BUILDING SITE AND SURVEYING

CTD 108
TACHEOMETER
A major surveying instrument (transit or alidade) which allows the
direct read-out of true vertical and horizontal distances within the
eye-piece without the use of trigonometric formulae or tables.

Tacheometry’ refers to “quick measure” since the Greek root tach

means speed. It is a revised instrument/machinery used for an
advanced purpose. Fundamentally, tacheometry is a system of
surveying dimensions, positions both vertically and horizontally, as
well as points on the earth’s surface. All these necessary
measurements are determined through tacheometry, with the use of
a ‘tacheometer’.

The nominal value of the multiplication constant should be 100, and

its error shouldn’t be greater than 1 in 1000. The upper and lower
stadia hairs should be equally spaced from the axial horizontal line.
The additive constant should be 0 as the telescope should be
anallactic. The telescope must have a strong magnification capability.

What are the objects of the tachometer?

Following are the objects of a tacheometer:
Preparation of contoured plans or maps, location survey for railway,
roads, reservoir, etc. used in hydrographic surveys and also used for
checking more precise measurements

Tacheometer: Where and why is it used?

Usually, people take the help of chains, levelling instruments, etc.,
for the specific measurements of landscapes. The problem arises
when the irregularities increase. It is simple and convenient to
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measure plain lands/fields, but certain regions, with their complex
construct, make it challenging for the measurements to be accurate
with the help of those instruments.

And therefore, we make use of a tacheometer which essentially is a

type of theodolite determining measurements electronically or
electro-optically. It is a transit theodolite because its telescope can
possibly revolve around the entire axis to complete a revolution.
Chains are cumbersome to work with. Some of the common
obstructive places are:

RIVER VALLEY
Due to the water and land combined surface around the valleys,
levelling instruments other than a tacheometer often fail to measure
the uneven earth’s surface.

UNDULATIONS
Fields, terrain, and landscape that are undulating have the
appearance of a wave. The terrain is moderately sloping

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 STEEP SLOPPING
A steep slope is one that is at an extreme inclination and is
challenging to climb or measure.

HILLY REGIONS
Hilly regions are characterized by mountainous, rugged, and severely
uneven surfaces that are particularly challenging to measure with
chains and other less sophisticated land-measuring tools.

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES IN

THEODOLITE
The objective lens has to be focused whenever an object is sighted,
as this depends upon the distance between the instrument and the
object. A focusing screw on the side of the telescope is operated to
focus the objective. This operation brings the image of the object in
the plane of the cross hairs. This helps to exactly bisect the object,
be it a ranging rod or an arrow. To focus the objective, swing the
instrument to bring the object into view by looking over the
telescope. Rotate the focusing knob till the object is in sharp view
along with the cross hairs.

Using the Theodolite

The theodolite is mainly used to measure horizontal and vertical

angles, even though many other operations can be done with the
instrument. It is a delicate and sensitive instrument and needs to be
handled carefully. The following points should be noted while using
the instrument.

The theodolite should be set up and levelled at every station. This is

a fundamental, necessary operation and should be carried out
carefully.

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1. In measuring horizontal angles, the inclination of the telescope is
not significant. The line of sight is arranged to bisect the object
clearly.
2. The graduated circle plate gives the outer axis and the vernier
plate provides the inner axis. Both the axes coincide if the
instrument is properly adjusted and form the vertical axis.
3. There are three clamp screws each with its own tangent screw.
The lower clamp screw releases the lower plate, the upper clamp
screw releases the upper vernier plate, and the third vertical
circular clamp releases the vertical circle. One should be familiar
with the location of the clamp screws and the corresponding
tangent screws.
4. Each clamp screw releases one plate. The lower plate is released
by the lower clamp screw. When this plate is released, swinging
the instrument or rotating it in a horizontal plane causes no
change in the reading of the circle, as both the plates move
together. This is used when an object has to be sighted with the
zero setting of the circle or with any other reading without
changing the reading.
5. Both the clamp screws should not be released together. When the
lower clamp is tight and the upper clamp screw is released, the
upper plate moves relative to the lower plate and the reading
changes. This is done when one has to measure an angle.
6. The clamp screws should be tightened very near to their final
position so that only a very small movement has to be effected by
the tangent screw. For each clamp screw, the corresponding
tangent screw should be for final adjustment.
7. To set the instrument to zero at the plate circle, release the upper
clamp and rotatethe instrument about the vertical axis. On the
vernier A, make the zero of the circle coincide with the zero of the
vernier. Tighten the upper clamp and using the upper tangent
screw, make the zeros exactly coincide. This can be verified by
looking through the magnifying glasses and seeing that the
graduations on either side are symmetrical. Verify the condition on
vernier B as well, where the 180 o graduation should coincide with
the zero of the vernier.

