6 Electric Welding

Introduction-Resistance Welding-Electric Arc Welding-Ultrasonic Welding-Electron Beam

Welding-Laser Beam Welding-Requirements of Good Weld-Preparationof Work-Electrodes-
Power Supply For Resistance Welding-Machines For Resistance Welding-Electronic
Control in Resistance Welding-Power Supply For Arc Welding-Electric Welding
Equipment-Arc Welding With DC and AC-Comparison Between Resistance .and Arc
Weldmg-Exercises.

&(1. INTRODUCTION
<:/Welding is a ma.terials-joining process that produces coalescence* of materials by heating
t.bem to the welding temperature with or without the application of pressure or by the
application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler metal. It is used to make
welds. A weld is "a localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by
heating materials to the welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure, or
by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler metal."
All metals can be joined by one welding process or another. There is a saying. '1f it's
metal, weld it," and it is certainly true. This should be .qualified by stating that all metals
commercially employed for structural or strength parts are weldable. Some metals are easy
to weld, and others are difficult to weld. The metals that are easily weldable can be welded
in thickness from the very thinnest, about the thickness of this paper page, to the thickest
or heaviest produced. The difficult-to-weld metals require special procedures and techniques
that must be developed for specific applications. Some metals may never be welded or
joined. For example, mercury is n liquid nt room temperature and cannot be welded, while
sodium and potassium melt just below the temperature of boiling water and are of no use as
a strength member and cannot be welded. In general, metnls that have a low melting
point or low strength would not be welded. Some metals are so scarce or expensive that
they would not be used where welding would be required. The physical and mechanical
properties (such as melting temperature, density, thermal conductivity, tensile strength,
ductility etc.), availability, and price all help in determining if a metal will be used in
applications where welding is required.

/ Importance of Welding. Welding is the most efficient way to join metals. It is the
only wny to join two or more pieces of metal to make them act as one piece. Welding is
widely employed to manufacture or repair all products made of metal. Look around, almost
every thing made of metal is welded; the world's tallest building, moon rocket engines,
nuclear reactors, home appliances, and automobiles barely start the list.
The use of welding is still increasing. If a joint is welded, it is permanent joint.
Obviously, if the joint must be disassembled occasionally, it should not be welded. Thus we
should change our statement to "welding is the most economical method to permanently join
metal parts." To join two members by bolting or riveting equires holes in the parts to
accommodate the bolts or rivets. These holes reduce the x-sect1onal area of the members t:J
be joined by upto 10 percent. The joint m?y als_orequire the useof ne or two gusset plates,
thus increasing the weight of mntennl required and the cost. This expense can be
eliminated by
• Coalcaconeo· rnea.oe tho growing toguthcr or irowtb int.o one body of the mnt.<?rinls being w<?lded.
280
 ElfeJrl-0 Weldi'n1 281

tbe use of a weJ;d. The greatest eCDnomy of a we-Med design will be obtained j{ the s•
ional area of e entirestr.uctural member is reduced by the amount of the bGlt
h"l.es. 'l'h.is can be dome since t.he entirecroa sec-tion of a m.embcr of a welded daign it

Thia same des

!
utilized to-c.arry load, The -a ount.0 atenal required is reduced as well as its cost.

eoncept ap hes toJOtmng plates used to build a ship o.r a co·ntain r. In view of this
m.atenal savings, s?1?s and stora e tanks are no longer riveted.
Pipes Jomed by welding offer similar economies The wall thickness of a pipe should be
heavy .enough t? c.arry he required load. Howe·ver, if the pipe joined by screw ·threa.ch
a
heavier wall tckn.ea 18 used to allow for cutting away a portion of the thickness fo.r e
threads. A thinner pipe wall thickness is used for the entire welded pipe syi;tem. Tb15
reduces the amount of metal required and the cost. The inside surface of the weld.ed joint
is smoother. Large-dillmeter pipes are no longer connected toiether with screw thre uu
and pipe fittings.
Converting castings to weldments allo•Ns the designer to reduce weight by reducing metal
thickness. Welding is a design concept which allows freedom and flexibility not possible with
east construetion. Heavy plates can be used where strength is required and thin ones can
be used where possible. The uniform thickne s rule and minimum tbiek.ness required fur
foundry praetice are not neees ry for weld.ments. Addition.ally, high-strength materials
can be employed in specific areas, while normal-strength materials are used where
required. Welding is the best way to protect and conserve materials by proteeting their
surf.ace with special metal overlays. Corrosion and wear of metals att.OUnt for losses
running into billions of dollars annually. Together they ue responsible for an untold loss
of lives. Waste Crom both of these destructive forces can be largely reduced by welding.
Special alloys are weld.deposited on base metals to provide corrosion-resistance
surfaces. Hard surfacing overlays can be made by welding to provide special alloys with
wear-resistant surfaces. A typical application is the resurfacing of a cinder crusher roll
with hard weld metal. Weld
surfacing is used to reduce the costly abrasive and corrosive wear o( machinery.
Thus in short we can say, "today, the science and art of welding encompasses a wide
rnnge of processes and procedures applicable to materials of any thickness and shape- from
tiny electronic components to mammoth machines and struetures. Welding has opened up
prospects for radical improvements in the manufacture of a large variety of machines,
devices nnd structures. It has promoted mechanization and automation in their
manufa.c.ture. The use of automatic, semi.automatic and mechanized welding equipment
has relieved a large number of workers for employment elsewhere in the national economy.
Welding is now-a-days extensively used in automobile industry, air craft machine frames,
structural work, tanks, machine repair work, ship-building, pipe•line fabrication in
thermal power pl and refineries, fabrication of metal structures."
_f'l.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Welding. Some of the advantages of welding are
given below :
1. Welding is the lowest-cost joining method.._ . .
2. It affords lighter weight through better utilisation of materials.
3. It joins all commercial metals.
4. It can be used anywhere.
5. It provides design flexibility.
'rho limitations of welding are:
l, Some welding depends on the human factor.
2. It oft.on needs interm1l inspection.
Mostof these limitotions cnn be overcome by means of good controls and supervision.
 282 Utilization a( Electric Pow r

