Tensor Notes for CC8

Si r
Sk Jahiruddin

Assistant Professor
Sister Nibedita Govt. College, Kolkata
din
Jahir Sir’s notes on Tensors

Distributed freely to all CU students

1 Introduction
d
iru

Physical laws, if they are to be valid, must be independent of

any particular coordinate system used to describe them mathe-
matically. A study of the consequence of this requirement leads
to tensor analysis, which is of great use in general relativity the-
ory, differential geometry, mechanics, elasticity, hydrodynamics,
h

electromagnetic theory, and numerous other fields of science and

engineering.
Ja

1.1 Space in N dimensions

A point in three-dimensional space is a set of three numbers,

called coordinates, determined by specifying a particular coordi-
nate system or frame of reference. For example (x, y, z), (ρ, φ, z), (r, θ, φ)
are coordinates of a point in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical
coordinate systems, respectively. A point in N -dimensional space

1
©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

is, by analogy, a set of N numbers denoted by x1 , x2 , . . . , xN
where 1, 2, . . . , N are taken not as exponents but as superscripts,
a policy which will prove useful.

The fact that we cannot visualize points in spaces of dimension

higher than three has of course nothing whatsoever to do with

Si r
their existence.

1.2 Coordinate Transformation

Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xN and x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄N be coordinates of a point
din
in two different frames of reference. Suppose there exists N in-
dependent relations between the coordinates of the two systems



having the form x̄1 = x̄1 x1 , x2 , . . . , xN x̄2 = x̄2 x1 , x2 , . . . , xN
which we can indicate briefly by

x̄k = x̄k x1 , x2 , . . . , xN


k = 1, 2, . . . , N
d
where it is supposed that the functions involved are single-valued,
iru

continuous, and have continuous derivatives. Then, conversely to

each set of coordinates x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄N , there will correspond a


unique set x1 , x2 , . . . , xN given by

xk = xk x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄N

k = 1, 2, . . . , N
h

The above two relations define a transformation of coordinates

from one frame of reference to another.
Ja

1.3 Summation convention

Consider the expression a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + aN xN . This can be

written using the short notation N j
P
j=1 aj x . An even shorter no-
tation is simply to write it as aj xj where we adopt the convention
that whenever an index (subscript or superscript) is repeated in
a given term, we are to sum over that index from 1 to N unless

[email protected] 2 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

otherwise specified. This is called the summation convention.

Clearly, instead of using the index j, we could have used another
letter, say p, and the sum could be written ap xp . Any index that
is repeated in a given term, so that the summation convention
applies, is called a dummy index or umbrella index.

Si r
An index occurring only once in a given term is called a free
index and can stand for any of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , N such as k
in equation (2) or (3), each of which represents N equations.

Example:

Write each of the following using the summation convention.

din
(a)
∂φ 1 ∂φ 2 ∂φ N
dφ = dx + dx + · · · + dx
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xN

(b)
d
dx̄k ∂ x̄k dx1 ∂ x̄k dx2 ∂ x̄k dxN
= + 2 + ··· + N
dt ∂x1 dt ∂x dt ∂x dt
iru

(c)

2
2
2
2
x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + xN

(d)
h

2
2
2
ds2 = g11 dx1 + g22 dx2 + g33 dx3
Ja

(e)
3 X
X 3
gpq dxp dxq
p=1 q=1

Solution (a)
∂φ j
dφ = dx
∂xj
(b)
dx̄k ∂ x̄k dxm
= m
dt ∂x dt
[email protected] 3 Tensor Notes
©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

(c)
xk xk
(d)
ds2 = gkk dxk dxk , N = 3
(e)

Si r
gpq dxp dxq , N = 3

2 Covariant and Contravariant Vectors

Suppose N quantities A1 , A2 , . . . , AN in a coordinate system

din


x1 , x2 , . . . , xN are related to N other quantities Ā1 , Ā2 , . . . , ĀN


in another coordinate system x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄N by the transforma-
tion equations
N
∂ x̄p
d
X
p
Ā = Aq p = 1, 2, . . . , N
q=1
∂xq
iru

which by the conventions adopted can simply be written as

p ∂ x̄p q
Ā = q A
∂x
Then they are called components of a contravariant vector or
contravariant tensor of the first rank or first order
h

On the other hand, suppose N quantities A1 , A2 , . . . , AN in a

Ja

coordinate system x1 , x2 , . . . , xN are related to N other quanti-


ties Ā1 , Ā2 , . . . , ĀN in another coordinate system x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄N
by the transformation equations
N
X ∂xq
Āp = Aq p = 1, 2, . . . , N
q=1
∂ x̄p

or
∂xq
Āp = Aq
∂ x̄p

[email protected] 4 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

Then they are called components of a covariant vector or covariant

tensor of the first rank or first order. Note that a superscript is
used to indicate contravariant components whereas a subscript is
used to indicate covariant components; an exception occurs in the
notation for coordinates.

