Top i c X Future

10 Directions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify some methods of studying the future; and
2. Critically evaluate suggestions for retooling schools.

10.1 CHARACTER EDUCATION

Character education (also referred to as moral education or values education) has
always been the concern of educators. The focus is on how curriculum can be
designed to teach children about basic human values such as honesty, kindness,
generosity, courage, freedom, equality, respect and so forth. The goal of character
education is to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined
citizens. It is a deliberate and proactive effort to develop good character in
students; or more simply, to teach students right from wrong. It is assumed that
right and wrong do exist, that there are objective moral standards that transcend
individual choice; standards like respect, responsibility, honesty and fairness;
and that we should teach these directly. Traditionally, good character is shaped
by the family and religious institutions. With rising crime rates, violence among
youths, drug addiction, sexual promiscuity, breakdown of the family unit,
disrespect for authority, increasing dishonesty and drug abuse; the move is for
schools to seriously engage in character education.

There is a kind of values vacuum which is further reinforced by the influence of

television, advertising and the movies to the extent that traditional values have
been challenged. Together with religious instruction (formal and informal) and
parents, schools have also taken responsibility for character education in
attempting to teach students right from wrong and teach them a core set of
values that will guide their lives towards building a decent society. The
development of good character is really part of every childÊs birthright. Parents,
schools and the community have an obligation to meet that needs of children.
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You may have children who have not been brought up in environments where
certain values are stressed. For example, there could be children who do not
believe that honesty really is really important issue.

However, Kohn (1997) notes that character education in schools have tended to
be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The
curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather
than engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral
individual or to act morally.

A person unaware of why he or she believes or behaves even when such

beliefs or behaviours are good is not really a moral person. A person of good
character knows the difference between right and wrong, knows the bases
for his or behaviour, and chooses right over wrong, action that is of benefit to
the person and society over that which is not. There is a difference between
having a person engage in behaving rightly and behaving morally. The latter
implies an awareness of the bases for action or nonaction.
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998. p.372)

Problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of
developing moral character. Through role playing and discussions, students can
see that their decisions affect other people and other things. It is only through
such teaching-learning activities will students understand and internalise the
desired values and habits that they will require for living and maintaining their
well-being.

SELF-CHECK 10.1

1. Why should schools engage in character education?

2. What is the main weakness of teaching character education in
schools?

10.2 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

An issue that has often been hotly debated relates to how students are assessed.
We have not changed very much in the way students are assessed in schools.
Paper and pencil tests continue to dominate from primary school until secondary
school and even in higher education. Though there is consensus on the need to
assess the overall development of the individual, assessment continues to be
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confined to a segment of the abilities of learners. What about the affective or

emotional outcomes of education? What about the problem solving and critical
thinking skills of learners? They have been acknowledged as important learning
outcomes but are not adequately assessed. What options do we have?

One of these options is performance assessment. Performance assessment is

assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or
exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do (Brandt & McBrien,
1997). Some performance tasks are designed to have students demonstrate their
ability in applying knowledge to a particular situation. For example, students in
an economic lesson examine the price trends and production figures of
petroleum in the last five years to determine how supply and demand
determines price per barrel. Performance tasks often have more than one
acceptable solution.

Performance assessment is about performing with knowledge in a context that

relates to the real world. Learners are provided with opportunities to show their
understanding and ability to use knowledge in different ways. The goal of
performance assessment is not only to find out whether students understand but
also whether they are able to do what they have learned after having left school.
In other words, have the knowledge learned, skills acquired and values
inculcated have long lasting or enduring effects.
• The implementation of performance assessment requires that one works
backwards. In other words, think first about purpose of assessment and
about the performances you want students to be able to do, and then work
backwards. What concepts and skills do I want students to know? At what
level should my students be performing? For example, you want primary
school students to be able to write creatively.
• Having agreed upon what you want students to perform and intend to
measure, than you decide what knowledge is to be emphasised and what
skills need to be cultivated. In other words, what activities should be
introduced that will provide opportunities for students to show what they
can do. For example, if you want primary school students to show their
creative writing skills, you should provide a topic, time and resources that
allow them to show their creative writing skills.
• After having determined the activity, you need to set the criteria that will
indicate whether students have acquired the knowledge and skills.