Welding is a.tao an economical mpnuf11cturing method wherever there is a need to

join parts permanently. In the high•volume production industries it is common to see
welding perationa intermixed with bending. machinine, forming. assembly and ao on. \
Velding is an impor nt m,mufacturing process taking it.a place with other metal workinr
operations to help brtna= us good•quahty products at economical prices.
6.1.3. Personnel Protection and Safety Rules. There are a number of safety and health
problems usociated with welding. When correct precautionary measures are followed, welding
1s a safe occupation. The hazards that are more or less peculiar to welding are electrical
shock, arc radiation_.11ir contamination, fire ond explosion, compressed gases. welding
cleaning and other hA-zards related to specific processes or occupation•.
Combustible materials must not he allowed to collect in or near the welding work
place. Good housekeeping practices &hould always be employed in the welding shop.
Adequate safety devicea should be provided. such os fire extinguishers, life-saving and
support equipment. fir■t-aid kits, and so on, plus the training of personnel to utilize this
equipment properly. Only approved equipment be used, ond it must be properly installed
and maintained in good working conditions.
V-.:t.4. Cla1aification of \Veldinc Proce11e1. There are many ways to make a weld and
there are many different kinds of welds. The welder behind the hood making sparks is using
one of the more popular welding processes. known as arc welding. Some welding processes
do not cause sp11rks: in sc;,me case3 electricity is not used, and in some cases there is not
even extrll heat. \Velding has become complex ond technical. It needs considerable knowledge
to eelect the proper welding process for critical work.
Afodern methods o{ welding mny be classified under two broad headings-plastic
welding and fu1ion welding. They are also called pressure welding, and non-pressure
welding respectively. In the plcutic weldillg or pressure welding, the pieces of metal to
be joined are heated to a plastic etate and then fqrced together by external pressure. This
includes force welding, re&iatance weldmg, thermit welding and gas welding, in which
pressure is required. In the fusion. welding or 11011,prtssurt welding, the material at the
joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify. This include& gas welding, arc
welding and thermit weldine without pressure. ·
The various welding processes used in general engineering are given below :
1. Oa1 Weldine - (,) Oxy acetylene (ii) Air•acetylene and (ii,) Oxy-hydrogen.
2. Resistance Welding - (i) Butt (ii) Spot (iii) Projection (iu) Seam and (v) Percussion.
3. Arc Welding - (i) Carbon arc (il) Metal arc (iii) Ga1metal arc (iv) Gas tungsten arc (u)
Atomic-hydrogen arc (t1i) Pla,ma arc (t1it) Submerged a.re (viii) Flux-cored arc and
(i.x) Electro-1lag.
4. Thermit Welding.
5. Solid State \Velding- (i) Friction (i,) Ultr sonic (iii) Diffusion and (iv) Explosive.
6. Newer Weldin( - (,) Electron beam a!ld (u)aaer..
ere we will discuss only about electric welding (Resistance welding and are welding)
ome introduction to other modern welding techniques.
RESISTANCE WELDING
.1 defi,,utio,,, resista11,ce welding i, t at p octu i11, which a ,u{ficieritly strong electric
curr ,&e u •en.t thro1,1h the two mdal p,eces m co"tact to be weldtd which melts the
metals b lh• re,uta,,ce they f/er to th, flaw ?I the elcctri curre, t. . .
'1 Resiatance welding mcludes , spot welding, proJection weldmg, seam weldmg
d -.- ... , . All are alike in the
an - o re111tance
principle ··7 -ea -1 · ·n the
detail1 orapplication,
 283

