Health is a state of complete physical, mental & social well-being.

Health is affected by genetic disorders, infections, change in

life style (food, water, rest, exercise, habits etc). Mind influences immune system (through neural and endocrine systems).
When the functioning of organs or systems of the body is adversely affected, it is called a disease.
Diseases may be infectious (transmits from one person to another) or non-infectious.
Disease causing organisms are called Pathogens. Parasites are pathogens as they harm the host.

COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN MAN

1. BACTERIAL DISEASES b. Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery): Pathogen is
a. Typhoid: Pathogen is Salmonella typhi. Entamoeba histolytica.
• Mode of transmission: It enters small intestine through • Mode of transmission: Houseflies (mechanical carriers)
food & water and migrates to other organs via blood. transmit parasites from faeces to food & water.
• Symptoms: Sustained high fever (39o -40o C), • Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps,
weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache & loss stools with excess mucous and blood clots.
of appetite. Intestinal perforation and death may occur. 4. HELMINTH DISEASES
Widal test is used for confirmation of the disease. a. Ascariasis: Pathogen is Ascaris (Intestinal parasite).
b. Pneumonia: Pathogen is Streptococcus pneumoniae & • Mode of transmission: Soil, water, vegetables, fruits etc.
Haemophilus influenzae. contaminated with faeces containing eggs of parasites.
It infects lung alveoli. The alveoli get filled with fluid • Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever,
leading to respiratory problems. anaemia and blockage of intestinal passage.
• Mode of transmission: Inhaling the droplets/aerosols b. Filariasis (Elephantiasis): Pathogen is Filarial worms
released by an infected person. Sharing glasses and or Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi).
utensils with an infected person. • Mode of transmission: Bite of female Culex mosquito.
• Symptoms: Respiratory problems, fever, chills, cough, • Symptoms: Filarial worms live in lymphatic vessels
headache. In severe cases, lips and finger nails turn gray (usually of lower limbs). It causes chronic inflammation
to bluish colour. of the organs in which they live for many years. Limbs
2. VIRAL DISEASES and genital organs may be deformed.
a. Common cold: Pathogen is Rhinoviruses. 5. FUNGAL DISEASES
It infects nose & respiratory passage but not lungs. a. Ring worms: Pathogens are Microsporum, Trichophyton
• Mode of transmission: Inhaling droplets resulting from & Epidermophyton. They are seen in groin, b/w toes etc.
cough or sneezes. Through contaminated objects. • Mode of transmission: From soil or by using towels,
• Symptoms: Nasal congestion & discharge, sore throat, cloths, comb etc. Heat and moisture help fungi to grow.
cough, hoarseness, headache, tiredness etc. Last for 3-7 days. • Symptoms: Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails, scalp etc.
3. PROTOZOAN DISEASES Intense itching.
a. Malaria: Pathogen is Plasmodium sp. (P. vivax, P. PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DISEASES
malariae & P. falciparum). Most serious (malignant)
1. Personal hygiene
malaria is caused by P. falciparum.
• Mode of transmission: By female Anopheles mosquito.
Keep the body clean. Use clean drinking water, food etc.
2. Public hygiene
• Symptoms: Haemozoin (toxin released by Plasmodium)
a. Proper disposal of wastes and excreta.
causes chill and high fever recurring every 3-4 days.
b. Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs,
Life cycle of Plasmodium pools, cesspools and tanks.
c. Avoid contact with infected persons or their belongings (to
control air-borne diseases).
d. Standard practices of hygiene in public catering.
e. Control and eliminate the vectors (e.g. mosquitoes).
- Avoid stagnation of water.
- Regular cleaning of household coolers.
- Use of mosquito nets.
- Introduce larvivorous fishes like Gambusia in ponds.
- Spraying insecticides in ditches, drainage and swamps.
- Provide doors and windows with wire mesh.
These precautions can avoid vector borne diseases like Malaria,
Filariasis, Dengue & Chikun gunya.

