Zuluaga, 2021
Zuluaga, 2021
Zuluaga, 2021
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. The physical response and geotechnical properties of diatomaceous soils are not
fully understood, data are sparse, and do not account for the effects of single and multispecies
frustule content, origin, type, and variability. The main physical problem lies in the irregular
response of diatomaceous soils due to micro and nano scale causes and its unexpected effects
on the macro scale. This research compared the characteristics of a multispecies diatomaceous
soil sample (North American origin) with other diatomaceous single-species soils. Six artificial
soil mixtures were prepared, dosed by weight, in order to determine the influence of the
content of frustules. The results show that the liquid limit of the samples is lower than that of
the monospecies samples for any content of frustules. The pore areas of the monospecies
samples are found to be 4 to 7 times larger than those of the North American soil. Void ratios
and compressibility ranges are higher as the diatom content increases. The internal friction
angle of diatomaceous soils varies in a non-linear tendency with respect to fossil content. For
the studied soil at 100% fossil concentration, the internal friction angle reached 38.32º, a
magnitude that is lower than the values reported for most of the monospecies contrast samples.
1. Introduction
Diatoms are microscopic unicellular photosynthetic algae that grow in terrestrial and aquatic
environments of fresh or saltwater [1], rich in dissolved silica, whose existence depends on the
volcanic activity of the area [2-4]; After their death and organic decomposition, the frustules are
deposited on the bottom of oceans or lakes, forming diatomaceous soils [1,5,6]. These soils have been
found in different parts of the world and have been scarcely studied in physics and geotechnics; of
particular interest is the cell wall of diatoms (frustules), which is formed of silica [7] and gives rise to
nanometric structures [8]. Species evolution has created distinctive patterns of perforations in the
frustules, which are used for visual classification [9].
Physics and soil mechanics dictate that, the greater the irregularity in the surface of a particle “A”
that forms a continuous medium, the greater the resistance to differential displacement with particle
“B”, therefore, the greater the mechanical response of the system. This is easy to understand and
demonstrate at larger scales (> 0.075 mm), but it is not so much in nano and micro sizes, where
according to geotechnics, everything is classified as soft soil and far from any high resistance
parameter. The physical problem for diatomaceous soils lies in the fact that phenomena like secondary
consolidation or interlocking of particles on a micro scale (interlocking) are not fully understood,
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
1st International Conference on Physical Problems of Engineering (1st ICPPE) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2118 (2021) 012011 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2118/1/012011
which are presumed to be related with the quantity, shape (according to the species-mono or multi)
and the state of conservation of the frustules.
Some of the properties of diatomaceous soils (DS) are high porosity, high absorption [10-12], high
initial void ratio, and low density [4,13]. High liquid limit values have been identified in diatomaceous
soils from Mexico and Japan [2,14]. Values of void content have been reported between 80% and 90%
[15,16], and “specific surface area” magnitudes have been registered between 40 and 350 m2/g [2,17].
However, in none of the documentary sources, the physical and mechanical behavior is analyzed
according to the type (one = mono, or several = multi), concentration, or species. Additionally, [18]
highlights that the presence of diatoms (microscopic skeleton of algae and dead plankton) in soils and
sediments leads to the measurement of mechanical characteristics in magnitudes that contradict the
behaviors defined in classical geotechnics.
Soils with the presence of diatoms can retain high water contents inside their frustules [4,19] and
simultaneously record high values of friction angle and high shear strength [4,19,20]. According to
Cheng, et al. [21] the presence of diatoms leads to an increase in Atterberg limits and compressibility,
and it allows high pore pressures and low effective confining pressures during shear tests. Cheng
mentions that the deformation mechanisms of microstructural elements may explain the unusual
behavior of this type of soils.
The main target of this research was to compare the physical and mechanical characteristics
between a multispecies diatomaceous soil (North American origin) and other diatomaceous single-
specie soils. Six artificial soil mixtures were prepared, dosed by weight, to determine the influence of
the content of frustules. The main evaluated parameters were particle size distribution, specific gravity
(SG), pore frustule areas, consistency, compressibility, and shear resistance.
The MNDS reports particle sizes corresponding to a silt (>2µm), its d50 is 0.0055 mm; Kaolin
presents a uniform curve in the fine particle range (< 0.075 mm), while the MNDS records a particle
concentration of 39.16% between 3.6 µm and 6.3 µm. The d50 of Kaolin is 0.0095 mm. (d50: particle
size corresponding to 50% that passes, represents the average grain size). No differential pattern is
identified in the multispecies sample with respect to the other monospecies references.
2
1st International Conference on Physical Problems of Engineering (1st ICPPE) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2118 (2021) 012011 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2118/1/012011
Figure 2 presents the variation of the SG of the MNDS samples regarding the diatomaceous
content. SG values of MNDS are slightly lower than the Mexican sample (monospecie coscinodiscus
centralis). It is evident the distance with Colombian sample (monospecies aulacoseira granulata).
Table 1 shows the SG values of other diatomaceous soils.
The Moisture content applied during the sample preparation process was the ratio of 1.5 times the
liquid limit, which varied according to the proportion of solids, see Table 2; from the extracted
samples (radius: 80 mm and height: 200 mm), specimens were cut and subsequently used for the
execution of direct shear and consolidation tests. A pre-consolidation vertical stress of 30 kPa was
applied. The shear test was carried out in drained consolidated conditions, at a speed of 0.05 mm/min;
for the one-dimensional consolidation test, the vertical stress range was between 7 kPa and 1,600 kPa.
