Iftikhar 2020
Iftikhar 2020
Iftikhar 2020
polyethylene
Syed Haris Iftikhar Abdel-Hamid Ismail Mourad Jamal Sheikh-Ahmad
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
United Arab Emirates University United Arab Emirates University Khalifa University
Al Ain, UAE Al Ain, UAE Abu Dhabi, UAE
0000-0002-3317-4985 0000-0002-8356-0542 0000-0003-3537-0311
Abstract— Friction stir welding (FSW) and friction stir spot used in the pipeline and tank constructions. It is also used as a
welding (FSSW) of thermoplastics is becoming popular because packaging, knitwear and houseware material [18].
of its many industrial applications. This paper specifically
reviews the experimental studies available on the FSW and Most of the studies available acquire commercial grade
FSSW of high density polyethylene (HDPE), as it is a high HDPE sheets with different thicknesses and process
demand thermoplastic material used in many industrial conditions, and slightly different physical and mechanical
applications. The effect of process parameters (tool rotational properties. Most of the experimental studies are related to
speed, traverse speed, plunge depth, etc.), tool material and optimizing the FSW process parameters for maximizing the
geometry (profile and size), and medium conditions (open-air, joint strength; as the quality of a weld joint is usually assessed
submerged, heat-assisted, cooling-assisted, etc.) on the weld by its strength. This is because in structural applications the
joint mechanical properties are discussed. These studies help components usually fail at the weld interface. Several types of
with narrowing the ranges of all the parameters involved, to tests have been carried out by researchers to evaluate the
optimize welding conditions to achieve highest joint strength. capability of the joints under varying loading conditions.
ANOVA (analysis of variance)-based studies are also discussed These tests include the ultimate tensile strength, yield stress,
which help in determining the relative significance of the flow stress, tensile shear strength, flexural strength, etc.
parameters affecting the joint strength. The thermal behavior of
the weld joints, through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) As will be discussed in the following sections, many
studies, has also been discussed. Finally, a few recommendations process parameters have been identified to affect the strength
for future studies are presented. and quality of the FSW and FSSW joint. They include the
rotational speed, traverse (welding) speed, plunge depth, hold
Keywords—friction stir welding, friction stir spot welding, time, tool tilt angle etc. Apart from process parameters, studies
high density polyethylene, thermoplastics, differential scanning have shown that the strength and quality of weld joints also
calorimetry depend on the tool material and geometry (tool profile and
I. INTRODUCTION size) and medium configurations (open air, submerged,
external heating/cooling). Many kinds of tooling and medium
Friction stir welding (FSW), developed and patented by configurations have been tested on the HDPE material. A
The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991 [1], is a relatively new detailed comparison of these studies, discussed in subsequent
welding technique. It joins components using the frictional sections, can help in determining the optimum tool and
heat developed between the high-speed rotating tool and the medium conditions to get a very high-quality weld joint. The
components to be joined. The schematic of fundamental weld quality is assessed by getting results (strength values)
working of FSW process is shown in Fig. 1. Initially, the FSW close to that of the base material.
technique was developed for aluminum alloys; however, its
applications have been extended to other metals and alloys In current work, the experimental studies available in
(copper, titanium, magnesium, steel) as well as thermoplastics published literature on the FSW and FSSW of HDPE sheets
[2]–[5]. are covered. Apart from the detailed parametric optimization-
based studies, ANOVA-based studies are also covered to help
There are several review articles [6]–[9] and an overview with the selection of most influential parameters for future
article [10] available in the published literature which deal studies. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)-based
with the FSW of thermoplastic polymers. However, this studies are also covered to provide an understanding of the
present article deals specifically with the FSW of high-density thermal behavior of the weld joint. In the final section, the
polyethylene (HDPE). It covers a detail review of the topic is concluded in the light of available studies, and some
experimental parametric studies conducted on the HDPE suggestions for future studies are also provided on the topic.
material. Pawar and Shete [11] have also written a short
review on the studies that only uses Taguchi and response Rotational Speed
surface approaches to investigate the effect of FSW
Pin
parameters on aluminum and HDPE sheets.
