Chemistry Notes

II-PUC-CHEMISTRY SOLID STATE
1.THE SOLID STATE

Solids are substances having defnite shape and defnite volume. In solids,
the particles are closely packed and the force of attraction between the particles is
strong. So solids are rigid and incompressible.
Their constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) have fied positions and can
only vibrate about their mean positions.
Classification of soliss
On the basis of orderly arrangement of particles, solids can be classifed into two –
i.e Crystalline solids and Amorphous solids.
1. Crystalline soliss
In these solids, the constituent particles have a well ordered arrangement
throughout the solid, i.e.,they have a long range order. They consist of a large
number of small crystals. They have a defnite geometrical shape, melting point
and heat of fusion.
E.g.: Quartz, Diamond, Graphite, fullerene, NaCl, CuSO 4.5H2O, ice, naphthalene, SiC etc.
2. Amorphous soliss
In these solids, the ordered arrangement of constituent particles is only at some
portions of the solid,i.e., they have only a short range order.
The structure of these solids is similar to that of liquids.
They haveno defnite geometrical shape, melting point and heat of fusion.
E.g.:Plastic,Glass (quartzglass),Rubber,amorphous silica,coal, charcoal,coke,PVC
etc.
Like liquids amorphous solids have a tendency to fow, though very slowly.
Therefore, sometimes these are also called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids.
Glass panes fied to windows or doors of old buildings are slightly thicker at the
bottom than at the top. This is because the glass fows down very slowly and
makes the bottom portion slightly thicker.
Amorphous solids on heating become crystalline at some temperature. Some glass
objects from ancient civilizations are found to become milky in appearance due to
some crystallization.
Anisotropic ans isotropic substances:
Solids in which the physical properties like electrical conductance, refractive indei
etc are diferent when measured in diferent directions are said to be anisotropic in
nature. This is due to the diferent arrangement of particles in diferent directions.
Crystalline solids are anisotropic.
Solids in which the physical properties are same along any direction are said to be
isotropic in nature.
This is due to the irregular arrangement of particles along diferent directions.
Amorphous solids are isotropic.
Differences beteeen Crystalline soliss ans Amorphous soliss
Property Crystalline soliss Amorphous soliss
Shape They have long range They have short range order.
order.
Melting point They have defnite They do not have defnite
melting point melting point
Heat of They have a defnite They do not have defnite
fusion heat of fusion heat of fusion
Compressibil They are rigid and These may not be
ity incompressible compressed to any
appreciable eitent
Cutting with They are given cleavage They are given irregular
a sharp i.e. they break into two cleavage i.e. they break into
edged tool pieces with plane two pieces with irregular
surfaces surface
Isotropy and They are anisotropic They are isotropic
Anisotropy
Volume There is a sudden There is no sudden change in
change change in volume when volume on melting.
it melts.
Symmetry These possess These do not possess any
symmetry symmetry.
Interfacial These possess These do not possess
angles interfacial angles. interfacial angles.
Classification of Bases on the nature of particles ans binsinge
force
On the basis of nature of particles and binding force between the particles,
crystalline solids are classifed into four types- molecular solids, ionic solids,
metallic solids and covalent solids.
1.Molecular Soliss:Here the constituent particles are molecules. These are
further sub-divided into three:
i.Non-polar molecular soliss: Here the constituent particles are either atoms
like Ar, He etc. or non-polar molecules like H2,Cl2, I2 etc and the binding force
between the particles is London dispersion forces or weak van der Waal’s forces.
These are soft solids and are non-conductors of electricity. They have low melting
points and are usually liquid or gaseous state at room temperature and pressure.
ii.Polar molecular soliss: Here the constituent particles are polar molecules like
HCl, CO2, SO2 etc. and the binding force between the particles is relatively stronger
dipole-dipole interactions. These are soft and non-conductors of electricity.
Their melting points are higher than those of non-polar molecular solids.
Most of them are gases or liquids at room temperature and pressure.
iii. Hysrogeen bonses molecular soliss: Here the constituent particles are
molecules which contain atoms like H and F, O or N. The binding force between the
particles is strong hydrogen bond. They are non-conductors of electricity and are
volatile solids or soft solids at room temperature and pressure. E.g.:H 2O, NH3 etc.
2. Ionic Soliss:Here the constituent particles are ions and the binding force
between the particles is strong electrostatic force of attraction (ionic bond). They
are hard and brittle and have high m.p & b.p.
They are electrical insulators in the solid state, since the ions are not free to move
about. But in the molten or solution state, the ions become free to move about and
they conduct electricity. E.g.: NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc.
3.Metallic Soliss:They contain a large number of metal ions which are
surrounded by a sea of electrons. The particles are held together by strong
electrostatic force of attraction (metallic bond).
Due to the presence of a large number of free electrons, they are good conductors
of heat and electricity, malleable and ductile and show metallic lustre. E.g. All
metals
4.Covalent or Neteork Soliss:Here the constituent particles are atoms and the
binding force between the particles is strong covalent bond. They are very strong
and brittle, have eitremely high melting point and are electrical insulators.
E.g.Diamond, Silicon Carbide (SiC, commonly known as Carborundum),Quartz, Graphite
etc.
Graphite has eiceptional properties i.e., it is soft and good conductor of electricity.
In graphite carbon atoms are arranged in diferent layers and each atom is
covalently bonded to three adjacent carbon atoms. The fourth electron is free to
move about between diferent layers.
So Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. The diferent layers are held
together by weak van der Waal’s force of attractions.
So each layer can slide over the other and hence it is soft and used as a good
lubricant.
Crystal lattice
The regular three dimensional arrangements of constituent particles of a crystal in
space is called crystal lattice or space lattice.
The important characteristics of a crystal lattice are:
(a) Each point in a lattice is called lattice point or lattice site.
(b) Each point in a crystal lattice represents one constituent particle which may be
an atom, a molecule (group of atoms) or an ion.
(c) Lattice points are joined by straight lines to bring out the geometry of the
lattice.
There are only 14 possible three dimensional lattices.
These are called Bravais Lattices.
Unit cell
A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice which, when repeated in
three dimension we get a whole crystal. Or, it is the building block of a crystal.
A unit cell is characterised by its edge lengths (a, b and c) and angle between the
edges – α (between b and c), β (between a and c) and γ (between a and b).
Thus a unit cell is characterised by 6 parameters – a, b, c, α, β and γ.
c