Si r
Instead of speaking of a tensor whose components are Ap or
Ap , we shall often refer simply to the tensor Ap or Ap . No confu-
sion should arise from this.

3 Covariant and Contravariant Tensors

din


Suppose N 2 quantities Aqs in a coordinate system x1 , x2 , . . . , xN
are related to N 2 other quantities Āpr in another coordinate sys-


tem x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄N by the transformation equations
d
N X
N
pr
X ∂ x̄p ∂ x̄r
Ā = Aqs p, r = 1, 2, . . . , N
s=1 q=1
∂xq ∂xs
iru

or
∂ x̄p ∂ x̄r qs
Āpr = A Contravariant
∂xq ∂xs
by the adopted conventions, they are called contravariant com-
h

ponents of a tensor of the second rank or rank two. The N 2

quantities Aqs are called covariant components of a tensor of the
Ja

second rank if
∂xq ∂xs
Āpr = p r Aqs Covariant
∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
Similarly, the N 2 quantities Aqs are called components of a mixed
tensor of the second rank if
∂ x̄p ∂xs q
Āpr = q r As Mixed
∂x ∂ x̄

[email protected] 5 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

3.1 Tensor of rank greater than Two

Tensors of rank three or more are easily defined. Specifically, for

example, Aqst
kl are the components of a mixed tensor of rank 5
, contravariant of order 3 and covariant of order 2 , where they

Si r
transform according to the relations
∂ x̄p ∂ x̄r ∂ x̄m ∂xk ∂xl qst
Āprm
ij = q s A
∂x ∂x ∂xt ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j kl

3.2 Cartesian Vector and Tensors din

When we restrict ourselves in Cartesian coordinates - that mean
the coordinate transformations are rotations and translations we
will call the vectors and tensors as Cartesian vectors and Carte-
sian tensors
d
In coordinate transformations within Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem, the transformation matrix contains constants only, and not
any function of coordinates.
iru

Think about 3D Cartesian coordinates rotating angle θ about

z axis
h

x̄1 = cos θx1 + sin θx2

x̄2 = − sin θx1 + cos θx2
Ja

x̄3 = x3

Write the transformation matrix.

Write the transformation rules for any contravariant and co-

variant vectors here.

Is there any difference between co and contra here?

[email protected] 6 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

3.3 Kronecker delta

The Kronecker delta, denoted by δkj , is defined as follows:


0 if j 6= k
j
δk =

Si r
1 if j = k

As its notation indicates, it is a mixed tensor of the second rank.

3.4 Levi-Civita symbol din

Let us now also introduce the three-subscript Levi-Civita symbol
ijk , the value of which is given by

+1 if i, j, k is an even permutation of 1, 2, 3,


ijk = −1 if i, j, k is an odd permutation of 1, 2, 3,
d


0 otherwise.

iru

To be more elaborative

ε123 = ε231 = ε312 = +1

ε132 = ε213 = ε321 = −1
h

ijk are the components of a third rank Cartesian tensor

Using εijk we can write index expressions for the cross product
Ja

and curl. The ith component of the cross product is given by

[u × v]i = εijk uj vk

[email protected] 7 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

as we check by simply writing out the sums for each value of i,

[u × v]1 = ε1jk uj vk
= ε123 u2 v3 + ε132 u3 v2 + ( all other terms are zero )
= u2 v3 − u3 v2
[u × v]2 = ε2jk uj vk

Si r
= ε231 u3 v1 + ε213 u1 v3
= u3 v1 − u1 v3
[u × v]3 = ε3jk uj vk
= u1 v2 − u2 v1 din ∂
We get the curl simply by replacing ui by ∇i = ∂xi ,

