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Proceedings of the XVII ECSMGE-2019
Geotechnical Engineering foundation of the future
ISBN 978-9935-9436-1-3
© The authors and IGS: All rights reserved, 2019
doi: 10.32075/17ECSMGE-2019-0017

Geotechnical behavior of Bogotá lacustrine soil

through its geological history
Comportement géotechnique du sol lacustre de Bogotá à travers son
histoire géologique
Cristhian Mendoza
Civil Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Manizales, Manizales, Colombia
Bernardo Caicedo
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
Fernando Lopez-Caballero
Laboratoire MSS-Mat., CNRS UMR8579, CentraleSupélec, Paris-Saclay University, France

ABSTRACT: The lacustrine deposit in Bogotá (Colombia) is located on a high plateau of the Andes Mountains
at 2550 meters above sea level. This deposit covers more than 60% of the urban area. Its soil is characterized as
being very soft with a high diatoms content. Such soils have been identified in Mexico City, in the Japan Sea,
over the north-east coast of Australia, and the equatorial Pacific amongst other locations. However, there have
been very few studies performed on these types of soils that study their mechanical properties. Shallow
deposits of 5 to 10 meters in depth are generally overconsolidated, but in deeper layers, the soil can reach extreme
values for some geotechnical properties. For example, high Atterberg limits (nearly 400 % for the Liquid Limit),
water contents around 200 %, void ratios nearly 5, and compressibility coefficient close to 5, have been observed.
Such properties depend on the geological history of the layer. In order to better understand the geotechnical
properties of lacustrine deposits in Bogotá, physical characterization has been undertaken, including grain size
distribution, Atterberg limits, density of solid particles, organic matter content; and mechanical tests such as
oedometric compression tests, unconfined compression, and triaxial tests. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
observation was also completed to evaluate the microstructure of the soil. The results show that with an increase
of the diatomaceous content there is an increase in the liquid limit of the soil, as well as an increase in the friction
angle. Some of the above features are contrary to classical soil mechanics. In addition, several practical
correlations were compared in relation to this soil type.. Such soil characteristics may be explained through the
geological history of the soil formation.

RÉSUMÉ: Le gisement lacustre de la ville de Bogotá (Colombie) est situé sur un haut plateau des Andes, à
2550 mètres d'altitude. Ce gisement couvre plus de 60% de la ville de 9 millions d'habitants. Certaines de ses
caractéristiques correspondent à un sol très mou lequel, dans certaines de ses couches, a une teneur élevée en
diatomées. Bien que peu étudiés, ces sols ont été identifiés à Mexico, en mer du Japon, sur la côte nord-est de
l’Australie, dans le Pacifique équatorial et dans le gisement lacustre de Bogotá (Colombie), entre autres. À
Bogotá les dépôts peu profonds de sol de cinq à dix mètres de profondeur sont surconsolidés, mais dans les
couches plus profondes, le sol peut atteindre des valeurs extrêmes dans certaines propriétés géotechniques. Par
exemple, ce sol a des limites d’Atterberg élevées (près de 400% pour la limite de liquidité), une teneur en eau
d’environ 200%, des indices de vides proches de 5, un coefficient de compressibilité proche de 5, tout cela
dépendant de l’historique géologique de la couche où les échantillons sont obtenus. Pour comprendre les

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propriétés géotechniques du gisement lacustre du sol, des tests physiques ont été effectués, tels que la distribution
granulométrique, les limites d’Atterberg, la densité des particules solides et la teneur en matière organique. Aussi,
des essais mécaniques tels que des essais de compression oedométrique, compression inconfinée et triaxiaux. Les
essais de laboratoire ont été complétés par des observations au microscope électronique à balayage (MEB) pour
évaluer la microstructure du sol. Les résultats montrent que l'augmentation de la teneur en diatomées entraîne
une augmentation de la limite de liquidité, de l'angle de frottement, et de l'influence de la vitesse de déformation
sur la résistance au cisaillement. Certaines des caractéristiques ci-dessus sont contradictoires par rapport à la
mécanique des sols classique. Aussi, plusieurs corrélations pratiques ont été comparées pour ce type de sol
concernant la mobilisation de la résistance au cisaillement et la ligne de compression intrinsèque. Tout ce qui
précède a été mis en relation avec l'histoire géologique de la formation des sols.