In resistance welding a heavy current (above 100 A) at O low voltage is passed directly
through the.work piece and heat deyeloped by the resistance to the flow of current, given
by the exp_resaion 1 2 R. <t where I is the current in amperes, R is the resistance in ohms
and t
is the time or duration of flow of current in seconds) is utilised. The beat developed at the
contact area between the pieces to be welded reduces the metal to a plastic state; the pieces
are en pressed to.gether_to c mplete the weld. In this process, preferably two copper
electrodes , are incorporated m a c1rcwt of low resistance and the metal• to be welded
are preued between the el c.trodes. The electrical voltage required ranges from 4 to 12
volts depending on the composition, area, thickness etc. of the metal pieces to be welded.
The amount of power supplied to the weld usually ranges from about 60 watts to 180
watts for each sq. mm of area. Altern.atin.g cu.rren.t is fou.11.d to be most suitable for
resista,i.ce weldi11,g as it can. prouide an.y desired combination. of curre11.t an.d voltage by
mea,u of a suitable tra,uformer.
In order to avoid the surface distortion, the portion of the metal adjacent to the weld or
joint should not be allowed to be overheated.
Resistance to the flow of current is made of (i) resistance of the current path in the
work (ii} resistance between the contact surfaces of the parts being welded and (iii)
resistance between the electrodes and the surface of the parts being welded. In order to
develop higher temperature between the interfaces of the work to be welded rather than at
the surface of the work in contact with the electrodes it is necessary to keep the resistance
between the electrodes and the surface of the body being welded to minimum.
In order to obtain a good weld it is necessary to maintain the contact resistance uniform
which depends upon the surface condition.
For welding thin materials the resistance of the current path in the work is kept
minimum. For welding thick materials of low conductivity the resistance of the current path
have a comparatively greater value and the control of contact resistance is not necessary. For
welding thick materials of high conductivity either reduced pressure or high resistance
electrodes having melting point higher than that of metal to be welded, can be used. For
welding two dissimilar metals having different conductivity, low conductivity electrodes on
high conductivity metal side and vice-versa are used in order to prevent overheating on the
low conductivity metal and to develop sufficient heat to melt high conductivity metal side.
The pressure which is to be applied on the weld is also an important factor. At high
pressure, low temperature plastic welds can be obtained and where as if the pressure is
lowered the resistance to the welding current is to be increased. There is a limit upto which
the resistance can be increased and after that there will be surface burning. The pressure
necessary to effect the weld varies from 2.5-5.5 kgf/mm2•
The magnitude of current is controlled by varying either the primary voltage of the
welding transformer (by using auto-transf rmer between supply a n_dt h e welding
tranaformer) or changing the primary turns of the we ding transformer. Alte t1ve method
of controlling the current to weld is to vary the magnitude and wave of the pnmary as well
as secondary current by using Thyratron or I nitron tub s in the primaryircuit..
In resistance welding, the time for which current flows 18 very important. Usually
automatic arrangements are devised which switch off the supply after a predetermined
time from applying of pressure (startin of weld). The pres_sur may be applied manually,
by air pressure, by springs or by bydr ubc means. After sw1t<:hmg o f the supply, the
preHure is maintained on the electrodes until the weld c ls. Inmachines which are operated
continuously, the electrodes are cooled by water irculatmg hro gh holl w electrodes.
Electrical circuit diagram for re11atance weldm is ah wn m fig. 6.1. The machine
employed for reeiatance welding contains a transformer provided with necessary taps. a
clampine device
 284 Utilization of El ctrlc Pow r

for holding the metal pieces, and PRESSURE

a mechanical means for forcing TRANSFORMER

'
the pieces, to be welded,
together
to complete the weld. WORK
WATEFt-COOlEO
Resistance welding has the ELECTRODES :=cl '2"' PIECES
advantage of producing a I.erge
volugu: of work at high speeds F EDARM'---------1
-tli'i«a.Fe reproouc16ie with high
1
CONT.ACTOR
•li'Y. Resistance welds are
made very quickly; however, each Electrical Circuit For Resutance Welding
process has its own time cvcle. Fig. 6.1 •
Resistance welding operations are automatic. Good-quality welds do not depend on welding
operator skill but more on proper setup and adjustment of the equipment and adherence
to weld schedules.
Resistance welding is employed mainly for mass production. It is easily adapted to those
components which can be moved to the machine and axe light. The operation is extremely
rapid and simple. This is the only process where heat can be controlled and which permits
a pressure action at the weld.:Metals of medium and high resistance, such as steel, stainless
steel, monel metal and silicon bronze are easy to weld. Special control gear is required,
however, in the case of high-carbon steels and special equipment providing very high
current impulses (stored energy welding) is used in case of materials of low electrical
resistance.
The automotive industry is the major user followed by the appliance industry. It is used
by many industries manufactuxing a variety of products made of thinner-gauge metals and
{or manufacturing pipes, tubing, and smaller structuxal sections.
When specifying the material intended to be resistance welded, consideration must be
given to the state in which this to be supplied to the welding shop. Whilst slight rust, mill
scale etc., on the material may not affect the efficiency of arc welds to a considerable degree,
Jack of cleanliness will be fatal to resistance welded joints. Pickling or shot-blasting immediately
prior to the resistance welding operation is essentiaffor making this latter method a success.
· Material upto 5 mm thickness which is to be used on resistance•welded jobs is usually
purchased in a pick.led and slightly oiled condition, and should be carefully stored in order
to keep it clean. It can then be used without removing the oil film provided that the oil is
clean. Material above 5 mm thickness should be shot-blasted before being taken to the
resistance-welding machines. No long delay should occur between the shot blasting and the
welding, in order to avoid new corrosion which might eliminate the advantage gained by the
former. Sand-blasting is not recommended, as particles of the siliceous material may be
embedded in the steel surface and influence its electrical resistance.
 °'!'
u \\·e ,vei two pieces of metal togeth r '\\ith a butt weld can be

=
carried "- 1'f difra-ent -ta.Dee welJ.ing pro.., SeS. The butt"·dJ consists cl joining of
two pieces J I U\ the.r e1 el" en fa.ce N o.n edge.. It i of two t name!. (a)
upset butt wcldin
r,i! bu.it-wekb.n-s, ypes J
Upsrt &U H lding.. It is a resi "'e welding h
Fl t produ coal o,•er the entire - ----
--ti.faying surfa
· I .
. oi-P.rro ly al abu••
joCt &!' me eatoh:,amed from the resk.-tance to the _
D 5!:
<'"I
. ..-,L-,
-- - -"O Cl.a..P'-.., V,S.l) Cl,\YP

n..•f£•eM•
L !:J
o:rrenthro th-e area \\'here those .....
are in contact.. It can be used only if the , ot-T- --- --- ,- "'-
putstnbe welded are equ in - . ·onal area.

