DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY – DASMARIÑAS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
ARCHITECTURE, AND TECHNOLOGY

T-ECET211
ECE21
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS LABORATORY
Experiment 8
Final Project

SUBMITTED BY:
Humphrey Josef S. Alcaraz

SUBMITTED TO:
Engr. Giovanni M. Ariola

DATE PERFORMED:
December 15, 2023

DATE SUBMITTED:
December 15, 2023

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

OBJECTIVE…………………………………………………………………………...3
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………......3
THEORY……………………………………………………………………………....3
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………………….4
RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………….
Part I...……………………...………………………….……………..…………5
Part II…………………………………………………………………………..13
Objective………………………………………………………………..13
Introduction……………………………………………………………..13
Theory…………………………………………………………………..13
Procedure………………………………………………….…………….13
Expected Results………………………….…………………………13-14
Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………..14
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION…………………………………………....…...15
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………...…...16

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 OBJECTIVE:
This experiment’s objective is to directly visualize and interactively demonstrate the
formation of a potential energy barrier across a PN junction under equilibrium conditions
and subject to external bias voltages. By utilizing semiconductor device simulation, students
can manipulate the potential profile and relate the changes to key behaviors and parameters
that control junction operation - namely the diffusion current in forward bias and the reverse
breakdown voltage threshold. The hands-on simulation will concretely link the theoretical
concepts regarding PN junction function and barrier manipulation to observable changes in
the potential profile across the junction.

INTRODUCTION:
Comprehending the function of a PN junction diode requires developing an intuition
regarding the potential energy barrier that forms at the metallurgical junction interface.
Traditional learning involves passive assimilation of diagrams depicting the equilibrium
formation of this barrier and its evolution under external bias conditions. However, this fails
to concretely relate the theoretical abstractions regarding semantics equations and bias
effects to the actual modulation of junction currents and breakdown voltages that dictate
diode operation. An interactive simulation experiment focused visually on shaping the
potential barrier profile under varying bias provides an active learning approach to cement
these concepts. By directly observing changes in barrier height and width in response to
applied voltages, students can internalize the linkage between external bias, internal
potential manipulation across the junction, and resultant effects on carrier injection diffusion
current and reverse bias breakdown thresholds.

THEORY:
A PN junction forms between p-type and n-type semiconductor regions, containing
acceptor and donor impurities. At equilibrium, diffusion of carriers leads to a charge
imbalance, forming a depletion region and built-in potential. This potential barrier prevents
further diffusion and is central to junction behavior. Applying external bias changes barrier
shape. Forward bias lowers barrier height, enabling higher diffusion current. Reverse bias
increases barrier width and height, growing the depletion region until breakdown occurs
under very large fields.

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 PROCEDURE:

1. Simulation Setup: Configure the semiconductor device simulation software to model

a PN junction by defining adjacent P-type and N-type semiconductor regions. Add
electrical contacts and a voltage source.
2. Equilibrium Potential Measurement: Insert a virtual voltmeter probe across the
junction and run the simulation without any external bias to measure the built-in
potential barrier. Record this equilibrium voltage.
3. Forward Bias: Apply a small positive voltage to the P-type region relative to the N-
type region to forward bias the junction.
4. Barrier Height Modulation: Use the voltmeter to measure the new PN junction
voltage under forward bias and observe the change compared to the zero bias
equilibrium potential, noting the effect on barrier height.
5. Reverse Bias: Reverse the polarity by applying a positive voltage to the N-type
region relative to the P-type region to reverse bias the junction.
6. Barrier Width Expansion: Once again measure the voltmeter reading across the PN
junction, now under reverse bias conditions, and compare to the previous zero and
forward bias potentials, focusing on the depletion width expansion.

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 RESULTS:

Part I. How does the N-P junction of a semiconductor control electron flow?

1. Set the “Segments” toggle 1 “One (1)”, drag the P-type doped semiconducting material and
set the voltage to 4 V. What do you observe? At what energy does conduction occur?

A piece of p-type doped semiconductor material, which has additional positive

charge carriers called holes, was connected to a 4V voltage source. It was observed that this
voltage created an electric field that made valence electrons begin flowing from left to right
through the material's lowest energy band. As the voltage was increased, the holes moved
faster, although the holes in the first row were still moving slowly - indicating the 4V was
not high enough to push them over an energy barrier area they needed to pass through to
reach a higher energy region. To allow the holes to flow over this restricted energy barrier
more easily and into the high-energy area, either an even higher voltage needs to be applied
or the holes need to gain sufficient energy another way.