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 8. While bisecting the signals or setting the zero reading, keep the
line of sight in such a position that the tangent screw moves the
sight in the same direction as the movement of the instrument. If
the movement is clockwise, then the tangent screw is adjusted to
move the cross hairs from left to right.
9. Operate a tangent screw only after clamping the corresponding
clamp screw.
10. The magnifying glasses are so fixed that they can be moved along
the circle. Read the circle by bringing the glass over the reading
and looking directly over thereading to avoid any parallax error.
11. While bisecting stations with the theodolite, the station mark
should be very clear and must be a point. Bisect both the cross
marks on pegs at their inter-section or the ranging rod and arrow
at their lowest pointed end.
12. Clamp screws and tangent screws need careful handling. Do not
apply great force on these screws and handle them delicately
during survey work.

MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES

To measure the horizontal angle between two lines, the following

procedure is adopted.

Referring to diagram, the angle POQ is to be measured. Set up the

theodolite at O.

1. Set the instrument to read 0o 00' 00". This is not strictly required,
as the angle can be determined as the defrauding’s. However, it is
convenient to make the initial reading zero. For this, release the
upper clamp and O rotate the instrument to make the Q reading
approximately zero. Clamp the upper plate and using the upper.
Measuring a horizontal angle tangent screw, make the reading
compass exactly zero. Vernier A reads zero and vernier B reads
180 o 00' 00"
2. Release the lower plate and rotate the instrument to bisect the
station P. After approximately bisecting it, clamp the lower plate
and using the lower tangent screw, bisect the signal exactly. The
readings on the plates do not change as both the plates move

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 together in this operation. Check that the readings on vernier A
and B are zero and 180o respectively.
3. Release the upper plate by loosening the upper clamp. Rotate the
instrument to screw, exactly bisect the signal at Q. Read both the
verniers A and B. The reading at A will give the angle directly. The
reading at B will be 180 o + -POQ. If there is any difference, take
the average of the two values as the correct angle. Horizontal
angles are measured this way for ordinary work. The accuracy can
be improved by reading the angles with face-left and face-right
observations and taking the average of the two. For more precise
work, the angles are repeatedly measured with both the faces and
the average taken. This method is known as the repetition method
and is described below.

METHOD OF REPETITION IN THEODOLITE

In the method of repetition, the horizontal angle is measured a
number of times and the average value is taken. It is usual to limit
the number of repetitions to three with each face except in the case
of very precise work. With large number of repetitions, errors can
also increase due to bisections, reading the Vernier’s, etc. Very large
number of repetitions necessarily do not lead to a more precise value
of the angle. However, a number of errors are eliminated by the
repetition method. The procedure is as follows

1. Angle POQ is to be measured. Set up, centre, and level the

theodolite at O. Ensure that the instrument is in the normal
position, i.e., face left.

2. Set the instrument to read 0 o 00' 00". For this release the
upper clamp and bring the zero of the vernier (at vernier A)
very close to the zero of the circle. Clamp the upper plate and
using the upper tangent screw, coincide the two zeros exactly.
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3. Loosen the lower clamp and rotate the instrument so that the
left signal at P is approximately bisected. Tighten the lower
clamp and using the lower tangent screw, bisect the signal at P
exactly. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading should not
change and they should read zero and 180o

4. Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to

bisect the right signal at Q. Using the upper tangent screw,
bisects the signal at approximately Q exactly.

5. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading at A gives the value

of the angle directly. The reading on the vernier at B will be 180
o + the angle. Record both the readings.

6. Release the lower clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to

bisect the signal at the left station P again. Using the lower
tangent screw, bisect the signal.

The method of repetition helps to eliminate the following

errors:

(a) Errors caused by the eccentricity of the centers and verniers, by

reading both the verniers and averaging.

(b) Graduation errors by reading from different parts of the circle.

(c) Imperfect adjustment of the line of collimation and horizontal
axis by face- left and face- right observations.

(d) Observational errors and other errors tend to be compensated

by the large number of readings.
However, the errors due to levelling cannot be compensated. This has
to be done by permanent adjustment. Also a large number of
repetitions tend to increase the wear of clamp and tangent screws.

Therefore, from the two sets,

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 Mean value of the angle = (1/2)(61 o 42' 47"+ 61 o 42' 40") = 61 o
42' 44"

Method of Reiteration in Theodolite

The method of reiteration is another method of measuring horizontal

angles. This method is useful when a number of angles are to be
measured at one point. In Fig. 6.7, let O be the point where the
instrument is set up and P, Q, R, and S be the stations.

Angle POQ, QOR, and ROS are to be measured. In the reiteration

method, each angle is measured in succession and finally the line of
sight is brought back to P, i.e., the line of sight is made to close the
horizon. The instrument is turned through 360 o.

Obviously, the instrument should read, upon closing the horizon, the
same reading set initially at P. The procedure is as follows.

1. Set up and level the theodolite at O. Keep the instrument in the

normal position, i.e., face left. Set the vernier at A to read zero using
the upper clamp and upper tangent screw. Check that the vernier at
B reads 180o.

2. Loosen the lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the
station mark P Tighten the screw and using the lower tangent screw
finally bisect the signal at P. Check that the verniers at A and B read
zero and 180o, respectively.

3. Release the upper plate with the upper clamp, swing the instrument
clockwise to bisect the signal at Q. Tighten the clamp and using the
upper tangent screw, bisect the mark at Q exactly.

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4. Read the verniers at A and B and record both the readings.

5. Release the upper clamp screw, bisect the signal at R. Tighten the
clamp and bisect the mark at R exactly with the upper tangent screw.
Read the verniers at A and B and record the readings.

Continue the procedure with other stations.

-POQ = 68o 32' 30" -QOR = 61o 41' 10" -ROS = 102o 54' 20".

Measuring Vertical Angles in Theodolite

A vertical angle is made by an inclined line of sight with the

horizontal. The line of sight may be inclined upwards or downwards
from the horizontal. Thus one may have an angle of elevation or
depression. See Fig. 6.8. For measuring vertical angles, the
theodolite is levelled with respect to the altitude bubble.

1. Set up the theodolite at the station from where the vertical

angle is to be measured. Level the instrument with reference to
the plate bubble.

2. Further level the instrument with respect to the altitude level

fixed on the index rm. This bubble is generally more sensitive.
The procedure for levelling is the same. Bring the altitude level
parallel to two foot screws and level till the bubble traverses.
Swing through 90o to centre the bubble again with the third foot
screw. Repeat till the bubble traverses.

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3. Swing the telescope to approximately direct the line of sight
towards the signal at P. Loosen the vertical circle clamp screw
and incline the line of sight to bisect P. Clamp the vertical circle
and bisect the signal exactly with the horizontal cross hair.

4. Read the verniers C and D. The average of these readings gives

the value of the angle.

This procedure assumes that the instrument is properly adjusted. If

there is an index error, the instrument does not read zero when the
bubble is in the centre and the line of sight is horizontal, the
adjustment is done b y the clip screw. There may be a small index
error, which can be accounted for in the value of angle. The readings
can be recorded as shown in Table 6.7.

