MTH402

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: MTH 402
COURSE TITLE: GENERAL TOPOLOGY II

UNIT 1: TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Objectives 2
3 Basic Concepts 2
3.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 Basis for Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.1 The Metric Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.2 Product Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.3 The Subspace Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Closed Sets and Limit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.1 Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.2 Closure and Interior of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.3 Limit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Conclusion 13
5 Summary 13
6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAS) 15
1 INTRODUCTION
In your study of metric spaces, you defined a number of key ideas like, limit point, closure of
a set, etc. In each case, the definition rests on the notion of a neighbourhood, or, what amounts
to the same thing, the notion of an open set. You in turn defined the notions (neighborhood and
open set) by using the metric (or distance) in the given space. However, instead of introducing
a metric in a given set X, you can go about things differently, by specifying a system of open
sets in X with suitable properties. This approach leads to the introduction of the notion of
1
2 Objectives TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
a topological space. Metric spaces are topological spaces of a rather special (although very
important) kind.
2 Objectives.
At the end of this unit, you shall be:
(i) able to define a topological space.
(ii) conversant with some important topological notions.
3 Basic Concepts.
3.1 Definitions and Examples
Definition 3.1 Let X be a set. A topology on X is a collection τ of subsets of X, satisfying the

following properties:
1. The set X itself and the empty set are in τ ;

[
2. Arbitrary unions Ui of elements of τ are in τ.
i
n
\
3. Finite intersections Uk of elements of τ are in τ.
k=1
Definition 3.2 By a topological space is meant a pair (X, τ ), consisting of a set X and a
topology τ defined on X.
Just as a metric space is a pair consisting of a set X and a metric defined on X, so a topo-
logical space is a pair consisting of a set X and a topology defined on X. Thus to specify a
topological space, you must specify both a set X and a topology on X. You can equip one
and the same set with various different topologies, thereby defining various different topolog-
ical spaces. In the sequel, you shall omit τ and call only X a topological space provided no
confusion arise.
Definition 3.3 The elements of the topology τ on X are called open sets.
Example 3.1 (Sierpinski topology) Let X = {a, b.c} you can define many topologies on X.
For example, you can define
τs = { , X, {b}, {a, b}, {b,

c}}.
Then τs is a topology on X called the sierpinski topology.

2
3.1 Definitions and Examples TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Example 3.2 (The Discrete topology). If X is a set, take τd to be the P (X ), the power set of
X. τd is clearly a topology on X, it is called the discrete topology. In the discrete topology, all
subsets of X are open. It is the largest topology on X
Example 3.3 (The Indiscrete topology). Let X be a set, and let τt = { , X }. Then τt is
clearly a topology on X called the indiscrete or trivial topology. It is the smallest topology on
X and (X, τt ) is called the topological space of coalesced points. This is mainly of academic
interest.
Example 3.4 (Finite complement topology). Let X be a set, and let τf be the collection of all
subsets U of X such that X r U is either finite or X, i.e., τf is the collection of the form
τf := {U X : either X r U is finite or X r U = X }.
Then τf is a topology of X called the finite complement topology.
Example 3.5 Let X be a set, and let τc be the collection of subsets U of X such that X r U is
either countable or is X, i.e., τc is a collection of the form
τc := {U X : either X r U is at most countable or X r U = X }
Then τc is a topology on X.
Definition 3.4 Let τ1 and τ2 be two topologies on X. Then τ1 is said to be finer than τ2 (i.e., τ2
is coarser than τ1 ) if τ1 τ2 .
According to definition (3.4) you can observe that if τ is any topology on X, then
τt τ τd
where τd and τt are as defined in examples (3.2) and (3.3).

\
Theorem 3.1 The intersection τ = τα of topologies {τα ∆ on X is itself a topology in X
}α
α
(where ∆ is some indexing set.)
Proof. You are required to verify the three(3) axioms of a topology of X for
\
τ= τα .
α ∆
given that {τα }α ∆ is family of topologies on X.

So proceed as follows:
1. Since τα is a topology on X for each α ∆, the and X are in each τα , so that

\
,X τα =:
τ
α ∆
3
3.2 Basis for Topology TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
2. Let {Ui }i I be a collection of elements of τ, where I is some indexing set. Let

[
U= Ui .
i I
You have to show that U τ.

But you already have that for each i I[
, Ui τ implies that Ui τα for fixed α
∆. Since τα is a topology on X, U = Ui τα for α ∆. Therefore, by taking
i I
intersections over α ∆, you have
[ \
U= Ui τα =: τ
i I α ∆
i.e., U τ.
3. To verify axiom (3) it is enough to do it for two sets U1 and U2 in τ. The results follows
by induction on n.
Therefore, take two sets U1 and U2 in τ and let
U = U1 U2 .
You have to show that U τ. But U1 , U2 τ implies that U1 , U2 τα for each α ∆.

Thus U = U1 U2 τα since each τα , α ∆ is a topology on X. Hence,
\
U = U1 U2 τα =: τ
α ∆
i.e., U τ. and the proof is complete.
3.2 Basis for Topology
For each examples in the preceeding section, you were able to specify the topology by describ-
ing the entire collection τ of open sets. This is usually difficult in general. In most cases, you
will need to specify instead a smaller collection of subsets of X and then define the topology in
terms of this collection.
Definition 3.5 (Basis) Let X be a set. A basis for a topology on X is a collection B of subsets
of X (called basis elements) such that
1. For each x X, there exists B B such that x B, or equivalently X = B B B.
2. If x X and B1 , B2 B such that x B1 B2 , there exists B3 B such that

x B3 B1 B2 .
Definition 3.6 (Topology generated by a Basis). If B satisfies the above two conditions, then
we define the topology τ generated by B as follows:
A subset U of X is in τ (i.e., U is open) if for each x U, there exists a basis element B B
such that
x B U.
That is to say that τ is a collection of the form
4
τ := {U X :U= or if x U, there exists B B such that x B U}
You can easily verify that τ is a topology on X. Note that each basis element is open.
Example 3.6 Let B = {(a, b) : a, b R, a < b}. Then B is a basis for a topology on R called
the standard or euclidean topology on R.
Example 3.7 Let B0 = {[a, b) : a, b R, a < b}. Then B0 is a basis for a topology on R called
the lower limit topology on R.
Example 3.8 Let B = {{x} : x X }. Then B is a basis for the discrete topology on X.
Proposition 3.1 Let X be a set, and let B be a basis for a topology τ on X. Then τ equals the
collection of all unions of elements of B.
Proof. elements of B. Then for each i

Let (Bi )i I be a collection of [ I , Bi τ (because
each Bi is open). Since τ is a topology, Bi τ.
i I
Conversely, let U τ, and let x U. B is a basis for τ implies there exist Bx B such that
x Bx U, this implies that
[ [
U= {x} Bx U.
x U x U
[
Thus U = Bx , so that U is a union of elements of B
x U
Example 3.9 Let X = {a, b, c, d, e, f }

and
τ 0 := {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e,

f }}.
Then B = {{a}, {c, d}, {b, c, d, e, f }} is a basis for τ 0 as B τ 0 and every element of τ 0 can
be expressed as a union of elements of B.
Note the τ 0 itself is also a basis for τ 0

So far, you have seen that when you are given a basis, you can define a topology. But
the following example tells you that you have to be very careful when you have an arbitrary
collectiion of subsets of a set X.
Example 3.10 Let X = {a, b, c} and B = {{a}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}}. Then B is not a
basis for any topology on X. To see this, suppose that B is a basis for some topology τ. Then τ
consists of all unions of sets in B; that is,
τ = {X, , {a}, {c}, {a, c}, {a, b},

{b, c}}.
However, τ is not a topology since {a, b} {b, c} = {b} 6 τ. So τ does not have property
(3) of Definition 3.1. This is a contradiction, and so your supposition is false. Thus B is not a
basis for any topology on X.
5
In view of the above example, the question of interest now is; Under what conditions is
of a collection C of subsets of X a basis for a topology on X ? The answer to this question is
provided by the next proposition.
Proposition 3.2 Let X be a topological space. Suppose that C is a collection of open subsets
of X such that for each open set U of X and each x U, there exists C C such that
x C U.
Then C is a basis for a topology of X.
When topologies are given by basis, it is useful to have a criterion in terms of the bases for
determining whether one topology is finer than the other. One such criterion is the following:
Proposition 3.3 Let B and B0 be basis for the topologies τ and τ 0 , respectively, on X. Then the
following are equivalent:
1. τ 0 is finer that τ.
2. For each x X and each basis element B B containing x, there exists a basis element
B 0 B0 such that x B 0 B.
Proof. (1) (2). Let x X and B B such that x B. You know that B τ by definition
and that τ τ by condition (1); therefore, B τ 0 . Since τ 0 is generated by B 0 , then there exists
0
an element B 0 B0 such that x B 0 B.

(2) (1). Given an element U τ. Your goal is to show that U τ 0 . So let x U. Since
B generate τ, there is an element B B such that x B U. By condition (2) there exists
0 0 0 0 0
B B such that x B B. Then x B U, so U τ , by definition.
3.2.1 The Metric Topology
One of the most important and frequently used ways of imposing a topology on a set is to define
the toplogy in terms of a metric on a set. Topologies given in this way lie at the heart of modern
analysis, for example. In this section, you shall be introduce with the metric topology and some
of its examples.
Definition 3.7 A metric on a set X is a function d : X × X R having the following

properties:
1. d(x, y) 0 for all x, y X ; equality holds if and only if x = y.
2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y X.
3. d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z X (Triangle inequality).
Given a metric d on X, (X, d) is a metric space and the number d(x, y) is called the distance
between x and y in the metric d.
6
Definition 3.8 Let (X, d) be a metric space. Let x X and > 0. The set
Bd (x, ) := {y X : d(x, y) < }
of all point y X whose distance from x is less than is called the open ball centred at x with
radius , otherwise called ball centered at x.
Lemma 3.1 Let d be a metric on the set X. Then the collection of all balls Bd (x, ), for
x X and > 0 is a basis for a topology on X, called the metric topology induced by d.
Proof. The first condition of a basis is trivial since x B(x, ) for any > 0. Before you
check the second condition for a basis, first of all prove the fact that if y B(x, ) for some
x X and > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that B(y, δ) B(x, ). Define δ = d(x, y),
then by triangle inequality, if z B(y, δ) then d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) < . Now to
check the second condition for basis, let B1 and B2 be two basis elements and let y B1
B2 . Choose δ1 and δ2 such that B(y, δ1 ) B1 and B(y, δ2 ) B2 . Let δ = min(δ1 , δ2 ), you
have B(y, δ) B1 B2 .
Using what you have just proved, you can rephrase the definition of the metric topology as
follows:
Definition 3.9 A set U is open in the metric topology induced by d if and only if for each x U
there exist > 0 such that
Bd (x, ) U.
Example 3.11 Given a set X, define


 1 if x=y
d(x, y) =

0 if x=y
It is easy to check that d is a metric on X. The topology induced by this metric is the discrete
topology; the basis element for example consists of the points x alone.
Example 3.12 The standard metric on the real numbers R is defined by d(x, y) = |x y|. It is
easy to check that d is a metric.
3.2.2 Product Topology.
Here, you shall be introduced to the product topology, but a detailed study of this kind of
topology will be done in subsequent units.
Let X and Y be topological spaces. There is a standard way of defining a topology on the
cartesian product X × Y. We consider this topology now and study some of its properties.
Lemma 3.2 Let X and Y be two topological spaces. Let B be the collection of all sets of the
form U × V, where U is an open subset of X and V is an open subset of Y. i.e.,
B := {U × V : U is open in X and V is open in Y }

7
Then B is basis for a topology on X × Y.
Proof. The first condition is trivial, since X ×Y is itself a basis element. The second condition
is almost easy, since the intersection of any two basis element U1 × V1 and U2 × V2 is another
basis element. For
(U1 × V1 ) (U2 × V2 ) = (U1 U2 ) × (V1 × V2 ),
and the later set is a basis element because U1 U2 and V1 V2 are open in X and Y, respectively.
Definition 3.10 Let X and Y be topological spaces. The Product topology on X × Y is the
topology having the collection B as basis.
It is easy to check that B is not a topology itself on X × Y. You may now ask, what if the
topologies on X and Y are given by basis? The answer to this question is in what follows.
Theorem 3.2 If B is a basis for the topology on X and C is the basis for the topology on Y,
then the collection
D = {B × C : B B and C C}
is a basis for the topology on X × Y.
Proof. You can use proposition 3.2. Given an open set W of X ×Y and a point (x, y) X ×Y of
W, by definition of the product topology, there exists a basis element U × V such that (x,
y) U×V W. Since B and C are bases for X and Y, respectively, you can choose an
element B B such that x B U and an element C C such that y C V. So (x,
y) B × C U × V W. Thus the collection D meets the criterion of proposition 3.2. so D
is a basis of X × Y.
Example 3.13 You have the standard topology of R. The product topology of this topology
with itself is called the Product topology on R × R = R2 . It has as basis the collection of all
products of open sets of R, but the theorem you just proved tells you that the much smaller
collection of all products (a, b) × (c, d) of open intervals in R will also serve as a basis for the
topology of R2 . Each such set can be pictured as the interior of a rectangle in R2 . It is sometimes
useful to express the product topology in terms of subasis. To do this, we just define certain
functions called projections.
Definition 3.11 Let π1 : X × Y Y and let π2 : X × Y Y defined by
π1 (x, y) = x and π2 (x, y) = y.
The maps π1 and π2 are called projection of X × Y onto its first and second factors, respectively.
The word onto is used because they are surjective (unless one of the spaces X or Y happens
to be empty, in which case X × Y is empty and your whole discussion is empty as well).
If U is an open subset of X, then π 1 1 (U ) is precisely the set U × Y, which is open in X × Y.
Similarly, if V is open in Y, then π 2 1(V ) = X ×V, which is also open in X ×Y. The intersection
of these two sets in the set U × V. This fact leads to the following theorem.
8
Theorem 3.3 The collection
S = {π1 1 (U ) : U is open in X } {π
2
1
(V ) : V is open in Y }
is a subbasis for the product topology on X × Y.
Proof. Let τ denote the product topology on X × Y, let τ 0 be the topology generated by
S. Since S τ then arbitrary unions of finite intersections of elements of S stay in τ. Thus
τ 0 τ. On the other hand, every basis element U × V for the topology τ is a finite intersection
of elements of S, since
U × V = π 11 (U ) π 2 1 (V ).
Therefore U × V belongs to τ 0 , so τ τ 0 as well.
3.2.3 The Subspace Topology
Definition 3.12 Let X be a topological space with topology τ. If Y is a subset of X, the

collection
τY = {Y U : U τ }
is a topology on Y, called the subspace topology. With this topology. Y is called a subspace of
X ; its open sets consists of all intersection of open sets of X with Y.
Lemma 3.3 If B is a basis for the topology on X, the collection
BY = {B Y :B
B}
is a basis for the subspace topology in Y.
Proof. Let U be an open set of X and y U Y, By definition of basis, there exists B B

such that y B U. Then y B Y U Y. It follows from proposition 3.2 that BY is a
basis for the subspace topology on Y.
When dealing with a space X and a subspace Y of X, you need to be careful when you use
the term open set. The question is do you mean an element of the topology of Y or an element
of the topology on X ? The following definition is useful. If Y is a subspace of X, the set U is
open in Y (or open relative to Y ) if it belongs to the topology of Y : this implies in particular it
is a subspace of Y.
There is a special situation in which every open set in Y is also open in X.
Lemma 3.4 Let Y be a subspace of X. If U is open in Y and Y is open in X then U is open in

