination of the heat sources
For the contact resistance, equation (7) is used:
ρ σo
Rc = + 0 (7)
2 na nπ a 2
Copper material constants are from annex B:
ρ = 1,8 x 10 –8 [ Wm ] electrical resistivity of conductor

2
σ o = 5 ×10 –12 [Wm ] tunnel resistivity of contact surface
0,625 0,2
n = nkH F number of elementary contact points
n k = 2,5 ×10 –5
H = 5,5 ×10 8 contact hardness
ξ = 0,15 coefficient of flatness
F
a = elementary contact radius
nπξH 0
Substitution results in n = 18 and a = 0,086 mm and contact resistance R c = 18 [ μΩ ].
From the contact, a heat flow W is dissipated to the conductor:
W = 1
2 R c I 2 = 0,81 [W ]0
This heat flow W is represented by its electrical equivalent, the current source P1 :
2
P1 = 1
2
Rc I = 0,81 [ A ]
Joule losses for each 0,2 m section of the conductor are represented by current sources P2 ...
P6 , dependent on the local temperature, i.e.:
l
P2 = I 2 ρ [1 + α (T 2 − 273,15)]
5S o
Substitution of the relevant values results in P 2 = − 0,4716 + 0,01219 T 2
Similar expressions are valid for the sources P3 to P6 .

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 54 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
b) Representation of the electrical resistances of the sections of the copper bar
The electrical resistance R 1 represents the thermal resistance of a section of the copper bar:
l 0,2
R1 = = = 5,168 [Ω] 0
5 λc S 387 × 100 × 10−6
c) Representation of the cooling by convection and radiation
Remote from the contact, where convection/radiation balances the Joule power, the
temperature rise Δ T s of the conductor is expressed by
ΔT =
(( , ) α + 1) Ro I 2 + rϕ s S r
Te + ΔTs − 27315
(10)
s
⎡ (T + ΔT ) 4 − T 4 λ ⎤
Bl ⎢σε e s e
+ Nu ⎥
⎢⎣ ΔTs Dh ⎥⎦
With natural convection, for the general case of indoor contacts and terminals:
N u = 0,8(Gr Pr ) 0,05 + 0,35(Gr Pr ) 0,27 (11a)
where
M 2 βgCp Dh 3ΔTs
Gr Pr = (11b)
μdλ
For two current values I = 200 and 300 [A], the temperature rise Δ T s and the heat flux ϕ can be
determined from equations (10), (11a) and (11b):
I ΔT s ϕ
A K Wm –2
300 36,45 443,4
200 17,55 184,3
If a relation ϕ = γ Δ T δ is assumed, the constants can be derived as γ = 5,9 and δ = 1,2.
In the case of forced convection equations, (12a) and (12b) should be used for the Nusselt number:
N u = 0,65Re 0,2 + 0,23Re 0,61 (12a)
where
MνDh
RE = (the Reynolds number) (12b)
μd
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 55 –
For forced convection ( v = 0,3 m/s), the temperature rise Δ T s and the heat flux ϕ can be
determined from equations (10), (12a) and (12b). Substitution of two current values I = 300 A
and 200 A results in:
I ΔT s ϕ
A K Wm –2
300 20,48 419
200 8,73 178
If again a relation ϕ = γ Δ T δ is assumed, the constants can be derived as γ = 20,3 and δ = 1,0
respectively.
For each conductor part of 0,2 m, the total heat flow follows from the multiplication of ϕ with
the cooling surface Sc . This cooling power by convection/radiation is represented by the current
sources P7 to P11 .
P7 = S c γ Δ Tδ 0
For free convection the parameters γ = 5,9 and δ = 1,2 are used:
1,2
P 7 = 0,0472 ( T 2 − T e )
For forced convection ( v = 0,3 m/s) the parameters γ = 20,33 and δ = 1,0 are used:
P 7 = 0,1626 ( T 2 − T e)
Similar expressions can be derived for P8 to P11 .
The final result of the analogue simulation is presented in figure E.2.

