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ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2 PROBABILITY & DISTRIBUTIONS

1. PROBABILITY

1.1. DEFITITION
A. Random Experiments-
For any invention, number of experiments are done. Consider an experiment whose
results is not predictable under almost similar working condition then these experiments
are known as Random Experiments.
These are some cases of random experiments-
Case 1: If we toss a coin, then the result of the experiment whether it is going to come
head or tail is not predictable under very similar conditions.
Case 2: If we throw a dice, then the outcome of this can not be predicted with certainty
that which number is going to turn.
B. Sample Space,S –
Each random experiments of some possible outcomes, if we make a set of all the possible
outcomes of random experiments then Set ‘S’ is known as the Sample Space & each
possible outcome is Sample Point.
Case 1: If we roll a die, then set of all possible outcomes, is given by {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
then this will be the sample space of given experiment and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6 are sample
points.
Similarly, if our objective is getting odd number on rolling same die then the Sample
space will be {1, 3, 5} & for even number Sample space will be {2, 4, 6}.
Case 2: If the outcome of our experiment is to determination whether a male is married
or not then our Sample space will be {Married, Unmarried}.
C. Event,E
An event is a subset A of the sample space S, i.e., it is a set of possible outcomes.
An Event is a set of consisting some of the possible outcomes from the sample space of
the experiment.
Case 1: On tossing a coin twice, All possible outcomes (Sample space) is {HH, HT, TH,
TT} whereas {HH}{HH, TT},{HT, HH}, {HH, HT, TT} are the events.
If the event consists only single outcome then it is known as Simple Events.
If the events consist of more than one outcome then its is known as Compound Events.

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Types of Events-
(i)Complementary Event – Any Event EC is called complementary event of event E if it
consists of all possible outcomes of sample space which is not present in E.
Ex - If we roll a die, then set of all possible outcomes, is given by {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
An event of getting outcome in multiple of 3 is
E (multiples of 3) = {3,6}
Then, EC = {1,2,4,5}
(ii) Equally Likely Event – if any two event of sample space are in such a way that the
chance of both the events are equal, then this type of events is known as Equally likely
events.
Ex – Chances of a new born baby to be a boy or girl is 50% means either it can be a girl
or boy.
(iii) Mutually Exclusive Events – Two events are called as mutually exclusive when
occurring of both the simultaneously is not possible.
If E1 & E2 are mutually exclusive then E1 ⋂ E2 = ϕ
Ex – if we toss a coin then either head or tail can occur, occurrence of both simultaneously
is not possible.
(iv) Collectively Exhaustive Events - Two events are called as Collectively exclusive
when sample points of both the events incudes all the possible outcomes.
If E1 & E2 are mutually exclusive then E1 ⋃ E2 = S
Ex – if we toss a coin & E1 is the occurrence of head and E2 is the occurrence of a tail.
Then both the events are collectively exhaustive because both o them collectively include
all possible outcomes.
(v) Independent Events – Two events are called as independent when occurring of 1 st
event does not affect the occurrence of 2nd.
Ex – On rolling two dice simultaneously, occurrence of 5 in 1 st die does not affect the
occurrence of 4 in second die. Their occurrence is independent to each other.
D. Probability – If an experiment is conducted under essentially given condition upto ‘n’
times and let ‘m’ cases are favourable to an event ‘E’, then probability of ‘E’ is denoted
by P(E) & defined as
Number of favourable cases to E m
P(E) = =
Total number of Events n

Number of non favourable cases to E m

P(E) = =1−
Total number of Events n

P(E) == 1 − P(E)

P(E) + P(E) = 1

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Example -1 A card is drawn from a deck of playing cards. What is the probability of that
the card is
(i) Face card
(ii) Heart card
(iii) Face and heart card
Sol.
Total number of cards in a deck, n = 52 (sample space)
Total number of suits in a deck = 4(heart, spades, club, diamond)
Total face card (King, Queen, Jack) = 12(3 in each suit)
(i)Probability of card is face card
Number of favourable outcomes, m = 12
m 12
probability of face card = =
n 52
3
P(Face card) =
13
(ii) Probability of card is heart card
Number of heart card in a deck, m = 13
m 13
probability of Heart card = =
n 52
1
P(Heart card) =
4
(iii) Probability of card to be face and heart
Number of face card with heart suit is, m = 3
m 3
probability of Face card with Heart suit = =
n 52
3
P(Face card with Heart suit) =
52
1.2. The Axioms of Probability
Consider an Experiment whose sample space is S. For each event E of the sample space,
we associate a real number P(E). Then P is called a probability function, and P(E) the
probability of the event E, then P(E) will satisfies the following axioms.
Axiom 1 For every event E,
P(E) ≥ 0
Probability of an event can never be negative.
Axiom 2 In case of sure or certain event E,
P(E) = 1
Probability of an event with 100% surety is 1.
Axiom 3 For any number of mutually exclusive events E1, E2, ….,
P(E 1∪E 2∪E3…) = P(E 1) + P(E2) + p(E3) …..
In particular, for two mutually exclusive events E1, E2,
P(E 1∪E 2) = P(E 1) + P(E 2)