X.
Proof. Since U is open in Y, U = V Y for some V open in X. Since Y and V are both
open in X, so is V Y.
Proposition 3.4 Let A be a subspace of X and B a subspace of Y. Then the product topology
on A × B is the same as the topology A × B inherits as a subspace of X × Y.
9
3.3 Closed Sets and Limit Points TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
3.3 Closed Sets and Limit Points
Now that you have a few examples at hand, you can proceed to see some of the basic concepts
associated with topological space. In this section, you shall be introduced to the notion of closed
set, interior, closure and limit point of a set.
3.3.1 Closed Sets
Definition 3.13 A subset A of a topological set X is said to be Closed if X rA, the complement
of A in X is open.
Example 3.14 The subset [a, b] of R is closed because its complement
R r [a, b] = ( , a) (b, ),
is open. Similarly [a, + ) is closed.
Example 3.15 Consider the following subset of the real line: Y = [01] (2, 3), in the subspace
1 3
topology. In this space, the set [0, 1] is open, since it is the intersection of the open set ,
2 2
of R with Y. Similarly, (2, 3) is open as subset of Y. Since [0, 1] and (2, 3) are complement in
Y of each other, you can conclude that both are closed as subset of Y.
The collection of closed subsets of a space X has properties similar to those satisfied by the
collection of open subsets of X.
Theorem 3.4 Let X be a topological space. Then the following conditions hold:
1. and X are closed.
2. Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.
3. Finite unions of closed sets are closed.
Proof. Apply DeMorgan’s laws:

\ [
Xr Aα = (X r Aα ).
α I α I
[ \
Xr Aα = (X r Aα ).
α I α I
When dealing with subspaces, you need to be very careful in using the term open set. The
following theorem is very important.
Theorem 3.5 Let Y be a subspace of X. Then a set A is closed in Y if and only if it equals the
intersection of a closed set of X with Y.
10
Proof. Assume that A = C Y, where C is closed in X, then X r C is open in X, so that

(X r C ) Y is open in Y, by definition of the subspace topology. But (X r C ) Y = Y r A.
Hence Y r A is open in Y, so that A is closed in Y. Conversely, assume that A is closed in Y.
The set X r U is closed in X, and A = Y (X r U ), so that A equals the intersection of a
closed set of X and Y, as desired.
Note that a set that is closed in the subspace Y may not be closed in X. So the question now
is, when is a closed set in a subspace Y closed in the space X ? The next theorem provides an
answer to this question.
Theorem 3.6 Let Y be a subspace of X. If A is closed in Y, and Y is closed in X, then A is

closed in X.
3.3.2 Closure and Interior of a Set
Definition 3.14 Let A be a subset of a topological space X. The interior of A denoted by

int (A) or Å is defined as the union of all open sets contained in A. The closure of A denoted
by cl (A) or A is defined as the intersection of closed sets containing A.
Clearly, the interior of A is an open set and the closure of A is a closed set; futhermore,
Å A A
If A is open, then A = Å; on the other hand, if A is closed, then A = A.
Proposition 3.5 Let Y be a subspace of X ; Let A be a subset of Y. Let Ā denote the clusure of
A in X. Then the closure of A in Y is Ā Y.
Another useful way of describing the closure of a set is given in the following theorem.
Theorem 3.7 Let A be a subset of the topological space X.
1. The x Ā if and only if every open set U containing x intersects A.
2. Supposing the topology of X is given by a basis, then x Ā if and only if every basis
element B containing x intersects A.
Proof. Consider the statement (a). It is a statement of the form P Q. Transforming each
statement to is contrapositive, gives you the logical equivalence (not P ) (not Q). Explicitly,
x Ā if and only if there exists an open set U containing x that does not intersect A.
In terms of this assertion, the theorem is easy to prove. If x is not in Ā, the set X r A is open
and contains x and does not intersect A as desired. Conversely, If there exists an open set U
containing x which does not intersect A, then X r A is a closed set containing A. By definition
of the closure Ā, the set X r U must contain Ā; therefore x 6 Ā.
Part (b) follows from the definiton of basis.
11
Definition 3.15 Let X be a topological space. Let x X and V be a subset of X containing

x. V is said to be a neighbourhood of x if there exist and open set U of X such that
x U V.
The collection of all neighbourhoods of x is denoted by N (x).
Proposition 3.6 Let X be a topological space and x X. Then
1. N (x) is nonempty;
2. If V N and V A then A N (x);
3. A finite intersection of neighbourhoods of x is a neighbourhood of x.
Proposition 3.7 Let X be a topological space. Let U be a subset of X. Then U is open if and
only in U N (x) for every x U.
Lemma 3.5 If A is a subset of a topological space X, then x Ā if and only if every neigh-
bourhood of x intersects A. i.e.,
x A if and only if for all V N (x), V A= .
Proof. ( ) Let x A, and let V N (x). Since V N (x), there exist U open such that
x U V. It is enough for you to show that U A = . Suppose U A = , it implies
that A U c . And U c is closed since U is open, thus, A U c . Which implies that x U c ,
which is a contradiction. Hence, U A = .
( ) Assume that for every neighbourhood cV of x, V A = . You have to show
that
x A. Suppose x A, this implies that x A which is open (because A is closed) and so
A N (x), and by hypothesis, A
c c
A = . This is a contradiction, hence x A.
Example 3.16 Let X be the real line R. If A = (0, 1], then Ā = [0, 1], B = {1/n : n
1}
then B̄ = B {0}. If C = {0} (1, 2) then C̄ = {0} [1, 2], = R.
Q̄
Example 3.17 Consider the subspace Y = (0, 1] of the real line R. The set A = (0, 12) is a
subset of Y. Its closure in R is the set [0, 12] and its closure in Y is the set Ā = [0, 12] Y = (0, 12].
3.3.3 Limit Points
Definition 3.16 Let A be subset of a topological set X and let x X. x is said to be a

limitpoint (or cluster point or point of accumulation) of A if every neighbourhood of x intersects
A in some point other than that x itself.
x X is a limit point of A if for all V N (x), V (A r {x}) = .
Or x is a limit point of A if x belongs to the closure of A r {x}. The point x may lie in A
or not.
12
4 Conclusion TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Theorem 3.8 Let A be a subset of the topological space X. Let A0 be the set of all limit points
of A. Then
Ā = A A0 .
Proof. Clearly, A A0 Ā. To prove the reverse inclusion, let x Ā. If x happens to be
in A, it is trivial that x A A0 . Suppose that x 6 A. Since x A0 , this implies that every
neighbourhood U of x intersects A. Because x 6 A, the set U intersects A in a point different
from x. Then x A0 , so that x A A0 as desired.
Corollary 3.1 A subset of a topological space is closed if and only if it contains all its limit
points.
Proof. The set A is closed if and only if A = Ā, and the later holds if and only if A0 A.
4 Conclusion
In this unit, you have been introduced to the meaning and examples of topological spaces and
some basic concepts of topological spaces such as basis for a topology, closed set, open sets,
interior of a set, closure of a set, neighbourhood of a set and limit point of a set. You have seen
some examples and proved some results.
5 Summary
Having gone through this unit, you now know that;
(i) a topology defined on a set X is a collection τ of subsets of X satisfying
(a) X and are in τ,

(b) arbitrary unions of elements of τ are in τ,
(c) finite intersections of elements of τ are in τ.
(ii) a topological space is a pair (X, τ ) consisting of a set X and a topology τ defined on it.
(iii) the elements of a topology on X are called open sets.
(iv) if τ1 and τ2 are topologies defined on X, then τ1 is said to be finer that τ2 if τ2 τ1 . In

otherwords you say that τ2 is coarser than τ1 .
(v) an arbitrary intersection of topologies is also a topology.
(vi) a basis for a topology τ on X is a collection B of subsets of X (i.e., basis elements) such
that
(a) for each X, there exist B B such that x B, or equivalently, X = B B.
(b) if x X and B1 , B2 B such that x B1 B2 , there exists B3 B such that

x B3 B1 B2 .
13
5 Summary TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
(vii) the topology generated by a basis B is given by
τ := {U X :U= or if x U, there exists B B such that x B U

}
(viii) The collection
B := {U × V : U is open in X and V is open in Y }
is a basis for the product topology on X × Y.
(ix) The collection
S = {π 1
(U ) : U is open in X } {π 1
(V ) : V is open in Y
1 } 2
is a subbasis for the product topology on X × Y. Where π1 : X × Y X and π2 :

X ×Y Y are the projection maps defined on X × Y by π1 (x, y) = x and π2 (x, y) = y.
(x) if Y is a subset of a topological space (X, τ ), the collection
τY = {Y U:U τ}
is a topology on Y, called the subspace topology. Y is called a subspace of X, its open

sets consists of all intersection of open sets of X with Y.
(xi) A subset A of a topological space X is said to be closed in X if X r A, (the complement

of A in X ) is open.
(xii) if X is a topological space, then
(a) and X are closed.

(b) an arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.
(c) a finite union of closed sets is closed.
(xiii) if Y is a subspace of X, then a set A is closed in Y if and only if it equals the intersection
of a closed set in X with Y.
(xiv) if A is a subset of a topological space X, then the interior of A, denoted by Å is the union
of all open sets contained in A, while the closure of A denoted by A is the intersection of
all closed sets contained in A.
(xv) if V is a subset of a topological space X and x X such that x V, then V is called a

neighbourhood of x if there exists an open set U of X such that
x U V.
(xvi) N (x) denotes the collection of all neighbourhoods of x.
(xvii) if A is a subset of a topological space X, an element x of X is called a limit point of A if

for all V N (x), V (A r {x}) = .
(xviii) a subset of a topological space is closed if and only if it contains all its limit point.
14
6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAS) TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)

Exercise 6.1
1. In the following, answer true or false.
(a) The collection

τ = {U : X r U is infinite or empty or all X }
is a topology in X ?
S
(b) The union τα of a family {τα } of topology on X is a topology on X.
(c) The countable collection
B = {(a, b) : a < b, a, b Q}
is a basis for a topology on R.

(d) If A is a subset of a topological space X, and suppose that for each x A, there
exists an open set U such that x U A, then A is an open set in X.
2. Let R be with the standard topology and let A R. Then A is open in R if there exist an
interval I such that I A. For a, b R, which of the following forms is is the interval I
(a) I = (a, b)
(b) I = (a, b]
(c) I = [a, b)
(d) I = [a, b]
3. If τ is a topology on a set X, which of the following is not true about τ ?
(a) Finite union of elements of τ is in τ.

(b) Finite intersection of elements of τ are in τ. (c)
The empty set and the whole set X are in τ. (d)
Arbitrary intersection of elements of τ are in τ.
4. Answer true or false. The collection
B = {U × V : U is open in X and V is open in Y }
is
(a) a topology on the product space X × Y.

(b) a basis for a topology on the product space X × Y.
5. Let π1 : X × Y X and π2 : X × Y Y be the projection maps defined by
π1 (x, y) = x and π2 (x, y) = y.
The collection
15
S = {π1 1 (U )|U open in X } {π

2
1
(V )|V open in Y }
is for the product topology on X × Y.

(a) a collection of open sets
(b) a basis
(c) a subbasis
(d) a topology
6. Let R be endowed with the standard topology. Consider the set Y = [ 1, 1] as a subspace
of R. Which of the following sets are open in Y ?
1
A= x: < |x| < 1
2
1
B= x: < |x| 1
2
1
C= x: |x| < 1
2
1
D= x: |x| 1
2
(a) A, B and C only

(b) A only
(c) B and C only.
(d) D only.
7. With the standard topology of R. which of the sets in question 6 above are open in R?
(a) A, B and C only

(b) A only
(c) B, C and D only.
(d) D only.
8. Let R be endowed with the standard topology. Consider the set Y = [ 1, 1] as a subspace
of R. Which of the following sets are closed in Y ?
1
A= x: < |x| < 1
2
1
B= x: < |x| 1
2
1
C= x: |x| < 1
2
1
D= x: |x| 1
2
16
(a) A, B, C and D.
(b) B and C only
(c) B, C and D only.
(d) D only.
9. With the standard topology of R. which of the sets in question 8 above are closed in R?
(a) A, B and C only

(b) B, C and D only
(c) B and C only.
(d) D only.
10. If A X, a topological space, then the boundary of A, denoted by ∂A of Bd A by:
∂A = Ā X r A.
The folowing are true;
1. Å and ∂A are disjoint, and Ā = Å ∂A.

2. ∂A = set if and only if A is both open and closed.
3. U is open if and only if ∂U = Ū r U.
Justify.
11. Hence or otherwise compute the boundary and interior of each of the following subsets
of R2
(a) A = {(x, y) : y = 0}
(b) B = {(x, y) : x > 0 and y = 0}
(c) C = A B.
(d) D = {(x, x) : x is rational}
12. If R, the real line is endowed with the indiscrete topology. Let A = [0, 1). What is Ā?
(a) [0, 1]
(b) R
(c) [0, 1)
(d)
[Hint: Use theorem 3.7]
13. If R, the real line is endowed with the usual metric topology, and let A = (0, 1). What is
∂A?
(a) R
(b) [0, 1]
(c) {0, 1}
(d) (0, 1]
17
UNIT 2: SEPARATION AXIOMS
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Objectives 2
3 Axioms of Separation 2
3.1 Hausdorff Spaces (T2 spaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 The First Separation Axiom (T1 spaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 The zeroth Separation Axiom. (T0 spaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Third Separation Axiom (T3 spaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4.1 Regular spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5 Fourth Separation Axiom. (T4 spaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6.1 Definition, Examples and Main Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.7 Homeomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.8 More on Separation Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Conclusion 14
5 Summary 15
6 TMAs 16
1 INTRODUCTION
Your understanding of the notions of closed sets open sets and limit points in the real line or
arbitrary metric space can be misleading when you carry such understanding to topological
space. For example in the space R and R2 , each one-point set is closed. But this fact is not
true for an arbitrary topological space. For if you consider the three-point set X = {a, b, c},
1
2 Objectives SEPARATION AXIOMS
endowed with the the sierpinski topology τs = { , X, {b}, {a, b}, {b, c}}. In this space, the
point set {b} is not closed, because its complement {a, c} is not open. Similary, the
understanding you have about convergence of a sequence in the real line can be misleading
when you consider an arbitrary topological space. For example on the real line, the limit of a
sequence if it exists is unique, but this is not true in an arbitrary topological space. In this unit,
you shall be introduced to the separation axioms a natural restrictions on the topological
structure making the structure closer to that of a metric space(i.e., closer to being metrizable).
A lot of separation axioms are known. Here you shall study five most important of them. They
are numerated, and denoted by T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 , and T4 , respectively.
2 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
(i) define a Hausdorff space and state some of its properties.
(ii) prove that in a Hausdorff space, every point set is closed.
(iii) define a convergent sequence and show that in a Hausdorff space, the limit is unique.
(iv) prove that every metric topology is Hausdorff.
(v) know five separation axioms and their properties.
3 Axioms of Separation
3.1 Hausdorff Spaces (T2 spaces)
The most celebrated of all the axioms of separation is the second axiom of separation T2 . It was
suggested by the mathematician Felix Hausdorff, and so mathematicians have come to call it
by hi name. And so Topological spaces that satisfy the second separation axiom will be called
Hausdorff spaces.
Definition 3.1 A topological space is called a Hausdorff space, if for each x, y of distint
points of X, there exist neighbourhoods Ux and Uy of x and y respectively, that are disjoint.
More formally
X is Hausdorff if x, y X with x = y, there exist Ux N (x), Uy N (y) : Ux Uy =

.
Ux
Uy
.x .
y
Figure 1: Hausdorff axiom (T2 )

2
3.1 Hausdorff Spaces (T2 spaces) SEPARATION AXIOMS
As earlier remarked, Hausdorff space are T2 .