b

a  
Calculation of Number of atoms in a unit cell (z)

Unit cells are of two types:
(i) Primitive unit cell (ii) Centered unit cell
(i) Primitive unit cell or simple cubic unit cell (sc): In this unit cell the
particles are
present only at the corners.
Simple cubic unit cell or primitive unit cell has 8 corner atoms or 8 lattice points.
(ii) Centeres unit cells: The unit cell which contains one or more constituent
particles
in addition to the corner particles is called centered unit cell.
Centered unit cells are of three types.
 Body centered unit cell.
 Face centered unit cell
 End centered unit cell
1.Bosy centeres unit cell (bcc): – It contains 8 corner particles and one
particle at its body centre. Body centred cubic unit cell has 9 lattice points.
2.Face centeres unit cell (fcc):- It contains 8 corner particles and one particle
each at the center of each face. FCC contains 14 lattice points.
3.Ens centeres unit cell: It contains 8 corner particles and one particle each at
the center of any two opposite faces. End centred unit cell has 10 lattice points.
Number of particles in primitive unit cell or simple cubic unit cell.
Simple cubic unit cell contains 8 corner particles.
Each corner particle is shared to eight unit cells.
1
The contribution of corner particle is 8 .
1
8  1
number of particles in the unit cell of simple cubic lattice 8
Number of particles in the unit cell of body centered cubic lattice

(bcc).
Body centered cubic lattice (bcc) contains 8 corner particles and
one particle at the center of the body.
1
The contribution of corner atom to the unit cell is 8 .
The particle present at the body centre is not shared by other unit cell.
So, The contribution of body centre atom to the unit cell is 1.
 1
 8     1 1
Number of particles in the unit cell of bcc  8  =1+1=2
Number of particles in the unit cell of face centered cubic lattice (fcc).
fcc unit cell contains 8 corner atoms and 6 atoms at the faces.
The contribution of corner atom to the unit cell is 1/8.
The contribution of the atom at the face is 1/2.
 1  1
 8     6  
Number of particles in the unit cell of fcc  8   2  = 1 + 3 = 4
Seven types of crystal systems ans their possible variations