The modern thermoplastics have many industrial Welding
applications, like automotive industry, because of their high Speed
toughness and strength-to-weight ratio [2]. Polyethylene is the Weld Zone
most used thermoplastic material [12]–[15]. The HDPE
material has many industrial applications because of its ease Base
Material
of recyclability and high chemical resistance [16], and good
insulation properties [17]. HDPE also has tribological
applications because of its high wear resistance [12]. They are Figure 1: Schematic of fundamental working of FSW process.
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II. FSW PARAMETRIC STUDIES shoulder temperature. They also showed that PTFE (Teflon)
The experimental studies are focused both around shoulder coating reduces the sticking of molten material to the
continuous FSW as well as periodical FSW (spot welding). tool, and improves the mechanical properties and surface
The continuous FSW includes both butt- and lap-joint quality of the weld. In another study, Azarsa et al. [26] have
configuration. again studied the effects of heat-assisted FSW process
parameters and tool coating. They have used a PTFE-coated
A. Butt-joint Configuration stationary shoulder tool which also have a heater behind the
Most of the studies are focused around butt-joint rotating threaded pin. They concluded that the coating helps
configuration FSW of HDPE sheets in the open-air medium to reduce sticking of the molten polymer to the tool shoulder;
with plain cylindrical pin tool. These studies investigate the which in turn reduces the residual stress concentration and
effect of different FSW parameters on the joint strength. defects, while increases joint strength. Azarsa and
Saeedy and Besharati Givi [16] have varied rotational speed Mostafapour [3] have studied the FSW parameters for
from 1000-1600 rpm and the tilt angle from 1-3°; while the maximizing the flexural strength using a stationary shoulder
traverse speed was fixed at 15 mm/min. The tensile strength tool which contains a heater. Using ANOVA, they have
was found to be maximum at an optimal rotational speed of determined that the traverse speed was the most significant
1400 rpm; while the tensile strength decreased with increasing parameter that influences the flexural strength; followed by
the tilt angle. Also, an increase in rotational speed or tilt angle the rotational speed. The optimum conditions of 25 /
decreased the percent elongation of the weld joint. Bozkurt [2] traverse speed, 1400 rotational speed and 100 ° shoe
has achieved the maximum joint strength (86.2% of base temperature achieves the maximum flexural strength of 33.9
material) at 3000 rpm rotational speed, 115 mm/min traverse MPa (96% of base material). Vijendra and Sharma [27] have
speed and 3° tilt angle. The ANOVA suggested that rotational studied the induction-heat assisted FSW with taper threaded
speed has the maximum influence on joint strength (73.85%), tool pin. The optimum conditions for achieving the maximum
followed by traverse speed (20.18%) and tilt angle (5.96%). tensile strength was 2000 rpm tool rotation speed, 45℃ tool
Abdel-Gwad et al. [17] has obtained the optimum operating temperature, and 50 mm/min traverse speed. The heat-assisted
conditions of 930 rpm rotational speed, 25 mm/min traverse welding helped to melt and easily stir the plastic material.
