PHYSICS

THERMODYNAMICS

SUB - MODULE 03

Cat.
B

2.3 - Thermodynamics
(a) Temperature: thermometers and temperature scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin; 2
Heat definition;

(b) Heat capacity, specific heat;

Heat transfer: convection, radiation and conduction;
Volumetric expansion;

Thermodynamics
First and second law of thermodynamics;
Gases: ideal gases laws; specific heat at constant volume and constant pressure, work
done by expanding gas;
Isothermal, adiabatic expansion and compression, engine cycles, constant volume and
constant pressure, refrigerators and heat pumps;
Latent heats of fusion and evaporation, thermal energy, heat of combustion.

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.1

THERMODYNAMICS One calorie is equal to the amount of heat required to
Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science change the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree
that deals with the relations between heat and other Celsius but this is variable based on starting
forms of energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or temperature or pressure, so one calorie was just
chemical energy), and, by extension, of the defined to be exactly 4.184 Joules.
relationships between all forms of energy. One BTU is defined as the amount of heat required to
change the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 degree
HEAT Fahrenheit (1 °F). The calorie and the gram are
Heat is a form of energy. It is produced only by the seldom used in discussing aviation maintenance. The
conversion of one of the other forms of energy. Heat BTU, however, is commonly referred to in discussions
may also be defined as the total kinetic energy of the of engine thermal efficiencies and the heat content
molecules of any substance. of aviation fuel.
Heat may be defined as energy in transit from a high
temperature object to a lower temperature object. One BTU = 1055.05585262 Joules
Some forms of energy which can be converted into 1 BTU = 1055 J = 778 ft-lb = 0.252 kcal.
heat energy are as follows: 1 BTU/lb = 2326 J/kg
Mechanical Energy. This includes all methods of
producing increased motion of molecules such as The centigrade heat unit (CHU) is the amount of heat
friction, impact of bodies, or compression of gases. required to raise the temperature of one pound of
Electrical Energy. Electrical energy is converted to water by one Celsius degree. It is equal to 1.8 BTU or
heat energy when an electric current flow through 1899 joules.
any form of resistance such as an electric iron,
electric light, or an electric blanket. Note :- The CHU is a mix of English and Metric units
Chemical Energy. Most forms of chemical reaction and is rarely used.
convert stored potential energy into heat. Some This unit was sometimes used in the United Kingdom
examples are the explosive effects of gunpowder, the as an alternative to BTU but is now obsolete. Units
burning of oil or wood, and the combining of oxygen of heat energy in ascending order Joule, Calorie,
and grease. BTU.
Radiant Energy. Electromagnetic waves of certain
frequencies produce heat when they are absorbed by A calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat
the bodies, they strike such as x-rays, light rays, and flow of a chemical reaction or physical change. The
infrared rays. process of measuring this heat is called calorimetry.
Nuclear Energy. Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms A basic calorimeter consists of a metal container of
is released during the process of nuclear fission in a water above a combustion chamber, in which a
nuclear reactor or atomic explosion. thermometer is used to measure the change in water
The Sun. All heat energy can be directly or indirectly temperature. However, there are many types of more
traced to the nuclear reactions occurring in the sun. complex calorimeters. The basic principle is that
heat released by the combustion chamber increases
HEAT ENERGY UNITS the temperature of the water in a measurable way.
The SI unit used to express quantities of heat energy
is the joule.
Two different non-SI units are used to express
quantities of heat energy. They are the calorie and
the BTU.

3.2 Issue-I, Rev.-0

 faster rate of speed. These variations in speed of the
molecules cause objects to expand when they are
heated. As the temperature increases the molecules
vibrate faster.

THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

This expansion can be used to construct instruments
called thermometers. The ordinary mercury
thermometer uses the expansion of a volume of
mercury contained in a bulb to indicate temperature.

A number of temperature scales are currently in use.

The Fahrenheit scale is the one we have used most
extensively. On this scale the freezing point of water
is 32°F and its boiling point is 212°F. The metric scale
is the Celsius or centigrade scale. On this scale the
freezing point of water is zero and the boiling point is
100°C.

Thermodynamics
There are formulas that allow us to convert from
Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa. These formulas
One BTU of heat energy = 778 ft-lb of work are:
5 9
C = (F - 32) and F = C + 32
9 5
One pound of aviation gasoline contains 18 900 BTU
of heat energy. Since each BTU is capable of 778 ft-lb The absolute minimum temperature of any object in
of work, the universe is -273.15oC. This is called Absolute
1 lb of aviation gasoline is capable of 14 704 200 Zero. You can convert between Celsius and Kelvin
ft-lb of work.(18900x778) like this: Kelvin = Celsius + 273.15.
One kWH of energy is greater than a mega joule Often, the value of 273 is used instead of 273.15.
In engineering it is often necessary to use
TEMPERATURE temperatures in the Kelvin scale, which uses
What is the difference between heat and absolute zero as its base point.
temperature? Absolute zero = -273.15oC = 0 K. (Kelvin
Heat is a form of energy. temperatures are written without a symbol for
Temperature is the degree of “hotness” or degrees.)
“coldness”. For purposes of calculations, the Rankine scale is
Temperature is a measure of the amount of commonly used to convert Fahrenheit to absolute.
vibration of molecules. For Fahrenheit readings above zero, 460° is added.

Temperature Scales
Our common notion of hot and cold has its precise
expression in the concept of temperature. As objects
are heated their molecules move faster. In a solid the
molecules vibrate more rapidly. In liquids and gases
the molecules move all over in the container at a