Parameters of Unit Cell
Crystal System Bravais Latces Example
Intercepts Interfacial angle
1. Cubic Primitve, Face Centered, a=b=c  =  =  = 90o Pb,Hg,Ag,Au
Body Centered = 3 Diamond, NaCl,
ZnS
2. Orthorhombic Primitve, Face Centered, abc  =  =  = 90o KNO2, K2SO4
Body Centered, End
Centered = 4
3. Tetragonal Primitve, Body Centered =2 a=bc  =  =  = 90o TiO2,SnO2
4. Monoclinic Primitve, End Centered = 2 abc  =  = 90o, CaSO4,2H2O
  90o
5. Triclinic Primitve = 1 abc       900 K2Cr2O7,
CuSO45H2O
6. Hexagonal Primitve = 1 a=bc  =  = 900, Mg, SiO2, Zn, Cd
 = 120o
7. hombohedral Primitve = 1 a=b=c  =  = 90o, As, Sb, Bi, CaCO3
90o
Total = 14
Close packinge in soliss
In solids the particles are closely packed. In close packed structures the particles
are considered as hard spheres.
Solids are three dimensional and the 3 dimensional structure can be obtained by
the following three steps:
1.Close packinge in One Dimensions

Here the spheres are arranged in a row touching each other. In this arrangement
each sphere is in contact with 2 adjacent spheres. Therefore,
co-ordination number of each sphere is 2.
2.Close packinge in Teo Dimensions

Here the spheres are arranged in two directions – length-wise and breadth-wise.
This can be done in two diferent ways.
i.Square close packinge: Here the spheres of second row are placed eiactly
above those of the frst row. In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with
four adjacent spheres. So the co-ordination number of each sphere is 4.
When we join the centres of these spheres, we get a square. So this close packing
is called square close packing in two dimensions.
ii.Hexageonal close packinge: Here the spheres of the second row are placed in
the depressions of the frst row, the spheres of the third row are placed in the
depressions of the second row and so on.
In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with sii adjacent spheres. So the co-
ordination number of each sphere is 6.
When we join the centres of these spheres, we get a heiagon. So this close
packing is called heiagonal close packing in two dimensions.
Heiagonal close packing is more efcient than square close packing in two
dimensions. This is because in Heiagonal close packing maiimum space is
occupied by spheres.
3.Close packinge in Three Dimensions
Here the particles are arranged in layers. This can be possible in two ways.
i.Three simensional close packinge from teo simensional square close-
packes layers:
Here the spheres of the second layer are placed eiactly above those of the frst
layer. In this arrangement spheres of both the layers are perfectly aligned
horizontally as well as vertically.
The spheres of the third layer are placed eiactly above those of the second layer
and so on.
If the arrangement of the spheres in the frst layer is denoted as ‘A’, all the layers
are of ‘A’ type. So this arrangement forms AAA….. type pattern.
The lattice thus generated is the simple cubic lattice and its unit cell is the
primitive cubic unit cell.
ii.Three simensional close packinge from teo simensional hexageonal
close-packes layers:
Here the frst layer is arranged as heiagonal manner. The second layer is placed
above the depressions of the frst layer.
On placing the second layer there arises two types of voids (vacant spaces) above
the second layer – tetrahedral voids and octahedral voids.
Thus when we place the third layer over the second there are two possibilities:
Coveringe tetrahesral voiss: Here the spheres of the third layer are placed
above the tetrahedral voids of the second layer.
In this arrangement, the spheres of the third layer are vertically above those of the
frst layer, i.e. the frst layer and the third layer are identical.
If we call the frst layer as ‘A’ and the second layer as ‘B’, then the third layer will
be ‘A’, the fourth layer will be ‘B’ and so on.
This will form the pattern ABAB…… This type of close packing is called Hexageonal
close packinge (hcp) in three simensions.
This type of arrangement is found in metals like Mg, Zn etc.
Coveringe octahesral voiss: Here the spheres of the third layer are placed above
the octahedral voids of the second layer.
In this arrangement, the third layer is diferent from the frst or the second layer.
But the spheres of the fourth layer are vertically above those of the frst layer, i.e.
the frst layer and the fourth layer are identical.
If we call the frst layer as ‘A’, the second layer as ‘B’, and the third layer as ‘C’,
then the fourth layer will be ‘A’, the ffth layer will be ‘B’ and so on.
This will form the pattern ABCABC……This type of close packing is called Cubic
close packinge (ccp) or face-centres cubic(fcc) packinge in three
simensions.
This type of arrangement is found in metals like Cu, Ag etc.
In both hcp and ccp 74% of the available space is occupied by spheres. So both are
equally efcient.
Co-orsination Number
In a close packed arrangement the number of nearest neighbours with which a
given sphere is in contact is called the co-ordination number of that sphere.
In both hcp and ccp each sphere is in contact with 12 adjacent spheres.
Thus the co-ordination number in both hcp and ccp is 12.
Interstitial voiss
The vacant space in close packed arrangement is called voids. These are of two
types- tetrahedral voids and octahedral voids.
Tetrahesral vois: A void surrounded by four spheres in tetrahedral position is
called tetrahedral void. In a close packed arrangement the number of tetrahedral
voids is double the number of spheres, i.e. there are two tetrahedral voids per
sphere.
Octahesral voiss: A void surrounded by sii spheres in octahedral position is

