Freud's Stages of Human Development

The 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development by Age

According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud,

children go through a series of psychosexual stages that lead
to the development of the adult personality. Freud's stages of
human development, which consisted of five psychosexual
stages of development, described how personality developed
over the course of childhood.
While Freud's theory of personality development is well-known
in psychology, it has always been quite controversial, both
during Freud's time and in modern psychology.

One important thing to note is that contemporary

psychoanalytic theories of personality development have
incorporated and emphasized ideas about internalized
relationships and interactions and the complex ways in which
we maintain our sense of self into the models that began with
Freud.

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Overview of Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Illustration by Joshua Seong, Verywell

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of

childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of
the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An
erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is
particularly sensitive to stimulation.

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal,
phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous zone
associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
Psychosexual energy, or the libido, was described as the
driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly

established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large
role in personality development and continue to influence
behavior later in life.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help

build growth or stifle development, depending upon how they
are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed
successfully, a healthy personality is the result.

If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate

stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an
earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is
fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent
on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking,
drinking, or eating.

Sigmund Freud's Life, Theories, and Influence

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction

occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who

are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the

child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation
occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have
issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

Trust vs. Mistrust: Psychosocial Stage 1

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of
the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has
to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon

the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who
utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate
time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet

training stage serve as the basis for people to become
competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and

encouragement that children need during this stage. Some
parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result

in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too
lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality.

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which
the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary

focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also
begin to discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a

rival for the mother’s affection. The Oedipus complex describes
these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire
to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will
be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud
termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar

set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however,
believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex

parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on
this stage.

Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory,

calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead,
Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she
referred to as womb envy.

Initiative vs. Guilt: Developing a Sense of Purpose

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the

id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills,
values, and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family.

The development of the ego and superego contributes to this

period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children
enter school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual

energy is repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but
it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits
and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it

was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this
phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an
inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Industry vs. Inferiority During Child Development

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once

again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of
a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual

needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage.
The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the

individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud
believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and
functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id,
which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs
and wants.

Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance

their most basic urges against the need to conform to the
demands of reality and social norms.

Identity vs. Role Confusion in Psychosocial Development

Evaluating Freud's Stages of Human Development

Freud's theory is still considered controversial today, but

imagine how audacious it seemed during the late 1800s and
early 1900s. There have been a number of observations and
criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of
grounds, including scientific and feminist critiques.

Criticisms of the Psychosexual Stages of Development

 The theory is focused almost entirely on male

development with little mention of female psychosexual
development.
 His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts
such as the libido are impossible to measure, and
therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been
conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.
 Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a
current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood
experience? The length of time between the cause and the
effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship
between the two variables.
 Freud's theory is based on case studies and not empirical
research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections
of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study
of children.

Ignores Homosexuality
Another criticism of the psychosexual stages is that the theory
focuses primarily on heterosexual development, and largely
ignores homosexual development.

So how exactly did Freud explain the development of sexual

preferences?

Freud's theory suggested that heterosexual preferences

represent the "normal" outcome of development and suggested
that homosexual preferences represented a deviation from this
process. Freud's own viewpoints on homosexuality varied, at
times expressing biological explanations and at other times
social or psychological explanations for sexual preferences.

Unlike many thinkers of his time, Freud was unconvinced that

homosexuality represented a pathology. He also believed that
attempts to alter a person's sexuality were usually futile and
often harmful.

In a famous 1935 letter to a mother who had written him to

ask that he treat her homosexual son, Freud wrote that while
he believed homosexuality was not advantageous, it was
certainly not a vice or something to be ashamed of. Freud
wrote, "...it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to
be a variation of the sexual function, produced by a certain
arrest of sexual development."

While Freud's theory implied that homosexuality was a

deviation from normal psychosexual development, many
contemporary psychologists believe that sexual orientation is
largely influenced by biological factors.

Keep in Mind

While few people are strong proponents of Freud's theory of

psychosexual development today, his work made important
contributions to our understanding of human development.
Perhaps his most important and enduring contribution was the
idea that unconscious influences could have a powerful impact
on human behavior.
Freud's theory also stressed the importance of early
experiences in development. While experts continue to debate
the relative contributions of early versus later experiences,
developmental experts recognize that the events of early life
play a critical role in the developmental process and can have
lasting effects throughout life.

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