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.3

 100 373 212 672 Pure Water Boils is called the Kelvin (K) scale, and that related
to the Fahrenheit scale is called the Rankine
(°R) scale. These scales are related by the
0 273 32 492 Pure Water Freezes equations K = °C + 273.15, °R = °F + 459.67,
and °R = 1.8 K. Zero in both the Kelvin and
Rankine scales is at absolute zero.
In the Celsius scale there are 100 degrees between
−273 0 −460 0
the freezing point and the boiling point of water
Molecular Motion
Ceases at Absolute compared to 180 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale.
Zero This means that 1 °C = 1.8 °F (check the section
Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine
(Centigrade) about temperature differences below).
Values can be converted between the two
Figure - Comparison of temperature scales.
temperature units by using the equations:
Note: - Molecular motion ceases at absolute zero T(°F) = 1.8 T(°C) + 32 (1)
Kelvin and Rankine. T(°C) = (T(°F) - 32)/1.8 (2)
How to convert Rankine to Fahrenheit where
0 degrees Rankine is equal to -459.67 degrees T(°C)= temperature (°C )
Fahrenheit: T(°F)= temperature (°F)
0°R = -459.67 °F Temperature Difference - or Temperature Change
The temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) is - degree Celsius versus degree Fahrenheit
equal to the temperature Note that for temperature difference (change) - as
T in Rankine (°R) minus 459.67: used in heat loss diagrams
T(°F) = T(°R) - 459.67 ● 1 degree Celsius of temperature difference
equals 1.8 degree Fahrenheit of temperature
CONCLUSION difference
These formulas are: ΔT(°C) = ΔT(°F) / 1.8 (3)
K = C + 273 and R = F + 460 ΔT(°F) = 1.8 ΔT(°C) (4)
where
Boiling Point Freezing Point Absolute ΔT(°F) = temperature difference (°F)
of Water of Water Zero ΔT(°C) = temperature difference (°C)
Centigrade 100° 0° -273°
How do high altitudes affect cooking?
Kelvin 373 273 0 At altitudes above 3,000 feet, preparation of food
may require changes in time, temperature. The
Fahrenheit 212° 32° -460° reason is the lower atmospheric pressure due to a
Ran kin 672° 492° thinner blanket of air above.
0°
At sea level, the air presses on a square inch of
surface with 14.7 pounds pressure; at 5,000 feet with
● In the Celsius scale the freezing point of water 12.3 pounds pressure; and at 10,000 feet with only
is defined as 0 °C and the boiling point is 10.2 pounds pressure a decrease of about 1/2 pound
defined as 100 °C per 1,000 feet. This decreased pressure affects food
● In the Fahrenheit scale the water freezes at 32 preparation.
°F and boils at 212 °F As atmospheric pressure decreases, water boils at
● The absolute scale related to the Celsius scale lower temperatures. At sea level, water boils at

3.4 Issue-I, Rev.-0

212°F. With each 500-feet increase in elevation, the the number of water molecules available to become
boiling point of water is lowered by just under 1 °F. At vaporized during boiling. Once this occurs, it takes a
7,500 feet, for example, water boils at about 198 °F. greater amount of heat to cause the same amount of
Because water boils at a lower temperature at higher impure solution to vaporize as it would take to cause
elevations, foods that are prepared by boiling or a pure solution to vaporize, thus raising the solution's
simmering will cook at a LOWER temperature, and it overall boiling point.
will take longer to cook. The melting point of a substance decreases with
What happens when the temperature of air increase in presence of impurities in it. The melting
decreases to the dew point or below the dew point? point of ice decreases from 0 °C to -22 °C on mixing
The concentration of water in the air is constantly salt in it in proper proportion. That is why salt is
changing. As liquid water evaporates to water vapor added to make freezing mixtures to keep ice creams
it enters the air and increases the concentration of frozen.
water in air. The water vapor in the air condenses to
water and falls out as liquid leading to a decrease in THERMAL EXPANSION/ CONTRACTION
the concentration of water in the air. To estimate the expansion of any object, such as a
The rate at which these processes occur is dependent steel rail, it is necessary to know three things about
on many factors including temperature, pressure and it: its length, the rise in temperature to which it is
the total amount of water in unit volume of air. subjected, and its coefficient of expansion. This

Thermodynamics
Dew point refers to the temperature at which the relationship is expressed by the equation:
rate of conversion of liquid water to water vapor is
equal to the rate at which water vapor is converted Expansion = (coefficient) × (length) × (rise in temperature)
to liquid water. If the temperature of air is lower than
the dew point, water vapor condenses and leaves the Linear Expansion
air in the form of water. At this point relative The relationship governing the linear expansion of a long
thin rod can be reasoned out as follows
humidity is essentially 100%.

What is the effect of impurities on boiling point?

In order to understand the effect of impurities on
boiling point, one must first understand what boiling
point is.
The boiling point of a solution is generally defined
as the the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure of the
gas above it. It is important to note that a "normal
boiling point" of a solution is the temperature at
which vapor pressure from the liquid will equal one
atmosphere. It is at this temperature, that the liquid Coefficient of expansion=expansion/length x oc
vapor will be released as a gas into the atmosphere. So the unit is per oc
Importantly, the boiling point of a solution remains
the same even if more heat is added after it starts to Example
boil. If a steel rod measures exactly 9 ft at 21 °C, what is
Adding impurities to a solution, in most cases, its length at 55 °C? The coefficient of expansion for
increases the boiling point of the solution. This steel is 11 × 10−⁶.
occurs because the presence of impurities decreases Expansion = (11 × 10−⁶) × (9 feet) × 34°

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.5

Expansion = 0.003 366 feet at standard pressure, this thermometer is not used
This amount, when added to the original length of for temperatures much above 3000C or below -300C.
the rod, makes the rod 9.003 366 ft long. Its length For temperatures below -39 0 C, thermometers
has only increased by 3/1000 of an inch. containing alcohol may be used.

Coefficient of Expansion
Substance Per Degree Celsius
Aluminum 25 × 10 -6
Brass or Bronze 19 × 10 -6
Brick 9 × 10 -6
Copper 17 × 10 -6
Glass (Plate) 9 × 10 -6 The mercury column expands or contracts in
Glass (Pyrex) 3 × 10 -6 response to changes in temperature.
Ice 51 × 10-6
Advantages of Mercury Disadvantages of Mercury
Iron or Steel 11 × 10-6
Can be seen clearly in a fine glass Its movement is sometimes jerky as it
Lead 29 × 10-6 tube. does not wet the glass.
Its expansion is regular over a wide
Quartz 0.4 × 10-6 temperature range.
Silver -6
19 × 10 It is easily obtained in a pure state.
Figure - Coefficient of expansion for various materials. Advantages of Alcohol Disadvantages of Alcohol
Alcohol has a greater expansion than Inaccuracies may occur due to the
HEAT ENERGY UNITS mercury for a given temperature rise; alcohol distilling over the cooler part
When the Watt is multiplied by a unit of time, an it is therefore more sensitive. of the tube.

energy unit is formed as follows: It wets the tube and therefore does
not stick to the glass.
1 Ws = 1 J.
The use of the kilowatt-hour is more common: A bimetallic thermometer is very useful in aviation.
1 kWh = 3600 k W s = 3.6 MJ. The temperature sensing element of a bimetallic
thermometer is made of two dissimilar metals strips
THERMOMETERS bonded together. Each metal expands and contracts
Thermometers are devices that measure at a different rate when temperature changes. One
temperature. In order to measure temperature some end of the bimetallic strip is fixed, the other end is
physical property of the thermometer must change coiled. A pointer is attached to the coiled end which
as temperature changes. There are various types of is set in the instrument housing. When the bimetallic
thermometer used for measuring temperature: strip is heated, the two metals expand.
Since their expansion rates differ and they are
NON-ELECTRIC TEMPERATURE INDICATORS attached to each other, the effect is that the coiled
The physical characteristics of most materials end tries to uncoil as the one metal expands faster
change when exposed to changes in temperature. than the other.
The changes are consistent, such as the expansion or This moves the pointer across the dial face of the
contraction of solids, liquids, and gases. The instrument. When the temperature drops, the metals
coefficient of expansion of different materials varies contract at different rates, which tends to tighten
and it is unique to each material. the coil and move the pointer in the opposite
The commonest type of thermometer is the mercury direction.
in glass thermometer. Since the freezing point of
mercury is about -390C, and the boiling point +3570C

3.6 Issue-I, Rev.-0

Why do impure solids melt at lower temperatures? the tube causes an indication of the rising and falling
MELTING POINT DEPRESSION vapor pressure due to temperature change.
Melting point (m.p.) analysis can also provide Calibration of the dial face in degrees Fahrenheit or
information about the purity of a sample. A substance Celsius.
(solid) containing soluble impurities usually melts at
a lower temperature than the pure compound. It can
also melt over a wide range of temperatures and is
called the “melting point depression.”