called octahedral void. In a close packed arrangement the number of octahedral
voids is equal to the number of spheres, i.e. there is only one octahedral void per
sphere.
If there are N close packed spheres,

The number of tetrahedral voids = 2N and
The number of octahedral voids = N
Packinge Efficiency
The percentage of the total space occupied by spheres (particles) is called packing
efciency.
Volume occupied by all the spheres in the unit cell 100
Packing Efficiency  %
volume of the unit cell
Packinge fraction (P.F.):It is defned as ratio of the volume of the unit cell
that is occupied by spheres of the unit cell to the total volume of the unit cell. Let
radius of the atom in the packing = r
Edge length of the cube = a
3
Volume of the cube V = a
4 3
πr Z
4 νZ 3
ν = πr 3 = =
Volume of the atom (spherical) 3 , then packing density V a3
Density of the unit cell : It is defned as the ratio of mass per unit cell to the
total volume of unit cell.
mass of unit cell
Density of unit cell (  ) 
volume of unit cell
Number of particles mass of each particle Z M
 or 3
volume of the unit cell a N 0
Where Z = Number of particles per unit cell,

M = Atomic mass or molecular mass,
N 0 = Avogadro number 23 −1
(6 .023×10 mol )
−10
a= Edge length of the unit cell= a pm=a×10 cm ,
Z M
 3  30
g / cm3
3
a= volume of the unit cell i.e. a N 0 10
The density of the substance is same as the density of the unit cell.
Numerical problems
1. An element having atomic mass 60 has face centred cubic unit cell. The edge
length of the unit cell is 400 pm. Find the density of the unit cell.
zM 4 atoms 60 g mol  1
d d 
a 3 N A In fcc, z = 4 (400 10 10 cm)3 (6 023 10 23 atoms mol  1 ) = 6.226 g cm–3
2. Metallic iron crystallizes in a particular type of cubic unit cell. The unit cell
edge length is 287 pm. The density of iron is 7.87 g cm–3. How many iron
atoms are there within one unit cell and name the type of crystal lattice.
zM d a 3 N A (7 87 g cm  3 ) (287 10  10 cm) 3 6 023 10 23 atoms mol  1
d z 
a3 NA M 55 845g mol  1 z=2
atoms
So, the type of crystal lattice is BCC
3. Lead crystallises with fcc unit cell and has a density of 11.35 g cm–3.
Calculate the radius of lead atom. (Atomic mass of Pb = 207 g mol–1)

zM zM 4 207 g mol  1
d a3  a3 
We know that a3 NA dN A 11 35 g cm  3 6 023 1023 mol 1
 24 1/3
a3 121 12 10 24 a = (121 12 10 ) Let i = (121.12)1/3
1 1
log x  log(121 12)  2 0831
3 3 = 0.964
i = Antilog (0.694) i = 4.943

a 494 3 pm
r 
–8 cm In fcc 2 2 2 2 174 787 pm
a = 4.943 × 10
4. Metallic iron crystallizes in a particular type of cubic unit cell. The unit cell
edge length is 287 pm. The density of iron is 7.87 g cm–3. How many iron
atoms are there within one unit cell and name the type of crystal lattice.
zM
d
a3 NA
d a 3 N A (7 87 g cm  3 ) (287 10 10 cm)3 6 023 10 23 atoms mol  1

z 
M 55 845g mol  1
5. An element havinge atomic mass 63.1geram/mole,has FCC unit cell.