For example, consider the real line R, with the standard topology, that is the topological
spaces whose open sets are of the form (a, b), a, b R with a < b (the open intervals). Take
for instance the points 12 , 14 R, the open intervals ( 16, 13) and ( 512, 712) are neighbourhoods of 14
and 12 respectively and ( 16, 13) ( 512, 712) = . In fact, you know that the standard topology of R
is induced by the metric d defined by
d(x, y) = |x y|
for all x, y R. And for each x R, the ball centered at x with radius > 0 is given by
B(x, ) = {y R : d(x, y) = |x y| < } = (x ,x +

)
Thus for each x, y R, with x = y, just choose = 13d(x, y) > 0 then x (x ,x + ) =

B(x, ) and y (y , y + ) = B(y, ) and B(x, ) B(y, ) =
.
The above exercise can be done in an arbitrary space with the metric topology. and this
gives you the first example of Hausdorff spaces.
Example 3.1 Every metric topology is Hausdorff.
Example 3.2 Every discrete space is Hausdorff.

To see this, Let X be a discrete topological space, and let x, y X with x = y. Take Ux =
{x}, and Uy = {y}, then Ux and Uy are open sets in the discrete topology, and Ux Uy =
.
Exercise 3.1 Let Q be the set of rational numbers with the standard topology of R, and let
Q0 denote the set of all irrational numbers also with the standard topology of R. Is Q and Q0
Hausdorff?
The following are some space that are not Hausdorff.
Example 3.3 The real line R with the finite complement topology is not Hausdorff.
To see this recall first that the finite complement topology is defined by
τf = {U X : X r U is either finite or the whole set X }
Now suppose R with the finite complement topology is Hausdorff, then for every x, y R there
exists open neighbourhoods Ux , Uy of x and y such that
Ux Uy =
.
Taking complements of both sides gives you that

(R r Ux ) (R r Uy ) = R.
Which means that R is finite as a union of two finite sets, otherwise, the sets Ux and Uy would be
empty sets and thus are no longer neighbourhoods of x and y respectively, this is a contradiction.
Hence R with the finite complement topology is not Hausdorff.
3
3.1 Hausdorff Spaces (T2 spaces) SEPARATION AXIOMS
Example 3.4 Let X = {a, b, c} endowed with the topology
τs = { , X, {b}, {b, c}, {b,

a}}
This is easy to see, because a and c are distinct points in X and there are no neighbourhoods
of a and c with empty intersection.
The following important results makes Hausdorff spaces interesting.
Theorem 3.1 Let X be a Hausdorff space, then for all x X, the singleton set {x} is closed.
Proof. Let x X be arbitrary and set A = {x}. It is enough to show that A = Ā. You
know that A Ā, so it is left for you to show that Ā A. You can do this by contraposition
(i.e., you know that if A B, then for every y A, y B; the contraposition is that if
y 6 B then y 6 A). Now, suppose that y 6 A, i.e., y = x, since X is Hausdorff, there
exist Ux N (x), Uy N (y) such that Ux Uy = . This implies that Uy A = , i.e.,
y 6 Ā.
Hence, Ā A. Therefore, both inclusions A Ā and Ā A gives you that Ā = A i.e.,
A = {x} is closed.
3.1.1 Sequences
In your course of elementary analysis, you can recall that a sequence {xn } of elements of R is
said to converge to x R if given any > 0, there exist N := N ( ) N such that for all
n N,
|xn x |< . (1)
The inequality (1) is equivalent to say that for all n N, xn (x ,x
+ )
Also you know that if X is a metric space, with a metric d, then a sequence {xn } in X
converges to x X if given any > 0, there exists N := N ( ) such that for all n
N,
d(xn , x ) < (2)
That is to say that for every n N, xn Bd (x , ).
Suppose, now that you set U = (x , x + ), or U = Bd (x , ) according as you

refer
to the real line R or the metric space X, you will have that U is a neighbourhood of x
and
depends on > 0. And since > 0 is arbitrary, then U is also arbitrary. This is now of
great help to you to define convergent sequence in an arbitrary topological space since absolute
value or distance does not make sense in an arbitrary topological space, but the concept of
neighbourhood is meaningful in any topological space. Thus in an arbitrary topological space
you have the following definiton.
Definition 3.2 Convergent sequence. Let X be a topological space, let {xn } be a sequence of
elements of X. Then {xn } is said to converge to x X if for all neighbourhoods U of x, there
exists N N such that for all n N, xn U. That is
xn x X as n if for all U N (x), there exists N N : for all n N xn U
4
3.2 The First Separation Axiom (T1 spaces) SEPARATION AXIOMS
You also remember that in the real line R, and in a metric space X, you proved that the limit
of a convergent sequence {xn } is unique. This is not true in an arbitrary topological space as
shown in the following example.
Example 3.5 Let R the reals be endowed with the finite complement topology, and let {xn } be
a sequence of elements of R defined by, xn = 1n , for n 1. If this sequence converges,
every
element of R is a limit of this sequence.
To see this, Let x R, and suppose xn x, then by definition, let U be a neighbourhood
of x, there exists N N such that for all n N,n U otherwise, 1n U c for all n
1
N
(i.e., {n } does not converge to x). This would mean that infinitely many points of the sequence
1
is contained in a finite set, (since U belongs to the finite complement topology means that U c is
a finite set while it is assumed that U c is not the whole R itself which would mean that U =
and thus would not be a neighbourhood of x). This is impossible, thus x must be the limit
of the sequencen { 1 } and since x is arbitrary,
n
{ 1 } converges to every element of R.
But you know vividly well that in the real line, R, the limit of the sequence {21 } is 0. So you see
that convergence of a sequence actually depends on the type of topology imposed on the space.
The next result tells us more about a sequence in a Hausdorff space. It says that in a Hausdorff
space, the limit of a convergent sequence is unique. that is why you have terms like uniqueness
of limits on the real line with the standard topology and in an arbitrary metric space, because
they are Hausdorff.
Theorem 3.2 Let X be a Hausdorff space, then a sequence of points of X converges to at most
one point of X. (i.e., if a sequence {xn } in X, a Hausdorff space, converges, the limit is
unique.)
Proof. Let X be a Hausdorff space, and let {xn } be a convergent sequence of elements of X.
Assume that xn converges to x and y, you have to prove that x = y. Suppose for x = y, since
X is Hausdorff, there exist Ux N (x) and Uy N (y) such that Ux Uy = . Ux N (x)
and xn x implies that there exists N1 N such that xn Ux for all n N1 . Also Uy
N (y) and xn y implies that there exists N2 N such that xn Uy for all n N2 . Now
choose N := max{N1 , N2 } then xN Ux Uy = (a contradiction). Hence x = y.
Having prove some of the basic result of Hausdorff spaces (i.e., T2 spaces), you will now
be introduced to all the other axioms of separation.
3.2 The First Separation Axiom (T1 spaces)
Definition 3.3 (T1 spaces) A topological space X satisfies the first separation axiom T1
if each one of any two points of X has a neighborhood that does not contain the other point.
Thus X is called a T1 space. That is
X is T1 if for all x, y X with x = y, there exist Ux N (x) such that y 6 Ux .
Another name for a T1 space is a Fréchet space.

5
3.3 The zeroth Separation Axiom. (T0 spaces) SEPARATION AXIOMS
.
Uy
x .
y
Figure 2: (T1 axiom)
Theorem 3.3 A topological space X satisfies the first separation axiom
(i) if and only if all one point set in X is closed.
(ii) if and only if every finite set in X is closed.
Proof.
(i) ( ) Suppose X is T1 , and let x X. By the T1 axiom For all y X, y = x, i.e.

y X r {x}, there exist an open set Uy N (y) such that x 6 Uy . This implies
that Uy X r {x}. X r {x} contains an open set Uy , gives us that it is open, and
so its complement (X r {x})c = {x} must be closed.
( ) Suppose X is a topological space in which all singletons are closed and let x, y X
such that x = y, then X r {x} is an open and contains y and x 6 (X r {x}). This
implies that X is T1 .
(ii) ( ) Suppose X is T1 , then every singleton {x} is closed. So also is a finite set, because
it is a finite union of singletons which are closed sets.
( ) Suppose that X is such that finite sets are closed, and let x, y X, x = y then
{x} is a finite set, (X r {x}) is an open neighbourhood of y and does not contain x.
Hence, X is T1
Example 3.6 Every Hausdorff space is T1 . But the converse is not true.
Clearly, If you consider a set X = R the real line with the finite complement topology, then
X is a T1 space. Since if x, y X, Ux = X r {y} is an open set containing x that does
not contain y, also, Uy = X r {x} is an open set containing y that does not contain x. You
have also seen in example 3.3 that R with this topology is not hausdorf. Hence you have
given an example of a T1 space that is not Hausdorff.
3.3 The zeroth Separation Axiom. (T0 spaces)
The zeroth separation axiom appears as a weakened first sepatation axiom. It states as follows:
Definition 3.4 (T0 spaces). A topological space X satisfies the Kolmogorov axiom or the
zeroth separation axiom T0 if at least one of any two distinct points of X has a neighborhood
that does not contain the other point.
6
3.4 Third Separation Axiom (T3 spaces) SEPARATION AXIOMS
Spaces that satisfy the zeroth separation axiom or the Kolmogorov axiom T0 are regarded
as T0 spaces. That is;
X is T0 if for all x, y X with x = y, there exist an open set O such that either x O and
y 6 O or y O and x 6 O
Example 3.7 Every T1 space is T0 so also is every T2 space. But the converse is not true in
each case.
Example 3.8 Let X = {a, b} be endowed with the topology τ = {X, , {a}}. Then X is
T0
but not T1 .
Proposition 3.1 Let X be a topological space. The following properties of X are equivalent:
(a) X is T0 ;
(b) any two different points of X has different closures;
3.4 Third Separation Axiom. T3 spaces
Definition 3.5 T3 spaces. A topological space X satisfies the third separation axiom if every
closed set in X and every point of its complement have disjoint neighborhoods.
T3 spaces are topological spaces that satisfy the third separation axiom.
That is, X is T3 if for every closed set F X and every x X such that x 6 F there exists
open sets UF , Ux X with F UF , x Ux such that UF Ux = .
UF
F Ux
.
x
Figure 3: T3 axiom
3.4.1 Regular spaces
Definition 3.6 Regular space. A topological space X is said to be a regular space if for any
closed set F of X and any point x X r F, there exists open sets UF , Ux X such that
x Ux , F UF and Ux UF = .
If a topological space X is regular and is a T1 space, then X is a T3 space. On the

other hand, if X is a T3 space and a T1 space, then X is regular.
7
3.5 Fourth Separation Axiom. (T4 spaces) SEPARATION AXIOMS
Example 3.9 Examples of regular spaces are R, Z, Q, Qc and R2 .
Example 3.10 Any metric space is regular.
Example 3.11 Every regular T1 space X is T2 (Hausdorff).
3.5 Fourth Separation Axiom. (T4 spaces)
Definition 3.7 (T4 spaces) A topological space X satisfies the fourth separation axiom if any
two disjoint closed sets in X have disjoint neighborhoods.
Topological spaces that satisfy the fourth separation axiom are called T4 spaces.
Thus X is a T4 if for any two closed sets E, F X with E F = there exists open sets
UE , UF X such that E UE , F UF and UE UF = .
U UE
F
F E
Figure 4: T4 axiom.
Example 3.12 * Any indiscrete topological space satisfies the fourth separation axiom. This is
also an example of a T4 space that is not T2 .
Definition 3.8 Normal Spaces. A topological space X is normal if it satisfies the first and the
fourth separation axioms.
Example 3.13 Every metric space is normal.
3.6 Continuous Functions
3.6.1 Definition, Examples and Main Properties
Definition 3.9 Continuous Function. Let X and Y be topological spaces. A function f :

X Y is said to be continuous if for each open subset UY of Y, the set f 1 (UY ) is an open
subset of X, where
f 1 (UY ) = {x X : f (x) UY }
Continuity of a function depends not only on the function alone, but also on the topologies
specified for its domain and range.
8
3.6 Continuous Functions SEPARATION AXIOMS
Theorem 3.4 If the topology on the range Y is given by a basis B, then f is continuous if and
only if any basis element B B, the set f 1 (B) is open in X.
Proof. ( ) Let the topology Y be given by basis B, and suppose that f is continous, the for
all B B, f 1 (B) is open in X since each B B is open.
( ) Suppose that each B B, f 1 (B) is open in X, you have to show that f is
continuous. So take an open set V Y, then you can write V as a union of basis elements, i.e.,
[
V = Bi .
i I
Therefore, [
1 1
f (V ) = f (Bi
).
i I
1 1
So that f (V ) is open as a union of the sets f (Bi ), i I , which are open by assumption.
Example 3.14 Any constant function is continuous.
Exercise 3.2 Let f : R R be given by


x, if x
 1
f (x) =

x + 2, if x>1
Is f continuous?
Exercise 3.3 Consider the map f : [0, 2] [0, 2]


x if x [0, 1),

f (x) =

3 x if x [1, 2].
Is it continuous (with respect to the topology induced from the real line)?
Exercise 3.4 Let X be the subspace of R given by X = [0, 1] [2, 4] Define f : X R by


 1, if x [0, 1]
f (x) =

2, if x [2, 4].
prove that f is continuous.
Example 3.15 Consider a real valued function of real variable f : R R. In analysis one
defines continuity via δ definition. As you would, the δ definition and your are
equivalent.
Theorem 3.5 Let X and Y be topological space, let f : X Y. Then the following are
equivalent:
(1) f is continuous.
9
3.7 Homeomorphism SEPARATION AXIOMS
(2) For every subset A of X, one has f (Ā) f (A).

1
(3) For every closed set B of Y, the set f (B) is closed in X.
(4) For each x X and each neighbourhood V of f (x), there exists a neighbourhood U of
x such that f (U ) V.
If the condition in (4) holds for the point x, we say that f is continuous at x.
Proof. We show that (1) (2) (3) (1) and that (1) (4) (1)
(1) (2). Assume that f is continuous. Let A be a subset of X. We show that if x Ā,
then f (x) f (A). Let x Ā and let V be an open neighbourhood of f (x). Then f 1 (V ) is an
open subset X containing x, so f 1 (V ) A = because x Ā. Let y f 1 (V ) A,
then f (y) V f (A), thus f (x) f (A), as desired.
(2) (3). Let B be a closed subset of Y and A = f 1 (B). We wish to show that A is
closed in X. We show that Ā = A. By elementary set theory, we have f (A) = f (f 1 (B)) B.
Therefore, if x Ā, then
f (x) f (Ā) f (A) B̄ = B.
1
so that f (x) B, thus x f (B) = A, as desired.
(3) (1). Let V be an open subset of Y. Set B = Y r V. Then f 1 (B) = X r f 1 (V ).
Now B is closed set of Y, then f 1 (B) is closed in X by hypothesis, so that f 1 (V ) is open
in X, as desired.
(1) (4). Let x X and let V be an open neighbourhood of f (x). Then the set U =
1
f (V ) is an open neighbourhood of x such that f (U ) V.
(4) (1). Let V be an open set of Y. Let x f 1 (V ). Then f (x) V, so that by hypothesis
there is an open neighbourhood Ux of x such that f (Ux ) V. Then Ux f 1 (V ). It follows
that f 1 (V ) can be written as the union of the open sets Ux , so that it is open.
3.7 Homeomorphism
You are familiar with the following definitions about functions
Definition 3.10 Let X and Y be sets, the map f : X Y is a surjective map or just a
surjection if every element of Y is the image of at least one element of X. That is,
f is a surjection if for all y Y, there exists x X such that f (x) = y.
A map f : X Y is an injective map, injection or one-to-one map if every element of Y is

the image of at most one element of X. That is
f is an injection if for all y Y, there exists a unique x X such that f (x) = y.
A map is a bijective map, bijection or invertible map if it is both surjective and injective.
Definition 3.11 Let X and Y be topological spaces; Let f : X Y be a bijection. If both f