Why is performance assessment given importance? The reason is simple. It is

what people want from students in the real world; the ability to use wisely and
effectively what they know. We often hear of society complaining that students
are not able to 'apply' their knowledge and skills in authentic situations. This is
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because students are not provided with settings in which they can apply such
knowledge and be assessed accordingly. For example, in a language test students
may indicate that they know that a story has an introduction, body and
conclusion. However, we cannot be sure that students can write a story with
these criteria. Performance assessment is vital to give the link between school and
the real-world and to give students the confidence to bridge the gap. From the
studentsÊ point of view, there is no guessing in performance assessment. Teacher
and students work together and state what needs to be improved. The role of the
teacher is more of a coach.

While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are
hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason being that is teachers are
not confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason is
that earlier failures with the approach have prompted some teachers to reject the
approach and to implement performance assessment in the classroom.

SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What is performance assessment?
2. What is the rationale for encouraging widespread use of
performance assessment in the classroom?
3. Briefly describe how performance assessment can br implemented
in the classroom.

ACTIVITY 10.1

Critical Issues in Science Curriculum

The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades.

Often, the natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their
surroundings is often diminished by instruction that discourages inquiry
and discovery. Science instruction has become increasingly textbook-
centred. Even though laboratory experiences are included, students are
rarely encouraged to use scientific methods to solve problems relevant to
their perception of the world.

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A new vision of science learning is needed; one that calls for instructional
strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm
for science learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways
that are not consistent with past practices. The constructivist teaching and
learning models calls for learning that is:
• Hands-on: students are actually allowed to perform science as they
construct meaning and acquire understanding.
• Minds-on: activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to
develop thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek
answers that enhance their knowledge.
• Authentic: students are presented with problem-solving activities that
incorporate authentic, real-life issues in a format that encourages
collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and
generalizations to broader ideas and application.

This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate

fully in a learning community where the teacher is not the only source of
knowledge and information. Technology (internet) becomes a tool,
supporting the learning process as students seek new knowledge and
understanding. Accordingly, teachers will use a variety of alternative
assessment (eg. performance assessment, portfolio assessment) tools to
allow students to demonstrate their understanding of science by solving
authentic, real-life problems.

Source: Adaptation from Christensen, M. (1995). North Central Regional

Educational Laboratory (NCREL). Available at:
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc500.htm

1. What are the critical issues with regards to the science curriculum?
2. Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school
system?

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10.3 RETOOLING SCHOOLS FOR THE FUTURE

Mental models are ways, in which one views the world and how one makes
decisions; which often goes unrecognised as one of the main obstacles in bringing
about change in an organisation (Senge, 1999). In education, they refer to the
invisible assumptions or beliefs educators have about their studentÊs ability to
learn. According to Senge (2000), current school systems evolved on a set of
beliefs or "theories in use" that;
• children are deficient and schools fix them;
• everyone learns or should learn in the same way;
• learning takes place in the classroom, not in the world;
• there are smart kids and dumb kids,
• knowledge is inherently fragmented,
• schools communicate Âthe truthÊ;
• learning is primarily individualistic; and
• competition accelerates learning.

These are mental models that influence almost everything that is done in schools
today. For instance, knowledge is divided into discreet topics ranging from the
Melaka Sultanate to Newton's laws of motion. Each topic is taught at appropriate
time slots to learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and
motivated by grades. While, this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in
cognitive science reveal that this approach is not compatible with how humans
learn best. Retooling schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy
does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather to
recognise the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking
differently about his or her educational practice. More important is for educators
to suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to
reconsider some of their beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of
technology.