The esgee lengeth of the unit cell is 3.608×108cm.Calculate the
sensity of the unit cell.
23
(NO= 6.023 10 )
Density of unit cell
Z M 4atoms 63.1gram / mole
(d )  3
 8 3 23
8.92 g / cm 3
a N 0 (3.608 10 )cm 6.023 10 atom / mole
6. If a metal eith atomic mass 209 crystallizes in a simple cubic lattice,
ehat is the esgee lengeth of its unit cell. (geiven s = 91.5kge m-3)
Z M
(d ) 
Density of unit cell a 3 N 0
Z M 1209
a3   3 23
3.34 10 6 cm
d N 0 91.5 10 6.023 10
7. Silver forms FCC lattice ans X-ray stusies of its crystals shoe that
the esgee lengeth of unit cell is 408.6pm.calculate the sensity of
silver.(atomic mass of silver is 107.9u).
Z M 4 107.9
(d )  3  10.56 g / cm3
Density of unit cell
a N 0  24 3
(4.08 10 ) 6.023 10 23
8. Gols(atomic rasius=0.144nm)crystallizesin a face centeres unit cell.

What is the lengeth of the sise of the cell?
For FCC the edge length and radius of sphere arerelated by the equation,
r 0.144nm a 2 2r
2 2 0.144nm 2 1.414 0.144 0.40723nm

9. X- ray siffraction stusies shoe that copper crystallizes in an fcc unit
cell eith cell esgee of 3.6 10-8cm. In a separate experiment, copperis
setermines to have a sensity of 8.92ge/cm3,calculate the atomic mass
of copper.
zM
d
a3 N A
 24 3 23
da 3 N A 8.92  3.6  10 6.022 10
M  62.6525 u
Z 4
10. The esgee of fcc unit cell of platinum is 392 pm ans sensity is 21.5
/cm3,calculate the Avogeasro number.
zM
d
a3 N A
zM 4  195.08
NA   6.025 10 23
a d 21.5   3.92  3  10 —24
3
11. A unit cell of sosium chlorise has four formula units. The esgee lengeth
of the unit cell is 0.564 nm. What is the sensity of sosium chlorise?
zM
d
a3 N A
4  58.5
 3  24 23
2.165 g / cm3
 5.64  10  6.022 10
12. A bosy centeres cubic element havinge sensity 10.3 ge/cm3, has a esgee
lengeth of 314pm. Calculate the atomic mass of the element.
(Avogeasro’s number= 6.023 1023/mol)
zM
d
a3 N A
d a 3 N A
M
z
3 24
10.3   3.14   10  6.022 10 23
 96.01u
4
13. Calcium metal crystallizes in a face centeres cubic lattice eith esgee
lengeth of 0.556nm. Calculate the sensity of the metal.
(Atomic mass of calcium = 40ge/mol ans Avogeasro number= 6.022 
1023mol-1)
zM
d
a3 N A
4  40
 3  24 23
1.54 g / cm3
 5.56  10  6.022 10
14. Copper crystallizes into afcc lattice eith esgee lengeth 3.61 x10-
8
cm.Calculate the sensity of the of the crystal (Atomic mass of
copper =63.5ge/mol ans Avogeasro number= 6.022 1023mol-1).
zM
d
a3 N A
4  63.5
 3  24 23
8.9 g / cm3
 3.61 10  6.022 10
15. Silver crystallizes in a face centeres cubic structure. If the esgee