Measuring Vertical Angle Between Two Points

The two points may be above the horizontal or below the horizontal
or one may be above and the other below. In all cases, the vertical
angles between the instrument and the points are measured. If the
points lie on the same side of the horizontal, the vertical angle
between the points is the difference between the measured angles. If
they lie on either side of the horizontal through the instrument, the
vertical angle between the points is the sum of the angles measured.

Table 6.7 Recording of observations Face left

Interconversion of Angles

The theodolite measures the whole circle bearings of lines. These can
be converted to reduced bearings by the methods discussed in

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Chapter 3. Also, one can calculate included angles from bearings and
vice versa. Included angles can also be calculated from deflection
angles and vice versa.

The following relationships of the angles of a closed traverse are

known from geometry:

(a) sum of the interior angles = (2n - 4) right angles

(b) sum of exterior angles = (2n + 4) right angles

(c) sum of the deflection angles = 4 right angles

It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse before

attempting to solve problems. The following examples illustrate these
principles.

Locating Landscape Details with the Theodolite

We have discussed so far methods to survey the main frame or the

skeleton of the survey. In most surveys, it is necessary to locate
details such as buildings, railway lines, canals, and other landmarks
along with the survey. A transit with a steel tape is used to locate
details, and many methods are available, as the transit is an angle-
measuring instrument. The following methods can be used.

Angle and distance from a single station

A point can be located with an angle to the station along with the
distance from that station as shown in Fig. 6.28(a). The angle is
preferably measured from the same reference line to avoid confusion.
A sketch with the line and the distance and angle measured will help
in plotting later.

Angles to a number of points are measured and with each angle two
distances are measured to locate the road. Angle from one station
and distance from another. If for any reason, it is not possible to
measure the angle and distance to an object from the same point, it
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may be possible to locate the point by measuring angles from one
station and distances from the other. The recorded data should
clearly indicate the stations from which the angle and distance are
measured. The angle is measured from station A to point P. When the
instrument is shifted to B, the distance to point P is measured from B
with a steel tape.
Angles from two stations
If for some reason, it is not possible to measure distances, then
angles from two stations are enough to locate a point. As shown in,
the point P is located by measuring angles to point P from stations A
and B.
The following are the fundamental lines.
1. The vertical axis

2. The horizontal or trunnion axis

3. The line of collimation or line of sight

4. Axis of altitude level

5. Axis of plate level

The meaning of these terms has been discussed earlier. The axes are
shown in When the instrument is properly adjusted, the relationships
between these axes are the following.

a. The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

b. The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
c. The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal
axis.
d. The axis of the altitude level (and telescope level) must be parallel
to the line of collimation.
e. The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of sight is
horizontal.
Each one of these relations gives conditions for accurate
measurement.

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(a) When the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the
line of sight generates a vertical plane when transited.

(b) When the axis of the plate level is perpendicular to the vertical
axis, the vertical axis will be truly vertical when the bubble traverses.

(c) When the line of collimation is at right angles to the horizontal

axis, the telescope when rotated about the horizontal axis will move
in a vertical plane.

(d) When the line of collimation and the axis of altitude level are
parallel, the vertical angles will be measured without any index error.

(e) The index error due to the displacement of the vernier is

eliminated when the vernier reads zero with the line of collimation
truly horizontal.

Distinguish between the spot height and the benchmark on a

topographical map.
The topographical map demonstrates the size, shape, and the
character of the earth’s surface. In today’s mapping system, the map
shows a wide range of detail and the representation of the terrain.
Complete solution:
The map generally uses the contour lines to represent the connecting
points of equal elevation. In earlier times, the topographic map
shows both natural and artificial features. A topographic survey is
generally made up of two or more sheets of the map and then
contributes to a whole map. A typical topographic map explains map
projection, coordinate system, ellipsoid, and geodetic datum. The
description of the topographic maps is provided by Natural Resources
Canada. The features depicted by these maps include areas of
administration, drainage system of lakes and rivers, the forest area
covered on the land surface, transportation of roads and railways,
and similar other features.
The spot height can be defined as the height of the particular point
on the ground that often explains the height of a hill or mountain.