[∇ × v]i = εijk ∇j vk

If we sum these expressions with basis vectors ei , where e1 =

i, e2 = j, e3 = k, we may write these as vectors:
d
u × v = [u × v]i ei
iru

= εijk uj vk ei
∇ × v = εijk ei ∇j vk

We can now write expression of various vector products in

terms of Kronecker delta and Levi-Civita Symbol
h
Ja

a · b = ai bi = δij ai bj
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
∇2 φ = = δij
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj
∂vk
(∇ × v)i = ijk
∂xj

[email protected] 8 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

∂ 2 vj

∂ ∂vj
[∇(∇ · v)]i = = δjk ,
∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xk
∂ 2 vm
 
∂ ∂vm
[∇ × (∇ × v)]i = ijk klm = ijk klm ,
∂xj ∂xl ∂xj ∂xl

Si r
(a × b) · c = δij ci jkl ak bl = ikl ci ak bl .

An important relationship between the  - and δ - tensors is

expressed by the identity

ijk klm = δil δjm − δim δjl

din
We don’t prove it here. But you can check various possible
cases and see yourself that the relation is valid.

3.5 Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Tensors

d

A tensor is called symmetric with respect to two contravariant

iru

or two covariant indices if its components remain unaltered upon

interchange of the indices. Thus, if Ampr
qs = Apmr
qs , the tensor is
symmetric in m and p. If a tensor is symmetric with respect to
any two contravariant and any two covariant indices, it is called
symmetric.
h

A tensor is called Anti symmetric or skew-symmetric with

Ja

respect to two contravariant or two covariant indices if its com-

ponents change sign upon interchange of the indices. Thus, if
Ampr
qs = −Apmr
qs , the tensor is Anti-symmetric in m and p. If a
tensor is anti-symmetric with respect to any two contravariant
and any two covariant indices, it is called anti-symmetric.

Example: Write the law of transformation for the tensors

(a) Aijk , (b) Bijk

mn
, (c) C m .

[email protected] 9 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

Solution:

(a)
∂ x̄p ∂xj ∂xk i
Āpqr = A
∂xi ∂ x̄q ∂ x̄r jk

Si r
Remember - Index above means bar (or prime as in most of
the books) above - Index below means bar below.

(b)
pq ∂ x̄p ∂ x̄q ∂xi ∂xj ∂xk mn
B̄rst = B
∂xm ∂xn ∂ x̄r ∂ x̄s ∂ x̄t ijk

∂ x̄p m
(c) C̄ p = ∂xm C
din
Example: A quantity A(j, k, l, m), which is a function of
coordinates xi , transforms to another coordinate system x̄i ac-
cording to the rule

∂xj ∂ x̄q ∂ x̄r ∂ x̄s

d
Ā(p, q, r, s) = p k l m A(j, k, l, m)
∂ x̄ ∂x ∂x ∂x
(a) Is the quantity a tensor? (b) If so, write the tensor in suitable
iru

notation and (c) give the contravariant and covariant order and
rank.

Solution:
h

(a) Yes, (b) Aklm

j , (c) Contravariant of order 3, covariant of
order 1 and rank 3 + 1 = 4
Ja

Example: A covariant tensor has components xy, 2y − z 2 , xz

in rectangular coordinates. Find its covariant components in
spherical coordinates.

Solution:

Let Aj denote the covariant components in rectangular coor-

dinates

[email protected] 10 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z. Then

2
A1 = xy = x1 x2 , A2 = 2y − z 2 = 2x2 − x3 , A3 = x1 x3

where care must be taken to distinguish between superscripts and

exponents. Let Āk denote the covariant components in spherical
coordinates x̄1 = r, x̄2 = θ, x̄3 = φ. Then

Si r
∂xj
Āk = Aj (1)
∂ x̄k

The transformation equations between coordinate systems are

x1 = x̄1 sin x̄2 cos x̄3 , x2 = x̄1 sin x̄2 sin x̄3 , x3 = x̄1 cos x̄2
din
Then equations (1) yield the required covariant components

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Ā1 = A 1 + A 2 + A3
∂ x̄1 ∂ x̄1 ∂ x̄1
2 3

1 2
2 3

 2

3 2
+ cos x̄2 x1 x3



= sin x̄ cos x̄ x x + sin x̄ sin x̄ 2x − x
d

=(sin θ cos φ) r2 sin2 θ sin φ cos φ

iru

+ (sin θ sin φ) 2r sin θ sin φ − r2 cos2 θ

+ (cos θ) r2 sin θ cos θ cos φ

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Ā2 = 2 A1 + 2 A2 + 2 A3
h

∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
=(r cos θ cos φ) r sin2 θ sin φ cos φ
2