lengeth is 4.077 108 cm ans sensity is 10.5 ge/cm3, calculate the
atomic mass of silver.
zM
d
a3 N A
d a 3 N A
M 
Z
3
10.5   4.077  10 24
 107.09 u
4
16. The sensity of Li atoms is 0.53ge/cm .The esgee lengeth of Li is 3.5 A0.
3
Fins out the number of Li atoms in a unit cell (NA=6.022 1023/mol &
M= 6.94)
zM
d
a3 N A
d a 3 N A
Z
M
3
0.53   3.5  10 –24  6.022 10 23
 2
6.94 The number of lithium atoms in unit cell is 2
17. An element eith molar mass 2.7  10- 2 kge/mol forms a cubic unit cell
eith esgee lengeth 405pm. If its sensityis 2.7  103 kge/m3, ehat is the
nature of the cubic unit cell.
zM
d
a3 N A
a 3 d N A
Z
M
3
2.7 103  405   10 —27  6.022 1023
 4
2.7  10 2
Since there are 4 atoms of the element present per unit cell. Hence, the cubic
unit cell must be face centered or cubic close packed structure (ccp)
18. Niobium crystallises in bosy-centeres cubic structure. If sensity is
8.55ge/cm3, calculate atomic rasius of niobium, geiven that its atomic
mass is 93 u.
zM
d
a3 N A
zM 2 93
a3   23
36.1106
19. d N A 8.55 6.022 10
3
For BCC r  a
4
3
r 330 143 pm
4
20. An element has a bosy-centeres cubic (bcc) structure eith cell esgee
of 288pm. The sensity of the element is 7.2 ge/cm3. Hoe many atoms
are present in 208ge of the element?
zM
d
a3 N A
a 3 d N A
M
Z
3
7.2   2.88  10  24  6.022 10 23
  51.78 u
2
51.78 g (1mole) contains 6.022 1023 atoms.
Therefore 208g contains 4.01  6.022 i1023 = 24.187 1023 atoms.
Calculation of Packinge Efficiency

1.Calculation of the packing efciency in simple cubic unit cell (sc).
The number of atoms per unit cell in simple cube is only one.
Each atom is considered as one sphere.
4 3
r
So, the volume of one atom (one sphere) = 3 .
Let the edge length of the cube be ‘a’ and the radius of
each atom be r’.
In simple cube, the edge length of the cube (a) and the radius of each atom (r)
are related as a = 2r Total volume of the cubic unit cell = a3 = (2r)3 = 8r3
4 3
r

Volume of one atom Packing efficiency  3 3 100  100 52.4%
Packing efficiency  100% 8r 6
Volume of the unit cell
The vacant space available in simple cube = 100 – 52.4 = 47.6%
So, packing fraction in simple cube is 0.524 and fraction of vacant space available
is 0.476.
2. Calculation of the packing efciency in body centered cubic lattice or bcc
structure.
The number of atoms per unit cell in bcc structures is two. Each atom is considered
4 3
r
as one sphere. So, the volume of two atoms (two spheres) = 2 × 3
From the fgure 1.14 it is clear that there are three spheres touching each other
along the body diagonal.
Let a be the edge length of the cube and r be the radius of the sphere. The body
diagonal AF = c and face diagonal FD = b, then AF = c = 4r In  EFD,
FD2 = EF2 +ED2
b2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2 b= 2 a
Now in  AFD AF2 = AD2 + FD2
c2 = a2 + b2 = a2 + 2a2 = 3a2 c= 3 a
4r
But c = 4r Therefore, 3 a = 4r a= 3
3
 4r 
 
Volume of the unit cell = a3 =  3 
Volume of two atoms (two spheres) in unit cell

Packing efficiency  100
Therefore, Volume of the unit cell
4 8 3
2  r 3 r
Packing efficiency  3 3 100%  3 3 100%
 4r  64r 3
   100 68%
 3 3 3 8
Therefore, 68% of unit cell is occupied by atoms and the rest 32% is empty space
in bcc structures. The packing fraction in bcc structures = 0.68
The fraction of empty space in bcc structures = 0.32
3. Calculation of the packing efciency in face centered cubic lattice or cubic close
packing (ccp) structures.
The number of atoms per unit cell in fcc structures is four. Each atom is considered
4 3 16 3
r r
as one sphere. So, the volume of four atoms (four spheres) = 4 × 3 = 3
From this fgure it is clear that there are three spheres touching each other along
the face diagonal. Let a be the edge length of the cube and r be the radius of the
sphere.
The face diagonal AC = b, then b = 4r.
In ABC, AC2 = BC2 + AB2

b2 = a2 + a2 b2 = 2a2
b= 2 a = 4r 2 a = 4r
4r
a= 2 = 2 2r
The volume of the cubic unit cell = a3 = ( 2 2 r )3
Volume of four atoms(four spheres) in unit cell