Thermodynamics
Figure : Structure and principle of a bimetallic strip
Figure : U-tube manometer

Pointer
sliding bearing
rotatable rod
cylindrical pin (pressed in stem)
helical bimetal strip

bimetal connected pin

stem
bimetal connected to rod

Figure: Design of bimetal thermometer (helical type)

A bourdon tube is also used as a direct reading non-

electric temperature gauge in simple, light aircraft.
By calibrating the dial face of a bourdon tube gauge
pressure inlet
with a temperature scale, it can indicate
temperature.
Figure : Bourdon-tube gauge
The basis for operation is the consistent expansion of
the vapor produced by a volatile liquid in an enclosed ELECTRICAL TEMPERATURE MEASURING
area. INDICATION
This vapor pressure changes directly with ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
temperature. By filling a sensing bulb with such a The principle parts of the electrical resistance
volatile liquid and connecting it to a bourdon tube, thermometer are the indicating instrument, the

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.7

temperature-sensitive element (or bulb), and the
+
connecting wires and plug connectors. Electrical 14 Volts X
resistance thermometers are used widely in many
types of aircraft to measure carburetor air, oil, free − A B
air temperatures, and more. They are used to Cal. Res.
measure low and medium temperatures in the –70 °C L M
to 150 °C range.
Electrical resistance changes as the temperature C Indicator
of the metal changes. This is the principle upon
which a resistance thermometer operates. Y

CONSTRUCTION OF RESISTIVE THERMOMETER D Heat-Sensitive Element or Bulb

The resistance thermometer is placed inside the
protective tube for providing the protection against
damage. The resistive element is formed by placing Figure - Internal structure of an electric resistance
the platinum wire on the ceramic bobbin. This thermometer indicator features a bridge circuit,
galvanometer, and variable resistor, which is outside the
resistance element is placed inside the tube which is
indicator in the form of the temperature sensor.
made up of stainless steel or copper steel.
When the temperature causes the resistance of the
bulb to equal that of the other resistances, no
potential difference exists between points X and Y in
the circuit. Therefore, no current flows in the
galvanometer leg of the circuit. If the temperature of
the bulb changes, its resistance also changes, and the
Resistance Thermometer bridge becomes unbalanced, causing current to f low
through the galvanometer in one direction or the
other. The galvanometer pointer is actually the
The lead wire is used for connecting the resistance
temperature gauge pointer. As it moves against the
element with the external lead. The lead wire is
dial face calibrated in degrees, it indicates
covered by the insulated tube which protects it from
temperature.
short circuit. The ceramic material is used as an
insulator for high-temperature material and for low-
RATIOMETER ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
temperature fibre or glass is used.
THERMOMETERS
OPERATION OF RESISTIVE THERMOMETER Another way of indicating temperature when
The indicator contains a resistance-measuring employing an electric resistance thermometer is by
instrument. Sometimes it uses a modified form of the using a ratiometer. The Wheatstone-bridge indicator
Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wheatstone-bridge is subject to errors from line voltage fluctuation. The
meter operates on the principle of balancing one ratiometer is more stable and can deliver higher
unknown resistor against other known resistances. A accuracy. As its name suggests, the ratiometer
simplified form of a Wheatstone bridge circuit is electrical resistance thermometer measures a ratio
shown in Figure below of current flows.

3.8 Issue-I, Rev.-0

 needed. The hotter the high temperature junction
(hot junction) becomes, the greater the
electromotive force produced, and the higher the
temperature indication on the meter.
S N
N A B
S The amount of voltage produced by the dissimilar
metals when heated is measured in millivolts.
NS

R Sensitive
Element (bulb)

Figure -A ratiometer temperature measuring indicator has K-type thermocouple (chromel-alumel) in the
two coils. As the sensor bulb resistance varies with
standard thermocouple measurement configuration.
temperature, different amounts of current flow through the
coils. This produces varying magnetic fields. These fields
The measured voltage v can be used to calculate
interact with the magnetic field of a large permanent temperature Tsense, provided that temperature Tref
magnet, resulting in an indication of temperature. is known.

Thermodynamics
Back of Indicating Instrument

The circuit contains a variable resistance and a fixed

resistance to provide the indication. It contains two Voltmeter Inside
Forms Cold Junction
branches for current flow. Each has a coil mounted on
either side of the pointer assembly that is mounted Typical Thermocouple

within the magnetic field of a large permanent Constantan

(Chrome on Turbine Engine)
magnet. Connectors
Hot Junction

Varying current flow through the coils causes

different magnetic fields to form, which react with Copper or Iron
(Alumel on
Turbine Engines)
the larger magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
This interaction rotates the pointer against the dial Thermocouple Leads Black
face that is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit or
Celsius, giving a temperature indication. Figure -Thermocouples combine two unlike metals that
cause current flow when heated.
THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE INDICATORS
A thermocouple is a circuit or connection of two
unlike metals. The metals are touching at two
separate junctions. If one of the junctions is heated
to a higher temperature than the other, an
electromotive force is produced in the circuit.
This voltage is directly proportional to the
temperature. So, by measuring the amount of
electromotive force, temperature can be
determined. A voltmeter is placed across the colder
Figure -Typical thermocouple temperature indicators.
of the two junctions of the thermocouple. It is
calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius, as