speed and 1° tilt angle for maximizing the tensile strength (19 Squeo et al. [28] have also investigated the effects of heat-
MPa, 89.5% efficiency), impact strength (20 KJ/m 2) and assisted FSW parameters and tool pin size. They have varied
fatigue life (710 cycles). Sheikh-Ahmad et al. [19], [20] have pin and sheet temperatures from room temperature to 150 ℃
studied the FSW parameters of the HDPE-carbon black (2.3% by two methods: using a hot air gun and heating plate. Nateghi
wt.) composite. They concluded that the joint tensile strength and Hosseinzadeh [29] have studied the effects of cooling-
is significantly affected by plunge depth, increasing it assisted (weld nugget cooling with CO2 gas) FSW parameters
significantly increases the joint strength. Sheikh-Ahmed et al. using a threaded pin tool. They have varied the rotation speed
[21] have also discussed in detail the two-force extended from 100-2200 rpm, the traverse speed from 40-80 mm/min,
octagonal ring (EOR) dynamometer they have fabricated for the shoulder diameter from 18-22 mm, and the cooling
the measurement of forces in butt-joint FSW of HDPE sheets. pressure from 0-2 bars. The joint strength increased while
angular distortion decreased (because of reduction of thermal
Some studies have considered tools with different tool residual stresses) with increasing the cooling pressure,
geometries to assess its effects on the joint strength for HDPE respectively. The optimum conditions for achieving highest
sheets. Rezgui et al. [22] have studied the influence of FSW tensile strength was 2200 rpm rotational speed, 40 mm/min
parameters with a cylindrical threaded tool pin. The maximum traverse speed, 22 mm tool diameter, and 2 bar cooling
flow stress of 28.7 MPa was achieved at 910 rpm rotational pressure. The optimal conditions for achieving minimum
speed, 29 mm/min traverse speed, 9 s hold time, and M12 pin angular distortion were: 1000 rpm rotational speed, 80
size. The maximum yield stress of 15 MPa was achieved at mm/min travel speed, 18 mm tool diameter, and 2 bar cooling
1700 rpm rotational speed, 44 mm/min traverse speed, 15 s pressure.
hold time, and M12 pin size. Bilici et al. [23] have studied the
effects of FSW parameters and tool geometry. The pin A few of the studies have focused on the determination of
diameter was varied from 4-6 mm, shoulder diameter from 20- other mechanical properties of the weld joint for HDPE sheets.
30 mm, rotational speed from 600-1500 rpm, and traverse Rezgui et al. [30] have investigated the effect of FSW
speed from 30-60 mm/min; while the tilt angle was fixed at parameters on the joint longitudinal flow stress. The effect of
1°. The highest joint strength was achieved at the optimum tool rotation speed was found to be insignificant. The
conditions of: 900 rpm rotational speed, 45 mm/min traverse optimum conditions of 24 mm/min tool feed and 401
speed, 5 mm pin diameter, and 25 mm shoulder diameter. tool plunged surface was found to achieve maximum
Moreno-Moreno et al. [24] have studied the effect of FSW longitudinal flow stress (26 MPa). Hoseinlaghab et al. [12]
parameters using a tool with cylindrical threaded pin with non- have studied the FSW parameters and tool geometry on the
rotational shoulder. The tilt angle was fixed at 0°; and the weld joint creep properties. The pin and shoulder size as well
rotational and traverse speeds were varied from 846-1036 rpm as the pin shape were varied to study the effects of tool
and 14-25 mm/min. The tensile strength was maximum at geometry. The rotational speed was varied from 900-1400
1036 rpm rotational speed and 14 mm/min traverse speed. rpm, traverse speed from 12.5-31.5 mm/min, and the tilt angle
from 0-2°. The highest creep resistant welds (better than for
Some of the researchers have also studied the effects of base material) were obtained using a cylindrical pin tool (20
external heating and cooling on the joint strength of HDPE mm shoulder diameter, 20 mm shoulder height, 6 mm pin
sheets. Mostafapour and Azarsa [25] has investigated the diameter, 7 mm pin height) with 1120 rpm rotational speed,
effect of heat-assisted FSW parameters with threaded pin tool 31.5 mm/min traverse speed, and 0° tilt angle.
with a heater inside the stationary shoulder. The maximum
tensile strength of 17 MPa was achieved at 1600 rpm Some researchers have studied the effects of FSW
rotational speed, 25 mm/min traverse speed and 140 ℃ parameters on the joint strength for other types of
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polyethylene. Aydin [31] has studied the effects of FSW used to reduce the number of required experimentations.
parameters for pre-heated ultra-high molecular weight However, even with the use of such approaches, it is not
polyethylene (UHMWPE) sheets. The rotational speed was possible to consider all the factors involved at the same time.