r"""
'OJOi&ool
f
--=""'=-=-

=
End to end wel h i p" · e l and butt wel ·
mcbded- The fa.:es of the metal pieces to be joined
are pre-pa.red for e ·en contact. The metal pieces to o---!l---1
lie joined are fixed in cl.amP3 and butted squarely CONW::.TC:R
0
11p.msl, each other. as shown in ftg. 6.2 and be!l
em. In 1 . 4 . U S case
. - thro··..l. lh i. L : - h l'fpsd UF'di,gJin6.g.;,Pron!...
cmtel1 i IS pa:s :,IC"U
eating
is obtained by the contact resistance of the metals · ...
tD be welded.. \'\'"hen St1f'Iicient heat is de,'cloi>e"L the pieces are rammed by force to
complete the ...eLt. -u:re isappliedeiUiet ruano.ally or Wl.ili toggle
mechanism. 'lhepressure applied upsets or forges the parts together. The joint is cooled
under pressure.. •.\fter cooling tlle fan:e is :-elea..;;:al and the weld is completed. Upset buU
"'elding.,vhich has the advantage afcreating no flash spatte.T and a smooth and symmetrical
ups isused principally on non• feuous1113.terials for welding ha rods. wire. tubing
formed parts etc. The ,-oltage required far selding is 2-8 ,'Olts and current varies Crom 50 A
to se,•eral hundred ampe depending upon the material and the area tobe •elded at a
time. The curren pressure and time may he rnao:ual or automatic controlled. The latter
method is preferred in production machines.
If intimate conta isnotobtained because oI improper joint preparauon. the weld will
l>e def'ectiv
fC') Flad& Butt H lding. E,·en thou&h it is not
I
flNISHEDA.>.SHv-.u.o

a resistance welding process. it. is desirable to &

amsider it here, as in this method the two metal -------.....------
JJieces are butted together and a current is passed
the joint which bents the ends _to red
beat Flash welding may be defined as a resistance
• eJ process that produces conlesce?ce at e
surfaces of a butt joint by flashing ch
n
lad by application of pressure after heating 1s
'81aatantially completed (fig. 6.3). .
Inthis process of welding no special preparab.OD
tithe faces to be welded is necessary. In flas!1 utt
the voltage to the metal par to be Joined
IiCONTACj®lOROOOOOQJ
-=--- .§ \\UOING

- is applied before putting them togelher.

0 - - !
small parts of the faces to be wel ed m o--1
- intocontact; the heat develo owing Flash Bidt ,r lduag Procea
'-:lriala resiatance o( the cont.act areas ses Fig. 6.J
 -- or the material at these
8
points • :
them to meJL The molten metal is blo n ou anda :1al • as which raises
..... .t.u.re ofadjoining _parts of the abutting su aces. e eJection m ten metal &om
286 Utiii,zation of El ctric Pow r

high spots continues until the whole of the surfaces ore heated to the weldingtemperature.
Some additional heat may be creoted by the combustion of molten pa clcs, e fo_rce
bleaction· of which is probably due to the pressure of metallic vopour. The flashing action
i,suded by nn oscillating movement or one or thecomponents. As soon as the whole or the
su_rfaces to be welded reach forging tempcroture, the pressure is opplied, and the power
supply 1s cutoff.
Flash butt welding creates a joint which hos practically the full strength of the parent
metal under static loading conditions and a strength slightly less thon thnt of the parent
metal under dynamic lo ds. The shope and area or the two components must be identical at
the point to be joined, and a suitoble upset allowance must be made.
Flash butt welding can be used on most metals (low carbon steels, tool steels,
stainless steels, aluminium alloys with thickness exceedmg 1.25 mm, copper alloys with
high zmc content, magnesium alloys, molybdenum alloys, nickel alloys, titanium alloys,
medium strength and high strength low olloy steels) le&ving cost iron. lead. zinc, antimony
alloys and bismuth.
Flash butt welding is considered superior to upset butt welding on the following accounts.
(,) Many dissimilar metals with different melting temperatures con be flash welded.
· (u)_ F1ash weld provides a smoller upset.
(iil.) Flash welding is foster than other methods.
(ic:) All the foreign metals appearing on the butting surfaces is burnt due to first few
flashes preceding application of welding pressure. Thus clean and pure weld is obtained.
(v) Power requirement is less.
(v,.) Flash welding can be used for the welding of those highly alloyed steels which
cannot be welded satisfactorily by any other process. 'l'his is because, in flash
welding, under correctly controlled conditions, the heating is not only even but
extremely local; so that the cooling stresses are maintained at a minimum; this
avoids hardening and cracking in highly alloyed steels.
Flash welding have some limitations and drawbacks a1so. as enumerated below:
(i) The most undesirable feature o( flash welding is the flashing operation during
which it is impossible to protect the welding machine and the surroundmg area
from these particles, which can burn into side-way bearings, insulation etc. This
necessitates more frequent maintenance.
(i,.) The process presents a consideraLle fire hazards. Operators need to be protected from
flying particles.
(iii) Metal is lost during flashing and upsetting.
(iu) Concentricity and straightness of the work pieces during welding process is often
difficult to maintain.
Application• of Flash JVeldlng. (i) Flash welding is applied primarily in the butt
welding of metal sheets, tubing, bars, rods, forgings, fittings etc.
(i,.) Flash welding finds applications in automotive and air-craft products, household
appliances, refrigerators and farm implements.
(ii&) The process is also used for welding the band saw blades into continuous loops,
and joining of tool steel drill, top and reamer bodies to low carbon steel and alloy
steel ahanks.
(w) sh welding is used to produce assemblies that otherwise would require more costly
orgings or costings.
1//e nce B twe n Fla•h Weldln1 and Upsd Butt lVeldina. (r.) In upset butt welding
rcinl(hence flashing) occurs between the surfaces being joined. Heat is produced solely by
die electrical resistance at the abutting sw:facca-to the assage of an electric current.
. .
•
 287