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 IMMUNE SYSTEM
▪ It is the system that gives immunity to the body.
Structure of an
▪ It plays role in allergic reaction, auto-immune disease and
antibody molecule
organ transplantation.
An antibody has 4
▪ It includes lymphoid organs, tissues, cells & antibodies. polypeptide chains:
LYMPHOID ORGANS 2 light chains and 2
These are the organs where origin, maturation & proliferation heavy chains (H2L2).
of lymphocytes occur. 2 types: Primary & Secondary. Types of antibodies:
a. Primary lymphoid organs IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE & IgD.
- Here, immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen- Types of Acquired immune response
sensitive lymphocytes. E.g. Bone marrow & thymus. 1. Humoral immune response/ Antibody mediated
- Bone marrow is the site of formation of blood cells. immunity (AMI): It is the immune response mediated by
- Thymus is large during birth but gradually reduces in size antibodies. Antibodies are found in blood plasma. So
and becomes very small size in puberty. called as Humoral immune response.
b. Secondary lymphoid organs 2. Cell-mediated response / cell-mediated immunity (CMI):
- The organs, to which matured lymphocytes migrate, interact It is the immune response mediated by T-lymphocytes (T-
with antigens and then proliferate to become effector cells. cells). The body can differentiate ‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and
E.g. Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches, Mucosal the CMI causes Graft rejection.
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) & appendix. Tissue matching & blood group matching are essential
- Spleen: Bean-shaped organ. Contains lymphocytes and before undertaking any graft/ transplant. After this, the
phagocytes. It removes worn-out RBCs & microorganisms patient should take immuno-suppressants all his life.
from blood. It is a reservoir of erythrocytes in foetus. Types of Acquired immunity
- Lymph nodes: Found in lymphatic system. They trap Acquired immunity is 2 types: Active and passive.
microorganisms or other antigens. Trapped antigens 1. Active immunity: It is the immunity in which antibodies
activate lymphocytes and cause immune response. are produced in a host body when the host is exposed to
- MALT: Located within the lining of respiratory, digestive antigens (e.g. living or dead microbes or other proteins).
& urinogenital tracts. It constitutes 50% of lymphoid tissue. It is a slow process. It is produced by 2 ways:
IMMUNITY a. Natural Active Immunity: It is developed during
It is the ability of the immune system to fight the pathogens. natural infection by microbes.
It is 2 types: Innate and Acquired. b. Artificial Active Immunity: It is developed by injecting
the microbes deliberately during immunization.
1. Innate (inborn) immunity
2. Passive immunity: Here, readymade antibodies are
- It is the non-specific immunity present at the time of birth.
directly given to the body. It is 2 types:
- It includes 4 types of Barriers:
a. Natural Passive Immunity: E.g.
a. Physical barriers: E.g. Skin (Prevent entry of foreign
▪ Antibodies (IgG) from mother → Placenta → Foetus
bodies), Mucus coating of the respiratory, gastro-intestinal
▪ Antibodies (IgA) in colostrum → infants
and urino-genital tracts to trap microbes.
b. Artificial Passive Immunity: E.g.
b. Physiological barriers: E.g. gastric HCl, saliva, tear etc.
▪ Anti-tetanus serum (ATS)
c. Cellular barriers: Phagocytes like WBC [e.g. neutrophils
Immunization
or Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL), monocytes and
This is based on ‘memory’ of the immune system. 2 types:
natural killer lymphocytes], macrophages etc.
1. Active Immunization (Vaccination)
d. Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells secrete proteins
▪ In this, a preparation of vaccine (antigenic proteins of
called interferon which protect non-infected cells from
pathogen or inactivated pathogen) is introduced into the
further viral infection.
body. It results in the development of antibodies.
2. Acquired immunity ▪ During actual infection, the antibodies neutralize antigens.
• It is pathogen specific immunity developed during lifetime. ▪ The vaccines also generate memory B and T-cells. They
• It is characterized by memory, i.e. during first encounter of recognize the pathogen quickly.
a pathogen, body produces primary response in low ▪ E.g. Polio vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine, DPT vaccine etc.
intensity. Second encounter of the same pathogen causes a ▪ Vaccines are produced using DNA recombinant technology
secondary (anamnestic) response in high intensity. (E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from Yeast).
• Primary and secondary immune responses are carried out
2. Passive Immunization
with B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells). ▪ It is the direct injection of pre-formed antibodies or
a. B-lymphocytes: Produce antibodies. antitoxin. It requires for quick immune response.
b. T-lymphocytes: Help B-cells to produce antibodies.
▪ E.g. Immunization against Tetanus, snake venom etc.
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 Allergies ▪ Replication of retrovirus:
▪ It is the exaggerated response of the immune system to
certain antigens present in the environment.
▪ Allergens: Substances causing allergy. E.g. mites in dust,
pollens, animal dander, fur etc.
▪ Antibodies produced against the allergens are of IgE type.
▪ Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine
and serotonin from the mast cells.
▪ Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty
in breathing, skin rashes etc.
▪ Determination of cause of allergy: The patient is exposed
to or injected with very small doses of possible allergens,
and the reactions studied.
▪ Treatment: Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline and
steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
▪ Asthma is a respiratory disease due to allergy.
▪ Modern-day life style results lowering of immunity and
more sensitivity to allergens.
Autoimmunity
- It is the condition in which the body attacks self-cells due to
genetic and other unknown reasons.
▪ Life cycle:
- It leads to auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis.
HIV enters into body → To macrophages (acts as HIV
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) factory) → RNA genome replicates in presence of Reverse
▪ It is the deficiency of immune system. transcriptase to form viral DNA → Viral DNA
▪ It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a incorporates into host DNA→ Infected cells produce virus
retrovirus having RNA genome. particles → HIV enters into helper T-cells (T H ) →
▪ AIDS was first reported in America (1981). Replicates & produce progeny viruses → Attack other
▪ Transmission: helper T-cells → T-cells decrease → Weaken immunity.
- Sexual contact with infected person. ▪ HIV infected person may be infected with Mycobacterium,
- Transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products. viruses, fungi and parasites like Toxoplasma.
- Sharing of infected needles. ▪ Diagnosis: ELISA test (Enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent Assay).
- From infected mother to her child through placenta. ▪ Treatment: Anti-viral drugs partially effective. They can
▪ High risk people of getting HIV: only prolong the life of the patient.
- Individuals with multiple sexual partners. ▪ Prevention of AIDS:
- Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously. o Educate peoples about AIDS.
- Individuals who require repeated blood transfusion. o Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
- Children born to an HIV infected mother. o Use of disposable needles and syringes.
▪ HIV does not spread by touch or physical contact. It spreads o Advocating safe sex and free distribution of condoms.
only through body fluids. o Controlling drug abuse.
▪ There is a time-lag (from few months to 5-10 years) o Regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible population.
between the infection and appearance of symptoms.