Keywords: Lacustrine deposit; natural soil; soft soil; high friction angle; high void ratio

1 INTRODUCTION at 2550 m above sea level. More than 60% of the

city is over the soft clay deposit. In some sites of
The study of the characteristics of soft clays is a
the plateau, the lacustrine deposit can reach a
key point in geotechnical engineering because
depth of 586 m (Torres et al. 2005), the shallow
there are difficult soils whose behavior affect the
deposit of clay (first 5 to 10 meters) is in an
performance of the engineering works
overconsolidated state, although, for deeper
constructed on these deposits. The behavior of layers the soil can reach extreme values for some
remolded mixtures of fine soil and diatoms have
geotechnical properties: consistency index (CI)
received huge attention in the last 20 years,
lower than 0.5, water contents higher than 200%,
Shiwakoti et al. (2002), Díaz-Rodríguez (2011),
liquid limit up to 400%, and the void ratio can be
Wiemer and Kopf (2017) and Wiemer et
as high as 5.
al.(2017), among others. However, studies about
This paper presents a comprehensive study of
natural clays and diatoms have received less
the geomechanical characteristics of the Bogotá
attention: Tanaka and Locat (1999), Díaz- soft clay. The field work consists of some
Rodríguez (2003), Kwon et al. (2011), Suganya
boreholes taking high quality samples using a
and Sivapullaiah (2017), and Caicedo et al.
stationary piston technique, these boreholes reach
(2018), among others. Regarding natural
a depth of 150 m. The laboratory component of
lacustrine deposits, research by Díaz-Rodríguez
this study includes: (i) physical tests such as grain
(2003), Díaz-Rodríguez (2011) and Caicedo et al. size distribution, Atterberg limits, and organic
(2019) show that the presence of microfossils in
matter content; (ii) mechanical tests such as
the clay of Mexico City modify its shear strength
oedometric compression tests; (iii) triaxial test
and can explain its high plasticity index.
with an undrained condition; (iv) triaxial tests
Although the clay in Bogotá has the same
with controlled loading paths. Laboratory tests
lacustrine origin as that in Mexico, Moya and were complemented with SEM observations to
Rodríguez (1987), knowledge on this clay is still
evaluate the microstructure of the soil.
limited.
Results show that the Bogotá clay has
Bogotá is the fifth-most-populous city in South
significant diatomaceous components that can
America, with a population near to 9 million
explain the very high friction angle of samples
inhabitants in 2017. The Sabana de Bogotá is having a high liquidity index, in fact a clear
located in a high plateau of the Andes Mountains,

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 Geotechnical behavior of Bogotá lacustrine soil through its geological history

relationship between friction angle and liquidity plastic limit, organic matter (Loss on Ignition,
index is presented in this paper. LOI) and mineralogical composition of grains
lower than 2 mm. These results complement the
stratigraphy with geotechnical data as follows:
2 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK AND From 0 m to 5 m, the lacustrine deposit has less
CHARACTERIZATION than 10% of organic matter, 33% in the plastic
limit, 80% water content and a liquid limit of
The high plain of Bogotá is located at 4°N and
around 110%; with the water level around 1.5 m.
74°W (geographical coordinates) at an altitude of
Regarding mineralogy, the clay has high contents
2550 m. Its origin lies in a Plio-Pleistocene lake
of the Kaolinite and Ilite. Additionally, this layer
that was filled with water over time. The deep
has the tendency to overconsolidated behaviour,
deposit of soils is explained by the subsidence of
as is shown later.
the bottom of the basin and the gradual
From 5 m to 80 m, there is a lacustrine deposit
accumulation of main lacustrine sediments
with a large proportion of organic matter and very
during the last 3 million years (Hooghiemstra and
soft consistency (0.5> CI), liquid limit of 140%,
Sarmiento, 1991). The chronostratigraphy of the
water content between 70% and 140% and plastic
deposit was studied by Andriessen et al. (1993)
limit between 40% and 50 %. In addition, there
using the fission track dating method. They
are some sporadic episodes of swamp deposits
estimated the soil's age at 3.2 million years at a
with high proportions of organic matter near to
depth of 586 m. In addition, chronostratigraphical
100%. These episodes are shown in the high
data was obtained by Torres et al. (2005) based
liquid limit near to 300% and presence of peat.
on pollen analysis.
Finally, this layer may be associated with shallow
Torres et al. (2005) proposed the following
lacustrine deposits in which diatoms are present.
stratigraphy (based in Chronostratigraphical and
In fact, as the following shows, high plasticity
geological studies) of the deepest deposits: (i) the
indexes are associated with low clay contents and
bottom of the deposit was found at a depth of 586
with the presence of a large number of diatoms.
m. From 568 m to 586 m there is a mixture of clay
From 80 m to 150 m, the lacustrine deposit
and sand deposited in a fluvio-lacustrine
properly continues with soils having less than
environment. Then, the water table rose, and
10% of organic matter and liquid limit of around
from 530 m to 568m lacustrine deposits become
90%, soft consistency (0.5 <CI<0.75). The LOI
dominant; (ii) from 460 to 530 m, there are
results do not show peat deposits in this layer.
deposits with high contents of organic matter
Regarding mineralogy, the clay has high contents
which suggests lacustrine and swamp deposits.
of the Kaolinite, Ilite and Smectite, Chlorite
Sandy deposits resulting from a high energy
appears in less quantities.
fluvial environment appear at the Funza site from
445 to 460 m; (iii) from 325 to 445 m, overlying
the fluvial deposit, once again there are deep
lacustrine and swamp deposits; (iv) from 250 to
325 m the subsidence of the bottom of the deposit
and sedimentation continue. This creates a deep
basin with a true lacustrine deposit.
However, the present study is only
concentrated on the upper 150 m of the deposit
corresponding chronologically to the last 1 Ma.
Figure 1 shows the average values of the drillings
at 150 m, regarding liquid limit, water content,