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 56 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
DTx + dTs [K]

50
45
Free convection
Convection libre
40
35
30
Forced convection
Convection forcée
25
20
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
X [m]
IEC 1 300/97
Figure E.2 – Temperature rise decrement along the copper bar

PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 57 –
Annex F
List of symbols used in this report
Symbol Designation Unit
A Arrhenius law coefficient K

A' Arrhenius law constant K
a Elementary contact radius m
B External perimeter of conductor dissipating heat m
C th Nominal current correction coefficient
Dh Diameter of conductor leading to the contact, or overall height of m

conductor of any section
e Exponential coefficient 2,718
F Contact force N
Gr Grashof number
g Acceleration due to gravity 9,81 m s–1
H Contact hardness Pa
K th Overall ageing factor (current correction factor)
Ke Ageing factor for variation in ambient temperature
Ki Ageing factor for variation in temperature rise
k Boltzmann constant 1,381E-23JK –1
k 1 ,k 2 Constants in the contact resistance/force equation

l Average distance between elementary contacts m
l Length of conductor m
M Density of ambient fluid kg m –3
N Nusselt number
n Number of elementary contact points
nk Coefficient of calculation of the number of elementary contacts 2,5E-5(SI)
P Operational life at permanent rating year (months)
Pr Prandtl number
R (a,l) Resistance at distance l from constriction radius a Ω
Rc Total resistance of contact Ω
Re Contact constriction resistance Ω
Ri Contact film resistance Ω
R0 Linear resistance of l (m) of the conductor considered at 0 °C Ω
r Coefficient of receptivity of solar flux 0≤r≤1
S Conductor cross-sectional area m²
s Thickness of oxide layer m
Sn Effective contact area m²
Sr Surface area of conductor receiving ϕ s m²
T, Θ Temperature K or °C
Ta,Θa Ambient air temperature K or °C

T an , Θ an Standard ambient air temperature K or °C
Tc,Θc Contact temperature K or °C
Te,Θe Mean temperature of the fluid surrounding the component K or °C
T' e , Θ ' e Average temperature of the fluid surrounding a part K or °C
T e1 , Θ a1 A specific average temperature K or °C
T e2 , Θ a2 A specific average temperature K or °C
Tn,Θn Maximum permissible standard temperature of the component K or °C
T' i Insulation temperature K or °C
Ts,Θ Standard temperature of a conductor K or °C
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
– 58 – 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008
Symbol Drsignation Unit

t Time s
W Power dissipated by the terminal into the conductor W
w Activation energy of oxidation reaction J
x Distance m
X Coefficient of filling of a cell; film thickness constant
y Tolerable standard temperature rise increase K
z Increase in the temperature rise of air surrounding a component z = ΔT’ e K
α Temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor material K –1
β Coefficient of expansion of the ambient fluid at constant pressure K –1
γ A constant related to emission k
Δe Doubling constant for increasing ambient temperature K

Δi Doubling constant as a function of temperature rise of the contact K
ΔT Temperature rise relative to the ambient air temperature T K
Δte Temperature rise of medium surrounding component relative to external K
ambient temperature
ΔTi Temperature rise of component relative to surrounding fluid (mean K
value)
Δ t i1 Temperature rise relative to surrounding ambient (initial) K
ΔT I2 Temperature rise relative to surrounding ambient (final) K
ΔT' I Temperature rise relative to surrounding ambient K
Δτl Temperature drop at distance Δl from a terminal K
ΔT n Maximum permissible standard temperature rise of component relative K
to ambient temperature T an
Δτp Temperature rise at the elementary contact due to constriction K
Δτs Temperature rise of conductor in absence of a contact or at large K
distance from same
Δτx Temperature rise at distance x from a contact K