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The spot height is measured from the main sea level. A benchmark
can be used as a point of reference that is generally marled on stone.
Additional Information – The topographical survey was mostly done
by the people involved in the military to serve in the planning of
defence. These topographic maps are different from chorographic
maps, planimetric maps, and thematic maps.
Note:
A topographical map is used in so many ways such as civil
engineering, earth-based endeavours, mining, earth science,
geographical area, an automotive navigation system, and large scale
architecture.
Theodolite is a popular surveying instrument. It is a measurement
tool with which we can find horizontal and vertical angles. It is an
electronic device and has sophisticated parts. To learn theodolite
surveying a surveyor must know all the parts of the theodolite
machine. In the following article, major parts of a theodolite are
discussed to make the device well familiar for the surveyor.

What is Total Station?

It is an electronic or optical instrument used to measure horizontal
and vertical angles as well as the sloping distance of the object to the
instrument and an onboard computer to collect data and perform
triangulation calculations. It is an electronic transit theodolite
integrated with electronic distance measurement (EDM),
microprocessor, electronic data collector, and storage system. It is
also known as total station theodolite.

 Handle
 Handle securing screw
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  Data input/output terminal (Remove handle to view)
 Instrument height mark
 Battery cover
 Operation panel
 Tribrach clamp (SET300S/500S/600S: Shifting clamp)
 Base plate
 Leveling foot screw
 The circular level adjusting screws
 Circular Level
 Display
 Objective lens
 Tubular compass slot
 Optical plummet focusing ring
 Optical plummet reticle cover
 Optical plummet eyepiece
 Horizontal clamp
A horizontal fine-motion screw
Data input /output connector (Besides the operation panel on
SET600/600S)
External power source connector (Not included on SET600/600S)
Plate level
Plate level adjusting screw
Vertical clamp
A vertical fine-motion screw
Telescope eyepiece
Telescope focusing ring
Peep sight
Instrument center mark
COMPONENTS OF TOTAL STATION
The keyboard is an essential part of the total station in the
microprocessor section which contains switching keys, command
keys, lighting keys, power keys, and so on. In the database, data
collects and stores information. Reflectors are using beams to take
the estimations. It is a constructed reflecting crystal that has the
shape of squares. The Windows system is installed in the total
station.

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Electronic displays are responsible for showing the different values.
Around 4000 points can be stored in an electronic book. This
electronic book data can be transferred to a personal computer. The
control panel just adjusts all types of buttons. It can be modified by
our own preferences. It is moisture-proof with different color
switches. Rechargeable nickel–cadmium batteries have been used
that can power up 2 to 10 hours. Some total station has two control
panels and a power saver.
As shown in Chapter 1, horizontal and vertical angles are
fundamental measurements in surveying.
The vertical angle, as already illustrated, is used in obtaining the
elevation of points (trig levelling) and in the reduction of slant
distance to the horizontal.
The horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain direction to a survey
control point, or to topographic detail points, or to points to be set
out.
An instrument used for the measurement of angles is called a
theodolite, the horizontal and vertical circles of which can be likened
to circular protractors set in horizontal and vertical planes. It follows
that, although the points observed are at different elevations, it is
always the horizontal angle and not the space angle which is
measured. For example, observations to points A and C from B
(Figure 5.1) will give the horizontal angle ABC = ?. The vertical angle
of elevation to A is ? and its zenith angle is Z A.

ACCESSORIES OF TOTAL STATION

The following are the accessories of total station. They include

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Azimuths and bearings are horizontal angles measured to represent
or locate a line with respect to a meridian. Here, the important
features of azimuth and bearing in surveying along with their
comparison are explained briefly.

What is Azimuth in Surveying?

