What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is

here to help you master the significance of meiosis. The scope of
this module permits it to be used in many different learning situa-
tions. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the learner’s material you are now us-
ing.
This module contains:
Lesson 1 – The Significance of Meiosis
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. explain gametogenesis;
2. explain the role of meiosis in gametogenesis;
3. describe the abnormalities that may occur during meiosis; and
4. explain the significance of meiosis in maintaining the chromo-
some number of an organism. (MELC Week 2 S8LT-IVe-17)
 Meiosis is a type of cell division that takes place during the creation of sex
cells. During meiosis, the chromosome number is decreased by half. This is to
ensure that the zygote would receive the exact number of chromosomes during
fertilization. The creation of germ cells or gametes is referred to as gametogen-
esis. These gametes are used for sexual reproduction.
During gametogenesis, a cell which contains one set of every pair of chro-
mosome comes from a diploid cell (2N). Male and female individuals produce
their gametes through meiosis. In males, gametogenesis is known as spermato-
genesis. This process produces sperm atozoa (singular form is sperm a-
tozoon) or sperm cells. Gametogenesis in females is known as oogenesis, since
it produces oocytes and yields mature ova (singular form ovum) or egg cells.
Both processes begin with meiosis. The creation of sperm cells happens in the
testes while egg cell production happens inside the ovary. The formation of em-
bryo does not occur normally without the process of meiosis.
Meiosis functions for the proper conditioning of cells inside the gonads in
preparation for reproduction and for genetic diversity among organisms. But the
basic function of meiosis is to maintain the standard number of chromosomes
of the organism or species after the union of sex cells during fertilization. This is
possible when the division and the reduction of chromosome number of gam-
etes from diploid (2N) to haploid (N) occurs.
This figure shows the parts of the
spermatozoa,
namely:
1. Nucleus (plural form nuclei) is
found in the head.
2. Mitochondrion (plural form mito-
chondria) is at the middle piece that
connects the head to its tail. It pro-
vides energy for the locomotion.
3. Acrosome is a cap-like structure which develops on the head. It contains di-
gestive enzymes. These enzymes penetrate the outer sheath of the ovum, re-
sulting to the merging of the sperm and the ovum haploid nucleus.
Oogenesis
This process refers to the creation of gametes called ova which happens in-
side the ovaries among female organisms. It begins during the developmental
stages of fetus inside a mother’s womb, when the reproductive cells of females
are formed by meiosis. Figure 3 shows the phases of the formation of an ovum
or egg cell.
The reproductive female cells known as oogonium (plural oogonia) under-
goes mitosis and cell growth until it is ready to undergo meiosis and becomes
primary oocyte. This primary oocyte is diploid (2N).
The primary oocyte begins Meiosis I but stops its development in prophase I
until puberty, when a girl begins her menstrual cycle.
 Each month, a hormone known as Follicle-
stimulating hormone (FHS) will trigger the con-
tinued division of the primary oocyte. The pitu-
itary gland is responsible for the production of
FHS. The functions of both the ovaries and the
testes are controlled by this hormone.
The primary oocyte divides during the first
meiotic division and two cells of unequal size
are formed. One of the cells receives the com-
plete parts of the cytoplasm and forms a sec-
ondary oocyte, the other cell of smaller size,
becomes a polar body. Both cells contain only
one of the pairs of the complete set of chro-
mosomes.
The haploid secondary oocyte is released by
the rupture of the follicles of the ovary during
ovulation and move into the fallopian tube and
divides again during the second meiotic divi-
sion, but its development is arrested in meta-
phase II. After fertilization is initiated, the secondary oocyte completes its sec-
ond meiotic division, resulting in the formation of a mature ovum and another
polar body. At this point, the ovum is ready to fuse with the spermatozoan. The
polar body may or may not divide, and eventually degenerate at the end of
Meiosis II. The polar bodies shed the excess haploid sets of chromosomes.
If fertilization occurs, the ovum is stimulated to complete meiosis II. It con-
tains a lot of stored food which is used by the growing embryo at the start of
its development.
What would happen if meiosis suddenly stops?
The process of meiosis is needed in the formation of gametes, sexual repro-
duction, and for the increase of genetic diversity. If there is no meiosis, repro-
duction among sexually producing creatures will never occur. Production of off-
spring would stop and eventually, no more future generations. The earth will
suffer extinction of most species among multicellular eukaryotes.
What would happen when something goes wrong during meiosis?
Meiosis may not always proceed normally. Problems during meiosis some-
times happen and cause great harm during embryonic development. Accidents
like miscarriages, genetic errors, and birth defects may occur. These accidents
may affect the movement of the chromosomes and the functioning of the spin-
dle fibers. In humans, non-disjunction of the chromosomes in Meiosis 1 or Mei-
osis 2 have been known to cause abnormal conditions such as:
Down syndrome is also identified as Trisomy 21. This condition happens in
chromosome pair 21. During Meiosis I, chromosome pair 21 did not detach from
each other at Anaphase I. One of the gametes produced acquires both mem-
bers of the pair of chromosomes. The offspring has 47 chromosomes in his or
her cells instead of the standard 46 chromosomes. Problems with the way the
body and the brain develop are the effects brought by this excess chromosome.
Common physical characteristics of people with Down syndrome include:
1. short neck 2. small ears 3. small mouth
4. small stature 5. flattened nose 6. low muscle tone
 7. upward slanting eyes 8. short hands and short fingers
9. Brushfield spots - or white spots on the colored part of the eye.