+ (r cos θ sin φ) 2r sin θ sin φ − r2 cos2 θ

Ja

+ (−r sin θ) r2 sin θ cos θ cos φ

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Ā3 = 3 A1 + 3 A2 + 3 A3
∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
=(−r sin θ sin φ) r sin2 θ sin φ cos φ
2

+ (r sin θ cos φ) 2r sin θ sin φ − r2 cos2 θ

+ (0) r2 sin θ cos θ cos φ

[email protected] 11 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

Example: Evaluate (a) δqp Aqr p q

s , (b) δq δr

Solution:

Since δqp = 1 if p = q and 0 if p 6= q, we have

(a) δqp Aqr pr

Si r
s = As ,

(b) δqp δrq = δrp

∂xp
Example: Show that q
= δqp .
∂x
∂xp p q ∂xp
Solution: If p = q, q = 1 since x = x . If p 6= q, q = 0
∂x
din ∂x p
∂x
since xp and xq are independent. Then q
= δqp .
∂x
∂xp ∂ x̄q
Example: Prove that q r
= δrp .
∂ x̄ ∂x
Solution: Coordinates xp are functions of coordinates x̄q ,
d
which are in turn functions of coordinates xr . Then, by the chain
∂xp
rule and result of previous problem q
= δqp .
iru

∂x
∂xp ∂xp ∂ x̄q
r
= q r = δrp
∂x ∂ x̄ ∂x

∂ x̄p q
p q ∂xq p
Example: Let Ā = q A . Prove that A = p Ā .
h

∂x ∂ x̄
∂ x̄p q
p ∂xr
Solution: Multiply equation Ā = q A by .
∂ x̄p
Ja

∂x
Then
∂xr p ∂xr ∂ x̄p q
p
Ā = p q A = δqr Aq = Ar
∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂x
by using result of the previous problem. Placing r = q, the result
follows.

This indicates that in the transformation equations for the

tensor components, the quantities with bars and quantities with-
out bars can be interchanged, a result which can be proved in

[email protected] 12 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

general.

Example: Prove that δqp is a mixed tensor of the second rank.

Solution:

If δqp is a mixed tensor of the second rank, it must transform

Si r
according to the rule
∂ x̄j ∂xq p
δ̄kj = p k δq
∂x ∂ x̄
The right side equals
∂ x̄j ∂xp j
= δk
din
∂xp ∂ x̄k
∂xp ∂ x̄q
by using q r
= δrp .
∂ x̄ ∂x
Since δ̄kj = δkj = 1 if j = k, and 0 if j 6= k, it follows that δqp is
a mixed tensor of rank two, justifying the notation used.
d
Note that we sometimes use δpq = 1 if p = q and 0 if p 6= q, as
the Kronecker delta. This is, however, not a covariant tensor of
iru

the second rank as the notation would seem to indicate.

4 Tensor Algebra
h

Addition: The sum of two or more tensors of the same rank and
type (i.e. same number of contravariant indices and same number
Ja

of covariant indices) is also a tensor of the same rank and type.

Thus, if Amp mp mp mp mp
q and Bq are tensors, then Cq = Aq + Bq is also
a tensor. Addition of tensors is commutative and associative.

Subtraction: The difference of two tensors of the same rank

and type is also a tensor of the same rank and type. Thus, if Amp
q
mp mp mp mp
and Bq are tensors, then Dq = Aq − Bq is also a tensor.

Outer Multiplication: The product of two tensors is a ten-

[email protected] 13 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

sor whose rank is the sum of the ranks of the given tensors. This
product, which involves ordinary multiplication of the compo-
nents of the tensor, is called the outer product. For example,
Apr m
q Bs = Cqs
prm
is the outer product of Apr m
q and Bs . However,
note that not every tensor can be written as a product of two
tensors of lower rank. For this reason, division of tensors is not

Si r
always possible.

Contraction: If one contravariant and one covariant index

of a tensor are set equal, the result indicates that a summation
over the equal indices is to be taken according to the summation
convention. This resulting sum is a tensor of rank two less than
din
that of the original tensor. The process is called contraction.
For example, in the tensor of rank 5, Ampr
qs , set r = s to obtain
Ampr
qr = Bqmp , a tensor of rank 3. Further, by setting p = q, we
obtain Bpmp = C m , a tensor of rank 1 .