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.9

Thermocouples are used to measure high time of both the sensors depends on their size.
temperatures. Two common applications are the 6. In thermocouples, the variation in temperature is
measurement of cylinder head temperature (CHT) in determined by the voltage induces at their
reciprocating engines using thermocouple with junction. The resistance of the thermistor
gasket type hot junction and exhaust gas changes when their surrounding temperature
temperature (EGT) in turbine engines. varies.
7. The characteristic curve of the thermocouple
Difference between Thermocouple & Thermistor between voltage and current is linear. The curve
The most significant difference between the shows that the voltage of the thermocouple
thermocouple and the thermistor is that in increases concerning the temperature. While in
thermocouple the sensing parameter is the voltage the thermistor, the characteristic curve between
that induces between the two dissimilar metals. the resistance and temperature is non-linear
Whereas in thermistor the resistance is the when the thermistor has a negative temperature
temperature sensing parameter. coefficient. The non-linear curve of thermistor
The thermocouple and thermistor both are the shows that their resistance decreases with the
temperature sensing devices, but they have different increases in temperature.
working principle. 8. The thermocouple is less expensive as compared
In thermistor, the variation in temperature to the thermistor because the thermistor
changes the resistance of their material. requires the external power source.
While in thermocouples the change in temperature 9. The thermistor and thermocouple both are used
induces the voltage between the wires of different for controlling and measuring temperature.
metals. 10. The thermocouples are used in large industries,
When the temperature of the source has insufficient while the thermistors are used in home
heat for thermocouple application, then thermistor appliances.
circuit are being used for measuring the
temperature. CONCLUSION
The thermistor and the thermocouple both are the
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THERMOCOUPLE AND types of the temperature sensor. The thermistor is
THERMISTOR used in small appliances for sensing the temperature,
1. The thermocouple is the temperature measuring and the thermocouple is used for detecting the high
devices and thermistor is a type of thermal temperature.
resistor.
2. The thermocouples are made from metal or HEAT TRANSFER
alloys of metals. While the thermistor is made by
the semiconductor or by the oxides of CONDUCTION
magnesium, nickel or cobalt. Conduction is the transfer of energy through matter
3. The thermocouple has high accuracy as from particle to particle. It is the transfer and
compared to the thermistor. The thermistor has distribution of heat energy from atom to atom within
lead whose resistance reduces their accuracy. a substance.
4. The temperature measuring ranges of the Heat transfer by conduction requires that there be
thermistor is -50°C to 250°C whereas that of the physical contact between an object that has a large
thermocouple is -200°C to 1250°C. amount of heat energy and one that has a smaller
5. The thermistor gives the quick response as amount of heat energy.
compared to the thermocouples. The response When hot and cold bodies are mixed together, the

3.10 Issue-I, Rev.-0

heat lost by the hot body equals the heat gained by CONVECTION
the cold body Convection is a type of heat transfer that can only
The metal transmits the heat more easily than the happen in liquids and gases, because it involves those
wood because it is a better conductor of heat. liquids or gases physically moving.
Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Convection happens when there is a difference in
Some metals are much better conductors of heat temperature between two parts of a liquid or gas.
than others. Aluminum and copper are used in pots The hot part of a fluid rises, and the cooler part sinks.
and pans because they conduct heat very rapidly. Convection cannot take place in most solids because
Woods and plastics are used for handles because they neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion of
conduct heat very slowly. matter can take place. Diffusion of heat takes place
1.10
in rigid solids, but that is called heat conduction.
A good example of this is a pan of water sitting on the
1.00 1.00
.94 stove. The bottom of the pan becomes hot because it
.90 conducts heat from the surface it is in contact with.
.80
The water on the bottom of the pan also heats up
because of conduction. As the heated water starts to
.70 rise and cooler water moves in to take its place, the
.60 .57 convection process begins. An aircraft air-cooled

Thermodynamics
piston engine is a good example of convection being
.50
used to transfer heat.
.40 .37

.30 RADIATION
.22 Both conduction and convection require matter to
.20 .18
transfer heat.
.10 .08
Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not
MAGNESIUM

0 rely upon any contact between the heat source and

ALUMINUM

COPPER
NICKEL

SILVER

the heated object. For example, we feel heat from

LEAD

IRON

the sun even though we are not touching it. Heat can
Figure - Heat conductivity of various metals. be transmitted though empty space by thermal
radiation. Thermal radiation (often called infrared
Silver, copper, and aluminum are also excellent radiation) is a type electromagnetic radiation (or
conductors of electricity. Liquids are poorer light).
conductors of heat than metals. Since conduction is a Radiation is a form of energy transport consisting
process whereby the increase in molecular energy is of electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of
passed along by actual contact, gases are poor light. No mass is exchanged and no medium is
conductors. required. In short, heat travel through vacuums by
INSULATORS radiation. Radiant heat heats up the intervening
Materials that are poor conductors are used to medium.
prevent the transfer of heat and are called heat The point source model assumes that radiant energy
insulators. A wooden handle on a pot or a soldering is released at a point located at the center of the fire.
iron serves as a heat insulator. Certain materials, Example The heat given off by burning block of
such as finely spun glass or asbestos, are particularly wood.
poor heat conductors. These materials are therefore The radiant heat flux at any distance from the source
used for many types of insulation. fire is inversely related to the horizontal separation

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.11

distance (R), by the following equation (Drysdale,
1998 KrQ
q” =
4pR

Where:
q” = radiant heat flux (kW/m )
Q = heat release rate of the fire (kW)
R = radial distance from the center of the flame to
the edge of the target (m)
xr = fraction of total energy radiated
Picture is self explanatory
Objects emit radiation when high energy electrons in
a higher atomic level fall down to lower energy SPECIFIC HEAT
levels. The energy lost is emitted as light or If equal amount of heat is added to equal masses of
electromagnetic radiation. Energy that is absorbed different substances, the resulting temperature
by an atom causes its electrons to "jump" up to higher changes will not be the same. It implies that every
energy levels) substance has a unique value for the amount of heat
absorbed or rejected to change the temperature of
unit mass of it by one unit. This quantity is referred to
as the specific heat capacity of the substance
The specific heat capacity is the property of the
substance which determines the change in the
temperature of the substance (undergoing no phase
change) when a given quantity of heat is absorbed (or
rejected) by it.
It is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass
absorbed or rejected by the substance to change
its temperature by one unit. It depends on the
nature of the substance and its temperature.
CONCLUSION The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1
The differences between conduction, convection, Difference Between CV and CP
and radiation may now be considered. First, although Definition
conduction and convection are extremely slow, • CV: CV is the amount of heat energy that a
radiation takes place at the speed of light. This fact is substance absorbs or releases (per unit mass)
evident at the time of an eclipse of the sun when the with the change in temperature where a volume
shutting off of the heat from the sun takes place at change does not occur.
the same time as the shutting off of the light. Second, • CP: CP is the amount of heat energy that a
radiant heat may pass through a medium without substance absorbs or release (per unit mass) with
heating it. For example, the glass through which the the change in temperature where a pressure
sun's rays pass. Third, although heat transfer by change does not occur.
conduction or convection may travel in roundabout
routes, radiant heat always travels in a straight line. Constant Parameters
For example, radiation can be cut off with a screen CV: In CV, volume is constant.
placed between the source of heat and the body to be CP: In CP, pressure is constant.
protected.