Cri-du-chat Syndrome
Cri-du-chat, the French for cat’s cry, is the sound of a baby having this con-
dition when he/she cries. This is a genetic condition which is also known as 5p-
(5p minus) syndrome and cat cry syndrome. This is caused by deletion, an un-
common genetic condition whereby a part of the genetic segment in the small
arm known as the p arm of chromosome 5 is missing. Persons with cri-du-chat
syndrome suffers different symptoms. The variation of symptoms depends on
the size of the deleted part of the p arm. Common physical characteristics of
people with Cri-duchat syndrome include:
1. small head size 2. widely-spaced eyes 3. round or moon-like face
4. high-pitched cat-like cry 5. low weight at birth and 6. weak muscle tone during infancy

Patau Syndrome
Patau syndrome is also identified as Trisomy 13 syndrome. This is a condi-
tion in which each cell of the body of the affected individual has three copies of
chromosome 13 instead of two which is the standard number. This results to an
excess of genetic material which bring disruptions to the normal development of
the individual.
Persons having this chromosomal condition suffer serious physical abnor-
malities and intellectual disability which include:
1. cleft lip 2. cleft palate 3. heart defects 4. weak muscle tone
5. brain abnormalities 6. extra fingers or toes 7. eyes are poorly developed

Klinefelter Syndrome
Klinefelter Syndrome is also identified as 47, XXY syndrome. This condition
is a sex chromosome disorder due to the occurrence of an extra X chromo-
somes in the cell among male individuals. Normally, each human cell has 46
chromosomes. Twenty-two pairs or 44 chromosomes are called body chromo-
somes while only one pair or two of these are called sex chromosomes. Humans
have two sex chromosomes, the X and the Y. Males possess one X sex chromo-
some and one Y sex chromosome (XY), and females have two X sex chromo-
somes (XX). Males with Klinefelter syndrome hold an extra X chromosomes
(XXY) or 47 chromosomes in their cells. This results to multiple genes in the X
chromosomes. These extra genetic materials interrupt many developmental ac-
tivities including sexual development. Common physical characteristics of peo-
ple with Klinefelter syndrome include:
1. small testes 2. breast enlargement
3. decreased bone density 4. decreased muscle mass
5. unusually small penis or micropenis 6. presence of few hair on the body and face
The affected individual produces a decreased amount of testosterone hor-
mone, a hormone that controls the male sexual development even before birth
and during puberty. The affected males are infertile.
Why is meiosis important?
Meiosis is important in the formation of sex cells. It makes sure that all or-
ganisms produced sexually contain the standard number of chromosomes.
Among human beings and most other mammals, meiosis produces genetic vari-
ation through recombination whereby different species exchange genetic mate-
rials. This process produces offspring with mixed traits that vary from either
parent. When two germ cells combine during fertilization, the chances for ge-
netic variation to occur increase even further. Due to this random recombina-
tion of DNA in sexual reproduction, diversity of life on Earth increases.
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is

here to help you master the Mendelian Genetics. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of stu-
dents. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the learners’ material you are now us-
ing.