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Human learning is a multifaceted process that invokes the prior knowledge

of learners, is innately motivated by the search for meaning, is influenced by
emotions, is reinforced by social negotiation, is regulated by knowledge of
cognition, is lead by the construction of reality and enhanced in authentic
situations.

Source: Bransford, J. D. Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington. DC: National Academy Press

In other words, learning is dynamic and the role of educators is to facilitate the
making of dynamic knowledge. Learners need to be introduced to a world that is
beset with uncertainty, multiple answers and infinite possibilities involving
elements of trial and error because that is reality. Emanating from these revised
beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology, it is argued that
retooling schools be based on four guiding principles, namely; schools for all,
personalised schools with thinking and understanding being the main goal, and
students immersed in a technology-based learning environment (see Figure 9.3).

10.3.1 Schools for All

Malaysia can be proud of having made schooling accessible to most children, but
there is increasing awareness that it is not working for all children and ironically
acknowledged as normal. The bell curve has made it legitimate to say that "we
can't educate all children because not all children are educable." The tests used
pinned to a bell curve allows us to say that some will fail, some will succeed and
the majority fall in the middle. Few people realise that the tool was designed for
inanimate objects and low level organisms and may not necessarily apply to
human beings engaged in learning. It is common practice in our schools to label
children early on and respond to them according to the labels that been have
created because of the belief that in any classroom there is a certain percentage of
gifted, average and low achievers. Four times a year newspapers, radio and
television stations proudly announce schools that have obtained near perfect
scores in the UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM examinations.

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Figure 10.1: Retooling Malaysian schools based on revised mental models about learning,
thinking and technology

High scorers are given extensive media coverage but there is no mention as to the
number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy
skills. There is less concern with "Why Ahmad can't read?" and a decade later
"Why Ahmad still can't read?" One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a
class of low achievers throughout his schooling life and told repeatedly he is not
good enough. Theoretically Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the
system but unfortunately the Matthew effect prevails which loosely interpreted
states that "those who need it don't get it and those who need it don't get". It is
common knowledge that learners do not do as well in environments where
adults are continually critical, constantly accentuating the negative, and not
accepting them for who they are. On the contrary, students learn and thrive in a
nurturing environment and schools are obliged to foster a warm and caring
environment in which children will bloom. It is from this realisation that the
impetus comes to create schools that work for all children.

Malaysian society is rapidly changing and so too, must the educational beliefs
that underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that tribute is given to
schools that record the lowest number of students who are unable to read and
write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some of its students and ignore the
rest because of examination priorities. 'No child left behind' (Education Act, 2001)
should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools really work
for all students, not just for some. "When it comes to the education of our
children, failure is not an option" (Bush, 2001). Schools should set high
expectations for all students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the
level of expectation held of them (Edmonds, 1986). Expectations communicated

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overtly or subtly by educators are immediately felt by students. Unfortunately,

many educators and schools do not effectively communicate high expectations to
all students either because they do not really have them or because they do not
believe that all children can learn. Some believe that not all students need to
realise their full potential as there are always jobs on the farms, in the factories
and low level jobs in the service sector.

These beliefs have to be revised and educators need to believe in the incredible
potential to learn that is present in all children and that it can be realised in all
children in any school and in any classroom, if the conditions are right. From the
onset students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at-risk should be
identified and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not left behind.
Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) should be given to all students, especially
academically weak students, where 'learning how to learn' is embedded in all
instructional practices (Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be
grounded in a value system of cooperation and relationships, in contrast to the
ethic of competition and individualism. Reaching goals is important, but how
they are reached and with who is just as important. The value system of
cooperation and relationship does not discard competition, but puts it in the
context of cooperation and how people get along.

In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right
thing to do while acknowledging it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the
very core values upon which schools are built. It means focusing on both equity
and excellence in the same classroom in the same school for all children.