varied from 960-1960 rpm, traverse speeds from 10-20 This limits studies to investigation of few factors at a time,
mm/min, and sheet temperature from room temperature-80 which provides a kind of local optimum conditions within the
℃. The highest tensile strength of 89% of the base material tested ranges to maximize joint strength. Thus, looking at the
(72% highest strength without preheating) was achieved available studies, it is not possible to point towards an exact
around 960 rpm rotational speed, 200 mm/min traverse speed, or accurate global optimum welding conditions that will
and 50 ℃ pre-heating sheets. Saeedy and Besharati Givi [32] provide a joint with strength comparable to that of the base
have studied the effects of FSW parameters for MDPE sheets. material. However, the available studies point towards the
The rotational speed was varied from 1000-1800 rpm, the following general FSW guidelines that provides superior
traverse speed from 12-20 mm/min, and the tilt angle from 1- mechanical properties of the weld joint. The PTFE-coated tool
2°. The highest tensile strength of 14.9 MPa (75% of base shoulder, heat-assisted welding, weld nugget cooling, double
material) was obtained at the optimal welding conditions of side welding, etc. reduces defects and improves mechanical
1400 rpm rotational speed, 12 mm/min traverse speed, and 1° properties. These general guidelines can help to develop a
tilt angle. In another study, Saeedy and Besharati Givi [33] smart experimental plan, with only the significant factors in
have again studied the effects of FSW parameters for MDPE their already established ranges, for determining the optimum
sheets. The rotational speed was varied from 1400-2000 rpm welding conditions.
and the tilt angle from 1-2°; while the traverse speed was fixed Interface between weld Joint Line
at 15 mm/min. From ANOVA, the most significant parameter zone and parent material
1st Pass weld zone
that affects the joint tensile strength was the tilt angle (55.9%), Parent
Material
and for percent elongation it was the rotational speed
(63.98%). The highest joint tensile strength (14.18 MPa, 70%
of base material) and percent elongation was achieved at the 2nd Pass weld zone
Interface between the passes
optimal welding conditions of: 1600 rpm rotational speed and
1° tilt angle. Eslami et al. [34] have studied the effects of FSW Figure 2: Schematic of weld zone of the double pass FSW [36].
parameters for high molecular weight polyethylene
(HMWPE) sheets using a Teflon stationary shoulder tool. The B. Lap-joint configuration
rotational speed was varied from 1500-2500 rpm, traverse
speed from 30-70 mm/min, axial force from 800-1100 N, and Very few studies are focused on the lap-joint configuration
tool diameter from 3-5 mm. The ANOVA results suggest that FSW of HDPE sheets. The joint strength was assessed in the
the joint strength was most affected by the parameters in form of tensile shear strength. Gao et al. [38] experimentally
decreasing order of: rotational speed (40.1%), traverse speed investigated the effects of submerged (underwater) FSW
(21.4%), tool diameter (11.9%), and axial force (6.2%). parameters. The optimum conditions for obtaining maximum
joint strength of 12.3 MPa (9.6 MPa in air under similar
A few researchers have studied the effects of double side conditions) are: 1800 rpm rotational speed, 45 mm/min
FSW on joint strength. Saeedy and Besharati Givi [35] have traverse speed, 0.4 mm plunge depth, and 0° tilt angle. Yan et
studied the effects of double side FSW parameters for HDPE al. [39] has used a double-pin tool to study the effects of
sheets. The rotational speed was varied from 1200-1600 rpm; submerged FSW parameters. Using ANOVA, it was
while the traverse speed and tilt angle were fixed at 12 determined that the traverse speed (75.37%) has the most
mm/min and 1°, respectively. The tensile and impact strengths significant effect on joint strength followed by rotational
and percent elongation of the double side weld was more than speed (20.49%); while the plunge depth has the least effect.
that of the single side weld. The tensile strength and percent The maximum joint strength of 15.3 MPa was acquired at the
elongation for the double side weld were maximum at an traverse speed of 20 / , rotational speed of
optimal rotational speed of 1400 rpm. Arici and Sinmaz [36] 1300 / , and plunge depth of 0.1 .