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Example – 2 A fair die is tossed once. Find the probability of a 2 or 5 turning up.
Sol.
When a fair die is rolled once, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Since die is fair thus, we assign equal probabilities to each sample points,
1
P(1) = P(2) = ... P(6) =
6
The event that either 2 or 5 turns up is indicated by (2 ∪ 5).
Therefore,
1 1 1
P(2 5) = P(2) + P(5) = + =
6 6 3
1.3. Some Important Theorems on Probability
From the above axioms we can now prove various theorems on probability
Theorem 1: For every event E,
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1,
i.e., a probability is between 0 and 1.
Theorem 2: P(Φ) = 0
i.e., the impossible event has probability zero.
Theorem 3: If EC is the complement of E i.e. that event E will not happen, then
P(EC) = 1 – P(E)
DeMorgan’s Law
C
 i=n  i=n
1.  Ei  = Eic
 i=1  i=1

C
 i=n  i=n
2.  Ei  = EiC
 i=1  i=1

Ex.
let E1, E2 are two events,
then
m 3
probability of Face card with Heart suit = =
n 52
3
P(Face card with Heart suit) =
52

(E E2 ) = E1C
C
1 E2C

E1 E2 is the event either E1 or E2 or both.

E1C E2C is the event neither E1 nor E2.

De-Morgan’s law is often used to find the probability of neither E 1 nor E2.

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Corollary:1
From theorem 3
If EC is the complement of E, then
P(EC) = 1 – P(E)
And from De-Morgen’s theorem

(E E2 ) = E1C
C
1 E2C

Combining both the results

(
P E1C )
E2C = P (E1( E2 )
C
) = 1 − P (E
1 E2 )

P(neither E1 nor E2 ) = 1 − P(Either E1 or E2 )

Theorem 4: If E = E1 ∪ E2 U E3 …. ∪ En, where E1, E2, ….. En are mutually exclusive

events, then
P(E) = P(E1) + P(E2) + …… + P(En) = 1
In particular, if E = S, the sample space, then
P(E1) + P(E2) + ….. + P(En) = 1
Theorem 5: If A and B are any two events, then
P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) – P(E1 ∩ E2)
If both the events are Mutually Exclusive,
Then,
P(E1 ∩ E2) = 0
Thus,
P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) + P(E2)
More generally,
if E1, E2, E3 are any three events, then
P(E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3) = P(E1) + P(E2) + P(E3) – P(E1 ∩ E2) – P(E2 ∩ E3) – P(E3 ∩ E1) + P(E1 ∩ E2
∩ E3)
Theorem 6: For any events E1 and E2,
P(E1) = P(E1 ∩ E2) + P(E1 ∩ E2C)
Where BC is compliment of B
Theorem 7: If E1 & E2 are two independent events, then
P(E1 ∩ E2) = P(E1)  P(E2)
Then, P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) – P(E1 ∩ E2)
Will converts into P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) – P(E1)  P(E2) (for independent events)
Theorem 8: If an event E must result in the occurrence of one of the mutually exclusive
events E1, E2, ….. En, then
P(E) = P(E ∩ E1) + P(E ∩ E2) + …. + P(E ∩ En)
This is also known as Rule of total proabality

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Theorem 9: Conditional Probability

Let E1 and E2 be two events such that P(E1) > 0.
The probability of E2 given that E1 has occurred denoted by P(E2/E1) and given by,
P (E1 E2 )
P (E2 | E1 ) = P(E1 )  0
P(E1 )

or P (E1 E2 ) = P(E1 ) P(E2 | E1 )

Similarly,
P (E1 E2 )
P (E1 | E2 ) = P(E2 )  0
P(E2 )

This rule is also known as multiplication rule of probability.

• if E1 & E2 are independent events
Then, P(E1 ∩ E2) = P(E1)  P(E2)
P (E1 E2 ) P (E1 )  P(E2 )
P (E2 | E1 ) = =
P(E1 ) P(E1 )

P (E2 | E1 ) = P (E2 )

Similarly,
P (E1 | E2 ) = P (E1 )

For any three events E 1, E2, E3,

we have
P(E1 ∩ E2 ∩ E3) = P(E1) (E2| E1) P(E3| E1 ∩ E2)
In words, the probability that E1 and E2 and E3 all occur is equal to the probability that E1
occurs times the probability that E2 occurs given that E1 has occurred times the probability
that E3 occurs given that both E1 and E2 have occurred.
Example – 3 In a certain college 25% of students failed in mathematics, 15% failed in
chemistry & 10% failed in mathematics and chemistry both. If a student is selected at
random
(i) If he failed in chemistry then what is the probability that he failed in mathematics too?
(ii) If he failed in mathematics then what is the probability that he failed in Chemistry
too?
(iii) What is the probability that he neither failed in mathematics nor in chemistry.
Sol.
students failed in Mathematics = 25%, P(M) = 0.25
students failed in Chemistry = 15%, P(C) = 0.15
Students failed in mathematics and chemistry both = 10%, P(M ∩ C) =0.1
(i) If he failed in chemistry then what is the probability that he failed in mathematics too
P (M C) 0.1 2
P (M | C ) = = =
P(C) 0.15 3

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(ii) If he failed in mathematics then what is the probability that he failed in Chemistry too
P (M C) 0.1 2
P ( C | M) = = =
P(M) 0.25 5
(iii) the probability that he neither failed in mathematics nor in chemistry