lj&) In flash welding, unlike upset butt ,vclding, the movable platen keeps on moving
constantly to,vard the stationary platen..
(ju) Flash welding consumes much less \\'C}ding current than consumed by upset butt
welding process; the time allowed for ,...,eld to be completed is, ho\vevcr. more..
(iv) In flash \Velding heat application precedes the pressure,,,here a_sin u se
butt
,velding constant pressure is applied during the heating process ,vh1ch eliminates
flashing.
 only used assemblies for electric contacts. •
0
ELECTRIC ARC \VELDING I •

y fmition, arc welding is that process ill. which

the puces of metal to be welded are brought to the
proper welding temperature at point of contact by
th,e heat liberated at the arc terminals and in the
arc atrea,n so that the 1netals are completely /used
into each other, formin.g a single solid homogeneous
WORK
. mau, after it solidifies. Electric Arc Welduig Circuit
In this process an electric arc is produced by Fi.g. 6.9 ,
bringing two conductors (electrode and metal piece)
connected to a suitable source of electric current, momentarily in contact and then
separating by a small distance. The current continues to flow across the small gap and
gives intense heat. The heat developed is utilised to melt the part of the work piece, and
the filler metal and thus forms the joint. So arc welded joint is a union of metal
parts.made by localised
'·heating without any pressure. That is why sometimes this type of welding is known as the
non-pressure welding. The heat developed by arc is also used for cutting of metal
Thevoltage necessary to strike the arc is higher than that required to maintain it. The
temperature is of the order of 3,600°C, at which mechanical pressure is not required for
jointing. According to BSS 638 maximum voltage specified for welding is about 100 volts
for thesafety of the operator. The arc voltage varies from 20 to 40 volts and current from
50
A in sh et metal work to 1,000 A in heavy automatic welding.
The welding circuit for an electric-arc welding process is shown in fig. 6.9. The welding
circuit consists of a welding machine, two leads, an electrode holder. an electrode and the
work itself.
The electric arc welding is widely used for joining of metal parts, the repair of fractured
cutinga and the fillings bye.dep sition of new metal on worn out parts..
Arc welding i• again subd1V1ded into five groups namely carbon-arc welding, metal-arc
welclinc, atomic hydrogen-arc welding, inert gas m tal-arc welding and submerged arc weldiq.
U.l. Carbon-Arc Weldi_ng. Carbon-ar elding differs from etal-arc welding in that it
/11 puddling process and is s?me hat similar to the gaa welding p ess. Thecarbon
arc
• Yery •table and easy to maintain. The. length of the arc can be vaned over_wide limits
without cau..ing the arc to go out. There 1S n_otendency for the electrode to freeze or stick.
• ia &be cue or the metallic electrode. Accordingly the arc ca be ,truck without difilculty
 Ill Utilization of Electric Power

a\ any point., and rapidly moved FILLER

over the 1urface the work to ru.o METAL
o
the point. where the weld is to be
METAL
made. Hieb meltinc speed an,d ... .--... --sit n

: :!i': :: :• the main · 11/ff ' [1// "

In thia proce11, a carbon or, (a)\Veldui, n'ith Single (b) Weldint Wit/, Do1tble
graphite rod ia used aa a negative Ca.-bo" Ekctrodc Carbon Ekctrode,
electrode andthe work being welded Carbon-Arc Welding
aa positive. Mostly graphite r&g.6.10
electrodes are used as they yield longer life and have low resistance and thus capable of
conducting more current. The arc produced between the two electrodes beats the metal to
the meltinc temperature. This is about a.200°c on the negative electrode, and 3,900°C
on the positive electrode. The reason to use carbon rod as negative electrode is that less
heat will be generated at the electrode tip than that at the work piece, and carbon from
the electrode
>will not fuse and mix up with the job. If this so happens the resultant weld will be rich in
carbon, and consequently very much brittle and unsound. For this type of welding only de '
can be used. The use of ac is not recommended because no fixed polarity can be maintained.
Thia process is normally adopted where addition of filler material is not required, e.g., flange
or edge joints, but if filler metal is required, it is provided by the welding rod made of the
similar metal to that of the metal to be welded. Some protection for the molten weld metal
may be provided by using a long arc which produces a carbon monoxide gas envelope. There
are two methods of carbon-arc welding. In one method no flux is used and in the other
method flux either in the form of powder or paste is used to prevent the weld from oxidation.
Former method is confined to non-ferrous metals and the later method is usually employed
· for ferrous metals. ·
Electrodes upto 25 mm in diameter with currents upto 600 or 800 A are used, so that
the carbon-arc process is well suited to rapid work, or cases such as arise in the repair of
, castings, where large quantities of filler metals have to be deposited.
· - .- Carbon-arc welding is employed for welding sheet steel, copper alloys, brass, bronze,
and aluminium. It is not suitable for verticol and overbead welding.
·- In another process of carbon-arc welding, known os twin.carbo,t-arc welding, two carbon
electrodes are used between which the arc is formed, as illustrated in fig. 6.10 (b). In this
way the arc generates heat which is applied close to the ports to be welded, causing the edges
to fuse. In heavy welds, a filler rod is melted by the arc and deposited in the weld. An ac
supply is recommended for twin carbon-arc welding. In case de supply is used, the positive
electrode will disintegrate and consume at o. much foster rate as compared to the -ve
electrode because two-thirds of the total heat is generated at the positive pole. This will
produce an unstable arc and n ed more frequ nt adjustment of the lectrodes. Th el trodes
uied for twin carbon-arc welding are npprox1motely of the same diameter as the thickness
oC work piece. The magnitude of ore current required depends upon both, electrode
diameter and plate thickness. Twin carbon-arc welding, though, more complex than single
carbon-arc
welding, possesses the advantage that arc is independent of the job and can be moved
, .anywhe wj,thout getting extinguished. Moreover, the work piece is not a part of the electrical
circui ..
A . lletal-Arc Welding. In this type of welding, a metal rod of the same metal as being
-'llllillliu"'ed forms one of the electrode and nlso se es as a filler and no filler rod is used
tiit,arately. The arc struck between the work bemg welded and the electrode causes the
·•eltedrod to flow across the ore into the metal pool of the parent metal. This deposition of
suclrlc Welclirt1 293