have investigated the effect of double pass FSW, as shown in
Fig. 2, for MDPE sheets. The rotation speed was varied from Because of the very limited lap-joint FSW studies
600-1000 rpm, the traverse speed from 12.5-60 mm/min, and available on HDPE sheets, the studies on other thermoplastics
the tilt angles from 0-1°. The optimum welding conditions needs to be consulted for establishing general guidelines for
were 1000 rpm rotational speed, 25 mm/min traverse speed, HDPE. However, the HDPE-based studies suggest that the
and 1° tool angle. They concluded that by using the double submerged conditions provide weld joints with superior
pass FSW, the root defect was eliminated; which plays a strength. The effect of submerged conditions on the joint
significant role in the weld joint failure initiation. In another strength of butt-joint FSW also needs to be investigated.
study, Arici and Selale [37] have studied the effects of double III. FSSW PARAMETRIC STUDIES
pass FSW parameters for MDPE sheets. The tilt angle was
varied from 0-5°, and the traverse speed was varied from 12.5- Apart from continuous FSW, there are also studies
40 mm/min; while the rotational speed was fixed at 1000 available on FSSW of HDPE sheets. These studies investigate
mm/min. The highest joint strength was achieved at 1° tilt the effect of different FSSW parameters on the joint strength.
angle and 12.5 mm/min traverse speed. The strength of the spot weld joints are assessed through lap-
shear tensile force determined using lap shear tests. Using
The above detailed discussion suggests many factors signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and ANOVA analysis, Bilici et al.
(FSW parameters, tool material and geometry, medium and [40] have concluded that the joint strength was most
joint types) that affects the joint strength of the HDPE welded influenced by the dwell time, followed by the rotational speed;
sheets. Because of the large number of factors involved, it is while the plunge depth has insignificant influence. The
not possible to consider all of them simultaneously. The optimum welding parameters for obtaining the maximum joint
design of experimentation techniques like Taguchi method are strength is: 60 s dwell time, 700 rpm rotational speed and 6.2
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mm plunge depth. In another experimental study, Bilici and experimental loads obtained. Chavan and Shete [47] have also
Yukler [41] have shown that short dwell times produce thin used ANN models to optimize the FSSW parameters for
weld nuggets with low joint strength, while longer dwell times HDPE sheets.
results in thick weld nuggets with high strength. The
maximum joint strength was obtained at an optimum Like FSW, FSSW also depends on many factors like
rotational speed of 710 rpm (conditions of 50 s dwell time, 3.3 process parameters and tool material and geometry [48]. Most
mm/s plunge rate, 6 mm plunge depth). However, the plunge of the experimental studies have been carried out by Bilici and
rate has a negligible effect on the joint strength. Tasdemir et coworkers, which suggests the optimum welding conditions in
al. [42] have investigated the effects of filler content on the the range of 45-60 s dwell time, 700-710 rpm rotational speed,
joint strength of HDPE-glass hollow spheres composite sheets and 5.7-6.2 mm plunge depth (with exception of 0.2 mm in
using a tapered cylindrical pin tool. The composition of the one study). They also have suggested that the plunge depth has
glass spheres was varied from 0-20 wt%, rotational speed the least influence on the joint strength while the plunge rate
from 560-1400 rpm, dwell time from 15-75 s, and delay time have negligible influence. The highest joint strength was
from 0-60 s; while the plunge rate and plunge depth were fixed shown to be achieved using tapered cylindrical pin profile.
at 0.33 mm/s and 0.2 mm, respectively. The maximum They have also shown that copper tool material is suitable for
FSSW of HDPE sheets.
strength was achieved at: 10 wt% glass spheres content and
1120 rpm rotational speed, 20 wt% glass spheres content and IV. ANOVA-BASED STUDIES
60 s dwell time, and 20 wt% glass spheres content and 30 s
delay time. Few of the studies discussed above have also performed
ANOVA to determine the parameters which significantly
Some of the studies have focused on the effects of tool affects the joint strength and other mechanical properties, as
material and geometry on FSSW. Bilici and Yükler [43] have summarized in Table I. Again, because of the very limited
investigated the effects of FSSW parameters and tool studies available and investigation of only few parameters
geometry on the joint strength of HDPE sheets. The tool pin involved, a clear ranking order of the most influential
profiles (straight cylindrical, tapered cylindrical, threaded parameters cannot be devised. For butt-joint configuration
cylindrical, triangular, square and hexagonal) and sizes (pin FSW of PE sheets, the rotational and traverse speeds have
length, pin angle and concavity angle) were varied. The been identified as the most influential parameters as they
optimum welding conditions for achieving the maximum joint significantly affect the joint tensile and flexural strengths.