1
and its inverse f :Y X are continuous, then f is called a homeomorphism.
10
Definition 3.12 (Equvalence Relation) Let X be a set and R be a relation on X. Then R is

called an equivalence relation if R is
(a) Symmetric: xRx for all x X
(b) Reflective: If xRy then yRx for all x, y X.
(c) Transitive: If xRy and yRz then xRz for all x, y, z X.
Definition 3.13 Two topological spaces X and Y are homeomorphic if there exists a homeo-
morphism f : X Y between the spaces.
Theorem 3.6 Being homeomorphic is an equivalence relation.
Suppose that f : X Y is an injective continuous map, where X and Y are topological

spaces, Let Z be the image set f (X ), considered as a subspace of Y ; then the function f 0 :
X Z obtained by restricting the range of f is bijective.
Definition 3.14 If f 0 : X Z is an homeomorphism, we say that the map f : X Y is a

topological imbedding or simply an imbedding of X in Y .
Example 3.16 The function f : R R given by f (x) = 3x + 1 is a homeomorphism.
Example 3.17 The function F : ( 1, 1) R given by

x
F (x) =
1 x2
is a homeomorphism.
Example 3.18 The identity map g : Rl R is bijective and continuous, but it is not a homeo-
morphism.
Example 3.19 Let S 1 denote the unit circle,
S 1 = {(x, y) : x2 + y2 =
1}
considered as a subspace of the plane R2 , and let F : [0, 1] S 1 be a map defined by f (t) =
(cos 2πt, sin 2πt). The map F is bijective and continuous, but F 1 is not continuous.
Theorem 3.7 Let X, Y and Z be topological spaces. If f : X Y and g : Y Z are

continuous, then the map g f:X Z is continuous.
Proof. Let W be an open set in Z,

1 1 1
(g f) (W ) = f g (W ) = f
1 1
(g (W ))
Since f and g are continuous, g 1 (W ) is open in Y implies that f 1
(g 1
(W )) are open in
X.
Thus, g f is continuous on X.
11
Theorem 3.8 (Restricting the domain). If f : X Y is continuous, and if A is a subspace of

X, then the restricted function f|A : A Y is continuous.
Proof. You have to show that f |A 1 (W ) is open in the subspace topology τA on A induced
by the topology τ on X for any open set W in Y. So let W be an open set in Y. By the continuity
of f on X, f 1 (W ) is open in X and
f|A 1 (W ) = {x A : f|A (x) W}
= {x A : f (x) W}
= A {x X : f (x) W}
1
= A f (W )
which implies that f |A1 (W ) open in the subspace topology τA .
Theorem 3.9 (Restricting or expanding the range). Let f : X Y be continuous.
1. If Z is a subspace of Y containing the image set f (X ), then the map g : X Z obtained

by restricting the range of f is continuous.
2. If Z is a space having Y as a subspace, then the function h : X Z obtained by

expanding the range of f is continuous.
Proof.
1. You know that since Z is a subspace of Y, the subspace topology on τZ induced on Z by

the topology τ on Y is given by
τZ = {V Z :V τ }.
Now, let V be open in Y (meaning that Z V is open in Z ), you have to show that
g 1 (Z V ) is open in X. You can compute as follows
g 1
(Z V ) = {x X : g(x) = f (x) Z V } = {x X : f (x) V}=f 1
(V
)
2. Using similar argument on the subspace topology as in (1) above, let W be open in Z,
then Y W is open in Y (because Y is a subspace of Z ) and
h 1
(W ) = {x X : h(x) W
}
= {x X : f (x) W}
= {x X : f (x) Y W}
1
= f (Y W)
1
is open in X because f is continuous and f (Y W ) is open in X. Hence h is continu-
ous.
12
Theorem 3.10 (The pasting lemma) Let X = A B, where A and B are closed in X. Let
f :A Y and g : B Y be continuous. If f (x) = g(x) for every x A B, then the
function h : X Y defined by

 f (x) if x A
h(x) =

g(x) if x B
is continous.
Proof. Let F be a closed set in Y.

h 1
(F ) = {x X : h(x) F}
= {x A : f (x) F} {x B : g(x) F}
1 1
= f (F ) g (F ).
f 1 (F ) is closed in X because it is closed in A and A is closed in X, also g 1 (F ) is closed in

X since it is closed in B and B is closed in X. Hence h 1 (F ) is closed in X as a finite union
of closed sets in X. Hence, h is continuous.
Example 3.20 Let h : R R be defined by


 x2 , if x 0
h(x) =

x, if x 0.
then h is continuous.
To see this, Set A = [0, + ) and f : A R, defined by f (x) = x2, also let B = ( , 0]
and g : B R, defined by g(x) = x. Observe that A and B are closed sets in R and R = A B.
f and g continuous functions, A B = {0} and f (0) = g(0) = 0. Hence by pasting lemma, h
is continuous.
Theorem 3.11 (Maps in products) Let f : Z X × Y be given by
f (z) = (f1 (x), f2 (y)).
Then f is continuous if and only if the functions
f1 : Z X and f2 : Z Y
are continuous.
The maps f1 and f2 are called coordinate functions of f.
Proof. Let π1 : X × Y X and π2 : X × Y Y be projections maps. These maps are

continuous. Note that for each z Z,
13
3.8 More on Separation Axioms SEPARATION AXIOMS
f1 (z) = π1 (f (z)) and f2 (z) = π2 (f (z)).
If f is continuous then f1 and f2 are continuous as composites of continuous functions.

Conversely, suppose that f1 and f2 are continuous. Let U × V be a basis element of for the
product topology in X × Y. A point z is in f 1 (U × V ) if and only if f (z) U × V, that is, if
and only if f1 (z) U and f2 (z) V. Therefore
f 1
(U × V ) = f 1
1
(U ) f2 1(V ).
Since both of the sets f 1 1 (U ) and f2 1

(V ) are open, so is their intersection.
3.8 More on Separation Axioms
Theorem 3.12 Let X be a topological space and Y a Hausdorff space. Let f : X Y be a

map. If f is continuous, then the Graph of f
Graph(f ) = {(x, f (x)) : x X}
is a closed subset of X × Y.
Proof. Suppose f is continuous, you have to show that the graph of f is closed. It is enough
for you to show that the complement of the graph of f is open in X ×Y. So let U = (Graph(t))c ,
and let (x0 , y0 ) U. This implies that y0 = f (x0 ). Since Y is Hausdorff, there exist open sets
Wy0 and Wf (x0 ) in Y containing y0 and f (x0 ) respectively such that
Wy0 Wf (x0 ) =
Since f is continuous at x0 , (because f is continuous) and x0 and Wf (x0 ) N (f (x0 )), there
exists Ux0 N (x0 ) such that f (Ux0 ) Wf (x0 ) . Take
B = Ux0 × Wy0 .
B is a basis element for the product topology on X × Y and for (x, y) B, you have that x
Ux0 and y Wy0 . Also x Ux0 implies that f (x) Wf (x0 ) and so y = f (x), thus
(x, y) 6 Graph(f ), which implies that (x, y) 6 U. Thus B U, and so U is open.
Hence
Graph(f ) is closed.
Theorem 3.13 (Urysohn’s Lemma). Let A and B be two disjoint closed subsets of a normal
space X. Then there exists a continuous function f : X I such that f (A) = 0 and f (B) = 1.
4 Conclusion
In this unit, you were introduced to five separation axioms, Hausdorff, Regular and normal
spaces. You also studied the concept of continuity and homeomorphism. You also proved some
important results which you have often used in you courses in analysis.
14
5 Summary SEPARATION AXIOMS
5 Summary
In this unit you now know that
(i) If X is a topological space, then X is
T0 : If for all x, y X with x = y, there exist an open set O such that either x O and
y 6 O or y O and x 6 O
T1 : If for all x, y X with x = y, there exist Ux N (x) such that y 6 Ux . Or there
exists Uy N (y) such that x 6 Uy
T2 : If for all x, y X with x = y, there exist Ux N (x), Uy N (y) such that
Ux Uy = . T2 spaces are called Hausdorff spaces.
T3 : If for every closed set F X and every x X such that x 6 F there exists open
sets UF , Ux X with F UF , x Ux such that UF Ux = .
T4 : if for any two closed sets E, F X with E F = there exists open sets UE , UF
X such that E UE , F UF and UE UF = .
(ii) X is a regular space if it is both T1 and T3 .
(iii) X is a normal space if it is both T1 and T4 . Also X is normal if and only if it is both
Hausdorff (T2 ) and T4 .
(iv) A function f : X Y between topological spaces X and Y is continuous if for every

open set V of Y, the preimage
f 1
(V ) = {x X : f (x) V
}
is open in X.
1
(v) f : X Y is a homeomorphism if f is bijective and f and f :Y X are continuous.
(vi) Topological spaces X and Y are homeomorphic if there exist a homeomorphism

f:X Y between them.
(vii) A sequence {xn } in a topological space is convergent to x X if given any neighbour-

hood V of x, we can find an integer N N such that for all n N, xn V.
(viii) In a Hausdorff space, every singleton is closed.
(ix) In a Hausdorff space, the limit of a convergent sequence is unique
(x) Urysohn’s lemma. If A and B be two disjoint closed subsets of a normal space X. Then
there exists a continuous function f : X I such that f (A) = 0 and f (B) = 1.
(xi) A topological space X is metrizable if its topological structure is generated by a certain

metric.
(xii) Every metrizable space is Hausdorff.

15
6 TMAs SEPARATION AXIOMS
6 TMAs
Exercise 6.1
1. Which of the following spaces is Hausdorff?
(a) The discrete space.

(b) The indiscret space.
(c) R with the finite complement topology.
(d) X = {a, b} endowed with the topology τ = { , X, {a}}
2. Which of the following spaces is not Hausdorff?
(a) R with the standard topology.

(b) R with the lower limit topology.
(c) R with the metric topology.
(d) R with the finite complement topology.
3. If {xn } be a sequence in R endowed with the finite complement topology. If {xn }

converges in R then
(a) the limit is unique.

(b) {xn } converges to only two points.
(c) {xn } converges to one point in R and one point outside R.
(d) {xn } converges to every element of R
4. In the finite complement topology of R, let the sequence {xn } be defined by xn = n, for
n N. If the limit of the sequence is x, then x must be
(a)
(b) 0
(c) a unique constant
(d) arbitrary in R
5. Which of the following spaces is not metrizable.
(a) Any discrete space

(b) X with the countable complement topology.
(c) R with the standard topology.
(d) R2 with the standard topology.
6. Which of the following is not true about T1 spaces
(a) Every singleton is closed

(b) Every finite set is closed
(c) Every Hausdorff space is T1 .
16
(d) Every T1 space is Hausdorff.
7. Let X be a topological space that satisfies the Kolmogorov axiom (T0 ). Which of the
following is not true about X ?
(a) Any two different points of X has different closures.

(b) X contains no indiscrete subspace consisting of two points.
(c) X contains no indiscrete subspace consisting of more than one point.
(d) X has an indiscrete subspace consisting of two points only.
8. Let X be a topological space. The X is regular if
(a) X is both T1 and T2 .

(b) X is T3 only
(c) X is both T2 and T3
(d) X is T2 only.
9. Which of the following spaces is not regular.
(a) R
(b) Q
(c) Z
(d) Every Hausdorff space X.
(Where R, Z and Q are with the standard topology on R.)
10. In what follows, answer true of false. (Justify you claims).

(a) Let f : R R be defined by

x 2 f or x 0
f (x) =

x+2 f or x 0
then f is continuous.
(b) The identity map
id : (X, Ω1 ) (X, Ω2 )
if and only if Ω2 Ω2 . Where Ω1 and Ω2 are topological structures on X.

(c) The function f : Rl R defined by
f (x) = x
is continuous. Where Rl denotes the lower limit topology on R and R is endowed

with the standard topology.
(d) Let f : R Rl be as defined in (c) above, with Rl and R are as in (c). Then f is
continuous.
(e) If X is T4 , then it must be T2 .
17
(f) Every normal space is both regular and Hausdorff.

(g) Every open and bounded interval (a, b) of R, a < b is homeomorphic to R.
(h) The closed and bounded interval [a, b] of R, is homeomorphic to [0, 1]
(i) X is Hausdorff if and only if the diagonal ∆ = {(x, x) : x X } is closed in
X × X.
1
18
2
UNIT 3: CATEGORY AND SEPARABILITY
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Objectives 2
3 Main Content 2
3.1 Dense Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1.1 Baire Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 The Axioms of Countability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2.1 Second Countablity axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.2 Separability and Separable Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.3 Sequence Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.4 Neighbourhood Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.5 First Countability Axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.6 Sequence Lemma Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Conclusion 10
5 Summary 10
6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) 11
1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you shall be introduced to the notion of category, separability and axioms of count-
ability. You shall be introduced with dense sets, and see some sets of the first and second
categories.
3
2 Objectives CATEGORY AND
SEPARABILITY
2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) identify dense sets and nowhere dense sets.
(ii) identify sets of first and second categories.
(iii) identify separable spaces spaces.
(iv) state the first and second countability axioms.
(v) identify first and second countable space.
(vi) state and prove the sequence lemma and its converse.
3 Main Content
3.1 Dense Sets

Definition 3.1 (Dense Sets) Let X be a topological space and let A and B be two subsets of
X. A is dense in B if B A. A is dense in X or everywhere dense in X if A = X.
Example 3.1 Q the set of rational numbers is a dense subset of R because Q = R.
Proof. Suppose Q = R. Then there exists an x R r Q. As R r Q is open in R, there exist

a, b with a < b such that x (a, b) R r Q. But in every interval (a, b) there is a rational
number q; that is q (a, b). So q R r Q which implies q R r Q. This is a contradiction,
as q Q. Hence Q = R.
Example 3.2 Let X = {a, b, c, d, e} and

τ = {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}}
It is easy to see that {b} = {b, e}, {a, c} = X, and {b, d} = {b, c, d, e}. Thus the set {a, c} is dense in
X.
Example 3.3 Let (X, τ ) be a discrete space. Then every subset of X is closed (since its com-
plement is open). Therefore the only dense subset of X is X itself, since each subset of X is its
own closure.
Theorem 3.1 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space, and let A be a subset of X. A is dense in X if
and only if every nonempty open subset U of X, A U = .
Proof. Assume that for all open set U of X, U A = . If A = X, then clearly A is dense in
X. If A = X, let x X r A. If U τ and x U then U A = . So x is a limit point of
A.
4
3.2 The Axioms of Countability CATEGORY AND
SEPARABILITY
As x is an arbitrary point in X r A, every point of X r A is a limit point of A. So X r A A0 ,

and then by theorem 3.8 of unit 1, A = A0 A = X ; that is, A is dense in X.
Conversely, assume A is dense in X. Let U be a nonempty open subset of X. Suppose
U A = . Then if x U, x 6 A and x is not a limit point of A, since U is an open set
containing x which does not contains any element of A. That is a contradiction since, as A
is dense in X, every element of X r A is a limit point of A. So the supposition is false and
U A = , as required.
Definition 3.2 ( Sets) A set is nowhere dense if the set A has empty interior.
Definition 3.3 Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, τ ). Let p X. The point p is an
isolated point a the set A if p A and there exist Up N (p) such that (A r {p}) Up = .
3.1.1 Baire Spaces
Definition 3.4 Let Y be a subset of a topological space (X, τ ). If Y is a union of a countable

number of nowhere dense subsets of X, then Y is said to be a set of the first category or meager.
If Y is not first category, it is said to be a set of the second category.
Definition 3.5 A topological space (X, T τ ) is said to be a Baire Space if for every sequence
{Xn } of open dense subsets of X, the set ∞n=1 is also dense in X.
Example 3.4 Every complete metric space is a Baire space.
3.2 The Axioms of Countability.
In this section, you shall be introduce to three restriction on the topological structure. These
are first and second countability axioms and the separability. Before proceeding to state these
axioms, you have the following important definition and results.
Definition 3.6 (Cardinality) Two sets A and B have equal cardinality if there exists a bijection
between them.
Definition 3.7 (Countable Sets) A set A is said to be a countable set if it has the same cardi-
nality as a subset of the set N of positive integers. While A is said to be at mmost countable if
it has the same cardinality as the set N of positive integers.
Results:
The following results will be stated without proof, because that is not the major interest here.
You can find the proofs in any good textbook on topology or analysis.
1. A set X is countable if and only if there exists an injection ϕ : X N (or, more

generally, an injection of X into another countable set).
5
SEPARABILITY
2. Any subset of a countable set is countable,
3. The image of a countable set under any map is countable.
4. Z is countable.
5. The set N2 = {(k, n) : k, n N} is countable.
6. The union of a countable family of countable sets is countable.
7. Q is countable.
8. R is not countable.
3.2.1 Second Countability axiom
First of all, you shall be introduced to the second countability axiom and separability.
Definition 3.8 (Second Countability axiom) A topological space X satisfies the second axiom
of countability or is second countable if X has a countable basis.
Example 3.5 R endowed with the standard topology is second countable. The basis
B = {(a, b), a < b, a, b Q} = Q × Q.
Hence is countable. Also