111etal is accomplished by cont.act made between the

molten 010tal and the globules formed on the end of the INSULATED
electrodo filler rod. The temperature produced is about 2 CABLE
400°C and 2,G(X)IC the negativa electrode and positive
00
WELOINO ROO
el t.rode respectively. The concentration of heat
energy at the
t.ermin of the electrode causes a small part of the
work bemg welded to melt almost instantaneously and
an intermittent flow of metal across the arc stream
The metal in the arc system is m both the liquid and '------ . .
gaseous forms, the l.Jquld metal being transferred across Metal-Are Weldmg
C,rcmt the arc by molecular attraction, adhesion, cohesion, surface Fig.
6·1'
tension or 8 combination of these. For this type of welding both ac and de can be used. For
de supply 50.60 volts and for ac supply 70-100 volts are used for welding. For current above
760 A ac equipment is preferred as it has high efficiency, negligible loss at no load and
11
mmimum maintenance and initial cost. Welding with de also gives rise to "'arc blow •owing
to the magnetic forees created by the current, a trouble which does not exist with ac
welding as each magnetic force is immediately followed by one in opposite direction and
the arc deflecting forces are automatically cancelled. Metal in the molten state has an
affinity for foreign elements such as oxygen, nitrogen etc.; and in order to prevent
impurities from entering the weld modern arc-welding electrodes are covered with a coating
which, under the welding heat, generates a gas shield round the arc, and also forms a slag
which is deposited on and around the molten metal. protecting it against foreign matter
during the cooling stages. A metal-arc welding circuit is shown in fig. 6.11.
The correct welding current, volt.age and welding speed are very JJ11portant. Vanous
welding currents can have a deC1dmg effect on the forming of proper beads. A welding
shows bead characteristics under different conditions (,) welding current too low-excessive
piling of the metal (u) welding current too high-causing excessive spatter, (ii,) voltage too
high-bead too small (iu) welding speed too low-excessive piling up of weld metal. Proper
current and timing create a smooth, regular, well-formed be.ad. Undercut.ting is also n result
0£ too much current. o e ough current results in overlapping and a lack of fusio1,11vith
themetal.
6.3.3. Ato 1c Hydrogen-Arc Welding. The principle of atomic hydrogen, welding is based
on (i) th possibility of obtaining atomic hydrogen by mcnns of an electriQ arc between the
two tungsten electrodes, in on atmosphero of hydrogen ut atmospheric prcs9. rc. (ii) the very
high temperature produced by tho recombination of the atoms, which occu rs in t.he cooler
regions immediately outside the arc, and (iii) the very great heat conductivit of hydrogen
at high temperatures, owing to the dissociation of the hydrogen molecules int'° the atomic
sta . and resulting in an extremely high rate of delivery of heat to the surfaces to\be
welded-
roughly twice that for the oxy-accetylcne welding fla1,11c. ,
In this method of arc welding an ec arc is maintained between the two non-coni.:umable
tungsten electrodes while a stream of hydrogen gas, under a pressure of about 0.5 g/cm2,
16 passed through the arc and eroun? the electrode . AC supply is scd in order to u tain
equal consumption of the clectrodc3. fhc hyd_rogcn 1s usually supphcd from steel cylinllers
and servos two-fold purposo-fi.rstJy as protoct1vo screen for thearc, secondly 8$ cooling ng'lnt
for the glowing tungsten elect!oclo points. the molecules of hydrogen p_ass through tl10
electric arc, they aro changed mto t?o atomic state and lhllS absorb a consulorablc amoun\t
of energy-resulting in cooling of glowmg tungsten elcctrodos. Out when the atoms of hydrogen
recombine into molecules just out.side there. alarge amount-of heat is liberated. Thi$ extra
heat, added Lo t.ho intense heat of the arc •!-9c , produces a t.omporaturc of about 4,000°C, as
compared to 2,000°C produced by the combmallon of normnl hydrogen nnd oxygen. This hca
 u,Jluatlon of BIM:u-fc Pou,.,.

