BOOK SUMMARY

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

25. TERRORISM

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 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

CHAPTER 25. TERRORISM

INTRODUCTION
● There isn't a definitive definition of terrorism in international law.

● According to the United Nations Security Council, terrorist acts involve criminal actions
intended to cause death or severe injury to individuals, aiming to instill fear in the general
public or coerce governments into specific actions or inaction.

● The European Union defines terrorist offenses as criminal acts capable of adversely affecting
a country or international organization, committed to intimidate populations or exert undue
pressure on governments or international bodies.
○ Such actions may destabilize or harm a nation's political, economic, or social fabric.

● Section 15 of the UAPA defines a "terrorist act" as any action undertaken with the intent to
threaten or potentially threaten India's unity, integrity, security (including economic security),
or sovereignty.
○ Additionally, any act carried out with the intention of instilling terror in the people of
India or any foreign country falls under this definition.

GENESIS OF TERRORISM
○ Throughout history, acts of terror have been employed as tactics in conflicts and wars.
○ From ancient times to the medieval era, tactics such as assassinations, sabotage, and
intimidation were used to instill fear and weaken opponents.

○ French Revolution:
○ The use of state-sponsored violence and mass executions during the French Revolution,
particularly during the Reign of Terror, marked a significant moment in the evolution of
modern terrorism.
○ The term "terrorism" itself originated during this period, reflecting the systematic use
of violence by revolutionary authorities to suppress opposition and maintain control.

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○ Colonialism and Resistance Movements:

○ The era of European colonialism saw the rise of resistance movements and insurgencies
in colonized regions, where local populations employed tactics considered terrorist by
colonial powers.
○ Groups such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Zionist paramilitary
organizations in British Palestine emerged as notable examples of nationalist
movements employing terrorism in their struggle for independence.

○ In India - Hindustan Republican Association , Kakori Robbery & Bomb in central

legislative Assembly.

○ Nationalist and Separatist Movements:

○ The post-colonial period saw the rise of nationalist and separatist movements around
the world, many of which resorted to terrorism as a means of achieving their political
objectives.
○ Examples include the Basque separatist group ETA in Spain and the Tamil Tigers in Sri
Lanka.

○ Cold War Dynamics:

○ The ideological rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold
War fueled proxy conflicts and insurgencies in various regions, with both superpowers
supporting client states and militant groups.
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○ This period saw the emergence of non-state actors engaged in terrorism as part of
broader ideological struggles.

○ Globalization and Extremist Ideologies:

○ The late 20th and early 21st centuries witnessed the globalization of terrorism,
facilitated by advancements in communication and technology.
○ Extremist ideologies, often rooted in religious or sectarian beliefs, gained traction
among marginalized populations and disaffected individuals, leading to the rise of
groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS.

○ Nonetheless, the events of 9/11 marked a significant turning point, ushering in a new era of
global terrorism and highlighting the emergence of non-state actors and terrorists as
formidable challenges to stability in the twenty-first century.

CAUSES OF TERRORISM
● Ideological motivations:

○ Terrorist groups often operate based on specific beliefs, values, or principles, which
may be religious, political, or ideological in nature.
○ These motivations can drive individuals to engage in acts of violence to further their
cause or agenda.
○ Groups like ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) and Al-Qaeda are driven by radical
interpretations of Islam and seek to establish Islamic states governed by their extremist
ideology.

● Socioeconomic factors:
○ Poverty, inequality, lack of education, and limited economic opportunities can create
conditions ripe for recruitment by terrorist organizations.
○ These factors may fuel feelings of resentment, marginalization, and disenfranchisement,
leading individuals to turn to terrorism as a means of addressing perceived grievances.
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○ Terrorist organizations like Boko Haram in Nigeria or al-Shabaab in Somalia exploit

economic hardships to recruit members who may see terrorism as a means of economic
empowerment or social advancement.

● Political grievances:
○ Political oppression, discrimination, and the denial of basic rights and freedoms can
contribute to feelings of injustice and anger within certain communities.
○ When peaceful avenues for addressing grievances are unavailable or ineffective, some
individuals may resort to terrorism as a form of resistance or protest against perceived
injustices.
○ The conflict between Palestinians and Israelis has led to the emergence of groups like
Hamas, which resort to terrorism as a means of resisting perceived Israeli occupation
and oppression.