1 1
B= r ,r + ,r Q, n 1
n n
is a countable basis of R.
Example 3.6 R endowed with the lower limit topology is not second countable.
Example 3.7 The discrete topology of any uncountable set is not second countable.
Example 3.8 Not all metric spaces are second contable. For instance R with the discrete metric
i.e., 
 1 if x = y
ρ0 (x, y) =

0 if x = y
is not second countable.
6
SEPARABILITY
3.2.2 Separability and Separable Spaces.
Definition and Examples
Definition 3.9 (Separability) A topological space X is separable if it contains a countable

dense subset.
Example 3.9 R endowed with the standard topology is separable because Q is a countable
dense subset of R.
Example 3.10 Any infinite set X endowed with the finite complement topology is separable
since any infinite set is dense in X.
Example 3.11 The set of all points x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) with rational coordinates is a countable
dense subset in the metric space Rn . Hence Rn is separable.
Example 3.12 The set of all points x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xk , ...) with only finitely many nonzero
rational coordinates, is countably dense in the space
( ∞
)
X
l2 = x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xk , ..) : |xk |2 <
k=1
Hence, l2 is separable.
Example 3.13 The set of all polynomials with rational coefficients is countably dense in the
space C [a, b] of continuous real valued function. Hence C [a, b] is separable.
Theorem 3.2 Any second countable topological space X is separable.
Proof. Suppose X is second countable, then X contains a countable basis B = {Bn , n N}.
For each n N choose dn Bn and define D = {dn , n 1} then D is dense in X.
Remark 3.1 The converse of this theorem is not true in general. Notwithstanding in a metric
space, second countability and separability are equivalent.
Theorem 3.3 Let (X, d) be a separable metric space then X is second countable.
Proof. Since X is separable, D = {dn , n N} is a countable dense subset of X. Take

B = {B(dn , m), n
1
1, m 1} Then B is a countable basis for (X, d)
3.2.3 Sequence Lemma
Definition 3.10 A topological space (X, τ ) is metrizable if there exists a metric d on the set X
such that the topology τ on X is induced by d.
Theorem 3.4 (Sequence Lemma)
7
SEPARABILITY
1. Let X be a topological space, and A be a subset of X. If there exists a sequence {xn } of

elements of A converging to x X, then x A. The converse holds if X is metrizable.
2. Let X and Y be topological spaces, and f : X Y be a function. If the function f is
continuous, then for every sequence {xn } is in X such that {xn } converges to x X,
The sequence {f (xn )} converges to f (x) in Y. The converse is true if X is metrizable.
Proof.
1. Let x X. Suppose that there exists a sequence {xn } in A such that xn x, you have to
show that x A. Let U be a neighbourhood of x, xn as n implies that
there exist N N such that for all n N, xn U. In particular, xN U. But xN
A implies that U A = . which implies that x A.
Conversely, suppose that X is metrizable and x A. Let d be a metric for the topology
of X. For each n 1, the neighbourhood
1
B x, A= .
n
Choose xn B(x, n1 ) A for n 1. Then, {xn } is a sequence of points of A and
1
0 d(xn , x) < n
0 as n
which implies that xn x as n .
2. Assume that f is continuous. Let {xn } be a sequence in X such that xn x as n .

You have to show that f (xn ) f (x). Let V be a neighbourhood of f (x). Then f −1 (V )
is a neighbourhood of x, and so there exists N 1 such that xn f −1 (V ) for n N.
Then f (xn ) V for n N, which implies that f (xn ) f (x) as n as desired.
Conversely, assume that the convergence condition is satisfied. Let A be a subset of X.
You have to show that f is continuous, it suffices to show that f (A) f (A). If x A,
there exists a sequence {xn } of points of A converging to x (by seqence lemma). By
assumption the sequence the seqeunce {f (xn )} converges to f (x). Since f (xn ) f (A),
the sequence lemma implies that f (x) f (A), as desired.
3.2.4 Neighbourhood Basis
Definition 3.11 (Neighbourhood basis). Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and let x X.
The collection W is called a neighbourhood basis of the point x if the following conditions are
satisfied;
(i) W is a subcollection of neighbourhoods of x (W N (x)) i.e., for all W W, W

N (x).
(ii) For all V N (x), there exist W W such that W V.
8
SEPARABILITY
Example 3.14 Let R be endowed with the standard topology. Then for all x R,
W = {(x , x + ), > 0}
is a neighbourhood basis of x.
Proof.
(i) Let x X. Clearly, for all > 0, (x , x+ ) is a neighbourhood of x and so W N (x).

(ii) Let V N (x) then there exist an open set U such that x U V. This implies that
there exists > 0 such that (x ,x + ) U V.
Example 3.15 Let (X, d) be a metric space, let x X, then

W = {Bd (x, ), > 0}
is a neighbourhood basis in the metric topology.
Example 3.16 Let Rl denote the real line endowed with the lower limit topology. Let x X,
then
W = {[x, x + ), > 0}
is a neighbourhood basis for the lower limit topology on the real line.
Example 3.17 Let (X, τ ) be a discrete topololgical space. Then for all x X,
W = {{x}, x X}
is a neighbourhood basis of x in the discrete topology.
3.2.5 First Countability Axiom
Definition 3.12 (First Countability Axiom) A topological space X satisfies the first count-
ability axiom or is said to be first countable if any point x X has a countable neighbourhood
basis.
Example 3.18 Let R be endowed with the standard topology. For all x R define
1 1
W= x ,x + :n 1
n n
or
W = {(x r, x + r), r > 0, r Q}
In each case, W is a countable neighbourhood basis of x. Thus R is first countable.
Example 3.19 Let R be endowed with the lower limit topology. For all x R, define
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W= x, x + 1
n ,n 1 .
Then W is a countable neighbourhood basis for x. Hence, R with the lower limit topology is
first countable.
Example 3.20 Let (X, d) be a metric space. for every x X, define
W= B x, 1 :n 1
n
or
W = {B(x, r) : r > 0, r Q}
Then in each case, W is a countable neighbourhood basis of x. Thus every metric space is first
countable.
Theorem 3.5 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. If X is second countable, then X is first
countable.
Proof. Assume that X is second countable, then X has a countable basis B = {bn , n N}.
Let x X, and define
W = {Bx , x Bn }
then W B, so that W is countable.
1. For all Bn W, Bn N (x).

2. Let V N (x), this implies that there exists an open set U such that x U V. This
implies that there exists Bnx W such that x Bnx U V, so that Bnx V
Thus W is a countable neighbourhood of x. Hence X is first countable
3.2.6 Sequence Lemma Revisited
Recall that in the sequence lemma which you proved above, It says that if A is subset of a
topologicals space X and there exists a sequences {xn } of points of A such that xn x in X as
n , then x A. And you proved the converse in a metrizable space. This tells that the
implication ( )
If {xn } is a sequence in A such that xn x in X, then x A
is true in any topological space. But the converse
If x A then there exists a sequence {xn } of A such that xn x
is only true if X is a metrizable space.

Similarly for the continuous function f : X Y, sequential continuity holds for topological
spaces X and Y, i.e.,
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f is continuous for all sequence {xn } of X such that xn x in X, f (xn ) f (x) in Y.
The converse i.e.,
For a sequence {xn } of X such tha if xn x implies that f (xn ) f (x) then f is continuous;
holds if and only if X is metrizable.

In what follows, you shall discorver that if X is a first countable space the X also recorvers
the converse of the sequence lemma. i.e., the converses of the sequential closure and the se-
quential continuity.
Before you proceed, the following lemma will be usefull.
Lemma 3.1 Let X be a topological space and let x X. Suppose X is first countable, then
there exist a countable basis of x, say, W = {Wn , n 1} such that Wn+1 Wn .
Proof. Let x X. Since X is first countable then there exists a countable neighbourhood
basis V = {Vn , n 1} of x. Define for each n 1,
n
\
Wn = Vi
i=1
and let W = {Wn , n 1} Then
(i) W is countable.
(ii) Wn N (x), for each n 1, because finite intersection of neighbourhoods of a point x
is also a neighbourhood of x.
(iii) Let V N (x), there exists N N such that VN V and x VN V. But
N
\
WN = Vi VN V.
i=1
Thus for every V N (x) there exist N such that WN W and WN V.

n+1
\ n
\ n
\
(iv) Wn+1 = Vi = Vn+1 Vi Vi = Wn . That is Wn+1 Wn .
i=1 i=1 i=1
Thus W is a countable neighbourhood basis of x that satisifies Wn+1 Wn , n 1.
Theorem 3.6 Let X be a first countable topological space and A be a subset of X. Then if
x A, there exists a sequence {xn } of A such that xn x as n .
Proof. Since X is first countable, from lemma 3.1, there exists a countable neighbourhood
W = {Wn , n 1} such that Wn+1 Wn . Now let x A. This implies that for all n 1,
Wn A = . Let xn Wn A. Then {xn } is a sequence of points of A.
Claim: xn x as n
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4 Conclusion CATEGORY AND
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Proof of Claim: Let V N (x). Then there exists N N such that x WN V and for
all n N,
xn Wn WN V.
This implies that for all n N, xn V. Hence xn x as n . And the proof is complete.
Theorem 3.7 Let X and Y be two topological spaces. And let f : X Y be a function.
Suppose X is first countable. If for every sequence {xn } of X such that xn x in X as n
, one has that f (xn ) f (x) in Y then f is continuous.
Proof. It suffices to prove that if F is closed subset of Y, then the preimage f −1 (F ) is

closed in X, i.e., f −1 (F ) = f −1 (F ). But you have already that f −1 (F ) f −1 (F ), so it is
−1 −1 −1
left for you to show that f (F ) f (F ). So let x f (F ), Since X is first countable,
you have by seqeunce lemma that there exist a sequence {xn } of points of f −1 (F ) such that
xn x as n . This implies that f (xn ) is a sequence of elements of F, and by assumption,
f (xn ) f (x) in Y. Since F is closed, F = F and so f (x) F, that is x f −1 (F ). Thus
−1 −1 −1
f (F ) f (F ) as required. Therefore, f (F ) is closed in X. Hence f is continuous.
4 Conclusion
In this unit you were introduced to dense sets, sets of first and second category, and Baire spaces.
You also studied the axioms of countability and separability and saw some examples of spaces
that satisfy some of the axioms. You were able to prove that a first countable space satisfies the
converse of the sequence lemma.
5 Summary
(i) A subset A of a topological X is dense in B X if B A. A is everywhere dense in X

if A = X, while A is nowhere dense in X if int(A) = .
(ii) A subset Y of a topological space X is of the first category if Y is a countable union of

sets of nowhere dense subsets of X. Otherwise Y is of the second category.
(iii) A set is countable if it has the same cardinality with at least a subset of a countable set.
(iv) A point p X is called an isolated point of a subset A of a topological space X if there
exists a neighbourhood U of p such that (A r {p}) U = .
(v) W is a neighbourhood basis of a point x X if
(a) for all W W, W N (x).
(b) V N (x) then there exists W W such that W V.
(vi) A topological space is first countable if it contains a countable neighbourhood basis.
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6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) CATEGORY AND
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(vii) A topological space is second countable if it contains a countable basis.
(viii) A topological space is separable if it contains a countable dense subset.
(ix) Every second countable space is first countable.
(x) Every second countable space if separable. The converse is true if the space is metrizable.
(ix) A topological space X is metrizable if its topological structures can be generated by a

metric.
(x) Sequence Lemma

(a) If there exists a sequence {xn } of elements of a subset A of a topological space X,
such that xn x X, then x A.
(b) If f : X Y is continuous, then for all sequence {xn } of elements of X, such that
xn x in X then f (xn ) f (x) in Y.
The converse of the sequence lemma is true if X is either first countable or metrizable.

Exercise 6.1
1. X = {a, b, c, d, e} and
τ = {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}}
Let A = {a, c}. The set A0 of limit points of A is given by
(a) A0 = {b, c, e}
(b) A0 = {b, d, e}
(c) A0 = {b, e}
(d) A0 = X
2. Let R the real line be endowed with the discrete topology. Which of the following subsets
of R is dense in R?
(a) Q
(b) R itself
(c) Qc .
(d) All singletons.
3. Let A = (0, 1] {2} be a subset of R. Then the isolated points of A in R are
(a) 0 and 1
(b) 0 and 2
(c) 1 and 2
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(d) 2 only
4. For the set A in question 3, Which of the following are the limit points of A?
(a) 0 and 1
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 0 only
(d) 2 only
5. In R with the standard topology, which of the following sets is nowhere dense?
(a) Qc
(b) {1, 1 2, 1 ,3..., 1 n, ...}
(c) (0, 1)
(d) [0, 1)
6. The minimal neighbourhood basis of a point x in the discrete topology contains

(a) the whole set X and the empty set only.
(b) Only the singletons.
(c) All open sets of X only.
(d) The whole set X only.
7. The minimal neighbourhood of a point x in the indiscrete topology contains

(a) the whole set X and the empty set only.
(b) Only the singletons.
(c) The empty set only.
(d) The whole set X only.
8. Which of the following spaces is second countable?
(a) R with the finite complement topology.

(b) R with the countable complement topology.
(c) R with the lower limit topology.
(d) N with the discrete topology.
9. Which of the following spaces is not first countable?
(a) R endowed with the lower limit topology.

(b) R endowed with the finite complement topology.
(c) R endowed with the discrete topology.
(d) Q endowed with the indiscrete topology.
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UNIT 4: COMPACTNESS
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Objectives 2
3 Compact Sets and Spaces 2

3.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1.1 Compactness in Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.2 Heine-Borel Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Finite Intersection Property (FIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Compactness and Continuous function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.1 The Extremum Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 Limit Point and Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.1 Limit Point Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.2 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5 Locally Compactness and One-point Compactification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5.1 Local Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5.2 One-point Compactification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Conclusion 15
5 Summary 15
6 Tutor Marked Assignments(TMAs) 16
1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you shall be introduced to a topological property playing a very special and impor-
tant role in topology and its application. It is a sort of topological counterpart for the property
of being finite in the context of set theory.
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16
Objectives CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
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2 Objectives
(i) Give the definition of Covers and subcorvers.
(ii) Define compact sets, subsets and compact spaces.
(iii) Give the sequential characterization of compactness.
(iv) Identify sequentially, countably and locally compact sets.
3 Compact Sets and Spaces
3.1 Definition and Examples
Definition 3.1 (Covering and Open Cover) A collection A of subsets of X is said to be a

corvering of X, If the union of the elements of A is X. i.e.,
[
X= Oi
i I
where Ui A for all i I , (I is an index set). A is called open covering if its elements are
open subsets of X.
Definition 3.2 (Subcover) If A is a covering of X and O A is also a covering of X, then O

is a subcover or subcovering of A.
Definition 3.3 (Compact Set) A topological space X is compact if every open covering of X
is reducible to a finite subcovering.
That is A topological space X is compact if for every open covering {Oi }i I , there exists a
finite subfamily Oi1 , Oi2 , ..., Oin such that such that
n
[
X= Oik
k=1
Definition 3.4 Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then A is said to be compact if for
every family of open sets {Oi }i I such that
[
A Oi ,
i I
there exists a finite subfamily Oi1 , Oi2 , ..., Oin such that
n
[
A Oi k .
k=1
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2
18
63.1
Tutor Marked Assignments
Definitions and Examples(TMAs) CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
SEPARABILITY
Example 3.1 Let X be endowed with the indiscrete topology. Then X is compact.
Proof. In the indiscrete topology, the only open covering of X is the and X itself. Hence,
X is compact.
Example 3.2 The real line R endowed with the standard topology is not compact.
Proof. It suffices to produce an open covering of R which cannot be reducible to a finite

subcovering. Now
[
R= ( n, n)
n=1
If there exist a finite open subcover, then there exists n1 , n2 , ..., nm such that
m
[
R= ( ni , ni ) = ( N, N )
i=1
Where N = max ni . Which is impossible. Hence R is not compact.