3.12 Issue-I, Rev.-0

Related Parameters solid or condensing a vapour is called the heat of
CV: CV is related to the internal energy of a system. vaporization. The latent heat is normally expressed
CP: CP is related to the enthalpy of a system as the amount of heat (in units of joules or calories)
per mole or unit mass of the substance undergoing a
Heat Energy E = mcΔT change of state.
Where:
EH = heat energy measured in joules (J) DRAWING A HEATING CURVE
m = mass measured in (kg) Temperature is plotted on the y-axis, while the x-axis
c = specific heat capacity measured in (Jkg‾1 K‾1 )
represents the heat that has been added. A constant
∆T = change in temperature (T2-T1) measured in
(˚C or K) rate of heating is assumed, so that one can also think
of the x-axis as the amount of time that goes by as a
The heat capacity of a body is the product of its substance is heated. There are two main
mass and the specific heat capacity of its material. observations on the measured curve:
The units of heat capacity are JK‾1 . · regions where the temperature increases as
heat is added
LATENT HEAT · plateaus where the temperature stays
Latent heat, energy absorbed or released by a constant.
substance during a change in its physical state It is at those plateaus that a phase change occurs.
(phase) that occurs without changing its

Thermodynamics
temperature. The latent heat associated with
melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat
of fusion; that associated with vaporizing a liquid or a

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.13

 system, minus the amount of work done by the
system on its surroundings.
Explanation about the law with example
Now imagine that you walk around the car and put
your hand over the exhaust. Two things you will
notice; one is that it is considerably hotter than it
went into the engine, and two; that it is considerably
higher pressure than when it went into the engine.
This is because not all of the heat energy added to the
gas can be turned into useful work, some of the heat
energy added to the gas will leave via the exhaust in
the form of Internal Energy (symbol U). Our formula
INTERNAL ENERGY is now:
Whenever a gas increases in temperature, the Heat energy added to the system (Q) = Work done
molecules of the gas vibrate and move around more by the system (W) plus a change in Internal Energy
vigorously. It is this increase kinetic energy that (U)
actually produces the increased pressure as they Or in its simplest terms
collide with each other and with the wall of the Q = W+U
container in which it is confined. The kinetic energy This is the mathematical version of the 1st Law of
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature Thermodynamics.
in the gas. Thermodynamicists call the sum of this Example:- A bicycle pump provides a good example.
kinetic and potential energies in the gas “Internal When we pump on the handle rapidly, it becomes hot
Energy”, symbol U and unit is Joules. due to mechanical work done on the gas, rising
thereby its internal energy.
ENTHALPY.
The combination of internal energy, and pressure and THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
volume are the likely things to be change whenever a Second law of thermodynamics in relation to entropy
gas is heated. Since this happens so often in can be stated as follows:-
thermodynamics, it is grouped together and given its 1) Entropy of the universe always increases with
own name and unit. It is called “Enthalpy” and given every spontaneous or natural change.
a symbol H. It is simply the sum of internal energy Entropy is defined as the quantitative measure of
plus the pressure volume product. disorder or randomness in a closed or isolated
Enthalpy H= U+ PV system.
2) Heat flow in a system is always from higher
THERMODYNAMIC LAWS temperature to lower temperature spontaneously. It
First Law of Thermodynamics is not possible that heat could flow from a system at
The First law of thermodynamics is same as law of lower temperature to the system at higher
conservation of energy. temperature.(Given by Clausius)
According to law of energy conservation: - Energy can 3) In a cyclic process all the heat given to the system
neither be created nor be destroyed, only cannot be converted to work. (Given by Kelvin)
transformed to other forms. In other words the first law of Thermodynamics is
According to first law of thermodynamics: - The really a prelude to the second. It states that the total
change in the internal energy of a closed system is energy output( as produced by machine) is equal to
equal to the amount of heat supplied to the the amount of heat supplied. Generally ,energy can

3.14 Issue-I, Rev.-0

neither be created nor destroyed, so the sum of mass Thus Heat Capacity at constant pressure is greater
and energy is always conserved. than heat capacity at constant volume.
First and second law can be combined to give a
consolidated definition as: GAS LAWS
The energy of universe is conserved but entropy of Gas is composed of identical molecules which behave
the universe is constantly increasing with any natural like minute elastic spheres, spaced relatively far
process. Thus we can say that thermodynamic apart and continuously in motion.
entropy is a measure of energy dispersal or The degree of molecular motion is dependent upon
the temperature of the gas. Since the molecules are
distribution, and so the second law of
continuously striking against each other and against
thermodynamics is closely related with the concept the walls of the container, an increase in
of entropy. temperature with the resulting increase in molecular
Example motion causes a corresponding increase in the
The second law of thermodynamics is a formal number of collisions between the molecules. The
statement based on these observations. It can be increased number of collisions results in an increase
stated in a number of different ways. in pressure because a greater number of molecules
According to Lord Kelvin's statement based on the strike against the walls of the container in a given
unit of time. If the container is sealed and possesses
working of a heat engine.
elasticity (such as a rubber balloon), the increased
“It is impossible to devise a process which may pressure causes the container to expand.

Thermodynamics
convert heat, extracted from a single reservoir, Such phenomena as these have been explained and
entirely into work without leaving any change in the set forth in the form of laws pertaining to gases
working system.” and tend to support the kinetic theory.
This means that a single heat reservoir, no matter
how much energy it contains, can not be made to BOYLE'S LAW
perform any work. A cylinder containing gas is fitted with a light piston.
This cylinder contains a certain mass of gas and
This is true of oceans and our atmosphere which
therefore a certain number of molecules of gas. The
contains a large amount of heat energy but can not be gas has a definite absolute temperature. This
converted into useful mechanical work. temperature is a measure of the average speed of the
gas molecules in the sample. Some of the molecules
HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES. are moving faster and some are moving slower. The
The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp is greater average speed determines the temperature.
that the heat capacity at constant volume Cv, If the temperature of the gas remains constant and
because when heat is added at constant pressure, the the volume of the gas sample is decreased, the
substance expands and work. molecules, still moving with the same average speed,
are "squashed" into a smaller space (see figure
When heat is added to a gas at constant volume, we below).
have
Qv = Cv ∆T = ∆U + W = ∆U
because no work is done. Therefore.
dU
dU = Cv dT and Cv =
dT
When heat is added at constant pressure, we have

Qp = Cp ∆T = ∆U + W = ∆U + P∆V.