Packing efficiency  100%
Therefore, Volume of the unit cell
16 3 16 22 3
r  r
Packing efficiency  3 100 % Packing efficiency  3 73 3 100 %
(2 2 r)3 8( 2) r
16 22

Packing efficiency  3 7 100 % 74%
8( 2)3
Therefore, 74% of unit cell is occupied by atoms and the rest 26% is empty space
in fcc structures . The packing fraction in fcc structures (ccp) = 0.74
The fraction of empty space in fcc structures (ccp) 0.26.
Note: The packing efciency in hcp is same as in ccp. But the method of
calculation is diferent.
Imperfections in soliss (Crystal Defects)
The deviation from the regular orderly arrangement of particles of a solid is termed
as imperfections or crystal sefects.
The crystal defects are broadly classifed into two – point defects and line defects.
The imperfection around a point (an atom) in a crystalline substance, it is termed
as point sefect. The imperfection along a row is termed as line sefect.
Point sefects
Point defects can be classifed into three types: Stoichiometric defects, Non-
stoichiometric defects and Impurity defects.
1.Stoichiometric sefects:
These are point defects which do not disturb the stoichiometry of the solid. They
are also called intrinsic or thermodynamic defects, because these defects can also
develop when a substance is heated.
These are of two types – vacancy defects and interstitial defects.
a.Vacancy sefect: When some of the lattice sites are vacant, the crystal is said to
have vacancy defect. This defect decreases the density of the solid.
b.Interstitial sefect: When some constituent particles occupy an interstitial site,
the crystal is said to have interstitial defect. This defect increases the density of
the solid.
The above two types of defects are shown by non-ionic solids.
Ionic soliss show two types of stoichiometric defects – Schottky sefect ans
Frenkel sefect.
i.Schottky sefect: It is basically a vacancy defect. It arises due to the missing of
equal number of anions and cations from the lattice site.
It is shown by ionic crystals in which the anionic and cationic sizes are almost
equal. NaCl, KCl, CsCl, AgBr etc. show Schottky defect. Due to this defect the
density of the solid decreases.
ii.Frenkel sefect: It is a stoichiometric defect arising due to the misplacing of an
ion (generally a cation) from the lattice site to the interstitial site. It is also called
dislocation defect.
This type of defect is shown by ionic solids in which there is a large diference in
the size of the ions.
E.g. ZnS, AgCl, AgBr, AgI etc. This defect does not change the density of the solid.
A+ B- A+ B- A+ B- A+ B-
B- B- A+ B- A+ B- A+
A+
A+ B- A+ B- B- A+ B-
B- A++
A A+ B- A+ B- A+
Fig. (a): Schottky Defect Fig. (b): Frenkel Defect
Diference between Schottkey defect and Frenkel defect :

Sl. No. Schotky defect Frenkel defect
It is missing of both caton and It is the dislocaton of caton from its
1
anion from the crystal latce. normal site to the interstal site.
2 Density decreases. Density remains same.
It is found in ionic solids It is found in ionic solids having low
3 having high co-ordinaton co-ordinaton number.
number.
b)Non-Stoichiometric sefects: These are point defects which change the
stoichiometry of a solid. These defects are of two types:
i) Metal eicess defect and ii) Metal defciency defect
i) Metal excess Defect:
Here the number of cations is greater than the number of anions. This arises in two
ways:
1.Metal excess sefect sue to anionic vacancies: Here some of the anions are
missing from the lattice site. The electrical neutrality is maintained by occupying
electrons in the anionic sites. These electrons are called f-centres because they
give colour to the crystal.
Na+ Cl–
–
e
F Centre
F-centre in a Sodium chloride crystal
This defect is shown by alkali metal halides. For eiample when NaCl is heated in
an atmosphere of sodium vapour, some sodium atoms are deposited at the surface
of the crystal. The Cl- ions difuse to the surface of the crystal and combines with
Na atom to form NaCl.
Na + Cl-  
 NaCl + e-
The electron so formed difuse into the crystal and occupies the anion vacancy.
These electrons absorb light energy and get eicited. As a result the crystal
becomes yellow in colour. Similarly, eicess of Li makes LiCl crystals pink and
eicess of K makes KCl crystals violet.
2.Metal excess sefect sue to extra cations at interstitial sites: Here some
cations occupy the interstitial sites. The electrical neutrality is maintained by
occupying some electrons in adjacent interstitial sites.
A+ B– A+ B– A+
A+
B– A+ B– A+ B–
e–
A+ B– A+ B– A+
– +
B A B –
A+ B–
A+ B– A+ B– A+
Metal excess defects caused by interstitial cations.
E.g. When ZnO crystals are heated, the white coloured crystals becomes yellow.
This is because on heating, the crystal loses oiygen as follows:
1
ZnO  
 Zn2+ + 2 O2 + 2e-
The Zn ions now move to the interstitial sites and the electrons to neighbouring
interstitial sites.
ii) Metal seficiency Defect:
Here the number of cations is smaller than the number of anions. This is mainly
arises due to cation vacancies. This type of defect is commonly shown by transition
metal compounds. E.g. FeO
A++
A B- A++
A B-
B- B- A+
A+ B- A2+ B-
B- A+ B- A+
Metal deficiency due to cation vacancy
c)Impurity Defects: It is the defect arising due to the presence of foreign