( C) = 1 − P(M C)
P M

P (M C ) = 1 − {0.25 + 0.15 − 0.1}

P (M C ) = 0.70

Example -4 A box A contains 2 white and 4 black balls. Another box B contains 5 white
and 7 black balls. A ball is transferred from the box A to the box B. Then a ball is drawn
from the box B. Find the probability that it is white.
Sol.
The probability of drawing a white ball from box B will depend on whether the transferred
ball is black or white.
If black ball is transferred from box A to box B, its probability is 4/6(probability of
transferring the black ball). There are now 5 white and 8 black balls in the box B.
5
Then the probability of drawing white ball from box B is .
13
Thus, the probability of drawing a white ball from urn B, if the transferred ball is black
4 5 10
P(White ball) =  =
6 13 39
Similarly,
If white ball is transferred from box A to box B, its probability is 2/6(probability of
transferring the White ball). There are now 6 white and 7 black balls in the box B.
The probability of drawing a white ball from Box B, if the transferred ball is white
2 6 2
P(White ball) =  =
6 13 13
10 2 16
Hence required probability = + = .
39 13 13
Theorem 9: Baye’s Theorem
It is an extended form of Conditional probability.
Suppose that E1, E2, E3 …….Em are the mutually exclusive events whose union is the
sample space and E is an event
Then, as per the baye’s theorem
 
P(En )  P  E 
 En
P (En | E) = n
E 

i=1
P(Ei )  P 
 Ei 


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In general form,
If A and B are two mutually exclusive event

P (A E) P (A E)
P ( A | E) = =
P(E) P (A E ) + P (B E)

P ( A | E) =
P(A)  P E ( A) (using theorem 8 & 9)
P(A)  P E( A ) + P(B)  P (EB)
2. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

(A) Random Variables –

Suppose that to each point of a sample space we assign a number. We then have a function
defined on the sample space. This function is called a random variable or more precisely a
random function.
It is usually denoted by a capital letter such as X or Y. Random variable X associated with the
outcome of an experiment which is not certain and its value depend upon the chance.
If a random variable takes a finite set of values then it is called as Discrete random variable,
whereas when a random variable takes an infinite set of values (or any value from a continuous
range or graph) then it is called as Continuous Random variable.
On the basis of this, we can divide distributions also in two category-
(i) Discrete probability Distribution
(ii) Continuous probability distribution
(B) Discrete Probability Distributions
Let X be a discrete random variable, and suppose that the possible values that it can assume
are given by x1, x2, x3, . . . , arranged in some order.
These values are assumed with probabilities given by
P(X = xk) = f(xk) k = 1, 2, ... ….(1)
It is convenient to introduce the probability function, also referred to as probability distribution,
given by
P(X = x) = f(x)
For x = xk, this reduces to (1) while for other values of x, f(x) = 0.
The properties of discrete probability distribution are
(i) P(xi )  0 for all values of i

(ii)  P(x ) = 1
i

(iii) Mean of Random variable, μ(or E)

E(x) =μ =  xiP(xi )

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It is also called expected value (Expectation) or average value of random variable.

(iv) Variance of Random variable, V (σ2)

 (x −  ) P(xi )
2
2 = V(x) = i

2 = V(x) =  (x i
2
+ 2 − 2xi P(xi ) )
2 =  x P(x ) +   P(x ) −  2xP(x )
i
2
i
2
i i i

2 =  x P(x ) +   P(x ) − 2 xP(x )

i
2
i
2
i i i

As we know

 P(x ) = 1 , μ =  x P(x )
i i i

2 =  x P(x ) + 
i
2
i
2
− 2  

2 =  x P(x ) − 
i
2
i
2

(v) Standard deviation, σ (SD) – it is square root of the variance.

It is the measure of variation amongst data
Types of Discrete distributions are
(i) Binomial Distribution
(ii) Poission distribution
(iii) Geometric distribution
(C) Continuous Random Variables
A non-discrete random variable X is said to be absolutely continuous, or simply continuous, if
its distribution function may be represented as

f ( x ) dx (– < x < )

x
F(x) = P(X  x) = 
−

where the function f(x) has the properties

1. f(x)  0

f ( x ) dx = 1

2. 
−

xf ( x ) dx

3. E(X) = −

4. V(X) = E(x2 ) − (E(x))

2

( )
2
x2 f ( x ) dx − xf ( x ) dx
 
V(X) = 
− −

It follows from the above that if X is a continuous random variable, then the probability that X
takes on any one particular value is zero.
Whereas the interval probability that X lies between two different values, say, a and b, is given
by

 f ( x ) dx
b
P(a  X  b) =
a

 f ( x ) dx
b
P(a  X  b) = P(a  X  b) = P(a  X  b) = P(a  X  b) =
a

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Some examples of continuous distribution area as follows

(i). Normal Distribution
(ii). Exponential Distribution
(iii). Uniform Distribution
D) Properties of Expectation and Variance:
If x1 and x2 are two random variance and a and b are constants,
E (ax1 + b) = a E(x1) + b
V (ax1 + b) = a2 V(x1)
E (ax1 + bx2) = a E(x1) + bE(x2)
V (ax1 + bx2) = a2V(x1) + b2V(x2) + 2ab cov(x1, x2)
Where cov(x1, x2) represents the covariance between x1 and x2 which is the ratio of standard
deviation and mean.
If x1 and x2 are independent, then cov(x1, x2) = 0
Hence, above formula reduces to
V(ax1 + bx2) = a2V(x1) + b2V(x2)
If x1 and x2 are independent, then
E(x1  x2) = E(x1 )  E( x2)
Example –5 A game is to be played with a single fair die. In this game a player wins Rs.20 if
a 2 turns up, Rs.40 if a 4 turns up; loses Rs.30 if a 6 turns up. While the player neither wins
nor loses if any other face turns up. Find the expected sum of money to be won.
Sol.
Since the die is fair, thus probability of each number to be turning up will be equal (1/6)

outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6

xj 0 +20 0 +40 0 –30

P(X) = f(xj) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6

Therefore, the expected value or expectation is

E(X) =  x P(x )
i i

1 1 1 1 1 1

E(X) = (0)   + (20)   + (0)   + (40)   + (0)   + (–30)  
6 6 6 6 6 6

E(X) = 5
It follows that the player can expect to win Rs.5 in a fair game.
Example – 6 The density function of a random variable X is given by
1
 x 0x2
f (x) = 2