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.15

The result is that the sides of the container CHARLES' LAW
experience more collisions per unit time. This Toward the end of the 18th century, investigations
results in an increase in the absolute pressure the carried out by French physicists, Jacques Alexandre
molecules exert on the walls of the container. Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac led to the
discovery of a relation between the volume and
Note that a decrease in volume produces an increase
absolute temperature of gases under conditions of
in absolute pressure. This is characteristic of an constant pressure.
inverse proportion. We write the equation as: Let us again consider a sample of gas containing a
P₁ V₁ definite number of molecules. We stipulate that the
=
P₂ V₂ pressure on this sample of gas will remain constant. If
If we cross multiply in the above equation we reach the pressure is to remain constant, an increase in
the form in which Boyle's Law is usually written: absolute temperature must be accompanied by a
P₁V₁ = P₂V₂ corresponding increase in volume (see figure below).
Hence
Boyle's law states : The volume of an enclosed dry
gas varies inversely with its absolute pressure,
provided the temperature remains constant
( Isothermal process)
But in case of liquid when the heat is constant, the
rise in pressure has little effect on its volume.

EXAMPLE:
A cylinder fitted with a piston contains gas at a
pressure of 35.5 lbs/inch as indicated by a gauge
mounted to the outside of the cylinder. The
atmospheric pressure is 14.5 lbs./in if the piston is
forced down reducing the volume in the cylinder to
one fourth of its original volume while holding the We say that the volume is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas constant, determine the new absolute temperature, provided that the pressure
reading on the pressure gauge. remains constant. We write the equation as:
P₁ = (35.5 + 14.5) lbs./in
VµT
P₁ = 50 ibs./in
Or
V₂= ₄ V₁
V/T =k
P₁V₁ = P₂V₂

(50 lbs./in ) (V₁) = P₂ ( ₄V₁) Where:

V is the volume of the given gas
Solving for P₂ gives, T is the temperature of the given gas measured in
kelvins
P₂ = 200 ibs/in absolute
k is a constant, obtained by dividing V by T
We still must express this new pressure as a gauge
pressure since the problem asked for the new reading or
on the pressure gauge. Our final answer is: V₁
__ V₂
= __
T₁ T₂
P₂ = (200 - 14.5) lbs/in = 186 lbs./in

3.16 Issue-I, Rev.-0

The absolute temperatures must be either Kelvin, The equation for Gay-Lussac's Law is:
or Rankin degrees. P₁ P₂
=
When a gas is heated at constant pressure and its T₁ T₂
temperature is raised by 1K, its volume is increases T₁ = Initial Temperature (Kelvin -K)
by 1/273. P₁ = Initial Pressure (atm or mmHg)
T₂ = Final Temperature (Kelvin -K)
Example: A 15 ft cylinder of oxygen is at a P₂ = Final Pressure (atm or mmHg)
temperature of 70°F and a pressure of 750 psig. The
cylinder is placed in the sun and the temperature of Note: Temperature must be in Kelvin for the equation
the oxygen increases to 140°F. What would be the to work. You calculate Kelvin temperature by adding
new pressure in psig?
273 to the Celsius temperature.
70 degrees Fahrenheit = 530 degrees Rankine THE GENERAL (IDEAL) GAS LAW
140 degrees Fahrenheit = 600 degrees Rankine The three properties, pressure, temperature, and
750 psig + 14.7 = 764.7 psia volume are interrelated for a fixed mass (number of
P1T2 = P2T1 molecules) of gas in such a way that if two of them
764.7 (600) = P2 (530) change in value the third can immediately be
P2 = 764.7 (600) + 530 determined. Combining the three gas laws the
P2 = 865.7 psia
following general gas law can be written
P2 = 851 psig

Thermodynamics
P₁V₁ P₂V₂
GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW =
T₁ T₂
This third gas law relates the absolute pressure to the
absolute temperature of a gas when its volume is held Note that this equation gives us the three gas laws
constant. that we have studied. If the temperature of the gas
Again we consider a certain number of molecules of remains constant, we can cancel the temperatures
gas in a closed container where the volume of the gas in the denominators and obtain:
is held constant. If we increase the absolute P₁V₁=P₂V₂ Boyle's Law
temperature of the gas, the average speed of the
molecules increases. As these molecules strike the If the pressure remains constant, we can cancel the
walls of the container they exert a greater pressure pressures in the numerators and obtain:
since they are moving faster (see figure below). V₁ V₂
=
T₁ T₂ Charles' Law

If the volume remains constant, we can cancel the

volumes in the numerators and obtain:

P₁ P₂
= Gay-Lussac's Law
T₁ T₂

Kelvin (absolute scale) is always used with the

combined gas law equation
Using absolute pressures and temperatures the
DALTON'S LAW
following simple relationship is obtained:
Dalton, an English physicist, and is set forth in
Dalton's law: "A mixture of several gases which do

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.17

not react chemically exerts a pressure equal to the
sum of the pressures which the several gases would
exert separately if each were allowed to occupy
the entire space alone at the given temperature."

WORK AND EXPANDING GASES

Work can be done by expanding gas. In fact, this is
how energy in fuel is extracted in internal HEAT TRANSFERS TO
combustion engines. The fuel is combined with air PISTON TO KEEP
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
and burned. The expanding gases from combustion in HEAT
a reciprocating engine act upon the pistons forcing THERMAL RESERVIOR (INFINITE HEAT BATH)
them downward. This rotates the crankshaft through
the connecting rods. The rotating crankshaft turns
ADIABATIC PROCESS
the propeller. In a turbine engine, the expanding
gases from combustion are directed through the occurs without transferring heat or mass between a
turbine wheels. This rotates the engine shafts with thermodynamics system and its surroundings. In
the remaining gas pressure expelled rearward to adiabatic process transfers energy to the
produce thrust in the forward direction. surroundings only as work .
Adiabatic Process - Work Done
In a Adiabatic (When a change in the volume and
pressure of the contents of a system takes place
without exchange of heat between the system and
its surroundings.) Process, when work is performed
by expanding gases, the volume that the gases
occupy increases but there is a corresponding
decrease in temperature and pressure. If the gases
are compressed instead of expanded, the
phenomenon would reverse. A smaller volume would
increase the pressure of the gas and increase the An Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in
temperature of the gas. which the pressure stays constant: ΔP = 0. The heat
transferred to the system does work, but also
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
changes the internal energy of the system.
In which the temperature remains constant: ΔT =0.
This typically occurs when a system is in contact with ISOBARIC
an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and the
change in the system will occur slowly enough to
allow the system to continue to adjust to the
temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange.

Isochoric process, also called a constant-volume

process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric
process, is a thermodynamic process during which

3.18 Issue-I, Rev.-0

the volume of the closed system undergoing such a cylinder reducing the volume but increasing the
process remains constant. pressure of the gas charge significantly. At point 3 on
the graph, the intake valve and the exhaust valve are
ISOCHORIC closed. A constant volume of gas is held in the
combustion chamber as a spark from the spark plug
ignites the mixture.