ACTIVITY 10.2
1. Do you agree with 'school of all' concept? Why?
2. To what extent is the Matthew effect common in your school?
3. 'When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an
option'. Explain.

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10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School

While some people would agree that developing the thinking
skills of students is the main aim of education, there is less
agreement on what is thinking. Over the decades a range of
terms and definitions have been proposed which has led to
further confusion. Among the common terms used to describe
thinking are; reflective thinking, critical thinking, creative
thinking, lateral thinking, whole-brain thinking, analytical
thinking, mechanical reasoning, spatial thinking, logical
thinking, deductive thinking, inductive thinking, analogical Figure 9.4: RodinÊs
thinking to name a few. sculpture
ure of ÂThe
ThinkerÊ
Fraenkel (1980) defined thinking as the formation of ideas, reorganisation of
oneÊs experience and the organisation of information in a particular form. Chafee
(1988) characterises thinking as an unusual process used in making decisions and
solving problems. According to Bourne, Ekstrand and Dominowski, "Thinking is
a complex, multifaceted process. It is essentially internal, involving symbolic
representation of events and objects not immediately present, but is initiated by
some external event. Its function is to generate and control overt behaviour"
(1971, p.5). Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985) looked upon thinking as a
collection of skills or mental operations used by individuals. Since thinking is a
collection of mental skills, it can be performed well or poorly. In other words;

all people classify, but not equally perceptively,

all people make estimates, but not equally accurately,
all people use analogies, but not equally appropriate,
all people draw conclusions, but not with equal care,
all people construct arguments, but not with equal cogency
(Nickerson, 1987, p.28)

A synthesis of the various definitions reveals certain common threads running

through these descriptions. Thinking is a process that requires knowledge
because it is quite impossible to think in a vacuum; thinking involves the
manipulation of mental skills; thinking is targeted at the solution of a problem;
thinking is manifested in an overt behaviour or ability and thinking is also
reflected in certain attitudes or dispositions that are indicative of good and poor
thinking. For example, a good thinker welcomes problematic situations, is open
to multiple possibilities, uses evidence skilfully, makes judgement after
considering all angles, listens to other people's views, reflective and perseveres in
searching for information (Glatthorn & Barron, 1985; Nickerson, 1987).
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(a) Why has thinking not been widely emphasised in schools?

• First, there is the belief among some educators that the development of
thinking skills should be confined to academically superior students
because they 'can think'. Teaching thinking to weak learners would be
futile and even frustrating because it is a serious mental activity
involving philosophising, deep thought, contemplation and
deliberation that would be too arduous for low achievers.
• Second, is the belief that students should have a complete
understanding of a subject area before they can deliberate and think
about the facts, concepts and principles. Educators who subscribe to
this belief are preoccupied with coverage of course content rather than
ensuring understanding. Understanding is the consequence of thinking
and if learners are taught to think about the content, then
understanding is enhanced.
• Third, relates to assessment and in particular public examinations
which tend to test the acquisition of facts and how well learners are able
to remember the facts. There are few questions that demand higher-
order thinking and so schools are rather reluctant to venture into
teaching for higher-order outcomes.

(b) What is a 'culture of thinking'?

'Thinking goes to schools' is the title of a book by Hans Furth and Harry
Wachs (1975) which reports about a project aimed at developing the
thinking ability of primary and secondary school students based on
Piagetian principles. 'Thinking will go to school' to when a culture of
thinking permeates all Malaysian schools where language, values,
expectations, habits and behaviour reflect the enterprise of good thinking.

Tishman, Perkins and Jay (1995) identified four ways of bringing the
culture of thinking to the classroom.
• First is to have models or people who demonstrate good thinking
practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as checking the
credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is
available or tolerating ambiguity.
• Second is to develop thinking through explanation, whereby teachers
explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used, when
it is to be used and how the skill is to be used.
• Third is through interaction with other students where opportunities
are provided to work in groups when solving a problem, brainstorm,
exchange and accept ideas.