● Ethnic or religious tensions:

○ Deep-seated ethnic or religious conflicts can fuel intergroup violence and provide fertile
ground for terrorist recruitment and radicalization.

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○ Extremist ideologies that exploit these tensions may attract individuals seeking to
defend their group identity or retaliate against perceived enemies.
○ The sectarian violence in Iraq between Sunni and Shia Muslims has provided fertile
ground for groups like ISIS to exploit religious divisions and recruit fighters.

● Foreign interventions and geopolitical factors:

○ Foreign military interventions, occupation, and perceived injustices perpetrated by
foreign powers can generate resentment and hostility, serving as catalysts for terrorist
activities.
○ Geopolitical rivalries, territorial disputes, and regional power struggles can also
contribute to the spread of terrorism.
○ The U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 contributed to the destabilization of the region and the
rise of insurgent groups like ISIS, which capitalized on the power vacuum and
grievances among Sunni populations.

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● Radicalization and propaganda:

○ The spread of extremist ideologies through propaganda, social media, and online
networks can radicalize individuals and inspire them to commit acts of terrorism.
○ Vulnerable individuals become susceptible to manipulation and indoctrination by
charismatic leaders or extremist groups.
○ Online propaganda disseminated by groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda has played a
significant role in radicalizing individuals around the world, inspiring them to carry out
terrorist attacks in their home countries.

● Psychological factors:
○ Personal grievances, trauma, alienation, and a sense of identity crisis can contribute to
radicalization and recruitment into terrorist organizations.
○ Vulnerable individuals may be drawn to terrorism as a means of finding purpose,
belonging, or a sense of empowerment.
○ For example, the perpetrators of the 2015 Paris attacks were found to have experienced
social isolation and a sense of identity crisis, which may have contributed to their
involvement in terrorism.

GLOBAL WAR ON TERROR

● The Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), also referred to as the war on terror, is a worldwide
military campaign initiated by the United States in response to the September 11 attacks.
● It is recognized as the most recent global conflict and encompasses multiple wars.
● The primary targets of the campaign are militant Islamist movements such as Al-Qaeda, the
Taliban, and their affiliated groups.
● Additionally, significant targets have included the Ba'athist regime in Iraq, which was
overthrown in a 2003 invasion.
● Various militant factions engaged in insurgency have also been targeted.
● The Islamic State militia has emerged as a key adversary of the United States following its
territorial expansion in 2014.

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GLOBAL TERRORISM INDEX

● Produced by the Institute for Economics & Peace (IEP), drawing data from Terrorism Tracker
and other sources.

● Terrorism Tracker documents terrorist incidents since January 1, 2007, encompassing nearly
66,000 events up to 2022.

● India holds the 13th position on The Global Terrorism Index (GTI), indicating its vulnerability to
terrorism.
● Afghanistan persists as the most terrorism-affected country for the fourth consecutive year,
despite a decline in attacks and fatalities.
● South Asia maintains its status as the region with the highest average GTI score, registering
1,354 terrorism-related deaths in 2022.

● Islamic State (IS) and its affiliates retained their position as the most lethal terrorist group
globally for the eighth consecutive year, being responsible for the highest number of attacks and
fatalities in 2022.

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INDIA’S INITIATIVE TO COMBAT TERRORISM

1. Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987 (TADA)

○ The Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act of 1987 (TADA) was
established to address terrorist activities in India.
○ It imposed stricter prohibitions compared to the UAPA.
○ TADA faced legal challenges regarding its legality, notably in the case of Kartar Singh v.
the State of Punjab (1994) 3 SCC 569.
○ The Supreme Court of India upheld its constitutional validity, relying on the assumption
that those entrusted with its powers would act in good faith.
○ Despite this, there were instances of abuse of power leading to unintended
consequences.
○ TADA was eventually repealed in 1995 due to these issues.