For the short duration that the fuel-air charge is

burned, the volume remains constant but the energy
released by burning the fuel causes a sharp increase
in pressure (from points 3 to 4). The constant volume
portion of the cycle ends when the piston passes top
dead center in the cylinder and the power stroke
begins at point 4. Between points 4 and 5, the
pressure from the burned fuel-air mixture pushes the
ENGINE CYCLES piston down transferring mechanical energy to the
CONSTANT VOLUME rotating crankshaft in the process. At point 5, the
The cycle through which a reciprocating engine exhaust valve opens. Quickly, the pressure is reduced
operates is known as the Otto cycle. It is a constant to atmospheric between points 5 and 6. Residual heat
volume cycle owing to a constant volume of fuel air is given off and during the exhaust stroke between
mixture being burned during each cycle (Two points 6 and 1, the piston moves back into the

Thermodynamics
revolutions of the crankshaft). cylinder pushing all of the exhaust gas out thus
returning the volume (and pressure) in the engine to
their minimum values to begin the cycle again.
Note :-Area enclosed by the P-V plot of an engine
V = Volume Constant Volume Process
cycle represents work done per cycle
p = Pressure
4
Adiabatic Process
Cumbustion Process CONSTANT PRESSURE
A constant pressure engine cycle occurs in a turbine
Power Stroke
p 3
engine. The Brayton cycle is the name given to the
Heat Rejection thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine engine to
5
Work produce thrust. This is a variable volume constant-
pressure cycle of events and is commonly called the
Compression Stroke 1 6
2 constant-pressure cycle. A more recent term is
"continuous combustion cycle." The four continuous
Intake Stroke Exhaust Stroke
and constant events are intake, compression,
V expansion (includes power), and exhaust. These
Figure- Constant volume engine cycle of a reciprocating cycles are discussed as they apply to a gas-turbine
internal combustion engine. engine.

The cycle begins at the point labeled 1. This is the

beginning of the intake stroke of the cycle. Both the
volume and the pressure are at a minimum near
atmospheric pressure. Between points 1 and 2, the
piston is drawn out of the cylinder and the volume of
air at atmospheric pressure increases the cylinder
pulls the fuel-air mixture into it. The compression
stroke begins at point 2. The piston rises up in the

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.19

Process Description mountain lake, to have more thermal energy than a
1 to 2 Fresh air is compressed adiabatically (no heat transfer).
small hot object, such as a cup of boiling water.
Fuel and air are mixed and burnt at constant pressure in THERMAL EFFICIENCY
2 to 3
the combustion chamber.
The heat produced by the burning of gasoline in the
3 to 4 The air expands adiabatically in the turbine.
cylinders causes a rapid expansion of the gases in the
The hot air in the exhaust cools and is drawn back into cylinder, and this, in turn, moves the pistons and
4 to 1
the engine.
creates mechanical energy. It has long been known
CARNOT CYCLE that mechanical work can be converted into heat and
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical ideal that a given amount of heat contains the energy
thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist equivalent of a certain amount of mechanical work.
Sadi Carnot. It provides an upper limit on the Heat and work are theoretically interchangeable and
efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine bear a fixed relation to each other. Heat can
can achieve during the conversion of heat into work, therefore be measured in work units (for example, ft-
or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system lb) as well as in heat units. The British thermal unit
in creating a temperature difference by the
(BTU) of heat is the quantity of heat required to raise
application of work to the system. It is not an actual
thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct. the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 °F. It is
The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine equivalent to 778 ft-lb of mechanical work. A pound
consists of the following steps: of petroleum fuel, when burned with enough air to
Isothermal Expansion consume it completely (heat of combustion), gives
Adiabatic process up about 20 000 BTU, the equivalent of 15 560 000 ft-
A heat engine allows energy to flow from high lb of mechanical work. These quantities express the
temperature heat source to a low temperature heat
heat energy of the fuel in heat and work units,
sink and the amount of energy taken from hot side is
greater than the amount of energy deposited in the respectively.
cold heat sink.

HEAT OF COMBUSTION
Calculating the heat of combustion is a useful tool in
analyzing fuels in terms of energy. The Heat of
Combustion of a substance is defined as the amount
of energy in the form of heat is liberated when an
amount of the substance undergoes combustion
Heat of combustion is typically measured in mega-
joules per kilogram or in BTU's per pound.

THERMAL ENERGY
Thermal energy is the internal energy of an object
due to the kinetic energy of its atoms and/or
molecules. The atoms and/or molecules of a hotter
object have greater kinetic energy than those of a
colder one, in the form of vibrational, rotational, or,
in the case of a gas, translational motion. Thermal
energy does not refer to the motion of an object as a
whole (that is, kinetic energy). While a hot object has
greater thermal energy than a cold object of the The ratio of useful work done by an engine to the
same type (for example, a hot brick versus a cold heat energy of the fuel it uses, expressed in work
brick), it is possible for a large cold object, such as a

3.20 Issue-I, Rev.-0

or heat units, is called the thermal efficiency of the everyone will know what we mean, but cold really
engine. only means that something contains less heat than
something else. All there really , is greater and lesser
THERMAL EFFICIENCY amounts of heat.
Heat engines turn heat into work. The thermal
efficiency expresses the fraction of heat that THE DEFINITION OF REFRIGERATION IS THE
becomes useful work. The thermal efficiency is REMOVAL AND RELOCATION OF HEAT.
represented by the symbol h, and can be calculated
using the equation:
So if something is to be refrigerated, it is to have heat
W
h= removed from it.
Q
How do things get colder?
Where: Things get cold because they lose heat by one or more
W is the useful work and of the following methods:
Q is the total heat energy input from the hot • Radiation
source. • Conduction
• Convection
eat engines often operate at around 30% to 50% The latter two are used extensively in the design of
refrigeration equipment.
efficiency, due to practical limitations. t is

Thermodynamics
impossible for heat engines to achieve 100% thermal THE MAGIC OF LATENT HEAT
efficiency (h = 1) according to the econd law of Take one Lb. of water and heated it one degree
thermodynamics. his is impossible because some Fahrenheit. The amount of heat that was required to
waste heat is always produced produced in a heat do this was called one BTU (British Thermal Unit).
engine, shown in above igure by the term. If we did a little experiment and added 1 BTU of heat
lthough complete efficiency in a heat engine is at a time to 1 LB of water, we would notice that the
water temperature would increase by 1 degree each
impossible, there are many ways to increase a
time. That is until you reached 212 degrees. Then
system's overall efficiency. something changes. We would keep adding BTU's, but
the water would not get any hotter! it would change
A high thermal efficiency also means low specific fuel state into a gas and it would take 970 BTU's to
consumption and, therefore, less fuel for a flight of a vaporize that pound of water.
given distance at a given power. Thus, the practical This is called the Latent Heat of Vaporization and
importance of a high thermal efficiency is threefold, in the case of water it is 970 BTU's per pound.
and it constitutes one of the most desirable features SUCTION LINE FLOW OF REFRIGERANT
in the performance of an aircraft engine. EVAPORATOR COIL
MOTOR
COMPRESSOR