ia \&Nd in makin1fusion welda. When additional metal ia required, filler _roda are mel
in.to the joinL Due to the clecarbonizina character of the weldin& Oanie (w1tb the
lormat1on of hydrocarbona) the filler rod material should have a carbon content higher
than tbat of the material to be welded. if the finished weld metal is to have the aame carbon
content the parent material. Owinc to the concentrated heat, hich welding speeds
may be obta ed k nadistortion 11aalL Further more hydrogen excludes all ox gen •
other gases which micht combine with the molten·metal to Corm oxides and other
impt.mties. It also removes oxidu from the surface of the work. Thus this proceaa is capable
of producing smooth, uniform. strong, and ductile welds. Automa equipment for this process
has been developed.
the hydrogen being fed through a water-cooled nozzle block. . .
Arc currents Upto 150 A can be used and the power supply arrangements are similar
to those for ordinary ac arc welding e,xcept that the transformer voltages are
gher, b ing
about 300 V on open-circuit for striking the arc and between 80 and 100 V while
operating.
Thia method is very flexible-practically any metal or alloy, ferrous and non-ferrous,
can be welded. Its greatest usefulness is for the fusion welding of certain special ferrous
alloys, such aa, chrome ]Jickel steels. aluminium, and duralumin, but it must use flux to
weld some of these materials. Welding of thin sheets, production of tubing, and the repairing
of exl?ensive tools d dies are some of the common uses of this method. -
8. . Inert GaaMetal Arc Welding. It is a gas shielded. metal-arc welding process which
• the intense·-heat of an electric arc between a continuously fed, consumable electrode
wire and the material to be welded. A consumable bare electrode wire producing the filler
metal ia automatically fed from a reel on to the job through a welding gun which also
carries a nozzle. Through this nozzle helium or argon is blown around the arc and on to the
weld. Because of low arc voltage for a given welding current argon is suitable for thin
materials u tendency to burn through is redu.ced. Because of low arc voltage and low power
for given welding current in case of argon gas welding tend.ency for metal fusion and metal
sag or run is reduced and, therefore, it is preferred for inposition welding. On the other
hand, because of high arc voltage and high power in case of helium gas welding, it is used for
welding of thick materials and metals with high heat conductivity. Mixture of the two
gases is useful to get intermediate characteristics. AC and de both can be used. This type of
welding has the following advantages : . · .
(a) In this method concentration of heat is possible and thus distortion is minimised.
_ (b) In·this method no flux is required since atmosphere is inert and air does not
come in contact with the molten metal.
This process is particularly employed for welding light alloys, stainless steel and
non• fenoua metals such as copper, olumini1Jm and their alloys. For welding aluminium
and aluminiu alloys ac supply and argon gas is used where as for welding magnesium
and maenesiwn alloys either ac supply and argon gas or de supply. reversed polarity and
either argon 01 helium gas is used. For the welding of stainless steel, mild steel, copper
and coppei; alloys, de and either argon 1 helium or ac high frequency stabilized with
argon or
heliwn used. I •
 ULTRASONICWELDING ·
Jlltrasonic welding is a solid-state welding CLM,tPtNO FORCE
APPLIED THROUGH
process that produces coalescence or
l
tAOUNT
PtvOTMOUNTEO
materials by the local application or high- TO WELDER FRAME
frequency (20-
60 kHz) vibratory energy as the work pieces
are held together under p'ressure. No flux or
filler metals arc used. no electrical current J.--t-.:.-.:.-:..-.:.-_-_-,--.
fiows through the weld metal, and usually no TRANSDUCER
heat is applied Since vibratory action in
ultrasonic welding breaks up and disperses
moisture, oxide and other (e.g., insulation)
coatings, normally, degreasing may be the
only
·cleaningrequired before welding (especially with Ult,·a&0nic Welding
aluminium). · Fig. 6.14
Welding occurs when the ultrasonic tip or'electrode, the energy coupling device, is
clamped against the work pieces and is made to oscillate in a plane parallel to the weld
interface. The combined clamping pressure and oscillating forces introduce dynamic stresses
in the base metal,This produces minute deformations which create a moderate
temperature rise 1n the base metal at the weld zone. This coupled with the clamping
pressure provides for coalescence across the interface to produce the weld.* Ultrasonic
energy will aid in cleaning the weld area by breaking up oxide films and causing them to be
carried away. The vibratory energy that produces the minute deformation comes from a
transducer which
·converts high-frequency alternating electrical energy into mechanical energy. The transducer
ii coupled to the work by various types of tooling which can range from tips similar to
resistance welding tips to resistance roll welding electrode wheels.
_The temperature at the weld is not raised to the melting point and, therefore, there is
no nugget similar to resistance welding. Weld strength is equal to the strength of the
base metal. Most ductile metals can be welded together and there are many combinations
of dissimilar metals that can be welded. The process is restricted to relatively thin
materials normally in tho foil or extremely thin gauge thicknesses. The maximum
thickness by these
p a1e1 ultras nically may ary rom 0.38 to 2.? mm depending upon the metal. .
11tial process 18 used extensively 1n the electronics. aerospace, and instrument
industnes. It ii alao used for producing packages and containers and for sealing them. The
process can allo be employed for joining plastics and is finding wider use in this field
than in joining
metala.
1 1y1tem and weldin1 t.ip Corm • unit callocl a 1onotrod1.
Electric Weldin6 307