Azimuths are defined as horizontal angles that are measured from
the reference meridian in the clockwise direction. Azimuths are also
called a whole circle bearing system (W.C.B). Azimuths are used in
compass surveying, plane surveying, where it is generally measured
from the north. But azimuths are measured from the south by
astronomers and in the military.

The drawing above shows the measurement of azimuth from the

north direction. It is clear from the figure that every line has an
azimuth value ranging from 0 to 360 degrees.

Angular Misclosure
Angular misclosure is the difference between the measured angles'
sum on a traverse and the angle condition for the traverse
configuration.

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The amount of allowable angular misclosure is dependent on the
survey purpose. The limits are generally expressed as an Error of a
Series:
C: Allowable misclosure, seconds
k: expected error in each angle, seconds
n: number of angles

Traditional formal standards from the FGCS Standards and

Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks are:

Example
What is the allowable angular misclosure for a five-sided traverse if it
is to meet Second Order Class II standards, Figure B-5?

Allowable Misclosure
Because this is a five-sided loop traverse, using Equation B-1 the
angles should sum to:

Therefore, the total should be in the range 539°59'50" to 540°00'10".

What is a traverse survey?

Traverse surveying is a popular method of surveying. Traversing is
that type of survey where several connected survey lines form a
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are
measured with the help of a tool to measure angles and tape or chain
respectively. Traverse networks involve placing survey stations in a
queue or trail and using pre-tested points as a basis for looking at
the next point. This type of surveying is different from Tacheometric
surveying, where only angles are measured and the process of
chaining is reduced.
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TRAVERSE SURVEY

WHAT IS A TRAVERSE SURVEY?

Traverse surveying is a popular method of surveying. Traversing is
that type of survey where several connected survey lines form a
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are
measured with the help of a tool to measure angles and tape or chain
respectively. Traverse networks involve placing survey stations in a
queue or trail and using pre-tested points as a basis for looking at
the next point. This type of surveying is different from Tacheometric
surveying, where only angles are measured and the process of
chaining is reduced.

TYPES OF TRAVERSE SURVEYING

Traverse surveying can be of two types.

1. Open traverse

2. Closed traverse

Open traverse
It is said to be an open traverse when traverse begins somewhere
and ends at another point, as shown in the illustration from station A
to station E. Open traverse is also called unclosed traverse The open
traverse is the least desirable type of traverse because it does not
give a check for field service or start-up data. The open traverse is
especially useful for controlling the initial and construction surveys on
highways, roads, pipelines, transmission lines, and the like.

OPEN TRAVERSE
The traverse is said to closed traverse when it forms a closed circuit
as shown in the figure. In this case, both the starting point and the
endpoint across are parallel. The closed traverse can also end at a
point whose relative position is known. Suitable for exploration of
lake boundaries, stadiums, forests, etc. The closed traverse or loop
traverse starts and ends at the station's hypothetical links and
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external azimuth affecting statistics, location, or relative station
position. If, however, links should be tied to the existing grid system,
disconnection starts from a known channel and azimuth in that
program. While the loop traverse provides some exploration fieldwork
and math, of course, provide an initial data check or confirm the
detection of all system and linear errors that are possible in research.

METHODS OF TRAVERSING Closed traverse

Traversing or traverse surveying is done in four different ways and
these methods are categorized according to the test tool used. The
methods are as follows.

 Chain traversing

 Compass traversing

 Theodolite traversing

 Plane table traversing

Chain traversing
Chain traversing is done by taking only linear measurements.
Moreover, a chain is enough for chain traversing. The angle between
adjacent lines is measured using the concepts of chain angles.
Breaking the chains is done in places like lakes etc. where it is
difficult to use trilateration. The concept of chain angle is nothing but
finding an angle between two adjacent sides by establishing a third
party using binding channels. The method is not suitable for accurate
work and is often used when angle measurement tools such as a
compass, sextant, or theodolite are available.

Compass traversing
In the case of a cross-sectional compass, both linear and angular
cross-sectional measurements are taken using a chain and a

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prismatic compass respectively. Both the fore bearing and back
bearings are measured and the necessary adjustments are applied to
the surface attractiveness. If any closing error is detected during
traverse editing, the Bowditch rule is used to correct the total error.