1 i m
Example 3.3 Let A = (0, 1]. Then A is not compact in R.
Proof. In (0, 1] we have the trace topology (i.e., subspace topology) {( n1 , 2), n N} is an
open covering of
[ 1
(0, 1] = ,2
n=1
n
Suppose that (0, 1] is compact, then there exists n1 , ..., nm such that
m
[ 1 1
(0, 1] = ,2 = ,2
i=1
ni N
Where N = max ni , which is a contradiction. Hence (0,1] is not compact.

1 i m
Example 3.4 + = (0, + ) is not compact.

R
Proof. Suppose that R is compact, {( 1 , n), n N} is an open covering of such that

+ R n +
[ 1
R+ = ,n
n=1
n
So there exist ni , ..., nm such that

m
[ 1 1
R+ = ,n = ,N
i=1
ni i N
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Where N = max ni . This is imposible

1 i m
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Example 3.5 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and let (xn ) be a sequence of points of X such
that xn x in X, then {xn , n 1} {x} is compact.
Example 3.6 Any finite set of a topological set (X, τ ) is compact
Proof. Let A X be a finite set, the the elements of A can be listed, i.e., A = {x1 , x2 , ..., xn }.
Let {Oi }i I be an open covering for A, i.e.,
[
A Oi
i I
The for each xj A, choose an open set Oij such that xj Oij . Thus
n
[
A Oi j
j=1
Remark 3.1 So you see from example 3.6 that every finite set (in a topological space) is com-
pact. Indeed, as earlier mentioned in the begining of this unit, “compactness” can be thought as
a topological genralization of “finiteness”.
Example 3.7 A subset A of a discrete space is compact if and only if it is finite.
Proof. If A is finite then Example 3.6 shows that it is compact.

Conversely, let A be compact. Then the family of singleton sets Ox = {x}, x A is
such that each Ox is open and [
A Ox .
x A
Since A is compact, there exist x1 , x2 , ..., xn such that

n
[
A Ox i ;
i=1
that is A {x1 , ..., xn

}
Theorem 3.1 Any closed and bounded interval in R is compact.
Proof. Let [a, b]a < b be a closed and bounded interval of R Let {Oi }i I a family of open
sets of R such that [
[a, b] Oi
i I
Step 1: Suppose a x < b. Then there exists y > x such that [x, y] can be covered by at
0
most two
i O s. For this end, if x has an immediate successor y, then the interval [x, y] has
only two elements, so it can be covered by at most
i two U 0 s. If x does not have an immediate
successor, find Ui containing x. Pick z > x such that [x, z) Ui ; this is possible because Ui is
open. Since x does not have an immediate successor, there is y such that x < y < z. Then [x, y]
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Ui .
Step 2: Now let
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A = {y (a, b] : [a, y] can be covered by finitely many Ui }
By step 1, there exists an element y > a such that [a, y] can be covered at most by two U i0 s.
Therefore A is nonempty and bounded above. Let c = sup A.
Step 3: Claim: c A.
Let i such that c Ui . Since Ui is open and c > a, there exists an interval (d, c] Ui . Since d
cannot be an upper bound for A, there is an element of A larger that d. Let z such that d < z < c.
Then [a, c0 ] can be covered by finitely many U i0 s and [c0 , c] Ui . Therefore [a, c] = [a, c0 ] [c0 , c]
can be covered by finitely many Ui0s. Hence c A.
Step 4: Claim: c = b. Suppose c < b. By step 1, there exist y > c such that [c, y] can be
covered by at most two Ui0 s. Since c A, [a, c] can be covered by finitely many U 0is. So [a, y] =
[a, c] [c, y] can be covered by finitely many U 0is and therefore y A. This contradicts the fact
that c = sup . Hence c = b.
Theorem 3.2 A closed subset A of a compact topological space (X, τ ) is compact.
Proof. Let {Oi }i I be a family of open subsets of X such that

[
A Oi .
i I
Now [
X =A Ac = Oi Ac
i I
Since X is compact, there exists i1 , ..., im such that

m
[
X= Oi j Ac .
j=1
This implies that

m
[
A Oi j
j=1
Hence, A is compact.
Theorem 3.3 If A is a compact subset of a Hausdorff topological space (X, τ ), then A is

closed.
Proof. Suppose A is a compact subset of X and let x Ac . Then for all y A, x = y. Since
X is Hausdorff, there exist Uy open in X and contains x, Vy open in X and contains y such that
Uy Vy = . So [
A Vy .
y A
Since A is compact, there exists y1 , ..., ym such that

m
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[
A Vy i
i=1
24
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Let
m
\
U= Uyi
i=1
and
m
[
V = Vy i
i=1
Then U is open and contains x, V is open and contains A, and U V = . This implies that
U A = , that is U Ac . Thus Ac is open. Hence A is
closed.
In the course of the proof of theorem 3.3, you proved the following result.
Theorem 3.4 Let A be a compact subset of a Hausdorff topological space X and let x X.
Then there exist open sets U and V with A V and x U such that V U = .
This result is the third separation axiom T3 .
Theorem 3.5 Let A and B be compact subsets of a Hausdorff topological space X such that
A B = . Then there exists open sets U and V with A U and B V such that U V =
.
3.1.1 Compactness in Product Spaces
Theorem 3.6 (Tube Lemma) Let X × Y be the product topology. Suppose that Y is compact.
If W is an open subset of X × Y containing {x} × Y for some x X, then it contains some
tube U × Y around {x} × Y. Where U is an open set containing x.
X
tube
Ux Y
{x} x Y
Figure 1: Tube Lemma
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Proof. Observe that {x} × Y = Y, and since Y is compact, {x} × Y is compact. Now for
each y Y, you have (x, y) {x} × Y W. Therefore, there exists open sets Uy containing
26
63.1
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x, Vy containing y such that (x, y) Uy × Vy W. Thus {Uy × Vy , y Y } is an open cover of

{x} × Y. Since {x} × Y is compact, there exists y1 , ..., yn such that
n
[
{x} × Y Uyi × Vyi
i=1
Take n
\
U= Uy1 .
i=1
Then U is open, it contains x and {x} × Y U ×Y W. For if (z, y) U × Y, you have

that z U and y Y. y Y implies that there exists i0 such that y Vyi0 . This implies that z
Uyi0 and (z, y) Uyi0 × Vyi0 W.
Theorem 3.7 A finite product

n
Y
Xi
i=1
of compact spaces {Xi }i=1

n is compact.
This theorem is called the Tychonoff product theorem. The converse of the Tychonoff product
theorem is also true.
Proof. You can prove this for a product X × Y of two compact spaces X and Y. The
generalization follows by induction. So let {Wi }i I be a family of open sets of the
product topology, such that [
X ×Y Wi
i I
Let x X be fixed. You have that

[
{x} × Y X ×Y Wi
i I
{x} × Y is compact since Y is, and so there exists i1 , ..., im such that
m
[
{x} × Y Wij = Wx
j=1
By tube lemma, there exists an open set Ux containing x such that {x} × Y Ux × Y Wx .
And so [
X Ux .
x X
Since X is compact, there exists x1 , ..., xn such that

n
[
X Uxi
i=1
Therefore,
[n [n n [
[ m
X ×Y (Ux i ×Y) Wx i
W ij
i=1 i=1 i=1 j=1
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Hence, X × Y is compact.
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63.2
Tutor Marked
Finite Assignments
Intersection (TMAs)
Property (FIP) CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
SEPARABILITY
3.1.2 Heine-Borel Theorem
Theorem 3.8 A subset A of Rn is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.
Proof. ( ) Let Rn be endowed with the euclidean metric
n
!1
X 2
d(x, y) = (xi yi )2
i=1
Assume A is compact the A is closed since Rn is Hausdorff. Also {B(0, n), n N} is a family
of open sets of Rn and
[
A B(0, n)
n=1
Where B(0, n) = {y R : d(y, 0) < n} is the open ball with center 0 and radius n. By the
compactness of A, there exists n1 , ..., nk such that
k
[
A B(0, ni ) B(0, N )
i=1
where N = max ni . Hence A is bounded.

1 i k
( ) Suppose A is closed and bounded in Rn , and show that A is compact. It suffices

to show that A is a subset of a compact set. But A is bounded implies that there exist R > 0
such that n
Y
A B(0, R) [ R, R]
i=1
n
Y
each [ R, R] is compact in R and so [ R, R] is compact as a finite product of compact
sets.
i=1
And so A is a closed subset of a compact set, therefore, A is compact.
Remark 3.2 Note that the above theorem was proved in Rn . In an arbitrary metric space, what
you have is that any compact space is closed and bounded but the converse is not true.
3.2 Finite Intersection Property (FIP)
Definition 3.5 Finite intersection Property (FIP). Let X be a a topological space. A collec-
tion C of subsets of X satisfies the Finite Intersection Property (FIP) if any intersection of a
finite subcollection of C is nonempty.
\
C = {Ai , i I } satisfy FIP if for any J Pf (I ), Ai = .
i J
Where Pf (I ) (finite part of I ) denotes a the set of all finite indexes of I .
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30
63.2
Tutor Marked
Finite Assignments
Intersection (TMAs)
Property (FIP) CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
SEPARABILITY
Theorem 3.9 A topological space X is compact if and only if collection C = {Ci : i I}

of closed sets having the FIP, one has that
\
Ci =
.
i I
Proof. ( ) Let X be a compact set and C = {Ci , i I } be a collection of closed sets of X

having the finite intersection property, i.e., for all J Pf (I ) such that
\
Ci =
i J
You have to show that \

Ci = .
i I
Suppose
\
Ci = .
i I
Then
[
X= (X r Ci ).
i I
Each X r Ci is open since Ci is closed, thus, {X r Ci , i I } is an open covering for X

and since X is compact, there exists J0 Pf (I ) such that
[
X = (X r Ci ).
i J
This implies that \

Ci =
i J
contradicting the assumption that C satisfies F I P. Hence our supposition was wrong. Therefore
\
Ci =
i J
Corollary 3.1 Let X be a compact space and let {Cn , n 1} be a collection of

nonempty closed sets such that Cn+1 Cn . Then
\
Cn =
.
n
1
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Proof. Let n1 , ..., np N, since Cn+1 Cn , and each Cn is nonempty, then
p
\
Cni = CN = .
i=1
Where N = max ni This implies that {Cn , n 1 satisfies the F I P. So by the last theorem,
1 i p }
\
Cn =
n
1
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63.3
Compactness (TMAs)
and Continuous function CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
SEPARABILITY
Theorem 3.10 If X is a compact Hausdorff space having no isolated points, then X is un-
countable.
Proof. Step 1: First show that given any nonempty open set of X and any point x of X, there
exists a nonempty set V contained in U such that x 6 V.
Choose a point y U different from x, this is possible if x in U because x is not an isolated

point of X and it is also possible if x in not in U simply because U is nonempty. Now choose
disjoint neighbourhood W1 and W2 of x and y respectively. Then take V = U W2 .
Step 2: Let f : N X. Then show that f is not injective.
Let xn = f (n). Apply step 1 to the nonempty open set U = X to choose a nonempty open set V1
such that x1 6 V 1 . In general, given Vn 1 , an nonempty open set, choose Vn to be a
nonempty open set such that Vn Vn 1 and cn 6 V n . Consider the nested sequence {V 1 }
of nonempty closed sets of X. Since X is compact, there exists a point x V n . Now if f is
surjective, then there exists n such that f (n) = xn = x, which implies that xn V n.
Contradiction.
Corollary 3.2 Every closed and bounded interval of R is uncountable.
3.3 Compactness and Continuous function
Theorem 3.11 Let X and Y be topological space, and let f : X Y be a function. If X is

compact and f is continuous, the f (X ) is compact.
Proof. Let {Vi }i I be a family of open sets of Y such that

[
f (X ) Vi
i I
This implies that [

1 1
X f (f (X )) f (Vi )
i I
By the continuity of f, {f 1
(Vi I is a family of open sets of X, and since X is compact,
)}i m
[
there exists i1 , ..., im such that 1
X f (Vji )
j=1
which implies that

m
! m m
[ [ [
1 1
f (X ) f f (Vij ) f (f (Vij )) = Vij
H X ) is j=1
i.e., en compact.
ce
,f
(
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j=1 j=1
m
[
f (X ) Vi j
j=1
This theorem says that the continuous image of a compact set is compact.
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Theorem 3.12 Let f : X Y be a continuous bijective function. If X is compact and Y is

Hausdorff, then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof. Let F be a closed subset of X. Since X is compact, you have by theorem 3.2 that F is
compact. Also by the continuity of f, and theorem 3.6, you have that f (F ) is compact. Since
Y is Hausdorff, theorem 3.3 gives you that f (F ) is closed in Y. And since f is a bijection, f 1
exists and is continuous.
3.3.1 The Extremum Value Theorem
Theorem 3.13 The Extremum Value Theorem Let f : X Y be continuous, where Y is an

ordered set in the order topology. If K is a compact subset of X, then there exists points c̄ and
c in K such that
f (c) = min f (x) and f (c̄) = max f (x)

x K x K
Proof. Since f is continuous, and K is compact, the set A = f (K ) is compact. So you can
show that A has a largest element M and a smallest element m. Then since m and M belongs
to A, you have to show that m = f (c) and M = f (c̄) for some points c and c̄ in K.
By contradiction, assume that A has no largest element, then the collection
{( , a)|a
A}
forms an open cover of A. Since A is compact, some finite subcover ( , a1 ), ..., ( , an

)
covers A. If ai0 is the largest of the elements, a1 , ..., an then ai0 belongs to none of these sets,
contrary to the fact that they cover A (because ai0 A). A similar argument shows that A has
a smallest element.
Definition 3.6 Lebesgue Number Let A be an open cover of X. δ is a Lebesgue number on A

if for all subsets A of X such that the diameter of A is less than δ, there exists U A such that
A U.
Theorem 3.14 Let (X, d) be a metric space, Let A = {Ui , i I } be an open cover of X. If X
is compact, then there exists δ > 0 such that any subset of X, having diameter less than δ is
contained in one of the U i0 s.
Proof. Let A = {Ui , i I } be an open cover of X such that