 0 otherwise

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The expected value of X will be

Sol.
As we know that,

E (X) = xf ( x ) dx

 −

E (X) = xf ( x ) dx + xf ( x ) dx + xf ( x ) dx
0 2 
 − 
0 
2

1
E (X) =
0 2 
 −
x.0 dx +  0
x
2
x dx + 
2
x.0dx

2 1 
E(X) = 
0
x  x  dx
2 
2
2 x2 x3
E(X) = 
0 2
dx =
6 0

4
E(X) =
3
Example -7 The density function of a random variable X is given by
1
 x 0x2
f (x) = 2

 0 otherwise
Then calculate- E(3X2 – 2X)
Sol.

 (3x )
− 2x f ( x ) dx

2
E(3X2 – 2x) =
−

From the properties,

E(3X2 – 2x) = 3E(X2) – 2E(X)
1 1
( )
2 2
E 3x2 − 2x = 3 x2 x dx − 2 x x dx
0 2 0 2
2 2
x4 x3
(
E 3x2 − 2x = 3  ) 8
−2
6
0 0

10
E(3X2 – 2x) =
3

2.1. Binomial Distribution –

Suppose that we have an experiment such as tossing a coin or rolling a die repeatedly or
choosing a marble from an urn repeatedly. Each toss or selection is called a trial. In any
single trial there will be a probability associated with a particular event such as head on
the coin, 4 on the die, or selection of a particular colour of marble.

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In some case this probability will not change from one trial to the next (as in tossing a
coin or die). Such trials are then said to be independent and are often called Bernoulli
trials.
Let p be the probability that an event will happen in any single Bernoulli trial (called the
probability of success). Then q = 1 – p is the probability that the event will fail to happen
in any single trial (called the probability of failure). The probability that the event will
happen exactly x times in n trials (i.e., x times successes and (n – x) times failures will
occur) is given by the probability function
n!
f(x) = P(X = x) = nC x px qn− x = px qn− x
x! (n − x ) !

where,
the random variable X denotes the number of successes in n trials and x = 0, 1, . . . . n.
Case – 1
When p = q,

F(x) = P(X = x) = nC x px qn−x = nC x pxpn−x = nC x pn

some assumptions are made by Bernoulli before reaching the conclusion

1. there is only 2 outcomes are possible, success and failure.
2. Probability of success (p) and probability of failure q remains same from trial to trial.
3. The trials event are independent. i.e., The outcome of one trial does not affect the
subsequent trials.
Example - 8 The probability of getting exactly 2 heads in 6 tosses of a fair coin will be
Sol.
1
Probability of getting heads in each toss is, p =
2
1 1
Probability of getting not heads in each toss is, q = 1- =
2 2
probability of getting exactly 2 heads in 6 tosses
x = 2, n= 6

P(X = 2) = nC x px qn−x

2 6 −2
1 1
P(X = 2) = 6C 2
2 2
2 6 −2
6!  1   1  15
P(X = 2) =     =
2!4!  2   2  64

Example – 9 Find the probability that in five tosses of a fair die, ‘3’ will appear
(a) twice, (b) at most once, (c) at least two times.

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Sol.
Let the random variable ‘x’ be the number of times a 3 appears in five tosses of a fair
die. We have
1
Probability of appearance of ‘3’ in a single toss = p =
6

5
Probability of not appearance of ‘3’ in a single toss = q = 1 – p =
6
2 3
1 5
5 625
(a) P(3 occurs twice) = P(X = 2) = C 2     =
6 6 3888

(b) P(3 occurs at most once) = P(X  1) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1)

3125 3125 3125
P(x  1) = + =
7776 7776 3888
(c) P(3 occurs at least 2 times)
= P(X  2) = P(X = 2) + P(X = 3) + P(X = 4) + P(X = 5)
2 3 3 2 4 1 5 0
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
P(X  2) = 5C 2     + 5C 3     +5C 4     + 5C 5    
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

625 125 25 1
P(X  2) = + + +
3888 3888 7776 7776

763
P(X  2) =
3888
2.1.1. Some Properties of the Binomial Distribution
Mean/ Expected value μ = np
Variance σ2 = npq

Standard deviation σ= npq

Example - 10 If the probability of a defective bolt is 0.1, find (a) the mean, (b) the
standard deviation, for the number of defective bolts in a total of 400 bolts.
Sol.
Given,
Number of bolts under inspection, n = 400
probability of a bolt to be defective, p = 0.1
probability of a bolt to be non-defective, q = 0.9
(a) Mean  = np = (400) (0.1) = 40.
i.e. we can expect 40 bolts to be defective.
(b) Variance, 2 = npq = (400)(0.1 )(0.9) = 36.

Hence, the standard deviation  = 36 = 6.