At the crossing of the chain and compass, the magnetic bearings of

the test lines are measured with a compass and the length of the
lines is measured with a chain or tape. The direction of the magnetic
meridian is established at each crossing point independently. The
path is also known as the tree or the way of the loose needle.

Checks in Open Traverse

No direct checks of angular measurement are available. So indirect
checks can be made. As illustrated in Fig(a) the addition to the
observation of bearing of AB at station A, bearing of AD can also be
measured., if possible. Similarly, at D, the bearing of DA can be
measured and check applied. If the two bearings differ by 180°, the
work may be accepted as correct.

Another method, which furnishes a check when work is plotted is

shown as in Fig (b) and consists of reading the bearing to any
prominent point P from each of the consecutive stations. The check-
in plotting consists in laying off the lines AP, BP, CP, etc and noting
whether the lines pass through one point

PLOTTING A TRAVERSE SURVEY

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 There are two principal methods of traverse survey:
1. Angles and distance method: This method is of three types.
a. By protractor
b. By the tangent of the angle
c. By the chord of the angle.

2. Co-ordinate method.

CALCULATE DISTANCE AND ANGLE/BEARING BETWEEN TWO

COORDINATES
The distance between two COORDINATES is the length of the line
section joining the POINT. There is just one line going through two
COORDINATES. Thus the distance between two COORDINATES
can be determined by observing the length of this line portion
associating the two POINTS.

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TRIANGULATION
In surveying, triangulation is the process of determining the location
of a point by measuring only angles to it from known points at either
end of a fixed baseline by using trigonometry, rather than measuring
distances to the point directly as in trilateration. The point can then
be fixed as the third point of a triangle with one known side and two
known angles.

WHAT IS GPS?
GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is a highly accurate
navigation system using signals from satellites to determine a
location on the Earth’s surface, irrespective of weather conditions.

It is dependent on satellites high above the Earth which transmit

signals containing the time and location of the satellite. Any ground-
based receiver which receives signals from four or more GPS
satellites can use navigation equations to calculate its location on the
Earth’s surface. Constant signaling can then update speed and
direction information for moving receivers.

GPS was originally developed for military use but since the 1990s has
been open for civilian use and is now used in such common
applications as mobile phones, car navigation systems, and of course
surveying and mapping.

A GPS system consists of three components that work as a single unit

to provide the necessary data. They are:

 Staellites- Space Component

 Ground Stations- Control Component
 Receivers- User Component
 Satellites

The space component of GPS comprises the satellites that orbit the
earth at an altitude of 20,000 km above the earth's surface for a
period of 12 hours. Some key features of satellites are:

 Their orbits are designed in a way such that 6 satellites are always
within a line of sight from any location on the earth.
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 At least 4 Satellites are available for observations throughout the
year at any time anywhere in the world.

 Satellites act like stars in the constellations whose locations are

known as they send out signals.

Ground Stations
The control component Earth
are Satellites
the ground stations which further
comprise of three sub-components:
 Master Control System
 Monitor Station
 Ground Antenna

The key functions of the ground stations include:

 Checking the movement and proper functioning of the satellites.
 Using radar to make sure of the position of the satellites.

Goldstone Deep Space Communications

Complex, California

Receivers
The user Segment comprises the GPS receiver. GPS receivers are
present in smartphones, tablets, pcs, etc. which receive GPS signals
and determine their location from the satellite. Some key features
include:

 Estimating the distance of the satellites

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 Once the receiver calculates its distance from the four or more
satellites, it exactly determines your location.

Components of GPS

TRILATERATION
The GPS works on the mathematical principle of trilateration. Let us
understand trilateration in detail.

 Trilateration is a process used to determine the location based on

the intersection of the spheres.
 The distance between the satellite and the receiver is calculated by
considering a 3-D sphere where the satellite is located at the
center of the sphere.
 Using the same method, the distance from all three GPS satellites
to the receiver is calculated and the exact location of the receiver
is found.