The MNDS sample was imaged with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) [23] in order to recognize
the surface texture [7], morphology (size and shape) [7], and identify the species of the microfossils.
3
1st International Conference on Physical Problems of Engineering (1st ICPPE) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2118 (2021) 012011 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2118/1/012011
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Species identification within the diatomaceous soil sample of North American origin;
(a) orizaformis holarctica, (b) navicula cryptocephala.
4
1st International Conference on Physical Problems of Engineering (1st ICPPE) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2118 (2021) 012011 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2118/1/012011
5
1st International Conference on Physical Problems of Engineering (1st ICPPE) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2118 (2021) 012011 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2118/1/012011
4. Conclusions
The presence of microfossils in soils causes an increase in moisture; there is a proportional
relationship between liquid limit and plastic limit with diatom content. The liquid limit of the MNDS
is found to be lower than the monospecies samples for any frustules content. As the soil presents
higher MNDS dosages, a greater volumetric change is observed during consolidation. According to
physics it could be understood because the structures of the fossils provide higher void content, not
only because of the spaces created by the totality of the frustule, but also because of the pores present
in them. The resistance to shear stress represented by internal friction angle is proportional to the
content of microfossils in the soil, reaching values of up to 38.32°. This is explained by factors such as
geometry, skeletal interlocking, and the rough surface. However, the MNDS results are lower than the
values associated with monospecies samples. From above, it is concluded that the physical properties
of frustules influence in the mechanical response on a macro scale, and that variability of the species is
a determining factor in the response to imposed stresses.
References
[1] Flower R 2013 Diatomites: their formation, distribution, and uses Earth Systems and Environmental
Sciences 2 501
[2] Díaz J 2011 Comportamiento monotónico de suelos diatomáceos Rev. Int. de Desastres Naturales,
Accidentes e Infraestructura Civil 12(1) 27
[3] Mosquera A, León L 2018 Comparación del Comportamiento Físico-Mecánico de las Arcillas
Bentoníticas Provenientes de Bugalagrande, Valle del Cauca, Colombia con Adición de Diatomeas de la
Ciudad de México (Bogotá: Universidad Católica de Colombia)
[4] Arenaldi G, Ovalle C, Barrios A 2019 Compressibility and creep of a diatomaceous soil Engineering
Geology 258 1
[5] Arenaldi G, Ovalle C 2019 Compresibilidad y propiedades dinámicas de suelos diatomáceos de
Mejillones Obras y Proyectos 25 6
[6] Mejía J, Mejía De Gutiérrez R, Montes C 2016 Rice husk ash and spent diatomaceous earth as a source of
silica to fabricate a geopolymeric binary binder Journal of Cleaner Production 118 133
[7] Hasan M, et al. 2020 Characteristic of calcined diatomaceous earth from Aceh Besar District - Indonesia
as cementitious binder IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 933 012008:1
6
1st International Conference on Physical Problems of Engineering (1st ICPPE) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2118 (2021) 012011 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2118/1/012011
[8] López J 2009 Comportamiento Cíclico de Suelos Diatomáceos (Ciudad de México: Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México)
[9] Lozano Y 2010 Listado de diatomeas (bacillariophyta) registradas para el mar caribe colombiano Bol.
Invest. Mar. Cost. 39(1) 83
[10] Zhang Y, Guo C, Yao X, Qu Y, Zhou N 2013 Engineering geological characterization of clayey
diatomaceous earth deposits encountered in highway projects in the Tengchong region, Yunnan, China
Engineering Geology 167 95
[11] Tanaka H, Locat J 1999 A microstructural investigation of Osaka Bay clay: the impact of microfossils on
its mechanical behaviour Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36(3) 493
[12] Díaz J, González R 2013 Influence of diatom microfossils on soil compressibility Proceedings of the 18th
Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Geotech. Eng. Challenges Innov. Geotech. (Paris: ICSMGE) p 325
[13] Caicedo B, Mendoza C, López F, Lizcano A 2018 Behavior of diatomaceous soil in lacustrine deposits of
Bogotá, Colombia Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 10(2) 367
[14] Shiwakoti D, Tanaka H, Tanaka M, Locat J 2002 Influences of diatom microfossils on engineering
properties of soils Soils and Foundations 42(3) 1
[15] Aksakal E, Angin I, Oztas T 2012 Effects of diatomite on soil physical properties Catena 88(1) 1
[16] Khraisheh M, Al-degs Y, Mcminn W 2003 Remediation of wastewater containing heavy metals using
raw and modified diatomite Chemical Engineering Journal 99(2) 177
[17] Wu J, Yang Y, Lin J 2005 Advanced tertiary treatment of municipal wastewater using raw and modified
diatomite Journal of Hazardous Materials 127(1) 196
[18] Palomino A, Kim S, Summitt A, Fratta D 2011 Impact of diatoms on fabric and chemical stability of
diatom-kaolin mixtures Applied Clay Science 51(3) 287
[19] Ovalle C, Arenaldi G 2020 Mechanical behaviour of undisturbed diatomaceous soil Marine Georesources
and Geotechnology 39(5) 623
[20] Caicedo B, Zuluaga D, Slebi C 2019 Effects of micro-features of fossil diatom on the macroscopic
behaviour of soils Geotechnique Letters 9(4) 322
[21] Cheng X, Ngan-Tillard D, Den Haan E 2007 The causes of the high friction angle of dutch organic soils
Engineering Geology 93(1) 31