2. The Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999 (MCOCA)

○ Enacted on April 24, 1999, it primarily targets the underworld in Mumbai and the rising
organized crime in Maharashtra.
○ MCOCA has a broader definition of a terrorist act compared to the POTA term.

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○ It explicitly includes organized crime and classifies "promotion of insurrection" as a

terrorist act.
○ According to MCOCA, individuals are presumed guilty until they can prove their
innocence.

3. The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA, 2002)

○ The rise in cross-border terrorism, the Pakistani ISI's efforts to destabilize India, and
the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks led to the enactment of a special law to
combat terrorist actions.
○ The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA, 2002) was passed in response to these
challenges.
○ Similar to TADA, POTA faced legal challenges, notably in the case of PUCL v. Union of
India, but the Court upheld its validity.
○ Following its implementation, there were numerous reports of misuse of the law,
leading to allegations of increased corruption within the Indian police and judiciary.
○ After the UPA came into power, POTA's provisions were integrated into the UAPA,
fulfilling the campaign pledge to repeal the legislation in 2004.

4. Following the 26/11 terrorist attack, the National Investigation Agency was established in
January 2009 to address terrorist crimes.

5. Unlawful Activities Prevention Act

● The UAPA, initially enacted in 1967, serves as an anti-terrorism law with the primary aim of
effectively preventing and addressing activities that endanger India's sovereignty and
integrity.
● Objective: It aims to enhance the prevention of unlawful activities by individuals and
associations, particularly targeting terrorist activities and related matters. Its jurisdiction
extends across India and applies to:
○ Indian citizens outside the country.
○ Government personnel regardless of their location.
○ Individuals aboard Indian-registered ships and aircraft.

● Terrorist Act: Any action intended to threaten India's unity, integrity, security (including
economic security), or sovereignty, or to instill terror in the populace, is deemed a terrorist act.

● Amendments:
○ 2004: Introduced a specific chapter for prosecuting terrorist acts.
○ 2008: Broadened the definition of a terrorist act to include actions likely to endanger
India's unity, integrity, security, or sovereignty, or to instill terror in the populace.
○ 2012: Expanded the definition further to encompass offenses jeopardizing the country's
economic security.
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○ 2019: Authorized the government to designate individuals as "terrorists" and list them
in Schedule IV of the Act without due process. Additionally, empowered the Director
General of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) to approve the seizure or
attachment of property.

COMPREHENSIVE CONVENTION ON TERRORISM

● Initially proposed by India in 1996.
● Amidst 14 existing terrorism conventions, CCIT stands out for providing a comprehensive legal
framework.
● Aims to compel signatories to cut off funds and safe havens for terrorist groups.
● Objectives of CCIT:
○ Establish a universal definition of terrorism, universally adopted by all 193 UN General
Assembly members.
○ Prohibit all terrorist groups and dismantle terror camps.
○ Prosecute terrorists under specialized laws.
○ Make cross-border terrorism an extraditable offense globally.
● Current Status:
○ The completion of CCIT faces obstacles due to opposition from the US, OIC countries,
and Latin American nations.
○ Key contention revolves around the definition of terrorism.
○ OIC resists labeling liberation movements as terrorism due to the Israel-Palestine
conflict.
○ The US and allies push for excluding acts by state military forces during peacetime.
○ Latin American nations advocate for the opposite stance, seeking inclusion of such acts.
● While consensus remains elusive for adopting the terrorism convention, discussions have led
to the development of three distinct protocols aimed at addressing terrorism:
○ International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, adopted on 15
December 1997;
○ International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, adopted on
9 December 1999;
○ International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted on
13 April 2005.

GLOBAL COUNTER TERRORISM STRATEGY

● The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy serves as an unparalleled global tool for
strengthening national, regional, and international efforts against terrorism.
● Adopted unanimously in 2006, the GCTS represents the first instance of all UN Member States
endorsing a common strategic and operational framework to combat terrorism.
● This strategy unequivocally denounces terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.
● It pledges to undertake practical measures, both independently and collaboratively, to prevent
and confront terrorism.
● These measures encompass a diverse range of actions, including enhancing state capacities to
counter terrorist threats and improving coordination among the UN System's counter-
terrorism activities.
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The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, as articulated in a resolution, is structured around or

guided by these four primary pillars.