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• Fourth is feedback, when teachers provide evaluative or corrective

information about student's thinking processes. For instance, a teacher
may praise a student for the way he or she arrived at a particular
conclusion or for the views expressed. Such feedback provides students
with information about their own thinking behaviours which helps
them become better thinkers.

(c) What is the role of teachers?

Teachers play a crucial role in the creation of a thinking culture as they are
the ones who establish the educational climate, structure learning
experiences and have almost complete power over the processes that take
place in the classroom. Students from more affluent homes where parents
level of education is higher, questions are more frequently asked and the
language used is relatively more complex (Sternberg and Caruso, 1985).
But, students coming to school lacking the experiences of their more
affluent counterparts "succeed because of teachers who served as mediators
of their environment; by discussing, asking questions, modelling and
teaching (Swartz and Lowery, 1989, p.4). Teachers have at their disposal a
variety of ways to organise their classroom to stimulate thinking. The
underlying principle of classroom organisation is to encourage greater
participation of learners in the teaching-learning process; it would be quite
impossible to develop the thinking skills of students if the teacher did most
of the talking. Students need to be involved and this might take the form of
teacher-led Socratic-type discussion, cooperative small-group or total-
group investigations (Fisher, 1992).

Teacher response behaviours have a significant effect in stimulating

thinking. Most importantly is the manner in which teachers or even parents
react to answers given by learners and whether these behaviours extend or
terminate thinking. For example, what would happen when a teacher or
parent responds to a child's ideas with such statements as "What a dumb
idea" or "You're not good enough". The chances are, that child might be
reluctant to give ideas in the future for fear of being ridiculed or
humiliated. The language of thinking plays an important role in
encouraging thinking in the classroom. Using specific thinking terminology
will show learners how to perform particular skills and when used
repeatedly chances are they will become part of their repertoire of
vocabularies (Costa & Marzano, 1987). For example, instead of saying "Let's
look at these two pictures", it would be more precise to say "Let's compare
these two pictures".

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SELF-CHECK 10.3

1. What is thinking?
2. Why has development thinking not been emphasised in schools?
3. How does one create a culture of thinking?
4. What is the role of teachers in developing thinking among
students?

10.3.3 Personalised Schools

Many schools have become too large and impersonal and students are just a
statistic. This is especially evident in urban areas where schools have an
enrolment of between 1000 to 2000 students and some with as many as 2500
students which inadvertently disconnects the majority of learners from teachers
and other adults possibly leading to alienation, boredom and even conflict. Why
should a teenager respect a teacher who knows nothing about him or her?
Personalised schools are schools with a smaller student enrolment. Research is
inconclusive as to the appropriate size of such schools but there is some
consensus that for a primary school it should not exceed 400 students and not
more than 800 students for secondary schools (Cotton, 1996). In smaller schools,
teachers and students build strong relationships, and teachers can help students
learn more effectively because they know their students as individuals.
'Everybody knows your name'. There is also greater bonding among students as
they get to know and learn from each other.

However, even though a school may be small, it need not necessarily be

'personalised'. Personalised school are learning communities where students,
teachers, and parents know each other personally, and work together to help
young people learn and succeed. In personalised schools, students are cared for,
nurtured, and supported and this is significant given the increasing number of
students experiencing a lack of relationships with caring, attentive, engaged
adults when parents are working full-time. Partnerships between parents,
teachers and administrators tend to be stronger because the opportunity to
communicate and understand each other is enhanced. Generally, personalised
schools have lower rates of negative social behaviour such as classroom
disruptions, vandalism, fights, thefts, substance abuse or gang membership
(Cotton, 1996). Such schools report higher school attendance and lower drop out
rates compared to larger impersonal schools. Students in smaller schools have a
greater sense of belonging and relationship tends to be more cordial. With the

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decline of the extended family and both parents having to work full time,
students turn to teachers for advice and role models which may be more readily
available in personalised schools.