Inner Multiplication: By the process of outer multiplica-

d
tion of two tensors followed by a contraction, we obtain a new
tensor called an inner product of the given tensors. The process
iru

is called inner multiplication. For example, given the tensors Amp

q
r mp r
and Bst , the outer product is Aq Bst . Letting q = r, we obtain
the inner product Amp r
r Bst . Letting q = r and p = s, another
inner product Amp r
r Bpt is obtained. Inner and outer multiplication
of tensors is commutative and associative.
h

Quotient Law: Suppose it is not known whether a quantity

Ja

X is a tensor or not. If an inner product of X with an arbitrary

tensor is itself a tensor, then X is also a tensor. This is called the
quotient law.
pqs
Example: Suppose Apq s
r and Bt are tensors. Prove that Crt =
Apq s
r Bt is also a tensor.

pqs
Solution: We must prove that Crt is a tensor whose compo-
nents are formed by taking the products of components of tensors

[email protected] 14 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

Apq s pq s
r and Bt . Since Ar and Bt are tensors,

∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂xr pq ∂ x̄m ∂xt s

Ājk
l = A and B̄nm = B
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄l r ∂xs ∂ x̄n t

Multiplying,

Si r
∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂xr ∂ x̄m ∂xt pq s
Ājk m
l B̄n = A B
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄l ∂xs ∂ x̄n r t
which shows that Apq s
r Bt is a tensor of rank 5, with contravariant
indices p, q, s and covariant indices r, t, thus warranting the no-
pqs
tation Crt . We call Crpqs = Apq s pq
r Bt the outer product of Ar and
Bts .
din
Example: Show that the contraction of the outer product of
the tensors Ap and Bq is an invariant.

∂ x̄j p
Solution: Since Ap and Bq are tensors, Āj = ∂xp A , B̄k =
∂xq
B . Then
∂ x̄k q
d

j ∂ x̄j ∂xq p
Ā B̄k = p k A Bq
∂x ∂ x̄
iru

By contraction (putting j = k and summing)

∂ x̄j ∂xq p
j
Ā B̄j = p j A Bq = δpq Ap Bq = Ap Bp
∂x ∂ x̄
and so Ap Bp is an invariant. The process of multiplying tensors
h

(outer multiplication) and then contracting is called inner multi-

plication and the result is called an inner product. Since Ap Bp
Ja

is a scalar, it is often called the scalar product of the vectors Ap

and Bq .

Example: Suppose a tensor Apqr st is symmetric (skew-symmetric)

with respect to indices p and q in one coordinate system. Show
that it remains symmetric (skew-symmetric) with respect to p
and q in any coordinate system.

Solution: Since only indices p and q are involved, we shall

[email protected] 15 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

prove the results for B pq . If B pq is symmetric, B pq = B qp . Then

jk ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k pq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄j qp

B̄ = p qB = q p
B = B̄ kj
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
and B pq remains symmetric in the x̄i coordinate system.

Si r
If B pq is skew-symmetric, B pq = −B qp . Then

jk ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k pq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄j qp

B̄ = p q B = − q p B = −B̄ kj
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
and B pq remains skew-symmetric in the x̄i coordinate system.

The above results are, of course, valid for other symmetric

(skew-symmetric) tensors.
din
5 Metric Tensor
d
The differential of arc length ds in rectangular coordinates (x, y, z)
is obtained from ds2 = dx2 +dy 2 +dz 2 . By transforming to general
iru

curvilinear coordinates, this becomes

3 X
X 3
2
ds = gpq dup duq
p=1 q=1
h

Such spaces are called three-dimensional Euclidean spaces. A gen-

eralization to N -dimensional space with coordinates x1 , x2 , . . . , xN
is immediate. We define the line element ds in this space to be
Ja

given by the quadratic form, called the metric form or metric,

N X
X N
2
ds = gpq dxp dxq
p=1 q=1

or, using the summation convention,

ds2 = gpq dxp dxq

[email protected] 16 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

In the special case where there exists a transformation of coordi-

nates from xj to x̄k such that the metric form is transformed into

2
2
2
dx̄1 + dx̄2 + · · · + dx̄N or dx̄k dx̄k , then the space is called
N -dimensional Euclidean space. In the general case, however, the
space is called Riemannian.

Si r
The quantities gpq are the components of a covariant tensor
of rank two called the metric tensor or fundamental tensor. We
can, and always will, choose this tensor to be symmetric.