FINANCIAL ACTION TASK FORCE (FATF)

● Established in 1989, it is an intergovernmental organization initially focused on combating
money laundering, later expanding its mandate to include combating terrorist financing in
2001.
● Headquartered at the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
headquarters in Paris, its decision-making body convenes three times annually.
● With 39 members, including India (an observer since 2006 and a full member since 2010), and
two regional organizations (the EU and GCC), FATF operates globally.
● FATF's mandate involves leading coordinated global efforts to combat financial system abuse
by criminals and terrorists, recognizing the necessity for unified and effective action against
these threats faced by all nations.

CHALLENGES IN COUNTERING TERRORISM

1. Lack of Universal Definition: The absence of a globally agreed-upon definition of terrorism

complicates classification of specific activities as terrorist acts. This ambiguity provides
terrorists an advantage and allows certain countries to abstain from action in international
forums.

2. Proliferation of Online Terrorism: The Internet serves as an unregulated platform where

terrorists can create and disseminate propaganda across numerous websites and social media
channels.
○ This allows them to target and recruit thousands of potential followers, expanding their
influence and reach.

3. Terror Financing: Criminals launder an estimated two to four trillion dollars annually, as
reported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank.
○ Terrorist fund movements are often concealed through charities and alternative
financial systems, undermining the integrity of the global financial system. Additionally,
the lack of cryptocurrency regulation poses a potential threat as it could become a
haven for terrorist activities.
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4. Lone Wolf Attacks: Individuals inspired by terrorist ideologies but operating independently
pose a significant challenge for counterterrorism efforts.
○ Detecting and preventing lone wolf attacks is difficult due to their low profile and lack of
direct connections to known terrorist organizations.

5. Bio-Terrorism Threat: Biotechnology presents both benefits and risks, as small amounts of
biotic agents can be easily concealed, transported, and released into vulnerable populations.
○ Tropical agricultural pathogens or pests can also be weaponized to disrupt global food
security.

6. Cyber Attacks: In an increasingly digital world, terrorists exploit cyber attacks to target a
country's cyberspace and networks.
○ They use gathered information to intimidate or coerce governments and people to
advance their political or social objectives.

WAY FORWARD

○ Advocating for Universal Terrorism Definition and Sanctions: Adopting a universal

definition of terrorism and enforcing global sanctions against state sponsors of terrorism are
crucial steps towards promoting a peaceful world order.
○ Terrorism, in all its forms, must be unequivocally condemned, with the international
community transcending political differences to combat this challenge collectively.

○ Disrupt Financing Networks: Disrupting the financial networks that support terrorist
organizations is crucial. This involves monitoring financial transactions, cutting off sources of
funding, and cooperating with financial institutions and international partners to track and
freeze assets linked to terrorism.
○ India's initiative to host the "No Money for Terror" Conference in Delhi signifies a
significant step towards combating terror financing.

○ Developing Comprehensive Cyber-Defense: Implementing a holistic strategy is vital for

addressing cyber terrorism, including cyber search operations and expanding
countermeasures against cyber attacks.

○ Addressing Youth Exposure to Terrorism: Educational institutions play a crucial role in

promoting non-violent values and tolerance, making education integral to counter-
radicalization efforts. Additionally, addressing economic and social inequalities can deter
disillusioned youth from turning to terrorism.

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION (MAINS)

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1. The Indian government has recently strengthened the anti-terrorism laws by amending the
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, (UAPA), 1967, and the NIA Act. Analyze the changes in the
context of the prevailing security environment while discussing the scope and reasons for
opposing the UAPA by human rights organizations. [2019]

2. The scourge of terrorism is a grave challenge to national security. What solutions do you suggest
to curb this growing menace? What are the major sources of terrorist funding? [2017]

3. “Increase cross- border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs
of member - states of SAARC ( South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)” Explain with
suitable examples. [2016].

4. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India - Pakistan relation. To what extent
the use of soft power like sports and culture exchange could help generate goodwill between the
two countries. Discuss with suitable examples. [2015]

Student’s Note:

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