The module contains:

● Lesson 1 - Mendelian Genetics
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. discuss Mendelian Genetics;
2. solve and predict Mendelian phenotypic and genotypic expres-
sion of traits in a monohybrid cross;
3. solve and predict Mendelian phenotypic and genotypic expres-
sion of traits in a dihybrid cross; and
4. predict phenotypic expressions of traits following simple pat-
terns of inheritance. (MELC Week 3 S8LT-IVf-18)
 Many of us wonder why we look similar to our parents, why plants and ani-
mals produce their own kind. Some of your friends would say that your ears
and lips are the same as your mother but your skin color and your height are
the same as your father. Well, traits really are inherited from our parents. How
did this happen?
In this module, you will understand how traits are passed from one genera-
tion to the next. So, enjoy learning.

What is It
Gregor Mendel and His Experiment on Garden Peas

Gregor Mendel is an Austrian m onk . I n a m onastery, he spent his

time in investigating how individual traits were inherited. Gregor Mendel used
the garden peas (Pisum sativum) in his experiments because it has several
traits to be studied, easy to grow, reproduce through self-pollination. Through
his research on garden peas, a new branch of science was formed, it is called
Genetics. Gregor Mendel then paved the way for the study of Genetics.
Genetics is the study of heredity and the factors that affect the transmission
of genes to determine inherited characters from one generation to the next. He-
redity refers to the transfer of traits genes from parents to offspring.
The different traits of Garden Peas that Gregor Mendel studied are shown
below
Gregor Mendel’s Experiment
Gregor Mendel first produced pure-breeding plants through self-pollination
for many generations until all the offspring had the same features as the par-
ents. For example, when green seed peas were self-pollinated, all the offspring
produced were all green seed peas. Using his pure-breeding plants, Gregor
Mendel started cross-pollinating the peas with contrasting traits. The pure-
breeding peas were called parental or P1 generation and when cross-pollinated,
the resulting offspring were called first filial (F1) generation. The F1 generation
was also called hybrids because it resulted from a cross between two pure-bred
plants with different traits. For example, when the pure-breed round seed was
crossed-pollinated with pure-breed wrinkled seed, all the offspring produced
were all round seeds. A cross using one trait is referred as monohybrid cross.
(See Figure 3 & Table 1)
Example of a Monohybrid Cross:

Table1. Results of Gregor Mendel’s Crosses Between Pure-breed Peas

Crossing the Hybrid Plants

After cross-breeding the pure-breed peas, Gregor Mendel was determined
to know what happened with the other lost traits. Gregor Mendel crossed the
peas from F1 generation (hybrid) with each other and produced another type of
offspring called the second filial generation F2 (Table 2). There were two types
of offspring produced in the F2 generation, ¾ were round seeds and ¼ were
wrinkled seeds (Figure4).
Example: Cross of hybrids

In the F2 generation, Mendel counted 5,474 round seeds and 1,850 wrin-
kled seeds. The round seeds were about three times as many as the wrinkled
seeds. The ratio of round seeds to wrinkled seeds was 2.96:1 or nearly 3:1.
Moreover, in the F1 generation the wrinkled seed type did not appear but reap-
peared in the one-fourth of the F2 generation. He then concluded that the F1
generation received the capabilities to produce both phenotypes from their par-
ents which are retained and passed on to their future offspring. The produced
ratios suggest the probability of occurrence of the genotype and phenotype in a
generation rather than the ability to generate few offspring. Table 2 summariz-
es the results on Mendel’s second set of experiments.

Table 2. R esults of Gregor M endel’s Crosses Between Hybrid Peas

Mendelian Principles of Heredity

Gregor Mendel’s results of his experiment made him hypothesize that there
was a factor in the plants which controlled the appearance of a trait which he
called hereditary “factors”. He also hypothesized that traits were regulated by a
pair of “factors” now called alleles. With these findings, Gregor Mendel was able
to formulate the three principles of heredity.
 Gregor Mendel conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called heredi-
tary "factors". Mendel found that there are alternative forms of factors currently
called genes that account for variations in inherited characteristics.