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2.2. Poission’s Distribution –

Let X be a discrete random variable that can take on the values 0, 1, 2, . . . such that the
probability function of X is given by
 x e−
F(x) = P(X = x) = x = 0, 1, 2,
x!

where (>0) is a given positive constant. This distribution is called the Poisson distribution
and a random variable having this distribution is said to be Poisson distributed.
2.2.1. Some Properties of the Poisson Distribution
Mean/ Expected value =

Variance 2 = 

Standard deviation = 

From the table, we can see that expected value and variance is same for poission’s
distribution.
Example -11 If the probability that an individual will suffer a bad reaction from injection
of a given serum is 0.001, determine the probability that out of 2000 individuals,
(a) exactly 3 will suffer a bad reaction.
(b) more than 2, individuals will suffer a bad reaction.
Sol.
Let X denote the number of individuals suffering a bad reaction which is Poisson
distributed, i.e.,
Total number of individuals, n = 2000
Probability that an individual will suffer a bad reaction is = 0.001
 x e −
P(X = x) = where  = np = (2000)(0.001) = 2
x!

(a) Probability that exactly 3 will suffer a bad reaction

23 e−2
P(X = 3) = = 0.180
3!

(b) Probability that more than 2, individuals will suffer a bad reaction.
P(X > 2) = 1 – [P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)]
 20 e−2 21 e−2 22 e−2 
=1−  + + 
 0! 1! 2! 

P(X > 2) = 1 – 5e–2 = 0.323

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2.3. Geometric distribution –

Consider repeated trial of Bernoulli experiment with probability of success p, and failure
q=(1-p). if the experiment is repeated until success is not achieved, then the distribution
of variable is given by geometric distribution.
If experiment is performed “k” times then experiment must be failed in ‘K-1’ times.
Then probability of success is given by

P(X = k) = pqk −1

2.3.1. Some Properties of the Poisson Distribution

1
Mean/ Expected value =
p

q
Variance 2 =
p2

q
Standard deviation =
p2

Example -12 Find the probability that in successive tosses of a fair die, a 3 will come up
for the first time on the fifth toss.
Sol.
Given,
Number of toss before in which success achieved, k = 5
1
Probability of getting in a dice, p =
6

1 5
q=1–p=1- =
6 6
4
1 5
P(X = 5) =  
6 6

625
P(X = 5) =
7776
2.4. Normal Distribution:
One of the most important examples of a continuous probability distribution is the normal
distribution, some-times called the Gaussian distribution.
The density function for this distribution is given by
− ( x − )
2

1
e
2
f(x) = 2
–<x<
 2

where  and  are the mean and standard deviation, respectively.

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The corresponding distribution function is given by

2
− ( x − )
1 x 2 2
F(x) = P(X  x) =
 2
 −
e dx

If X has the distribution function given by above equation, we say that the random
variable X is normally distributed with mean  and variance 2.
2.4.1. Standard normal distribution –
If we replace μ =0 & σ =1 then normal distribution will reduce to standard normal
distribution.
In such cases the density function for Z will be reduced to
1 2
f(Z) = e− z 2

2

This is often referred to as the standard normal density function.

The corresponding distribution function is given by
1 z 1 1 z
 
2 2
F(z) = P(Z  z) = e−u 2du = + e−u 2du
2 − 2 2 0

Z be the standardized variable corresponding to X, i.e.

X−
Z=

A graph of the density function sometimes called the standard normal curve, is shown in
Figure. It is a bell shaped curve which is symmetric about mean and area under the curve
is equal to 1 unit.

In this graph we have indicated the areas within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations of the
mean (i.e., between z = – 1 and + 1, z = –2 and +2, z = –3 and +3) as equal,
respectively, to 68.27%, 95.45% and 99.73% of the total area, which is 1.
This means,

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P(– 1  Z  1) = 0.6827 = 68.27%

P(– 2  Z  2) = 0.9545 = 95.45%
P(– 3  Z  3) = 0.9973 = 99.73%
2.5. Exponential Distribution:
It is a continuous random variable whose density function is given by

e–x x0
f (x) = 
 0 x0

Its probability distribution function will be given as,

k

 e
– x
F(x) = P(x  k) = dx where k  0
0

F(x) = P(x  k) = 1 − e–k

1
mean,µ =

1
var iance, 2 =
2
1
s tan dard deviation,  =

2.6. Continuous Uniform Distribution
In general, we say that X is a uniform random variable on the interval (a. b) if its
probability density function is given by:
 1
 if     
f(x) =   − 

0 otherwise

The distribution given by above density function is uniform distribution.

Since f(x) is a constant, all values of x between α and  are equally likely (uniform).

Graphical Representation:

2.6.1. For Discrete Uniform Distribution:



Mean = E[x] =  x.f(x)dx



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
1
 −  
= xdx

+
=
2
+
E(x) =  =
2


 x f(x)dx
2
Variance = V(X) =


( − )2
2 = V(X) =
12

3. STATISTICS

(i) Introduction
Statistics deals with the method of collection, classification and analysis of numerical data for
drawing valid conclusion and making reasonable decision. It is a branch of mathematics which
gives us the tools to deal with large quantities of data.
In this method of calculation, we find a representative value for the given data. This value is
called the measure of central tendency.
(i) mean (arithmetic mean)
(ii) median
(iii) mode
These are the three measures of central tendency
Measure of central tendency indicates an average value of given data.
But, the measures of central tendency are not sufficient to give complete information about a
given data. Variability is another factor which is required to be studied under statistics.
Like ‘measures of central tendency’ a single number is assigned to describe variability of the
data. This single number is called a ‘measure of dispersion.
(i) Standard deviation
(ii) Variance
(iii) Coefficient of Variation
(iv) Range
‘Measures of Dispersion’ denotes the scattering of the data from a fixed point and that fixed
point is measure of central tendency. It tells about how data is closely packed around the
central mean value
3.1. Arithmetic Mean
3.1.1 Arithmetic Mean for Raw Data
Arithmetic mean is simply the average of the given data that is ratio of sum of the data
or observation divided by total number of observations.