CANCER
• Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of Cells sloughed from tumours reach other sites via blood
cells resulting in the formation of tumour (masses of cells). where they form a new tumour. This is called metastasis.
• Normal cells show a contact inhibition (contact with the Causes of cancer (Carcinogens)
other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth). Cancer cells
▪ Physical agents: E.g. Ionizing radiations like X-rays and
do not have this property. gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV.
Types of Tumours ▪ Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke (major cause of lung
o Benign tumours: Confined to the place of its origin. They cancer), vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine, mustard gas etc.
do not spread to other parts. Cause little damage.
▪ Biological agents: E.g. oncogenic viruses, c-onc (cellular
o Malignant tumours: Mass of proliferating cells (neoplastic
oncogenes or proto oncogenes) etc. When C-onc in
or tumour cells) that grow rapidly, invade and damage the normal cells is activated, the cells become oncogenic.
surrounding normal tissues. Due to active division and
growth, they starve normal cells by competing for nutrients.
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 Cancer detection and diagnosis Treatment of cancer
o Biopsy: A thin piece of the suspected tissue is stained and o Radiotherapy: Tumour cells are irradiated lethally,
examined under microscope (histopathological studies). without damaging surrounding normal tissues.
In case of leukemia: Biopsy & histopathological studies. o Chemotherapy: Use of chemotherapeutic drugs. Many
Blood & bone marrow tests for increased cell counts. drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
o Radiography (use of X-rays), CT (Computerized tomo- o Immunotherapy: The patients are given biological
graphy) scan & MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging). response modifiers (e.g. α- interferon) which activates
o Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens. their immune system and helps in destroying the tumour.
o Molecular biology technique: To detect cancer related o Surgery.
genes. Such individuals should avoid carcinogens (e.g. Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery,
tobacco smoke). radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