strength were: 710 rpm tool rotation speed, 5.7 mm plunge Other parameters tested that also shows effect on the joint
depth, 45 s dwell time and 30 s tool delay time. The joint strength were tilt angle, tool diameter and axial force. For lap-
strength was significantly affected by the pin geometry, and joint configuration FSW of HDPE sheets, again the traverse
the best strength was provided by tapered cylindrical pin. and rotational speeds have been identified to significantly
They have also concluded that the best tool pin profile will be affect the joint tensile strength. For FSSW of HDPE sheets,
a tapered threaded pin. In another study, Bilici [44] has studied dwell time, rotational speed and tool material were determined
the effects of tool geometry for polypropylene sheets. Tool pin as the most influential parameters. The plunge depth also has
profile (straight, threaded and tapered cylindrical as well as been shown to affect the joint strength, but to a lesser extent.
square) and tool pin size (pin length and diameter, shoulder
length and diameter) were varied. The highest joint weld TABLE I. ANOVA RESULTS FOR FSW AND FSSW OF
strength was achieved using tapered cylindrical tool pin POLYETHYLENE SHEETS.
profile. Bilici et al [45] have investigated the effects of tool Reference Material Tool ANOVA results
material for HDPE sheets. The tool material (pure copper, and Joint
aluminum 1050, SAE 1020 steel, 316 stainless steel) was Bozkurt [2] HDPE; Cylindrical RS=73.85%, TS=20.18%,
varied to investigate the effect of different heat transfer Butt pin TA=5.96% (tensile
strength)
coefficient tools on the joint strength. The tool rotation speed,
Azarsa and HDPE; Heater in TS > RS > TS+ST
dwell time and plunge depth were varied from 560-1120 rpm, Mostafapour Butt stationary (flexural strength)
30-75 s and 0.1-0.4 mm, respectively. From ANOVA [3] shoulder,
analysis, the most influential parameters are in the order: threaded
rotational speed (33.48%) > heat transfer coefficient (27.74%) pin
> dwell time (18.18%) > plunge depth (16.25%). The optimal Saeedy and MDPE; Cylindrical TA=55.92%, RS=34.60
Besharati Butt pin (tensile strength);
welding conditions determined were 710 rpm rotational speed, Givi [33] RS=63.98%, TA=32.88%
copper tool material, 45 s dwell time, and 0.2 mm plunge (% elongation)
depth. Eslami et al. HMWPE; Teflon RS=40.1%, TS=21.4,
[34] Butt stationary TD=11.9%, AF=6.2%
Apart from Taguchi and ANOVA methods, artificial shoulder, (tensile strength)
neural network (ANN) techniques have also been used to threaded
optimize the FSSW parameters to maximize joint strength for pin
HDPE sheets. Kurtulmuş and Kiraz [46] developed six Yan et al. HDPE; Double-pin TS=75.37%, RS=20.49%,
[39] Lap tool; PlD=least effect (tensile
different ANN models by varying the number of neurons in
submerged strength)
the hidden layer (5, 10 and 120) and training dataset size (80% Bilici et al. HDPE; Cylindrical DT=69.56%, RS=23.53%,
of dataset, 100% of dataset; total of 64 unique welding cases). [40] FSSW pin PlD=3.37 (joint strength)
All the six models have three neurons in the input layer Bilici et al. HDPE; Tool RS=33.48%,
(rotational speed, plunge depth and stirring time); while the [45] FSSW material HTC=27.74%,
output layer has one neuron (weld-joint lap-shear fracture varied DT=18.18%, PlD=16.25%
(joint strength)
load). The best predictions were provided by the model with
AF=Axial Force, DT=Dwell Time, HTC=Heat Transfer Coefficient, PlD=Plunge Depth,
100% training dataset along with 20 neurons in hidden layer; RS=Rotational Speed, ST=Shoulder Temperature, TA=Tilt Angle, TD=Tool Diameter, TS=Traverse
and the predictions were in good agreement with the Speed.