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If X1, X2, X3…………Xn are the observations

Then arithmetic mean will be given as

X1 + X2 + X3 + ..... + Xn
mean =
n

It is denoted by X

Thus, it can also be written as,

x=
x
n

x - arithmetic mean

x - refers to the value of an observation

n - number of observations.
Example - 13 The number of mobiles sell by a shop owner in a day for last week is as
follows 4, 5, 15, 2,12,7, 11.
Calculate the average number mobile sale in a day.
Sol.

x = Total number of mobiles sell by a shop owner in last week

4 + 5 + 15 + 2 + 12 + 7 + 11 =56
Number of days in a week, n = 7

means, x =
 x = 56 = 8
n 7
So, on average shop owner sold 8 mobiles in a day last week.
3.1.2 The Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data (Frequency Distribution)
if x1, x2, …… xn are observations with respective frequencies f 1, f2… ….,fn then this means
observation x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2 times, and so on, then mean of the data will
be given as

f1X1 + f2 X2 + f3 X3 + ..... + fnXn

mean, X =
f1 + f2 + f3 + ....... + fn

This formula can be rewritten as

x=
 (f.x)
f
Example – 14 The marks obtained by 25 students of Class X of a certain school in a
Mathematics paper consisting of 100 marks are presented in table below. Find the mean
of the marks obtained by the students.

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Marks obtained Number of students

65 4

70 6

74 2

80 5

87 3

89 2

94 3

Sol.
Marks obtained, x Number of students, f f.x

65 4 260

70 6 420

74 2 148

80 5 400

87 3 261

89 2 178

94 3 282

 f = 25  f.x = 1949

Mean for group data is given as x =

 (f.x)
f
1949
X= = 77.96
25
Average marks obtained by students in class is 77.96.
3.2. Median-
Median is the positional average of the given data, i.e. of we arrange the data in ascending
or descending order than the middle term will be the median of the given set of data.
So we can say that,
For median, it is the 'number of values’ greater than the median which balances against
the ‘number of values’ of less than the median
3.2.1 Median for Raw Data
In general, if we have n values of x, they can be arranged in ascending order as:
x1 < x2 < …..< Xn

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Suppose n is odd, then

th
N+1
Median = value
2
That is if we arrange data in ascending order, then middle term will be median of the
given data.
However, if n is even, we have two middle points
th th
n n 
 2  value +  2 + 1 value
Median =    
2
That is if we arrange data in ascending order, then mean of the two middle term will be
median of the given data.
3.2.2. Median for Grouped Data
1. Identify the median class which contains the middle observation
  N + 1 th 
  observation 
 2  
 

This can be done by observing the first class in which the cumulation frequency is equal
to or more than
N+1
. Here. N =  f = total number of observations.
2
2. Calculate Median as follows:
 N + 1 

2  − (f + 1) 
Median = L +     h
 fm 
 
 
Where,
L = Lower limit of median class
N = Total number of data items =  f

f = Cumulative frequency of the class immediately preceding the median class

fm = Frequency of median class
h = difference between upper limit and lower limit of median class
Example – 15 in a class of 10 students, weights of the students (in kg) are 37, 41, 39,
32, 31, 57, 51, 47, 45, 40. Then median of the given weights is.
Sol.
Given weights are 37, 41, 39, 32, 31, 57, 51, 47, 45, 40
Arranging them in their ascending order
31, 32, 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 47, 51, 57
Since the number of observations, n =10, are even

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Thus,
th th
n n 
 2  value +  2 + 1 value
Median =    
2
th th
 10   10 
 2  value +  2 + 1  value
Median =    
2

5th value + 6th value

Median =
2
40 + 41
Median = = 40.5
2
Example - 16 A survey regarding the heights (in cm) of 51 girls of Class X of a school
was conducted and the following data was obtained:
Height interval(in cm) No of girls

Below 140 4

140 – 145 7

145- 150 18

150 - 155 11

155-160 6

160 -165 5

Find median-
Sol.
Height interval (L -U) No of girls(frequency) Cumulative frequency

Below 140 4 4

140 – 145 7 11

145- 150 18 29

150 – 155 11 40

155-160 6 46

160 -165 5 51

Here, N = 51,
N + 1 51 + 1
Hence, = = 26
2 2

26 comes in the range of 145 – 150 (29 > 26)

So L = 145
f = 11, fm = 18

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h=5
so

 N + 1 
  − (f + 1) 
2 
Median = L +    h
 fm 
 
 

  51 + 1  
  − (11 + 1) 
2 
Median = 145 +    5
 18 
 
 

Meadian = 148.88
That means, 50% of the student’s height is less than 148.88 and 50% of the student’s
height is higher than 148.88m.
3.3. Mode –
Mode is defined as the value of the variable which occurs most frequently i.e. the value
of maximum frequency.
3.3.1 Mode for Raw Data
In a raw data, most frequently occurring data is mode of that data.
Suppose in a given set of data,
X1 occurs n1 times, X2 occurs n2 times, X3 occurs n3 times………, Xn occurs nn
And n1 > n2 > n3 >………> nn
Then occurrence of X1 is highest, thus mode of the given data will be X1.
If there is more than one data which having same & highest frequency, then each of them
is a mode.
Thus, we have Unimodal (single mode), Bimodal (two modes) and Trimodal (three
modes) data sets.
Example - 16
Find the mode of the data set: 45, 45, 65, 55, 45, 55, 50.
Solution:
Arrange in ascending order: 45, 45, 45, 50, 55, 55, 65