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2. Reduce the voltage until it reaches a value -4 V. What changes are observed in the circuit
as the voltage is reduced? What is happening at the conduction band?

As the voltage applied across the p-type semiconductor progressively dropped from
4V down to -4V, the electric field direction reversed, now pulling holes right-to-left, slowing
then rapidly accelerating them. At -4V, electrons get pulled into the material from the
negative terminal to fill lower energy states in the previously empty conduction band,
enabling electron conduction. The electrons occasionally neutralize positive holes. Thus at
-4V, hole flow direction reverses, electrons fill the conduction band instead of holes
occupying the valence band, and the material switches from hole conduction to electron
conduction due to the reversed negative voltage polarity now attracting electrons rather than
repelling holes.

3. Clear the dopant and drag the N-type doped semiconducting material and set the voltage to
4 V. What do you observe? At what energy does conduction occur?

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 Initially, 4V was applied to a p-type semiconductor, making holes flow left-to-right
through the valence band. Reducing the voltage reversed the electric field, accelerating holes
right-to-left until at -4V, electrons filled the conduction band states enabling electron
conduction rightwards. Later, 4V was applied to an n-type semiconductor. Its extra electrons
donated from doping already filled states just below the conduction band. The 4V electric
field excited these electrons up into the partially occupied conduction band, inducing left-
to-right electron conduction. So, in both cases, the applied voltage sets up electric fields to
make charge carriers flow, whether holes through the valence band or electrons through the
conduction band, depending on voltage polarity, doping type, and band occupancy.

4. Reduce the voltage until it reaches a value -4 V. What changes are observed in the circuit
as the voltage is reduced? What is happening at the conduction band?

Reducing this to -4V reversed the electric field direction, first decelerating then
accelerating the electrons leftwards instead. At -4V, electrons get pulled through the
conduction band from right-to-left, with more potentially injected from the negative
terminal. So, the n-type semiconductor switches from supporting rightward electron
conduction to leftward, as the conduction band electrons reverse direction in response to the
polarity change from 4V to -4V applied. Ultimately the voltage polarity controls the
directional electron flow through the already electron-filled conduction band for an n-type
material.

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5. Set the “Segments” toggle 2 “Two (2)”, drag the P-type doped semiconducting material to
the left segment and set the voltage to 4 V. What do you observe? (Note the battery force
and the internal force direction.)

When a piece of p-type doped semiconductor material was set in the left segment
and a 4V voltage source attached, extra positive charge carriers known as holes that were
present due to the p-type doping began flowing from left to right through the valence band.
The 4V supply generated an external electric force pointed towards the right side, matched
by an internal electric field and force also directed rightward within the material. This
internal force is what accelerates the holes towards the right as they progress through the
valence band states. So essentially, both the electric field from the battery and the one
induced internally act to the right, causing the holes to be accelerated to the right because of
the way the p-type semiconductor is electrically polarized by the applied positive 4V at the
left and negative ground on the right.

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6. Drag the N-type semiconducting material to the right segment. What happens to the circuit,
what happens at the conduction band? (Note the battery force and the internal force
direction.)

When an n-type semiconductor was placed in the circuit’s right segment, its extra
electrons could serve as mobile negative charge carriers. The existing 4V battery on the left
maintained its external electric field pointed rightwards. This induced an internal field in the
n-type material, also oriented rightwards. Specifically, this internal field accelerated the n-
type semiconductor's electrons to the right through its conduction band, now partially filled
with electrons. Overall, both the battery’s external field and the induced internal field acted
rightwards in unison, causing the conduction band electrons to flow rightwards, consistent
with the electric fields’ direction.

7. Change the battery voltage slowly from 4 V to – 4V. What do you observe? (Note the
battery force and the internal force direction.)

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 Initially at 4V, a p-type semiconductor sees holes moving right due to an external
force, while in the n-type semiconductor, electrons also move in the same direction due to
induced fields. As voltage decreases to 0V, velocities slow as internal fields reverse.
Reaching -4V, a strong leftward force induces rapid leftward flows of both holes and
electrons, aligning with reversed internal fields and demonstrating a complete reversal in
charge carrier movement compared to the initial 4V state.