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V. DSC STUDIES SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Along with the mechanical behavior, a few researchers The optimum conditions for FSW of HDPE needs to be
have also focused on the investigation of the thermal behavior determined to achieve a high-quality joint. But its dependence
of the weld joints through DSC tests. Most of the studies were on many factors makes it a challenging task. For the butt-joint
focused around butt-joint configuration FSW. Squeo et al. FSW, the available studies provides a kind of local optimum
[28] have conducted DSC tests on weld joints obtained from conditions; there is a research gap in terms of a detailed study
external heat-assisted FSW of HDPE sheets. The results for the determination of global optimum conditions. The
suggest that the crystalline content keeps on decreasing from solution lies in developing a smart but extensive
the base material to the middle of weld zone. Saeedy and experimentation plan. The available studies can help in
Besharati Givi [35] have carried out DSC tests on weld joints narrowing down the number of parameters (by considering
obtained from double side FSW of HDPE sheets. The only influential parameters) as well as their ranges. For lap-
percentage of crystallinity decreases in the weld joint (which joint FSW, there is a gap in research because of the availability
reduces mechanical properties) in the order: parent material of very few studies. The solution lies in consulting the
(PM) > heat affected zone (HAZ) > thermo-mechanical literature regarding other thermoplastics, to help with the
affected (TMAZ) zone > weld nugget (WN). In another study, selection of the most influential parameters and their ranges.
Saeedy and Besharati Givi [32] have performed DSC tests on
weld joints obtained from FSW of MDPE sheets. The results For the FSSW of HDPE, there is a gap in research because
indicate that the crystalline content decreases with increasing of limited studies available. Most of the available studies have
narrowed down the range of parameters for maximum joint
rotational speed (traverse speed=12 mm/min, tilt angle=1°),
strength to: 45-60 s dwell time, 700-710 rpm rotational speed,
because of the high heat generation. Moreno-Moreno et al.
and 5.7-6.2 mm plunge depth; while the plunge rate has
[24] have conducted DSC tests on weld joints obtained from
negligible effect. Literature on other thermoplastics should
FSW of HDPE sheets using a stationary shoulder tool with
also be consulted to consider other influential parameters and
cylindrical threaded pin. The results show that the crystalline
their ranges.
content is less in the weld joint than the base material. Sheikh-
Ahmad et al. [20] have carried out DSC tests on weld joints The ANOVA technique used in few of the studies relating
obtained from FSW of HDPE sheets, and have also suggested to FSW and FSSW, can help with the selection of the most
that the crystalline content increases from the center of influential parameters. The other solution lies in development
welding zone to the base material. Gao et al. [38] have of a comprehensive FE model, which can be validated through
performed DSC tests on weld joint obtained from lap-joint few cases. There is a research gap in terms of the availability
configuration FSW of HDPE sheets under submerged of very few numerical studies on FSW of thermoplastics.
conditions. The results suggest that the crystallinity of the Because of the availability of high computational power, as
material decreased, as shown in Fig. 3, in the following order: well as being a cheaper option than experimentations, such FE
parent material (54.5%), heat affected zone (54.0%), thermo- model will help optimize the welding conditions along a wider
mechanically affected zone (51.1%) and weld nugget (48.2%). number of influential parameters and their ranges.
The DSC studies suggest that the decrease in crystallinity
* Normalized with respect
to crystallinity in PM
in the weld joint might be one of the key reasons for the
reduction in joint strength. The crystallinity decreases from
base material to the center of the weld joint, as reported by
many studies. However, there is a gap in research as the
information regarding the crystalline content along the depth
of the weld zone is lacking; which can further help in
understanding the failure of weldments.
Also, the studies on FSW of HDPE pipes and tubes were
lacking. This may be because of the complexity of the problem
PM HAZ TMAZ WN involved. However, the community should move towards pipe
and tubes welding, as thermoplastics have a huge application
Figure 3: Crystallinity differences from parent material to weld nugget in
FSW of HDPE sheets [38].
in these industries.
REFERENCES
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