Data frequency

45 3

50 1

55 2

65 1

Here, 45 coming most number of time i.e. 3

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Hence, mode of the given data = 45

3.3.2 Mode for Grouped Data
Mode is that value of x for which the frequency is maximum.
In a grouped frequency distribution, it is not possible to determine the mode by looking
at the frequencies. Here, we can only locate a class with the maximum frequency, called
the modal class.
The mode is a value inside the modal class, and is given by the formula:
f1 − f0
Mode = L + h
2f1 − f0 − f2

Where,
L = Lower limit of the modal class
f0 = Largest frequency (frequency of Modal Class)
f1 = Largest Frequency in the class preceding the modal class
f2 = Frequency of the class succeeding to the modal class
h = Width of the modal class (interval)
Example: 17 A survey conducted on 20 households in a locality by a group of students
resulted in the following frequency table for the number of family members in a
household.
Family size No of family

1-3 7

3-5 8

5-7 2

7-9 2

9 - 11 1

Sol.
Here the maximum class frequency is 8, and the class corresponding to this frequency is
3 – 5. So, the modal class is 3 – 5.
modal class = 3 – 5,
lower limit (l) of modal class = 3,
class size (h) = 5 -3 = 2
frequency (f1) of the modal class = 8,
frequency (f0) of class preceding the modal class = 7,
frequency (f2) of class succeeding the modal class = 2.
Now, let us substitute these values in the formula:
f1 − f0
Mode = L + h
2f1 − f0 − f2

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8−7
Mode = 3 + 2
28 −7 −2
Mode = 3.2857
3.4. Properties of Mean, Mode & Median -
In symmetrical distribution, mean, mode & median coincides, but for an unsymmetrical
distribution all are different and related by an empirical formula
Empirical mode = 3 median –2 mean
3.5. Skewness - skewness measure the degree of asymmetry.
There are three types of frequency distributions.
Depending upon the asymmetry, distribution curve can be of 3 types.
(i) Positively skewed distribution
(ii) Symmetric distribution
(iii) Negatively skewed distribution
In positively skewed distribution, frequency curve has longer tail to the right i.e. mean is
to the right of the mode.
Mode  Median  Mean

In negatively skewed distribution, frequency curve has longer tail to the left i.e. mean is
to the left of the mode.
Mean  Median  Mode

In symmetric distribution, mean, mode & median coincides.

Mean = Median = Mode

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3.6. Standard Deviation and Variance

Standard Deviation is a measure of dispersion or variation amongst data. Deviation of an
observation x from a fixed value ‘a’ is the difference (x – a) & the absolute values of these
differences are the mean deviation.
But there is possibility that some dispersion comes out positive and some comes out
negative, which may cancel each other and results in zero deviation (zero error).
So to eliminate this, instead of calculating mean deviation, we may square each deviation
and obtain the arithmetic mean of squared deviations. This gives us the 'variance' of the
values. The positive square root of the variance is called the 'Standard Deviation' of the
given values.
If the values tend to be concentrated near the mean, the variance is small; while if the
values tend to be distributed far from the mean, the variance is large. The situation is
indicated graphically in Figure. For the case of two continuous distributions having the
same mean .

Comparison of standard deviation of two continuous graph

3.6.1. Standard Deviation for Raw Data
Suppose x1, x2,…..xn are n values of the x,
Then, arithmetic mean will be given as

x=
x i

then, x1 − x, x2 − x, x3 − x....xn − x are the deviations of the values of x from x .

Then Variance of these data will be given as

2

2
=
 (x i − x)
n
It can be shown that

 (x )
2
 (x
2
2 i − x) 2 i + x2 − 2xix
 =  =
n n

2 =
x i
2

+
x 2

−
 2x x i

n n n
Since Xi is a constant value,
So,

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x 2

= x2 
1 n
= x2 = x2
n n n

 2xx i
= 2x
xi
= 2x  x = 2x 2
n n
By putting these values in the above equation

2 =
x i
2

+ x2 − 2x2
n
1 2
2 =
n
x i
2
−x

2
 (x − x) 1 2
2
=
n
i
=
n
x i
2
−x

Which can also be written as

n xi2 − ( xi )2
2 =
n2
The above expression represents the variance whereas square root of the variance will
give the standard deviation.
Variance is represented by σ2 whereas standard deviation is represented by σ.

=+
 (x i − x)2
=
x i
2
− x2
=
n xi2 − ( xi )2
n n n2
Example - 18 calculate the mean and standard deviation for the following:
size 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Sol.

Size of item x X2
6 36
7 49
8 64
9 81
10 100
11 121
12 144
Σx = 63 Σx = 595
2

∴ mean =
 x = 63 = 9
n 7

Standard deviation,  = +
 (x i − x)2
=
x i
2
− x2
=
n xi2 − ( xi )2
n n n2

=
x i
2
− x2
=
595 − 92
n 7

 = 8.569

var iance = 2 = 73.428

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3.6.2. Standard Deviation for Grouped Data

Standard deviation & variance can be explained from below example
Example – 19
Daily wages Number of men