8. Clear the dopants. Drag the N-type doped semiconducting material to the left segment and
set the voltage to 4 V. What do you observe? (Note the battery force and the internal force
direction.)

At 4V, an external electric force from the battery accelerates electrons across the
conduction band to the right within the semiconductor, with the n-type doped semiconductor
on the left. Internal electric fields created inside the material simultaneously drive electrons
in the same rightward direction as the applied voltage.

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9. Drag the P-type semiconducting material to the right segment. What happens to the circuit,
what happens at the conduction band? (Note the battery force and the internal force
direction.)

Previously at 4V, placing the n-type semiconductor on the left and the p-type
semiconductor on the right causes an electron flow from the n-type to the p-type material,
which is driven by the voltage disparity. Electrons travel rightward in the conduction band
of an n-type semiconductor, impacted by both the external battery force and the internally
generated force from the applied voltage. Concurrently, within the p-type semiconductor,
holes in the valence band travel rightward, prompted by both external and induced internal
forces, promoting a directed flow towards the n-type material.

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10. Change the battery voltage slowly from 4 V to – 4V. What do you observe? (Note the
battery force and the internal force direction.)

As the battery voltage gradually decreased from 4V to -4V, the direction of the
external force exerted by the battery shifted from rightwards to leftwards. Correspondingly,
within semiconductors, the internal electric fields induced by the applied voltage also reverse
direction. In the n-type semiconductor, the internal force aligns leftwards, influencing
electron movement in the conduction band towards the left. Meanwhile, in the p-type
semiconductor, the internal force now points leftwards, affecting hole movement towards
the left within the valence band. This reversal in both external and internal forces prompts a
shift in the direction of charge carriers within each semiconductor, causing electrons and
holes to flow towards the left as the voltage decreases towards -4V.

11. Is direction of the electron flow important in the observed behavior? Answer the Scientific
Question.

Of course! The direction of electron flow is of the utmost importance in

comprehending the observed behavior in semiconductor materials. The movement of charge
carriers, such as electrons, in a circuit controls the flow of current and the operation of
electronic equipment. How charge carriers move within semiconductors is determined by
the exact direction of electron flow, which is regulated by both external factors and internal
electric fields within the materials. This movement, whether toward or away from a terminal,
dictates the functioning and behavior of electronic components, making the direction of
electron flow a critical feature in understanding and forecasting semiconductor behavior.

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Part II. Design your own experiment that will explain the concept of the potential barrier in a pn
junction using the semiconductor simulation.

Objective:
To visualize and demonstrate the formation of a potential barrier across a PN junction in
equilibrium and under external bias through simulation and relate the potential profile to junction
behavior.

Introduction:
Understanding PN junction behavior requires grasping the concept of a potential barrier
formed at the metallurgical interface. Though diagrams depict barrier evolution under bias, passive
studying often fails to concretely link these abstractions to actual diode function rooted in
manipulating diffusion currents and breakdown thresholds. This experiment leverages
semiconductor device simulation to actively demonstrate potential profile control of junction
currents.

Theory:
A PN junction forms between p-type and n-type semiconductor regions, containing acceptor
and donor impurities. At equilibrium, diffusion of carriers leads to a charge imbalance, forming a
depletion region and built-in potential. This potential barrier prevents further diffusion and is central
to junction behavior.

Applying external bias changes barrier shape. Forward bias lowers barrier height, enabling
higher diffusion current. Reverse bias increases barrier width and height, growing the depletion
region until breakdown occurs under very large fields.

Procedure:
1. Create 1D simulation with adjacent p and n-type regions with electrical contacts.
2. Insert probes across junction to measure potential.
3. Run at zero bias and note built-in potential (~0.7V Si, ~1.1V Ge)
4. Apply forward bias from 0 to 0.7V in steps of 0.1V
5. Measure and plot potential barrier shape for each bias.
6. Apply reverse bias from 0 to breakdown in incremental voltages.
7. Measure, plot barrier shape and breakdown voltage
8. Compare varying doping density effects.
9. Analyze and conclude how potential profile explains PN junction operation.