CONDENSER COIL
REFRIGERATOR
The thermal efficiency of an engine may be based on
THERMOSTAT SWITCH
either bhp or indicated horsepower (ihp) and is
represented by the formula: EVAPORATOR CONDENSER
FAN FAN
ihp x 33 000 LIQUID LINE
EXPANSION VALVE
Weight of Fuel Burned/min. x Heat Value x 778
BENSING BULB RECEIVER
REFRIGERATION
Figure- The Six Main Components of a Refrigeration System
Refrigeration and Heat Pumps
First of all, let us know that there is no such thing as
When we hear the word refrigeration, we usually
cold? We can describe something as cold and

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.21

think of it as a unit that makes our food cold and control.
fresh.
L u c k i l y, o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t e n g i n e e r i n g COMPRESSOR
accomplishments over the centuries has been the This draws low-temperature and low-pressure
development and evolution of refrigeration. vapour from the evaporator through the suction line;
Refrigerants used in air conditioning systems the vapour will automatically be compressed once
typical boil at very low temperatures. The diverted – there will also be a rise in the temperature
refrigerant must evaporate at lower temperature if the vapour is compressed. In simple terms, a
than the 'cold space' and must condense at a compressor can convert low-temperatures to high-
relatively high temperature, with a low compression temperatures, which can be the cause of an increase
level. in pressure. Through a compressor, heat can be easily
Refrigeration involves the removal of heat from released.
spaces, objects or materials while maintaining their
temperature below the surrounding atmosphere. CONDENSER
Refrigeration would not exist without these basic This device can extract heat from the refrigerant.
components: Fans placed above the condenser unit draw air over
the condenser coils. The temperature of
The 6 Main Components of a Refrigeration System condensation should range from around -12°C to -
EXPANSION VALVE 1°C; vapour will be cooled until it becomes a liquid
The purpose of the expansion device is to rapidly refrigerant again, whereby it will retain some heat.
reduce the pressure of the refrigerant in the When the substance is condensing, that is, changing
refrigeration cycle. This allows the refrigerant to from a gas to a liquid, the heat energy given off is
rapidly cool before entering the evaporator. sometimes known as the latent heat of fusion.

EVAPORATOR
The sole purpose of the evaporator is to remove the
unwanted heat from the product through liquid
refrigerants. The liquid refrigerant must be at a low-
pressure. This low-pressure can be determined by
two factors – one is the heat being absorbed from the
product to the liquid refrigerant and the other is the
removal of low-pressure vapour by the compressor.

When a liquid changes state and becomes a vapor,

the process is known as evaporation. The heat energy
absorbed to change from liquid to a gas is known as
the latent heat of vaporization.

CAPACITY CONTROL SYSTEM

As its name might suggest, the capacity control Components of Compresion Refrigeration In A Dorm
system regulates the power and energy consumption, Refrigerator
although it can also manage dehumidification or
decrease compressor cycling. The on/off cycling of RECEIVER
the compressor is the simplest form of capacity As a temporary storage and a surge tank for liquid

3.22 Issue-I, Rev.-0

refrigerant, the receiver acts as a vapour seal. With a to the cabin to repeat the cycle of energy transfer.
primary purpose of preserving the vapour moving One of the keys to the operation of an air
down the liquid line to the expansion valve, receivers conditioning system is latent heat. Adding heat to a
can be made for both horizontal and vertical substance does not always raise its temperature.
installation. When a substance changes state, such as when a
liquid changes into a vapor, heat energy is absorbed.
Example:- Vapor cycle air conditioning is used on This heat energy absorbed to change state is called
older transport category aircraft and on many latent heat. When a vapor condenses into a liquid,
business and general aviation aircraft. This is the this latent heat energy is given off.
same type of air conditioning in your car, home or
refrigerator.
HEAT PUMP
CABIN AIR
Fan

High-Pressure Liquid
Liquid refrigerant absorbs
OUTSIDE AIR cabin heat and changes
into a vapor

Thermodynamics
Low Pressure Vapor

Heat from hot refrigerant

Low Temperature

vapor is given off to the Cabin air is

outside air which is not cool after
as hot. The refrigerant heat is given
changes into a liquid. to evaporate HEAT PUMP
the refrigerant
is a device that transfers heat energy from a source of
High-Temperature Refrigerant heat to what is called a thermal reservoir.
High-Pressure Vapor is compressed
and becomes hot • Heat pumps move thermal energy in the opposite
direction of spontaneous heat transfer, by
absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it
to a warmer one.
Figure - In vapor cycle air conditioning • A heat pump uses external power to accomplish
the work of transferring energy from the heat
In vapor cycle air conditioning, heat is carried from source to the heat sink.
the cabin to the outside air by a refrigerant which • The most common design of a heat pump involves
changes from a liquid to a vapor and back again. four main components – a condenser, an
Explanation: As we know that energy can be neither expansion valve, an evaporator and a
created nor destroyed; however, it can be compressor. The heat transfer medium circulated
transformed and moved. This is what occurs during through these components is called refrigerant
vapor cycle air conditioning. Heat energy is moved
from the cabin air into a liquid refrigerant. Due to the While air conditioners and freezers are familiar
additional energy, the liquid changes into a vapor. examples of heat pumps, the term "heat pump" is
The vapor is compressed and becomes very hot. It is more general and applies to many heating,
removed from the cabin where the very hot vapor ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) devices used
refrigerant transfers its heat energy to the cooler for space heating or space cooling. Heat pumps
outside air. In doing so, the refrigerant cools and usually can be used either in heating mode or cooling
condenses back into a liquid. The refrigerant returns mode, as required by the user. Thus Heat Pump

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.23

operates in both directions. When a heat pump is
used for heating, it employs the same basic
refrigeration-type cycle used by an air conditioner or
a refrigerator, but in the opposite direction –
releasing heat into the conditioned space rather than
the surrounding environment. In this use, heat pumps
generally draw heat from the cooler external air or
from the ground. Heat pumps can also be used in
district heating and are a main element of cold
district heating systems.

REVERSIBLE HEAT PUMPS

Reversible heat pumps work in either direction to
provide heating or cooling to the internal space. They
employ a reversing valve to reverse the flow of
refrigerant from the compressor through the
condenser and evaporation coils.
In heating mode, the outdoor coil is an evaporator,
while the indoor is a condenser. The refrigerant
flowing from the evaporator (outdoor coil) carries
the thermal energy from outside air (or soil, or better
still, moving water) indoors. Vapor temperature is
augmented within the pump by compressing it. The
indoor coil then transfers thermal energy (including
energy from the compression) to the indoor air, which
is then moved around the inside of the building by an
air handler.

3.24 Issue-I, Rev.-0