DRUGS, SMOKING AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

Drugs (opioids, cannabinoids & coca alkaloids) Smoking
Opioids: • Tobacco is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
- They bind to specific opioid receptors in CNS and • Tobacco contains nicotine (an alkaloid). It stimulates
gastrointestinal tract. E.g. morphine, heroin, brown sugar. adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline,
- Morphine is extracted from the latex of poppy plant, causing high BP and heart rate.
Papaver somniferum. It is a sedative and painkiller, and • Smoking causes cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat,
useful for surgery. bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric
ulcer etc. Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer.
• Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces
Chemical structure oxyhaemoglobin. This causes O2 deficiency in the body.
of Morphine ADOLESCENCE
- Adolescence is ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a
child becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and
- Heroin (smack or diacetylmorphine) is a white, odourless, beliefs for effective participation in society.
bitter crystalline compound. It is obtained by acetylation of - Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood
morphine. It is taken by snorting and injection. Heroin is a (period of 12-18 years of age). It is very vulnerable phase
depressant and slows down body functions. of mental and psychological development.
Cannabinoids: Causes of drug/alcohol use in Adolescence
- They interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain. - Curiosity and Experimentation.
- Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion. - Need for adventure and excitement.
- Natural cannabinoids are obtained from inflorescences of - To escape facing problems.
Cannabis sativa (Hemp plant). Its flower tops, leaves & - Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examination.
resin are used to make marijuana, hashish, charas & ganja. - Television, movies, newspapers, internet etc.
- They affect cardiovascular system. - Unstable or unsupportive family structures & peer pressure.
- Cannabinoids are abused by some sportspersons. Addiction and Dependence
• Addiction: It is a psychological attachment (euphoria and
Skeletal structure
a temporary feeling of wellbeing) with drugs and alcohol.
of cannabinoid
molecule With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the
receptors increases. Thus the receptors respond only to
higher doses leading to greater intake and addiction.
Coca alkaloid or cocaine (coke or crack):
• Dependence: It is the tendency of the body to manifest a
- It is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca. characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if
- It interferes with transport of neurotransmitter dopamine. regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This
- Cocaine is usually snorted. results in anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.
- It stimulates CNS producing euphoria & increased energy. Dependence leads to social adjustment problems.
- Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations. Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse
- Atropa belladona & Datura are also hallucinogenic plants.
• Reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.
Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines , • Coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
lysergic acid diethylamides (LSD), etc. are used as cerebral haemorrhage.
medicines to treat mental illnesses like depression and • Drugs in combination with alcohol may lead to death.
insomnia. But their abuse results in impairment of physical, • Damage of nervous system and liver cirrhosis.
physiological or psychological functions. • Mental and social distress to family and friends.
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• Social problems like stealing and spread of infectious ▪ Increased aggressiveness. ▪ Reduced testicles.
diseases (e.g. AIDS, hepatitis B). ▪ Decreased sperm. ▪ Kidney & liver dysfunction.
• Use of drugs and alcohol by pregnant woman affect the ▪ Breast enlargement. ▪ Premature baldness
foetus (Foetal alcohol syndrome or FAS). ▪ Enlargement of prostate gland.
• Loss of sexual drive and necrospermia. In females:
• Misuse of drugs by athletes (e.g. narcotic analgesics, ▪ Masculinisation ▪ Mood swings & depression
anabolic steroids, diuretics & certain hormones to increase ▪ Increased aggressiveness ▪ Excessive hair growth
muscle strength and bulk and to promote aggressiveness). ▪ Abnormal menstrual cycle ▪ Deepening of voice
Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse in ▪ Enlargement of clitoris
Adolescence period In adolescent male & female: Severe facial and body acne,
• Drop in academic performance and absence from school. premature closure of the growth centres of the long bones
• Lack of interest in personal hygiene. resulting in stunted growth.
• Withdrawal and isolation.
Prevention and control
• Depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
1. Avoid undue peer pressure.
• Change in sleeping and eating habits.
• Fluctuations in weight, appetite etc.
2. Education and counselling.
3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
• Loss of interest in hobbies.
4. Looking for danger signs.
• Deteriorating relationships with family and friends.
5. Seeking professional and medical help.
Side effects of anabolic steroid abuse a. Psychologists and psychiatrists.
In males: b. De-addiction and rehabilitation programs.
▪ Acne. ▪ Mood swings & depression.

Visit: www.bankofbiology.com
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Match the following
A B C
Malaria Haemophilus influenza Worms
Pneumonia Plasmodium vivax Bacteria
Filariasis Microsporum Protozoan
Ringworm Wuchereria bancrofti Fungus
2. Analyze the relationship between first two words and fill the fourth place.
a. Ascariasis: Ascaris Cold: ……………. b. AIDS: ELISA Typhoid: …………….
3. Odd man out. Justify your answer.
a. Spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, Peyer’s patches b. Gastric HCl, PMNL, saliva, tear
c. Cocaine, Morphine, Brown sugar, Heroine
4. Expand the following abbreviations.
a. MALT b. CMI c. AIDS d. HIV
5. Gopal was playing with his pet dog in the courtyard. Suddenly he developed sneezing, running nose and skin rashes.
a. With which conditions are the above symptoms related?
b. Explain the mechanism of reaction.
6. “The soldiers of a country kill their own king”. In your body similar situation take place. Find out that process.
7. Changes occurring in the number of antibodies in an individual injected with same antigen on two separate occasions
are given in the bar diagram. Analyse the graph and answer the following questions.

a. In which injection, the number of antibodies is increased?

b. Why the injections in two separate occasions with the same
antigen cause different results?

8. Select the false statement:

a. Peer pressure is a cause of alcoholism.
b. Discontinuing of drug abuse causes withdrawal syndrome.
c. Adolescence is the physical change of an individual.
d. AIDS, Hepatitis B etc. may be spread due to drugs & alcoholism.
9. As a part of adolescence health education Programme, prepare a pamphlet showing common problems of adolescence
with special regard to mental problems.
10. Prepare a table showing the adverse effects of alcoholism, drug addiction and smoking. Give suitable titles.