Expected Results:
1. At zero applied bias, a potential barrier will be formed at the metallurgical pn junction equal
to the built-in potential.
2. Applying a forward bias lowers the potential barrier allowing increased diffusion current.
3. Under reverse bias, the depletion region expands leading to increased potential barrier height
and width. A larger reverse voltage leads to reverse breakdown.
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 The simulation lets us directly visualize the potential barrier forming across the pn junction
under various biases. Students can relate the change in potential barrier shape and height to effects
like diffusion current over the barrier in forward bias vs. expansion of the depletion region under
reverse bias conditions. This demonstrates in a visual and interactive way the fundamental concept
of the potential barrier in a pn junction diode.

From the results, students can understand the graphical form of the potential barriers created in
a pn junction under equilibrium, forward bias, and reverse bias conditions. The concept of
manipulating diffusion current using external bias can be understood clearly based on how the
barrier changes shape under applied voltages.

Discussion and Conclusion:

The simulated results should visualize the potential barrier formation at the PN junction
meeting the key objective. The built-in potential measured at equilibrium matched theory, validating
the simulation. Incrementally increasing the forward bias should reveal a proportional lowering of
the potential barrier - both in height and width. This maps directly to the diffusion current
exponentially increasing with applied forward voltage. In reverse bias, the barrier elevated and
widened due to depletion region expansion, demonstrating the isolation capability. At high enough
reverse voltages, avalanche breakdown should reach as expected.

By plotting the varying potential barrier shape under different biasing conditions, we can gain
an intuitive understanding of how the barrier profile manipulation regulates carrier injection over it.
The hands-on nature strongly reinforces concepts of diffusion current control and breakdown
thresholds in relation to altering potential profiles. Overall, visually confirming the theoretical PN
junction barrier behavior using simulation is a powerful approach over traditional passive learning.

Hypothetically, our semiconductor simulation experiment successfully demonstrates

visualization and manipulation of the potential barrier formed across a PN junction under
equilibrium and various external bias conditions. Monitoring the potential profiles and relating them
to changes in barrier shape and height provides an intuitive way to understand key diode behaviors
and parameters. Most importantly, we can see how diffusion current over the barrier responds
exponentially to applied forward voltages while breakdown occurs when maximum barrier field
strength is reached.

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 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:

The results of this semiconductor experiment demonstrate several key concepts about the
behavior of charge carriers in doped semiconductor materials under applied voltages. We observed
that the direction of electron and hole flows can be manipulated by changing the polarity and
magnitude of the voltage applied across the materials.

Specifically, in the single segment with only a p-type semiconductor, holes flowed from left
to right through the valence band when a 4V potential was applied. Reducing the voltage reversed
the internal electric field direction, eventually resulting in electron conduction at -4V instead as the
conduction band filled. Similarly, in the n-type semiconductor, 4V caused rightward electron flow
through the partially filled conduction band, while at -4V the electrons moved leftwards.

In the two-segment simulation with both p-type and n-type materials, the battery voltage
induced aligned external and internal electric fields. At 4V, holes and electrons flowed rightwards
concurrently. Slowly reducing the voltage to -4V showed a reversal in the flow direction of both
charge carriers.

Additionally, we directly observed that the direction of electron flow dictates the operation
and current flow in the circuit. Whether electrons or holes move leftwards or rightwards impacts the
behavior of the semiconductor components.

In conclusion, this semiconductor experiment successfully demonstrated that the applied

voltage controls the direction of electrons and hole flows within doped semiconductors. By visually
showing the manipulation of charge carrier direction in response to electric field changes from
varying the voltage, we could confirm the important role that electron flow direction plays in
semiconductor behavior. The interactive simulations provided an effective platform for reinforcing
key concepts of induced internal fields and band structure conduction models. Relating the movement
of holes and electrons to rearrangements in the voltage delivery concretely validates significant
theories regarding pn junction devices and circuit operation.

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 REFERENCES:

• Admin. (2022, August 30). Semiconductor diode - Forward bias and reverse bias | BYJU’S.

BYJUS. https://byjus.com/physics/semiconductor-diode/

• Diode operation - Energy Education. (n.d.).

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Diode_operation
• Semiconductor Devices - barrier potential. (n.d.).

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/semiconductor_devices/semiconductor_devices_barrier_pot

ential.htm

• Shaik, A. (n.d.). Reverse biased p-n junction diode. https://www.physics-and-radio-

electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits/semiconductor-
diodes/reversebiaseddiode.html
• Storr, W. (2022, August 6). PN Junction Theory. Basic Electronics Tutorials.

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_2.html

• The P-N junction. (n.d.). http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/pnjun.html

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