60 - 65 3

65 - 70 5

70 – 75 4

75 - 80 8

80 – 85 12

85 - 90 6

90 - 95 2

95 - 100 1

Sol.
Daily wages Mid values, x Number of men, f f  x f  x2

60 - 65 62.5 3 187.5 11718.75

65 - 70 67.5 5 337.5 22781.25

70 – 75 72.5 4 290 21025

75 - 80 77.5 8 620 48050

80 – 85 82.5 12 990 81675

85 - 90 87.5 6 525 45937.5

90 - 95 92.5 2 185 17112.5

95 - 100 97.5 1 97.5 9506.25

f = 41  fx = 3232.5  fx2 = 257806.25

x=  fx = 3232.5 = 78.841
f 41

n fixi2 − (  fi xi )
2
 fx 2

s tan dard deviation,  = i

n
i
−x = 2

n2
where n = f

41  257806.25 − (3232.5 )
2

=
412

 = 8.484
Variance = σ2 = 71.98

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3.6.3 Standard deviation of the combination of two groups –

If m1, σ1 are the mean & standard deviation of a sample size of n1 and m2, σ2 are the mean
& standard deviation of a sample size of n 2
Then, mean, m & standard deviation, σ of combined sample size n 1 + n2 I given by

(n
1 + n2 ) 2 = n112 + n2 22 + n1D12 + n2D22

where,D1 = m1 − m

D2 = m2 − m

m is mean of the combined data which can be calculated as

n1x1 + n2 x2
mean,m = x =
n1 + n2

3.7. Coefficient of Variation

The ratio of standard deviation to mean is known as coefficient of variation.
The standard deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion and hence can not be used
for comparing variability of 2 data sets with different means. Thus, a new variable is
introduced which can compare the variation between the two groups with different mean.
Therefore, such comparisons are done by using a relative measure of dispersion called
coefficient of variation (CV).

Coefficient of var iation, CV =


where  is the standard deviation and μ is the mean of the data set.
CV is often represented as a percentage,

CV% =  100


When comparing data sets, the data set with larger value of CV% is more variable (less
consistent) as compared to a data set with lesser value of CV%.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A box contains 2 red and 3 blue marbles. Find the probability that if two marbles are drawn at
random (without replacement), (a) both are blue, (b) both are red, (c) one is red and one is
blue.
Ans. 3/10, 1/10, 3/5
2. If at least one child in a family with 2 children is a boy, what is the probability that both children
are boys?
Ans. 1/3
3. A box contains 3 blue and 2 red marbles while another box contains 2 blue and 5 red marbles.
A marble drawn at random from one of the boxes turns out to be blue. What is the probability
that it came from the first box?
Ans. 21/31
4. Three students A, B , C write an entrance examination & their chances of clearing the exam is
1/2, 1/3, 1/4 respectively. Find the probability that atleast one of them passes.
Ans. ¾
5. A speaks the truth in 75% cases & B speaks the truth in 80% of the cases. In what percentage
of cases, they are likely to contradict each other in stating the same fact.
Ans. 0.35
6. In a bolt factory, machine A, B, C manufactures 25%, 35%, 40% of the total bolt out of which
5%, 4%, 2% are defective respectively from each machine. A bolt is drawn at random from the
product and is found to be defective. What are the probability that it was manufactured by
(a) Machine A, (b) machine B, (c) Machine C
Ans. 25/69, 28/69, 20/69
7. From 20 tickets marked from 1 to 20, one ticket is drawn at random. Find the probability that it
is marked with a multiple of 3 or 5.
Ans. 0.45
8. Ten percent of the tools produced in a certain manufacturing process turn out to be defective.
Find the probability that in a sample of 10 tools chosen at random, exactly 2 will be defective
Ans. 0.1937
9. An urn holds 5 white and 3 black marbles. If 2 marbles are to be drawn at random without
replacement and X denotes the number of white marbles, find the probability distribution for X.
Ans.

X 0 1 2
F(x) 3/28 15/28 5/14
−2 pro. 1 3

10. A random variable X is defined by X =  3 pro. 1 2 .

 1 pro. 1 6

Find. (a) E(X), (b) E(2X + 5). (c) E(X2).

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Ans. 1, 7, 6

3x2 0  x 1
11. Let X be a random variable defined by the density function f(x) = 
 0 otherwise
Find (a) E(X), (b) E(3X – 2), (C) E(X2).
Ans. 0.75, 0.25, 0.6
12. Find the variance & the standard deviation of the number of points that will come up on a single
toss of a fair die.
35
Ans. 35/12,
12
13. If a random variable X is such that
E[(X – 1 )2] = 10, E[X – 2)2] = 6
Find, (a) E(X), (b) Var(X), (c) X.
15
Ans. 7/2, 15/4,
2
14. A random variable X has E(X) = 2, E(X2) = 8.
Find (a) Var(X), (b)X.
Ans. 4, 2
15. The crushing strength of 8 cement concrete experimental blocks, in metric tonnes per sq. cm.,
was 4.8, 4.2, 5.1, 3.8, 4.4, 4.7, 4.1 and 4.5. Find the mean crushing strength and the standard
deviation.
Ans. 4.45, 0.39
16. The mean of five items of an observation is 4 and the variance is 5.2. If three of the items are
1, 2 and 6, then find the other two.
Ans. 4, 7
17. For the distribution
X: 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
f: 18 15 34 47 68 90 80 62 35 27 11
find the mean, median, variance and the standard deviation.
Ans. 10.04, 10.13, 5.54, 2.35
18. The following table shows the marks obtained by 100 candidates in an examination. Calculate
the mean, median and standard deviation:

Marks obtained No of candidates

1 - 10 3
11 – 20 16
21 – 30 26
31 - 40 31
41 – 50 16
51 - 60 8

Ans. 32, 32.6, 12.4

****

32