10.3.4 Technology-Based Schools

The unprecedented advances in internet interactivity and multimedia
capabilities, is seeing the emergence of the Technology-Based Learning
Environment which has given a new perspective to classroom learning. The
Technology-Based Learning Environment based on a cognitive-constructivist
theoretical perspective emphasises the following seven processes (Phillips, 2001).
• First, is situated cognition in which learning of certain knowledge and skills
is best done in situations or contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will
be useful in real life? In other words, students are introduced to authentic
tasks and the many tools of technology enable the creation of microworlds
(Jonassen, 1996). These are miniature environments that mimic situations in
the real world providing learners with the opportunity to apply concepts,
principles and skills learned. For example, telecommunications and the
internet provide access to emerging disciplinary and interdisciplinary
databases, real-time phenomena, and social communities not accessible
through print-based curricula.
• The second process is cognitive flexibility which is the ability to represent
knowledge from different perspectives tailored to the needs and levels of the
learner. Multimedia technology such as virtual reality permits knowledge
and skills to be presented in a variety of different ways, adapting content to
individual student learning styles.
• The third process is exploration wherein learners try out different
hypotheses, methods and strategies to see their effects. The resources of the
web and the related internet tools allow learners to make these discoveries on
their own. Computers and ancillary electronic devices facilitate the
manipulation of data and visualisation which assists with experimenting and
understanding actual, futuristic, and hypothetical concepts, principles,
relationships and probabilities.
• The fourth process is cooperative learning in which learners work in groups
by questioning each other, discussing and sharing information towards the
solution of a problem using communication tools such as e-mail and chat
rooms.
• The fifth process is collaborative learning in which learners or groups of
learners discuss and try out their ideas and challenge the ideas of others
across state and international borders. For example, a group of learners in

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Malaysia could be working on a project in cyberspace on 'what teenagers do

besides schooling' with a group of learners in Canada or Kuwait using both
asynchronous and synchronous tools. Cooperative and collaborative learning
practiced are skills required in the workplace.
• The sixth process is articulation which refers to methods of getting learners to
make their tacit knowledge explicit through websites and electronic
portfolios. When learners make available to others (even across long
distances) what they have done, learners are able to compare strategies and
provide insight into alternative perspectives.
• The seventh process is reflection which refers to learners looking back over
what they have done and analysing their performance. It enables them to see
the thinking processes they used in solving problems and based on the
product and be able to determine if their strategies were appropriate.

Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread
because of insufficient equipment and internet connection, inadequate training of
teachers and more importantly a lack of understanding on how to use the new
technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and
software, the technology-based learning environment provides a convenient
framework with a theoretical basis for realisation of technology-based schools.

SELF-CHECK 10.4

1. What do you understand by personalised schools?

2. What are processes emphasised in the Technology-Based Learning
Environment?

• Character education is designed to teach children about basic human values

with the aim of raising children to become morally responsible and self-
disciplined citizens.

• Performance assessment is assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks

are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they
can do.

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• Schools for all emphasises that an environment should be provided for all
students to realise their potential and setting high expectations so that all
students will be encouraged to excel.

• A culture of thinking has to be created to encourage students to think.

• The technology-based learning environment has to be developed in as many

schools as possible.

Character education Schools for all

Culture of thinking Technology-based learning environment
Performance assessment Thinking goes to school
Personalised schools

1. To what extent is performance assessment practiced in your

school?
2. Do you agree that students are not provided with sufficient
opportunities to develop their thinking skills?
3. What do you think the curriculum of the future should be?

Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press.

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [Available at eBrary].
Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London:
Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [Available at eBrary].

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Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and

issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 11: Curriculum issues and trends.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
Cromwell, S. (1998). The school of the future. Education World.
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr046.shtml
Thornburg, D.D. (1998) Reading the future. Online Electronic School (June).
www.electronic-school.com/0698f1.html

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