Let g = |gpq | denote the determinant with elements gpq and

suppose g 6= 0. Define g pq by

g pq =
din
cofactor of gpq
g
Then g pq is a symmetric contravariant tensor of rank two called
the conjugate or reciprocal tensor of gpq (see Problem 8.34). It
can be shown that
d
g pq grq = δrp
iru

5.1 Raising or Lowering the indices using Met-

ric

Given a tensor, we can derive other tensors by raising or lowering

h

indices. For example, given the tensor Apq , by raising the index
p, we obtain the tensor Apq . By raising the index q also, we obtain
Ja

Apq . W Thus, for example

Apq = g rp Arq , Apq = g rp g sq Ars

Aprs = grq Apq

s , Aqmtk
n = g pk gsn g rm Aq·st
rp

These become clear if we interpret multiplication by g rp as

meaning: let r = p (or p = r ) in whatever follows and raise this

[email protected] 17 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

index. Similarly, we interpret multiplication by grq as meaning:

let r = q (or q = r ) in whatever follows and lower this index.

All tensors obtained from a given tensor by forming inner

products with the metric tensor and its conjugate are called as-
sociated tensors of the given tensor. For example Am and Am

Si r
are associated tensors, the first are contravariant and the second
covariant components. The relation between them is given by

Ap = gpq Aq or Ap = g pq Aq

For rectangular coordinates gpq = 1 if p = q, and 0 if p 6= q,

so that Ap = Ap , which explains why no distinction was made
din
between contravariant and covariant components of a vector in
earlier chapters.

Example:

Determine the metric tensor in (a) cylindrical and (b) spheri-

d
cal coordinates.

Solution:
iru

(a) As you know,

ds2 = dρ2 + ρ2 dφ2 + dz 2

If x1 = ρ, x2 = φ, x3 = z, then g11 = 1, g22 = ρ2 , g33 = 1,

h

g12 = g21 = 0, g23 = g32 = 0, g31 = g13 = 0.

 
Ja

g11 g12 g13

In matrix form, the metric tensor can be written  g21 g22 g23  =
 
g31 g32 g33
 
1 0 0
 0 ρ2 0 
 
0 0 1

(b) As you know

ds2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θdφ2

[email protected] 18 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

1 2 3
 If x = r, x =
 θ, x = φ, the metric tensor can be written
1 0 0
 0 r2 0
 

0 0 r2 sin2 θ

In general, for orthogonal coordinates, gjk = 0 for j 6= k.

Si r
5.2 Metric in special relativity

In special relativity we write the four coordinates as

din
x0 = ct, x1 = x, x2 = y, x4 = z

And the invariant interval as

∆s2 = c2 t2 = x2 − y 2 − z 2

2
2
2
2
d
= ∆x0 − ∆x1 − ∆x2 − ∆x3
iru

This interval behaves as the line element in the four dimen-

sional space time. And from the definition of metric, the metric
of the special relativistic four space time will be
h

 
1 0 0 0
 0 −1 0 0 
gij = 
 
Ja

0 0 −1 0

 
0 0 0 −1

Our first definition of coordinates

x0 , x1 , x2 , x3

is called the contravariant position vector in spacetime .

Now we define another set of coordinates

[email protected] 19 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

x0 ≡ x0 = ct
x1 ≡ −x1 = −x
x2 ≡ −x2 = −y
x3 ≡ −x3 = −z

Si r
we will call this set the covariant position vector in spacetime
.

The interval can be written as

3
2
∆s =
din
X
(∆xµ ) (∆xµ )
µ=0

In notation of summation index

∆s2 = (∆xµ ) (∆xµ )

d

In terms of metric tensor

iru

    
x0 1 0 0 0 x0
 x   0 −1 0 0
 1 
 x1 
=
 
 x2   0 0 −1 0 x2
  
 
x3 0 0 0 −1 x3
h

In compact form of notation

3
X
xµ = gµν xν
Ja

ν=0

In terms of summation index

xµ = gµν xν

The invariant interval is written as

[email protected] 20 Tensor Notes

©Sk Jahiruddin, 2022 CC8 2022

3
X
2
∆s = (∆xµ ) (∆xµ )
µ=0
3 3
!
X X
= (∆xµ ) gµν ∆xν

Si r
µ=0 ν=0
3
X
= gµν ∆xµ ∆xν
µ,ν=0
d din
h iru
Ja

[email protected] 21 Tensor Notes