[
X= Ui
i I
1
If X A, then any positive number is a lebesgue number of A. So you can assume that Ui ( X.
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Take Ci = X r Ui and define f : X R by
n
X
f (x) = d(x, Ci )
n i=1
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and Sequential Compactness CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
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Now for any x X, there exist i0 I such that x Ui0 . Since Ui0 is open, that there exists
> 0 such that B(x, ) Ui0 . If y Ci0 then y 6 Ui0 , i.e., y 6 B(x, ) which implies
that
d(x, y) and so d(x, Ci0 ) , thus f (x)
/n.
Since f is continuous on X (which is compact), then f has a minumum value δ > 0. You
now have to show that δ is the Lebesgue number. For this let A be a subset on X of diameter
less than δ. Choose x0 B, then A B(x0 , δ). Now
δ f (x0 ) d(x0 ,
Cm )
where d(x0 , Cm ) is the largest of the number d(x0 , Ci ). Then B(x0 , δ) Um , as desired.
Definition 3.7 Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. A function f : (X, dX ) (Y, dY )
is said to be uniformly continuous if given any > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that for every
pairy of points x1 , x2 of X,
dX (x1 , x2 ) < δ implies that dY (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) <
Theorem 3.15 Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces and let f : X Y be continuous. If
X is compact then f is uniformly continuous.
Proof. Let > 0 be given. {BY (y, /2), y Y } is an open covering of Y. So that
{f (BY (y, /2)), y Y } is an open covering of X, and has a Lebegue number δ since X
1
is compact. Let x1 , x2 be points of X such that d(x1 , x2 ) < δ. This implies that diameter
({x1 , x2 }) < δ. Thus {x1 , x2 } f 1 (B(y0 , /2)) and so f (x1 ), f (x2 ) B(y0 , /2). There-
fore,
d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) d(f (x1 ), y0 ) + d(f (x2 ), y0 ) < + = .
2 2
i.e., d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) < as desired.
3.4 Limit Point and Sequential Compactness
3.4.1 Limit Point Compactness
Definition 3.8 A space X is said to be limit point compact if every infinite subset of X has a
limit point.
Theorem 3.16 Any compact space is limit point compact, but not conversely.
Proof. Let X be a compact space. Given a subset A of X, the goal is to prove that if A is
infinite, then A has a limit point. The proof is done by contraposition. That is If A has no limit
point then A must be finite.
Suppose that A has no limit point. Then A is closed. Since X is compact. Furthermore, for
each a A, you can choose an open neighbourhood Ua of a such that Ua intersects A in the
point a alone. The subspace A is covered by the open cover {Ua : a A}; being compact, it
can be covered by finitely many of these sets. Each Ua contains only one point of A, the set A
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The next is to show that for metrizable spaces, these two versions of compactness coincides.
That is (X, ρ) is compact if and only if (X, ρ) is limit point compact. To this end, you shall
be introduced to another version of compactness called sequential compactness.
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3.4.2 Sequential Compactness
Definition 3.9 A topological space X is said to be sequentially compact if every sequence of

points of X has a convergence subsequence.
Theorem 3.17 Let X be a metrizable space. Then the following are equivalent.
1. X is compact.
2. X is limit point compact.
3. X is sequentially compact.
Proof. You have already shown that (1) (2) in theorem 3.14. To prove that (2) (3),
assume that X is limit point compact. Given a sequence (xn ) of points of X, consider the
set A = {xn : n 1}. If the set A is finite, then there is a point x such that xn = x
for infinitely many values of n. In this case, the sequence (xn ) has a subsequence that is
constant, and therefore converges. On the other hand, if A is infinite, then A has a limit point x.
Define a subsequence of (xn ) converging to x as follows. First choose n1 so that
xn1 B(x, 1)
Then suppose the positive integer ni 1 is given. Because the ball B(x, 1/i) intersects A in
infinitely many points, you can choose an index ni > ni 1 such that
xni B(x, 1/i)
Then the subsequence (xnk ) converges to x.
Finally you have to show that (3) (1). This is the hardest part of the proof. First, show
that if X is sequentially compact, then the Lebesgue number holds for X. (This would form
compactness, and compactness is what you want to prove.) Let A be an open cover of X.
Assume that there exist no δ > 0 such that each set of diameter less that δ has an element of A
containing it.
Your assumption implies in particular that for each positive integer n, there exists a set of
diameter less than 1/n that is not contained in any element of A. Let Cn be such set. Choose
a point xn Cn for each n. By hypothesis, some subsequence {xnk } of the sequence {xn
} converges, say to a point a. Now a is in some element U of the open cover A. Because
U is open, you may choose > 0 such that B(a, ) U. Let k be sufficiently large such
that
1/nk < /2 and d(xnk , a) < /2, then there exists Cnk B(a, ). Contradiction.
Secondly, you have to show that if X is sequentially compact, then given , there exists a
finite cover of X balls. Once again, proceed by contradiction. Assume that there exists an
> 0 such that X cannot be covered by finitely many ball. Construct a sequence of points xn
as follows: First, choose x1 to be any point of X. Noting that the ball B(x1 , ) = X (otherwise
X could be covered by a single ball) choose x2 to be a point of X not in B(x1 , ). In general,
given x1 , ..., xn , choose xn+1 to be a point of X not in the union
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Compactness and(TMAs) CATEGORY ANDCOMPACTNESS
One-point Compactification
SEPARABILITY
using the fact that these ball do not cover X. By construction d(xn+1 , xi ) for i = 1, ...,
n.
Therefore, the sequence (xn ) can have no convergent subsequence. In fact any ball of radius
/2 can contain xn for at most one value of n.
Finally, show that if X is sequentially compact, then X is compact. Let A be an open cover
of X. Because X is sequentially compact, then the open cover A has a Lebesgue number δ. Let
= δ/3; using sequentially compact of X to find a finite cover of X by balls. Each of these
balls has diameter at most 2δ/3, so it lies in an element of A. Choosing one such element of A
for each of these balls, you obtain a finite subcollection of A that covers X.
3.5 Locally Compactness and One-point Compactification

3.5.1 Local Compactness
Definition 3.10 A topological space X is locally compact if each point of X has a neighbour-
hood with compact closure.
Example 3.8 R the real line endowed with the standard topology is locally compact because
for all x R, (x 1, x + 1) is a neighbourhood of x whose closure is the closed and bounded
interval [x 1, x + 1] of R, which is compact by theorem 2.1.
Example 3.9 The sets Z, and N are locally compact sets in R but are not compact.
Example 3.10 In R, Q the set of rational numbers is not locally compact. Theorem
3.18 Every compact space is locally compact.
Proof. Let x X and U be a neighbourhood of x. Suppose X is compact, then U is a closed

subset of a compact space, and hence is compact.
3.5.2 One-Point Compactification
Let (X, Ω) be a Hausdorff topological space. Let X be the set obtained by adding a point
x to X (of course, x does not belong to X ). Let Ω be the collection of subsets of X
consisting of
• sets open in X and
• sets of the form X r C, where C X is a compact set. i.e.,
Ω =Ω {X rC : C X is a compact set}.
Then
1. Ω is a topological structure on X .
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3. The inclusion (X, Ω) , (X , Ω ) is a topological embedding.
4. If X is locally compact, then the space (X , Ω ) is Hausdorff.
Definition 3.11 A topological embedding of a space X into a compact space Y is a compactifi-

catioin of X if the image of X is dense in Y. In this situation, Y is also called a compactification
of X.
If X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, and Y is a compactification of X with one-point

Y r X, then there exists a homeomorphism Y X which is the identity on X.
Definition 3.12 Any space Y that satisfy the above condition is called a one-point compactifi-
cation or Alexandrov compactification of X.
4 Conclusion
In this unit you have studied compactness; covers, compact sets and subsets of compact spaces
and proved some important results as regards to compactness, some of them you have always
used in its special case in your studies in Analysis and calculus. You were also introduced to
the notions of limit point, sequentially and locally compactness and one-point compactification.
5 Summary
(i) A collection A = {Ui , i I } of open subsets of a topological space X is an open

[
covering of X if X = Ui
i I
(ii) A topological space X is compact if every open covering of X can be reducible to a finite
subcovering.
(iii) Every finite set is compact.
(iv) The real line R is not compact.
(v) Any closed and bounded interval of R is compact.
(vi) Any closed subset of a compact space is compact.
(vii) Any compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
(viii) A finite product of compact spaces is compact.
(ix) Any compact set of a metric space is closed and bounded.
(x) In the metric space Rn compactness and closed and bounded are equivalent. This is the
Heine Borel theorem
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(xi) A collection C of subsets of a topological space X satisfies the Finite Intersectiion Prop-
erty (FIP) if any intersection of a finite subcollection of C is nonempty.
(xii) A topological space X is compact if and only if any collection C of closed sets of X
satisfying the FIP, one has that the arbitrary intersection is nonempty.
(xiii) The continuous image of a compact set is compact.
(xiv) If K is a compact subset of a topological space X and f is a continuous function from

X to an ordered space Y then f attains its maximum and minimum on K. This result is
called the Extreme Value Theorem.
(xv) δ is a Lebesgue number on an open cover A of X if for all subsets A of X such that
diameter of is less that δ, there exists U A such that A U.
(xvi) A continuous function f from a compact metric space X to another metric space Y is
uniformly continuous.
(xvii) A space X is called limit point compact if every infinite subset of X has a limit point.
(xviii) A topological space is sequentially compact if every sequence of points of X has a con-
vergent subsequence.
(xix) A topological space X is locally compact if each point of X has a neighbourhood with
compact closure.
(xx) A topological embedding of a space X into a space Y is a compactification of X if the

image of X is dense in Y. In such situation, Y is also called a compactification of X
(xxi) A space Y is called one-point compactification of X if X is a locally compact Hausdorff

space, and Y is a compactification of X with one-point Y r X, such that there exists a
homeomorphism Y X which is identity on X.

1. Which of the following spaces is not compact?
(a) Every discrete space.

(b) Every indiscrete space.
(c) Any finite space.
(d) A finite discrete space.
2. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) Any closed subset of a compact space is compact.

(b) Any compact subset of a Hausdorff space is compact.
(c) Any finite set is compact.
(d) Any closed and bounded set of a metric space is compact.
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3. Which of the following sets is compact in R?
(a) [0, 1] Q
(b) [0, 1] Qc
(c) [0, 1)
(d) [0, 1]
4. Let f : [a, b] R be a continuous function. Then f ([a, b]) is
(a) closed but not bounded.

(b) bounded but not closed.
(c) neither closed nor bounded.
(d) closed and bounded.
5. Which of the following sets is not compact?
(a) S 1 = {(x, y) R2 : x2 + y2 = 1} = 1}
(b)
x2 = {(x1 , x2 , ..., xn , xn+1
Sn )Rn+1 : x2 + x2 + ··· + x2 +
1 2 n n+1
(c) Rn+ = {(x1 , ..., xn ) Rn : x1 0, ..., xn 0}
(d) A = {x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) : xi = 0 i = 1, 2, ..., n}
6. Let X = [0, 1) [2, 3] be a subspace of the standard topology on R. The subset A = [0, 1)
of X is
(a) closed, bounded and compact in X.
(b) closed, bounded and not compact in X.
(c) closed and compact in X.
(d) bounded and compact in X.
7. In an arbitray metric space (X, ρ)
(a) every closed and bounded set is compact.
(b) every compact set is closed and bounded.
(c) every bounded set is compact.
(d) every closed set is compact.
8. Let A0 be the closed and bounded interval [0, 1] in R. Let A1 be the set obtained from A0
1 2
by deleting its middle third , . Let A2 be the set obtained from A1 by deleting its
3 3
1 2 7 8
middle thirds , and , . In general, define An by the equation
9 9 9 9
[ 1 + 3k 2 + 3k
An = An 1 , .
k=0
3n 3n
r
The intersection \
K= An
n N
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is called the Cantor set. It is a subset of [0, 1]. Which of the following is not true about
K.
17
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6 Tutor Marked Assignments(TMAs) COMPACTNESS
(a) K is compact.
(b) K has no isolated points.
(c) K is countable.
(d) K is uncountable.
9. Which of the following sets is not locally compact?
(a) R
(b) Q
(c) Rn
(d) a discrete space.
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UNIT 5: CONNECTEDNESS
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Objectives 2
3 Connected Spaces 2
3.1 Separated and Connected Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1.2 Connected Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Connected Subspaces of the Real Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Path Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Components and Local Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4.1 Connected Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4.2 Locally Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Conclusion 7
5 Summary 7
6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) 8
1 INTRODUCTION
In your study of calculus, you must have come across this all important results called the in-
termediate value theorm which states that if f : I R is continuous, and r is a real number
between f (a) and f (b) then there exists c I such that f (c) = r, where I denotes an interval
of R. Although this theorem refers to continuous functions, notwithstanding it also depends on
the topological property of the interval I . In fact we can restate the intermediate value theorem
as follows; The continuous image of an interval I of R is also an interval . This topological
notion property of the interval I on which the intermediate value theorem depends is called
connectedness.
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Objectives CATEGORY AND
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In this unit, you will be introduced to a generalization of the intermediate theorem, and some
other related theorems which you have proved in particular cases of the real line.
2 Objectives
(i) Differentiate between connected sets and separated spaces.
(ii) Define connected spaces.
(iii) Understand the connectedness to the real line.
(iv) Identify the connected components of a given space.
(v) Identify locally connected spaces.
(vi) Know and use of the concept of path connectedness.
3 Connected Spaces.
3.1 Separated and Connected Sets

3.1.1 Definitions and Examples
Definition 3.1 Let X be a topological space. A Separation of X is a pair U, V of disjoint open

sets of X, whose uninon is X.
Definition 3.2 A topological space X is connected if it has no separation.
Example 3.1 In R, Let X = [ 1, 0) (0, 1]. [ 1, 0) and (0, 1] are open in X. They are
nonempty and disjoint. And so is a separation of X. Therefore X is not connected.
Example 3.2 Let X = {a, b}. If X is endowed with the indiscrete topology, the X has no
separation and thus is connected.
Another way of formulating the definition of connectedness is the following:
Theorem 3.1 A space X is connected if and only if the only subsets of X that are both open
and closed in X are the empty set and X itself.
Proof. If A is a nonempty proper subset of X that is both open and closed in X, then the sets
U = A and V = X r A constitute a separation of X, for they are open, disjoint and nonempty,
and their union is X.
Conversely, if U and V form a separation of X, then U is nonempty and different from X
and it is both open and closed in X.
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Sets CATEGORY AND
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Example 3.3 If X is any discrete space with more than one element, then X is not connected
as each singleton set is both open and closed.
Example 3.4 If X is any indiscrete space, then it is connected as the only sets that are both
closed and open are X and .
3.1.2 Connected Sets
If you refer to a set Y as connected, you mean that Y lies in some topological space (which
should be clear from the context) and, equipped with the subspace topology, thereby making Y
a connected space. So Y is connected in a topological space X if Y is connected in the subspace
topology induced by the topology on X.
Theorem 3.2 Let Y be a subspace of a topological space X. A separation of Y is a pair A, B

of nonempty disjoints sets whose union is Y and neither of which contains a limit point of the
other (i.e., A B 0 = and B A0 = ).
Proof. Suppose first that A and B form a separation of Y. Then A is both open and closed
in Y. The closure of A in Y is the set A Y, which implies that A B = . Since A is the
union of A and its limit points, B contains no limit points of A. A similar argument shows that
A contains no limit points of B.
Conversely, Suppose that A and B are disjoint nonempty sets whose union is Y, neither of
which contains a limit point of the other. Then A B = and A B = ; therefore,
we conclude that A = A Y and B = B Y. Thus A and B are closed in Y, and since A = Y r
B, and B = Y r A, they are open in Y, as desired.
Example 3.5 Let X = [0, 1] (1, 2] = A B. The A, B is not a separation of X since