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Figure 1. a. Comparison between Attereberg limits diatoms (particles larger than 10 μm) increasing
and water content; b. Loss on ignition; c. Mineralogy the plasticity of soil without increasing clay-sized
of particles proportion with sizes less than 2 μm particles. A special characteristic of diatoms is a
(Ingeominas, 2004). high porosity and in these pores water molecules
Images in Figure 2 were obtained by using a can be housed.
SEM (scanning electron microscopy) in an
undisturbed sample of the layer in the lacustrine
zone (From 5 m to 80 m). The figure shows the
presence of a high number of diatoms. Also,
Figure 2 shows an isotropic structure (non-
oriented structure), that it is formed by an
aggregate of flocculated particles and a large
inter-aggregate porosity. This structure is
typically a structure that characterizes a slow
deposition, as was the case in the lacustrine
deposit of Bogotá. Figure 3. Distribution of particle size in the
stratigraphy of 2.5 to 25 m.

3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF
LACUSTRINE SOIL OF BOGOTÁ
In the present reasearch, the mechanical behavior
of Bogotá soil was divided into two parts. The
first part is the behavior in relation to
compressibility and the second part is the
behavior in relation to shear stress.

3.1 Compressibility of the lacustrine

deposit.
Thirty-eight oedometric tests were performed on
Figure 2. Microscope images of scanning electron samples of the drillings shown above (Figure 1).
in the lacustrine deposit. These tests were divided into liquid limit ranges.
In this lacustrine deposit, the average Figure 4 shows that a high value of the liquid
percentage of particles with sizes smaller than 2 limit results in a high value of voids ratio. In
μm fluctuates between 0% and 25%. Figure 3 addition, it is observed that the higher liquid limit
shows particle size distribution by tests of laser also has an effect on the soil compressibility
granulometry from lacustrine zone (From 2.5 m coefficient, as presented in Equation 1. From the
to 25 m). However, data of the plasticity index previous cases, it is observed that the values of a
and liquid limit (see Figure 2) shows that the soil high compressibility coefficient and void ratio
is classified as clay by the Casagrande chart are found in soils with high diatomaceous
(ASTM D2487). This is a problem, because content.
according to the classification of soil by sizes the Figure 4 shows the compression bands in
soil is a silt, but according to the classification by function of the liquid limit. These bands are based
the Casagrande chart, the soil is a clay. The on the work of Biarez & Hicher, 1994 to K0
reason can be expalined by the high content of the conditions. The results of tests realized in this

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 Geotechnical behavior of Bogotá lacustrine soil through its geological history

research show that the proposed bands by Biarez

& Hicher, 1994 are good for a low liquid limit. Figure 6 shows the relationship between the
However, with high values of liquid limit, the compressibility coefficient and the initial void
results have high dispertion and the bands ratio, as shows in Equation 2. This relationship is
increase in size. One reason for this can be a high only valid to values of a void ratio less than 3,
diatomaceous content that increases the liquid because for values greater than 3 the coefficient
limit. Another reason, this soil has also been of determination R2 goes too low. The soils with
mixed with volcanic ash due to the volcanic a high value of liquid limit have a high content of
eruptions that occurred during the soil formation diatoms and volcanic ash. As already shown, the
process, which increases the liquid limit and the combination of contents changes the behavior of
low soil density. In conclusion, the diatoms and soil.
volcanic ash can change the soil behavior.