- - _/4LECTRIC WELDING EQUIPMENT ,

4t:·ei:tric wel ing sets may be either de or ac type.
1. DC Welding Sets. Such sets are of two types namely (i) generator type and (ii)
rectifier type.
Gen.erator type welding set consists of a differential compound wound de generator, giving
drooping volt-ampere haracte?stic, driven by any type of prime-mover (a squirrel cage induction
i;notor or a petrol or di_esel en ne). In a differential compound wound de generator the terminal
voltage falls automatically with the increase in load current. The control may be obtained by
tapping the series field or by providing a suitable shunt across the series field winding. The
open-circuit voltage is adjusted from shunt field.
If supply from existing de distribution system is to be used for welding then a ballast
(resistance) is put in series with the equipment and control is obtained by varying this
external resistance. This method is also suitable when a number of operators are working on
the same supply system. In such cases each operator is provided with a separate ballast. The
special field of this method is where the service of each arc welding circuit is infrequently in
use (say 25% of the time or less). In such cases the loss in the series resistor is less than the
no-load loss of a generator type unit.
Another type of de welding set is a dry type rectifier used in conjunction with a multi-phase,
high leakage reactance transformer. Many of these rectifier type welders use seleniU,91
tectifiers which az-e forced air cooled. Rectifier type welders are said to combine some of the
desirable arcing characteristics of de welding, such as easy arc starting, with those of welding
transformers, such as reduced no-load losses. DC voltage is controlled by regulating the tra
for Jr output in this case. ',
2. AC Welding Sets. Single phase or 3-phase step-down transformers which -provide low
voltage (80-100 voltage on open-circuit) power for welding with some means of output control.
One or two taps are provided on the primary side to take care of the voltage variations. The
secondary winding of an air.-cooled set is generally made of bare wound-on-edge copper strip.
The welding transformers may be air or oil-cooled type. The air-cooled sets are lighter in
weight and permit the use of insulating materials of the highest thermal classification. They are
also cheaper, less hazardous and easier to maintain. On the other hand, the oil-cooled sets are
more compact. Being heavy, they are more suitable for stationary applications in workshops.
Synthetic liquid filled sets may be employed in hazardous locations. Some machines are
provided with an arc.booster that provides a momentary surge of current to give an arc a
good start when it is
struck.
In transformer type welding machines the current control is achieved by using (a) magnetic
shunt or (b) a choke coil or reactor placed in series with primary or secondary winding or (c)
tap changing switch in the primary winding.
In the magnetic shunt type, an adjustable gate of iron laminations is placed between the
primary and the secondary windings. Part of t flux i diverted thr?ugh this gate without
linking with the secondary winding, thus providing a simple and reliable means of stepless
voltage control. . . .
The choke coil type regulator is a variable reactance with a movable iron plunger. The
reactor is such that it operates well below the saturation point. Though it improves the arc
stability but reduces the power fnct:or· . .
The tap-changer type regulator 1s prone to give trouble on account of arcmg on the contacts
and the moving finger. 1
The use of series resistance can also be made for current control but efficiency is reduced.
6.15. ARC WELDING WITH DC AND AC
AC and de both can be used in arc welding, each having its distinctive merits and applications.
 Utilization of Electric Power
IOI
'
The advantages of arc welding with de lie in the higher arc stability •nd the degree to w ch
thework ia heated. It is best suited for thinner sheetmetal (below 6 mm) 8nd also for weldmg
ornon-ferrous metals. · · . · •
AC welding, due to the absence of 'arc blow', is considered superio for production welding
involving large size electrodes. AC welding has n number of economical advantages such as
given below ;
1. As power supply in factories is usually ae so a rotating de gener toror_8 recti er
s required for de welding whilst for ac welding only transformer 1s reqmred which
1s relatively cheaper in initial cost. ·
2. Maintenance of a transformer is less difficult and expensive than thnt of a de generator.
3. Operating costs of ac equipment are also lower than those of de equipment.
4. The electric energy consumption per kg of deposited metal in nc welding ranges from 3
to 4 kWh while for de welding it is as high as G to 10 kWh.
One disadvantage of n
welding is the comparatively low power factor (about 0.4 lagging)
which can be corrected by the use of capacitors.
Comparison between de welding and ac welding is given below in tabular form :
S.No. , , Porticu,lars DC \Veldiug AC Welding
1. Equipment ., Motor-generator set or rectifier In case of availability of ac
is required in case of supply only a transformer is re
availability of ac supply, uired Transformer costs less
otherv.ise oil engine generator and its maintenance cost is
2. Prime -eost set is required. also low. Comparatively low.
Two to three times as compared
3. Operating efficiency lo that of a transformer. High (about 85%).
Low; consequently high cost
4. No-load voltage o[ electrical energy. Frequenily too high (dangerous).
5. No-load requirements Low (safer). Low (advantageous).
G. Power factor Very high. Low, requiring capacitors for
Comparatively higher. correction.
7. Arc blow Not so pronounced with ac
Pronounced. (advantageous).
8. Electrodes Only coated electrodes-
Bolh bare (non-coated) and t.hus expensive ones.
9. Heating cheap·electrodes cnn be· used. Not so uniform as in case of
Uniform de.
10. Connected load (c1"9ss
sectional area of ..,Jn• Normal. Considerably hiither because of
ducton and Cuaea) low power facto .
11. Welding or non-ferrous
metal• Suitable.
12. Are'•tability
Higher.
t..1&. COMPARISON BE1WEEN RESISTANCE AND ARC WELDING
Porticulara Resistance Weldil&g Arc Welding
Usually nc orJy. AC or de.
Very low. The striking voltage is high so
requires voltage control.
ctor. Very low. Poor.
I material No material is added in any Suitable filler metal electrodes
form
, I are necessary to get proper
to get the two piece■ joined. strength.
EJtetric 1Velding 309

I 5. External pressure. External pressure is required. No external pressw·e is required

I 6. Development of heat. Heat is developed due to flow

hence the equipment is more
simple and easy to control.
Heat is developed due to arc
of current through the contact between electrode and the work
resistance mainly. .
piece.
I
Temperature. The temperature attained is not The temperature of the arc is
7. very high as in case of arc very high and so likely to da
welding. rooge the work if not properly
Applications. It cannot be used for repair handled. It is not suitable for
8. work. It is most suitable for mass production. It is most
mass production. suitable for repair work and
where more metal is to be
deposited.