Working
To understand this process we take the help of a 2-D example.
Suppose we have three satellites within the line of sight of a GPS
receiver. Each satellite broadcasts a signal for the GPS receiver to
pick up at a specific time and distance.

The first satellite broadcasts a radio signal that eventually hits the
GPS receiver.

From this, the distance of the receiver from the satellite is measured.
Now, this distance forms a circle around the satellite in all directions.
The position of the receiver could possibly be anywhere on the
circumference of any of these circles.
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GRID DEFINITION OF LAND SURVEYOR
Grid-1A network composed of two sets of lines, each set drawn
according to a definite pattern and intersecting the other in a specific
geometric arrangement. The most common form of grid consists of
uniformly spaced parallel lines intersecting at right angles. The term
is frequently used to designate a plane-rectangular coordinate
system superimposed on a map projection, in which case it generally
carries the name of the projection, i.e., Lambert grid, transverse
Mercator grid, Universal transverse Mercator grid. 2 A system of
points or lines for which field measurements are made, or for which
computations are made to serve as a basic control system for
measuring. See also coordinate system.

Grid, military — A, rectangular grid; coordinate, or reference system

placed on a map projection to facilitate the location and identification
of map data for military purposes. The universal transverse Mercator
(UTM) grid is used on maps at scales of 1:250,000 and larger
between 80° North and 80° South. Beyond the 80° parallels, the
universal polar stereographic (UPS) grid is used. The unit of measure
is meters. These grids have been adopted by the United States and
other NATO countries; however, certain exceptions are allowed for
previously established grids in foreign areas.

Grid, parallactic uniform pattern of rectangular lines drawn or

engraved on a transparent material, usually glass, and placed either
over the photographs of a stereoscopic pair or in the optical system
of a stereoscope to provide a continuous floating-mark system. Grid,
perspective network of perspectively converging lines and their
intersecting perpendicular lines drawn or superimposed by overlay on
an oblique aerial photograph. The perspective grid is representative
of a schematic network of coordinate grid lines on the ground or
datum plane. See also grid method, perspective.

Grid azimuth—At the point of observation, the angle in the plane of

‘the projection measured between the central meridian of the plane
coordinate projection system and a line containing the object sighted.
Although essentially a map quantity, a grid azimuth may, by
mathematical processes, be transformed into a geodetic azimuth.

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Grid cell—A single discrete unit or square in a grid representing a
portion of the Earth; for example, a square meter or square mile.

Grid declination —The angle, commonly denoted by ե, between the

direction of grid north and geodetic north. Also called “grid
convergence” or “convergence.” See also gisement.

Grid factor—A combination of the elevation and scale factors used to

convert from ground distance to grid distance, or vice versa, in state
plane coordinate systems. See coordinate system.

Grid length—The distance between two points as obtained by

computation from the plane-rectangular coordinates of the points. In
the state plane coordinate systems, a grid length differs from a
geodetic length by the amount of a correction based on the scale
factor for the given line.

Grid method, perspective [PHOTOGRAMMETRY]-A graphical method

of transferring detail from oblique photographs to the plane of a map.
Done by superimposing a perspective grid on the photograph for the
area encompassed by the coordinate grid system of the map area.
Detail is transferred by eye from interpolations on the photograph of
each successive position within the perspective grid to its
corresponding grid position on the map. See grid, perspective.

Grid north-1The direction of the Earth’s polar axis as plotted (or

computed) on a map projection. 2 The angle in the plane of
projection between a straight line and the central meridian (y-axis) of
a plane-rectangular coordinate system.

Grid plate—A glass plate on which an accurately ruled grid is etched.

Sometimes used as a focal-plane plate to calibrate film distortion;
used also for calibration of plotting instruments. Sometimes called a
“reseau.”

grid tick—A small mark placed at the edge of a map or drawing to

indicate a measurement. The grid system used may be indicated by
ticks for future reference.

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