Figure 6. Relationship between the compressibility

Figure 4. Results of oedometric tests carried out coefficient and the initial void ratio.
on the Bogotá soil (only the normally consolidated
part). Cc = 0.52 ( e0 − 0.14 ) (2)
Cc = 0.01( wL − 0.58 ) (1)
Another correlation commonly used is to relate
the recompression coefficient Cs to the
The relationship between the compressibility compressibility coefficient Cc. The results of the
coefficient and the liquid limit are shown in present research show a relation of 7.6 between
Figure 5. This Figure shows a good correlation the compressibility coefficient Cc and the
between variables (R2=0.92). In addition, it recompression coefficient Cs.
shows the results of the oedometric compression
tests and the results used by Burland, 1990 and 3.2 Shear strength of lacustrine deposit.
Horpibulsuk et al., 2011 with a small diference.
The shear strength of soft soils in Bogotá was
studied by undrained triaxial tests.
Figure 7 shows a typical triaxial test for the
soft soil of Bogotá. This test has a friction angle
close to 40 degrees. This behaviour is atypical for
most clays that have friction angles less than 20
degrees (Whitlow, 1990). Another important
aspect shown in this figure is the high liquid limit
Figure 5. Relationship between the compressibility and content of organic matter in the sample
coefficient and the liquid limit. tested.

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Figure 7. Results of a triaxial test (in undrained condition) performed with high organic matter content.

Based on the previous figure, it was decided to

graph the friction angles and liquid limit. This
was obtained from 80 triaxial tests in which
liquid limit tests were done, as shown in Figure
8. From this figure, an existing correlation
between the friction angle and liquid limit is
observed, as shown the Equation 3. As an
important aspect, an increase of the friction angle Figure 8. a. Relationship between friction angle at
is shown with the increase of the liquid limit, this the critical state and liquid limit. b. Relationship
was already shown indirectly by the experimental between friction angle at the critical state and organic
works in soils with microfossils presented by matter.
Díaz-Rodríguez 2003 and Shiwakoti et al. 2002. Figure 9 shows triaxial tests for different
Although it is a contradictory result to the overconsolidation ratios (OCR), with a soil of a
majority of results found in classical literature high content of organic material and a high liquid
(Kenny, 1959, Ladd et al., 1977, among others). limit. The results show a decrease in the excess
Another aspect shown in Figure 8 is the increase pore pressure with the increase in OCR (Figure 9
of the friction angle to an increase of the organic b). In addition, with the increase in OCR, the soil
matter that this type of soil presents. From this tends to be dilatant (Roscoe et al., 1958). Another
aspect Equation 4 was obtained. aspect is that regardless of the OCR all the tests
have the same critical state line (Figure 9c).
crit = 18.5 + 0.1112wL (3)

wL = 13.52OM (4)

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 Geotechnical behavior of Bogotá lacustrine soil through its geological history

Figure 10. Triaxial tests to different anisotropic paths

of stresses

4 CONCLUSIONS
Lacustrine soils of Bogotá present high
percentages of diatoms and could be associated
Figure 9. Triaxial tests to different OCR relations. with very high values of clay activity. In addition,
the high values of activity are related to high
From a shallow sample, 3 undrained triaxial tests percentages of organic matter, high values of
were performed under anisotropic stress void ratio, high values of compressibility
conditions, in the normally consolidated state. coefficients and high values of angle of friction.
The tests were consolidated with anisotropic
trajectories of = q/p '= 0.375, 0.5 and 0.625,
after which shear stress was generated in 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
undrained conditions, as shown in Figure 10. The authors would also like to thank Assistant
Figures 10b and 10c show that all the tests tend Professor Rachel Marie Schaefer of Fulbright
to the same line of the critical state. In addition, Colombia for her valuable revisions and edits
the soil retains the effect of barotropy (increased regarding the language of this research.
shear strength with the increased confinement).
The excess pore pressure in the tests was
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