ΔT 0 Value of ΔT x for x = 0
Δx Spatial constant m
δ Exponent of ΔT in the expression ϕ = γΔ Τ δ 0<ε<1
ε Total emissivity of a conductor
λ Thermal conductivity of ambient fluid Wm –1 K –1
λc Thermal conductivity of conductor Wm –1 K –1
k Electrical conductivity = 1/ ρ Ω –1 m –1
x Coefficient of flatness
ρ Resistivity Ωm
ρo Resistivity at 0 °C Ωm
s Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5,67E-8
s0 Tunnel resistivity of oxide layer Ωm 2
j Density of heat flow rate on the surface of the conductor Wm –2
js Solar density of heat flow rate Wm –2
PD IEC/TR 60943:2009
60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 – 59 –
Annex G
Bibliography
[1] Holm, R., Electric Contacts (4th edition 1967) – Springer Verlag.
[2] Llewellyn Jones, The Physics of Electrical Contacts (1957), Oxford, Clarendon Press.
[3] Johannet, P., Private Communication.
[4] Britton and Bright, Metallurgica 56 (1957), p.163
[5] Frischmeister and Drott, Acta Metallurgica, vol. 7 (Dec.1959), p.777
[6] Campbell, W.E., Electrical Contacts , III, 1972, p.185.
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PD IEC/TR 60943:2009

BSI British Standards

Guidance concerning the per-

NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW

raising standards worldwide™

Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from

This Published Document was published under the authority of

Amendments issued since publication

Amd. No. Date Text affected

Guidance concerning the permissible temperature rise for parts of electrical

Guide concernant l’échauffement admissible des parties des matériels

® Registered trademark of the International Electrotechnical Commission

–2– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008

5 Permissible temperature and temperature rise values....................................................................29

60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –3–

6 General procedure to be followed for determining permissible temperature

–4– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008

INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION

GUIDANCE CONCERNING THE PERMISSIBLE TEMPERATURE RISE

The main task of IEC technical committees is to prepare International Standards. In

60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –5–

It bears the edition number 2.1.

Annexes are for information only.

–6– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008

60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –7–

–8– 60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008

GUIDANCE CONCERNING THE PERMISSIBLE TEMPERATURE RISE

1.1 Scope and object

The present report is intended to supply:

1.2 Reference documents

IEC 60050(441):1984, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) – Chapter 441: Switch-

IEC 60085:1984, Thermal evaluation and classification of electrical insulation

60943 © IEC:1998+A1:2008 –9–

IEC 60364-4-42:1980, Electrical installations of buildings – Part 4: Protection for safety -

IEC 60721-2-1:1982, Classification of environmental conditions – Part 2: environmental

IEC 60890:1987, A method of temperature-rise assessment by extrapolation for partially type-

IEC 60947-1:1988, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 1: General rules

A list of symbols used in this report is given in annex F.

2 General considerations concerning the nature of electric contact and

2.1 Electric contacts and connection terminals

2.2 Nature of electric contact

The effective contact area is then:

1) For an explanation of the symbols used in this report, see annex F.

Figure 1 – Illustration of apparent contact and effective contact areas

However, this equation applies only for a contact force of F ≥ 50 N, in fact:

As a result, the elementary contact radius a is given by the equation:

n = nk H 0,625 F 0,2 (2)

where n k ≈ 2,5 × 10 –5 (SI units)

2.3 Calculation of contact resistance

Contact resistance is made up of two components:

2.3.1 Calculation of the constriction resistance

Figure 2 – Equipotentials and lines of current at an elementary contact point

If l is large compared with a, which is the more common case:

since the constriction resistance is the sum of both halves

2.3.2 Calculation of the film resistance

They are derived from the general formula:

If the activation energy w is expressed in electronvolts, it is necessary to multiply w by 1,6021 ×

The electrons can in fact pass through it by a "tunnel-effect" mechanism.

Table 1 – Typical values of tunnel resistivity