1 B0 A =
.
Example 3.6 Q the set of all rational numbers is not a connected set. Indeed the only connected
subspace of Q are the one point sets. If Y is a subspace of Q containing two points p and q, one
can choose an irrational number a lying between p and q, and
Having seen some examples of sets that are not connected, what follows are result that will
help you determine how to construct connected sets from existing ones.
Lemma 3.1 If the sets A and B forms a separation of X, and Y is a connected subspace of X,
then either Y lies entirely in either A or B.
Proof. Since A and B are both open in X, the set A Y and B Y are open in Y, and
Y = (A Y ) (B Y ). If both of them are nonempty, then they constitute a separation, of Y.
But since Y is connected, either A Y = or B Y = . So that Y either lies in A or B
as required.
Theorem 3.3 The Union of a collection of connected subspaces of X that have one point in
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the Real Line CATEGORY AND
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T
Proof. Let (Ci )i I be a collection
S of connected spaces on X ; let p be a point of i I Ci . You
have to prove that the space Y = i I Ci is connected. Suppose that Y = A B is a separation
of Y. The point p is in one of the sets A or B; suppose p A. Since Ci is connected, it must
lie entirely in either A or
S B, and it cannot lie in B because it contains the point p of A. Hence,
Ci A for every i, so i I Ci A, contradiction the fact that B is nonempty.
Theorem 3.4 Let A be a connected subspace of X. If A B A then B is connected and in

particular A.
Proof. Let A be a connected subspace of X and let A B A. Suppose B = C D is a

separation of B, then by lemma 3.1, the set A lies entirely in C or in D. Suppose A C, then
A C ; since C D = , B cannot intersect D, this contradicts the fact that D is a nonempty
subset of B.
Theorem 3.5 The image of a connected space under a continuous function is connected.
Proof. Let f : X Y be a continuous map, let X be connected. You have to show that the
space Z = f (X ) is connected. Since the map obtained from f by restricting its range to the
space Z is also continuous, it suffices to consider the case of a continuous surjective map
g:X Z
1
Suppose Z = A B is a separation of Z into the disjoint nonempty open sets. Then g (A)
and g 1 (B) form a separation of X, contradicting the assumption that X is connected.
Theorem 3.6 A finite cartesian product of connected spaces is connected.
Proof. You can prove this theorem for the product of two connected spaces X and Y. Choose a
point (a, b) in X × Y. Note that the horizontal slice X × {b} is connected, being homeomorphic
with X, and each vertical slice {x} × Y is connected being homeomorphic with Y. As a result
each T shaped space
Tx = (X × {b}) ({x} × Y )
is connected, being the union of two connected spaces that the point {x, b} is common. Now
S
form the union x X Tx of all this T shaped spaces. The union is connected because it is the
union of collection of connected spaces that have the point (a, b) in common. Since this union
equals X × Y, the space X × Y is connected. The proof for any finite product of connected
spaces follows by induction.
3.2 Connected Subspaces of the Real Line
Here you shall show that the real line is connected. So also is the intervals of R or the rays i.e.,
sets of the form (a, ).
You are also going to prove a generalization of the intermediate value theorem of calculus.
Definition 3.3 A simply ordered set L having more than one element is called linear contin-
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uum if the following hold:
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1. L has the least upper bound property.

2. If x < y, there exists z such that x < z < y.
Theorem 3.7 If L is a linear continuum in the order topology, then L is connected, and so are
the intervals and rays in L.
Proof. Recall that a subspace Y of L is said to be convex if for each points a, b of Y with
a < b, one has the interval [a, b] lies in Y. You have to prove that if Y is a convex subspace of
L, then Y is connected.
Suppose that Y = A B is a separation of Y. Choose a A and b B, suppose that a < b.
The interval [a, b] of points of L is the union of the disjoint sets
A0 = A [a, b] and B0 = B [a, b]
each is open in [a, b] in the subspace topology, which is the same as the order topology. The sets
A0 and B0 are nonempty because a A0 and b B0 . Thus A0 and B0 constitute a separation of
[a, b]. Let c = sup A0 . You have to show that c belongs to A0 or to B0 , which would contradict
the fact that [a, b] is the union of A0 and B0 .
Case 1: Suppose that c B0 . Then c = a, so either c = b or a < c < b. In either case, it
follows from the fact that B0 is open in [a, b] that there exist some interval of the form (d, c]
contained in B0 . If c = b, you have a contradiction at once, for d is a smaller upper bound in A0
than c. If c < b, observe that (c, b] does not intersect A0 (because c is an upper bound on A0 ).
Then
(d, b] = (d, c] (c, b]
does not intersect A0 . Again, d is a smaller upper bound on A0 than c, contrary to construction.
Case 2: Suppose that c A0 then c = b, so either c = a or a < c < b. Because A0 is open
in [a, b], there must be some interval of the form [c, e) contained in A0 . Because of the order
property(2) of the linear continuum L, you can choose a point z L such that c < z < e. Then
z A0 , contrary to the fact that c is an upper bound for A0 .
Corollary 3.1 The real line R is connected and so are intervals and rays in R.
As an application, the intermediate value theorem of calculus is suitably generalized.
Theorem 3.8 (Intermediate Value Theorem) Let f : X Y be a continuous map, where X

is a connected space and Y is an ordered set in the order topology. If a and b are two points of
X and if r is a point of Y lying between f (a) and f (b), then there exists a point c in X such
that f (c) = r.
Proof. Assume that the hypothesis of the theorem. The sets
A = f (X ) ( , r) and B = F (X ) (r, + )
are disjoint, nonempty because one contains f (a) and the other contains f (b). Each is open in
f (X ). If there is no point c X such that f (c) = r, the A and B form a separation of f (X )
59
which
6 TutorisMarked
connected. This is a contradiction.
Assignments (TMAs) CATEGORY AND
SEPARABILITY
5
60
63.3
Tutor Marked
Path Assignments (TMAs)
Connectedness CATEGORY AND
CONNECTEDNESS
SEPARABILITY
3.3 Path Connectedness
Definition 3.4 Given points x and y of the topological space X, a path in X from x to y is a
continuous map f : [a, b] X of some closed interval in the interval in the real line to the
space X, such that f (a) = x and f (b) = y.
Definition 3.5 Path Connectedness. A topological space X is said to be path connected if

every pair of points of X can be joined by a path in X.
Theorem 3.9 If X is a path connected space then X is connected.
Proof. Suppose X = A B is a separation of X. Let x A and y B. Choose a path

f : [a, b] X joining x and y. The subspace f ([a, b]) of X is connected as a continuous image
of a connected space. Therefore it lies in entirely in either A or B which contradicts the fact
that A and B are disjoint.
Example 3.7 Define the unit ball B n in Rn by
B = {x Rn : kxk
1}
where
kxk = (x21 + x22 + · · · + xn2 )1/2
The unit ball B n is path connected, given any two points x, y in B n , the straight line path
f : [0, 1] Rn defined by
f (t) = (1 t)x + ty
lies in B n .
3.4 Components and Local Connectedness
3.4.1 Connected Components
Definition 3.6 Connected Components Given a topological space X, define and equvalence
relation by
x y if and only if there exists a connected subspace of X containing x and

y.
Claim: is an equivalence relation.
1. x x because {x} is connected (so is reflexive.)
2. is symmetric by definition.
3. is transitive, because x y and y z implies that there exists connected
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subspaces C1 and C2 of X such that x, y C1 and y, z C2 . Let C = C1 C2 , then C is
connected since y C1 C2 and x, z C. Hence x y.
A connected component or a component is all equivalence classes for this equivalence relation.
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Conclusion CATEGORY AND
CONNECTEDNESS
SEPARABILITY
Theorem 3.10 The connected components of X are connected disjoint subspaces of X whose
union is X, such that each nonempty connected subspace of X intersects only one of them.
Proof. Being equivalence classes, the components of X are disjoint and their union is X. Each
connected subspace A of X intersects only one of them. For if A intersects the components C1
and C2 of X, say in the points x1 and x2 respectively, then x1 x2 by definition, this
cannot happen unless C1 = C2 . To show that the component C is connected, choose a point
x0 of C. For each point x of C, we know that x0 x, so there is a connected subspace Ax
containing x0 and x. By the result just proved, Ax C. Therefore
[
C= Ax
x C
since the subspaces Ax are connected and have the point x0 in common, their union is connected.
3.4.2 Locally Connectedness
Definition 3.7 A topological space (X, τ ) is said to be locally connected if it has a basis B
consisting of connected open sets.
Example 3.8 Z the set of integers is a locally connected space which is not connected.
Example 3.9 Rn is locally connected for all n 1
Example 3.10 Let (X, τ ) be the subspace of R2 consisting of the points in the line segments
joining (0, 1) to (0, 0) and to all the points ( n1 , 0), n = 1, 2, 3, .... Then the space (X, τ ) is
connected but not locally connected.
Proposition 3.1 Every open subset of a locally connected space is locally connected.
Proposition 3.2 A finite product of locally connected spaces is locally connected.
4 Conclusion
In this unit, you were introduced to a topological property called connectedness. You studied
connected and separated spaces with example and the connectedness of the real line. You
also studied the connected components of a given space, locally connected spaces and path
connectedness. You also proved some important results such as the intermediate value theorem.
5 Summary
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7
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SEPARABILITY
(i) A separation of a topological space X is a pair U, V of disjoint open sets of X, whose

union is X.
(ii) A topological space X is connected if it has no separation. Or X is connected if and only

if the only closed and open sets in X is and X itself.
(iii) A set is connected if it is connected in the subspace topology induced by the topology in
the topological space.
(iv) A union of a collection of connected subspaces of X that have one point in common is
connected.
(v) The continuous image of a connected space is connected.
(vi) A finite cartesian product of connected spaces is connected.
(vii) The real line is connected. So also is the intervals and rays.
(viii) A simply ordered set L having more than one element is called linear continuum if L
has the least upper bound property and if x < y, then there exists z such that x < z < y.
(ix) A linear continuum in the order topology is connected.
(x) If f : X Y is a continuous map from the connected space X to the ordered space Y
in the order topology, a and b are two points of X and if r is a point of Y lying between
f (a) and f (b), then there exists a point c in X such that f (c) = r. This is the intermediate
value theorem
(xi) A path from a point x to y in the topological space X is a continuous map f : [a, b] X
of some closed interval in the real line to the space X, such that f (a) = x and f (b) = y.
X is called path connected if every pair of points of X can be joined by a path in X. If
X is a path connected space then X is connected
(xii) A connected component is all equivalence classes for the equivalence relation ; x
y if and only if there exists a connected subspace X containing x and y. The
connected components of X are connected disjoint subspaces of X whose union is X,
such that each nonempty connected subspace of X intersects only one of them.
(xiii) A topological space X is said to be locally connected if it has a basis B consisting of

connected open sets.

Exercise 6.1
1. Let X be a discrete topological space. If X is connected, then
(a) X is infinite.
(b) X is countable.
65
6 Tutor (c) X is finite
Marked with more(TMAs)
Assignments than one element. CATEGORY AND
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8
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CONNECTEDNESS
SEPARABILITY
(d) X is a singleton.
2. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}. Suppose X is connected when endowed with the topology τ,
which of the following could be τ ?
(a) τ = P (X ), the power set of X.

(b) τ = {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}}
(c) τ = {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}}.
(d) τ = {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, e}, {a, b, e}{b, c, d, e}}
3. Let X = {a, b}. Which of the following topologies will make X
disconnected. (a) τ = {X, , {a}, {b}}.
(b) τ = {X, , {a}}

(c) τ = {X, , {b}}
(d) τ = {X, }
4. In which of the following spaces is the subset {0, 1} of real numbers connected.
(a) R with the standard topology

(b) R with the finite complement topology
(c) R+ = [0, ) with the topology Ω = { , X, (a, + )}.
(d) R with the discrete topology
5. If R is endowed with the finite complement topology, then the following sets are con-
nected except
(a) the empty set.

(b) singleton sets.
(c) infinite sets.
(d) N
6. Every connected space is path connected. (TRUE/FALSE)
7. Every connected space is locally connected. (TRUE/FALSE)
8. Every locally connected space is connected. (TRUE/FALSE)
9. Let A be a subset of a space X. Then the pair U, V is a separation such that A = U B

if and only if
(a) U 0 V or V 0 U
(b) V 0 U= and U 0 V =
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6 Tutor (c)
Marked
U V Assignments
= and U (TMAs)
V = CATEGORY AND
SEPARABILITY
(d) V 0 U= and U 0 V = or V 0 U= and U 0 V =
10. If C1 and C2 are connected components and A is a connected set, then
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CONNECTEDNESS
SEPARABILITY
(a) either C1 C2 = or C1 = C2 , and A intersects both C1 and C2

(b) C1 C2 = and C1 = C2 , and A intersects both C1 and C2 .
(c) either C1 C2 = or C1 = C2 , and A intersects either C1 or C2
(d) C1 C2 = and C1 = C2 , and A intersects either C1 or C2 .
11. A topological space is totally separated if all its components are singletons.
Which of the following spaces is not totally separated?
(a) Any discrete space.

(b) The space Q endowed the topology induced from standard topology of R.
(c) The cantor set K
(d) R with the standard topology
12. If X is a connected space and f : X R is a continuous function. Then f (X ) is an

interval I of R. Which of the following is not correct about this assertion.
(a) f (X ) is connected.
(b) The interval of R is connected.
(c) R is connected.
(d) The interval I is a continuous image of the connected space X
69
SEPARABILITY
10
70

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: MTH 402

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL TOPOLOGY II

6 Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAS) 15

(i) able to define a topological space.

(ii) conversant with some important topological notions.

3.1 Definitions and Examples

Definition 3.1 Let X be a set. A topology on X is a collection τ of subsets of X, satisfying the

1. The set X itself and the empty set are in τ ;

τs = { , X, {b}, {a, b}, {b,

Then τs is a topology on X called the sierpinski topology.

Then τf is a topology of X called the finite complement topology.

τc := {U X : either X r U is at most countable or X r U = X }

where τd and τt are as defined in examples (3.2) and (3.3).

given that {τα }α ∆ is family of topologies on X.

1. Since τα is a topology on X for each α ∆, the and X are in each τα , so that

2. Let {Ui }i I be a collection of elements of τ, where I is some indexing set. Let

You have to show that U τ.

You have to show that U τ. But U1 , U2 τ implies that U1 , U2 τα for each α ∆.

i.e., U τ. and the proof is complete.

3.2 Basis for Topology

1. For each x X, there exists B B such that x B, or equivalently X = B B B.

2. If x X and B1 , B2 B such that x B1 B2 , there exists B3 B such that

τ := {U X :U= or if x U, there exists B B such that x B U}

Proof. elements of B. Then for each i

Example 3.9 Let X = {a, b, c, d, e, f }

τ 0 := {X, , {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e,

Note the τ 0 itself is also a basis for τ 0

τ = {X, , {a}, {c}, {a, c}, {a, b},

Then C is a basis for a topology of X.

an element B 0 B0 such that x B 0 B.

3.2.1 The Metric Topology

Definition 3.7 A metric on a set X is a function d : X × X R having the following

1. d(x, y) 0 for all x, y X ; equality holds if and only if x = y.

2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y X.

3. d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z X (Triangle inequality).

Bd (x, ) := {y X : d(x, y) < }

Example 3.11 Given a set X, define

3.2.2 Product Topology.

B := {U × V : U is open in X and V is open in Y }

Then B is basis for a topology on X × Y.

is a basis for the topology on X × Y.

Definition 3.11 Let π1 : X × Y Y and let π2 : X × Y Y defined by

π1 (x, y) = x and π2 (x, y) = y.

Theorem 3.3 The collection

is a subbasis for the product topology on X × Y.

3.2.3 The Subspace Topology

Definition 3.12 Let X be a topological space with topology τ. If Y is a subset of X, the

Lemma 3.3 If B is a basis for the topology on X, the collection

is a basis for the subspace topology in Y.

Proof. Let U be an open set of X and y U Y, By definition of basis, there exists B B

Lemma 3.4 Let Y be a subspace of X. If U is open in Y and Y is open in X then U is open in

3.3 Closed Sets and Limit Points

3.3.1 Closed Sets

Example 3.14 The subset [a, b] of R is closed because its complement

is open. Similarly [a, + ) is closed.

1. and X are closed.

2. Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.

3. Finite unions of closed sets are closed.