1. The Law of Dominance

The Law of Dominance states that in every organism, there is a pair of fac-
tors or genes which control the appearance of a particular trait. One of the pair
of genes/alleles may hide or prevent the appearance of the other. One allele is
a dominant trait, while the other is a recessive trait. The dominant traits hide or
mask the appearance of the recessive trait. The dominant trait is represented
by a big letter and a small letter for the recessive trait.
Example:
R for round seed (dom inant trait), r for w rink led seed (recessive trait)
G for the green pod (dom inant trait), g for the yellow pod (recessive
trait).
Note that in a particular trait, the same letter will be used for both the dom-
inant and recessive traits. Since genes are in pairs, the pure breeding green
seed peas will be represented with letters GG and the pure breeding yellow
seed peas gg. There are pairs of alleles which are identical and are called ho-
mozygous or homozygote w hile the pair of alleles w hich are not iden-
tical are called heterozygous or heterozygote.
Each one of us has genes or alleles that are either homozygous or heterozy-
gous.
Example: RR – homozygous genes for round seed
Rr - heterozygous genes round seed
The pair of genes or alleles is the genetic makeup for a particular trait of an
organism called genotype while the phenotype is the observable trait or the vis-
ible trait of an organism based on the genotype (Table 3).

Table 3. Genotype and P henotype R ound Seed P ea P lant

2. The Law of Segregation

The Law of Segregation states that all pairs of genes for all the traits of an
organism segregate or separate from each other during meiosis or gametes
(sex cells) formation. Gregor Mendel argued that for any trait, an organism
must inherit one factor from the sperm and one factor from the egg. Thus, a
new organism receives one factor for each trait from each parent.
Round and wrinkled seeds during gamete formation

The gametes produced by a pure round seed, pure wrinkled seed and hybrid
round seed pea plants
The result of crossing pure-breeding round and wrinkled seed

3. The Law of Independent Assortment

The Law of Independent Assortment states that the distribution or assort-
ment of one pair of genes is independent of the distribution of the other pair.
Traits are inherited independent of each other. The law applies to genes that
are found on separate chromosomes. Thus, one pair of genes is not affected by
the other pair.
Dihybrid Cross
Aside from Gregor Mendel’s study on inheritance of one pair of genes or al-
leles, he also studied the inheritance of two pairs of genes or alleles. A cross
that involves two pairs of genes or alleles is called dihybrid cross. An easy way
to do the dihybrid cross is through the use of Punnett square.
Example: RRYY X rryy
(Round, Yellow Seed) (Wrinkled, Green Seed)
Punnett Square
Reginald C. Punnett is the one who devised the Punnett square. This is a simple
way to determine the possible combinations of genes in a given cross. It can
help you predict easily the outcome of a given cross.
How to make a Punnett Square
1. Make a square and divide into 4 boxes for monohybrid cross and 16 boxes
for dihybrid cross.
2. The letters of the possible genes for a trait from the female (♀) are written
down on the left side.
3. The letters of the possible genes for the same trait from the male (♂) are
written across the top of the square.
Example illustration:
4. Start crossing the male gametes with the female gametes in each box until
all the four boxes are filled in. Place the phenotype below each genotype

A complete Punnett square will always show the resulting genotypes and
phenotypes of the resulting progeny or offspring.

5. Lastly, interpret the result.

Result of the sample illustration:
● There are 4 offspring produced from crossing both hybrid axial
flowers: Aa X Aa.
● Their genotypes are:
1 AA - homozygous axial flower
2 Aa - heterozygous axial flowers
1 aa - homozygous terminal flower
● The genotypic ratio: 1:2:1
● Their phenotypes are:
3 - axial flowers
1 - terminal flower
● The phenotypic ratio: 3:1

Example 1: Dihybrid Cross using the Punnett Square:

Dihybrid cross of hybrid/heterozygous round, yellow seeds pea plants

Result:
● There are 16 offspring from the cross of both hybrid/heterozygous round, yel-
low seed pea plants.
● The genotypes are:
1 RRYY - homozygous round, yellow seed
2 RRYy - homozygous round, heterozygous yellow seed
1 RRyy - homozygous round, green seed
2 RrYY - heterozygous round, homozygous yellow seed
4 RrYy - heterozygous round, yellow seed
2 Rryy - heterozygous round, homozygous green seed
1 rrYY - homozygous wrinkled, homozygous yellow seed
2 rrYy - homozygous wrinkled, heterozygous yellow seed
1 rryy - homozygous wrinkled, green seed
● The genotypic ratio: 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
● The phenotypes are:
9 - round, yellow seed 3 - wrinkled, yellow seed
3 - round, green seed 1 - wrinkled, green seed
● The phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1
References
Books
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Treyes, Rodolfo S., Ph.D., Ma. Dulcelina O. Sebastian, Maria Helen D.H. Catalan,
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