particles in a crystal. For eiample if molten NaCl containing a little amount of SrCl2
is crystallised, some of the sites of Na+ ions are occupied by Sr2+. Each Sr2+
replaces two Na+ ions. It occupies the site of one ion and the other site remains
vacant. The cationic vacancies thus produced are equal to the number of Sr 2+ ions.
Another similar eiample is a solid solution of CdCl2 and AgCl.
Properties of soliss
1) Electrical properties: Based on the electrical conductivity, solids are
classifed into three types:
i.Consuctors: They are solids which allow the passage of electricity through
them. Their conductivity ranges from 104 to 107 ohm-1m-1.
Metals have conductivities in the order of 107 ohm-1m-1.
ii.Semi-consuctors: They are solids which allow the passage of electricity only
partially. Their conductivity ranges from 104 to 10-6 ohm-1m-1.
iii.Insulators: They are solids which do not allow the passage of electricity through
them. Their conductivity ranges from 10-10 to 10-20 ohm-1m-1.
Consuction of Electricity in metals - Bans Mosel
Metals conduct electricity in solid as well as in molten state. The conductivity of
metals depends upon the number of valence electrons.
The atomic orbitals of metals combine to form molecular orbitals, which are so
closely spaced that they form a band.
If this band is partially flled or it overlaps with a higher energy unoccupied
conduction band, the electrons can fow easily under an applied electric feld and
the metal shows conductivity.
If the gap between flled valence band and the unoccupied conduction band is
large the electrons cannot jump to it and such substances act as insulators.
Consuction of Electricity in semi-consuctors

In the case of semiconductors, the gap between the valence band and the
conduction band is small. So some electron may jump from valence band to
conduction band and show some conductivity.
Their conductivity increases with rise in temperature, since more electrons can
jump to the conduction band. Such semiconductors are also called intrinsic
semiconductors. E.g.: Si, Ge etc.
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is very low. Their conductivity can be
increased by adding an appropriate impurity.
The process is called doping. Addition of impurities creates electronic defects in
them. Such semiconductors are called eitrinsic semiconductors.
Doping can be done by the addition of either electron rich impurity or electron
defcit impurity.
a) Dopinge by electron rich impurity: When a group 14 (which contains 4
electrons in the valence shell) element like Si or Ge is doped with a group 15
element (which contains 5 electrons in the valence shell) like P or As, four
electrons are used for the formation of covalent bonds and the ffth electron
becomes free.
The presence of this delocalised electron increases the conductivity and hence
silicon doped with electron rich impurities is called n-type semiconsuctor.
The semiconductor whose increased in conductivity is a result of ectron hole is
called a p-type semiconductor.
When a crystal of group 14 elements suchas Si or Ge is doped with a group 13
element such as B, Al, or Ga , a p-type of semiconductor is generated.
b)Dopinge by electron seficient impurity:
When a group 14 (which contains 4 electrons in the valence shell) element like Si
or Ge is doped with a group 13 element (which contains 3 electrons in the valence
shell) like B, Al, or Ga, the three electrons are used for the formation of covalent
bonds and the fourth valence electron is missing.
This creates an electron hole or electron vacancy. An electron from a neighbouring
atom can come and fll the electron hole.
So the position of the hole is moved in the direction opposite to that of the electron
has moved.
Under the infuence of electric feld, electrons would move towards the positively
charged plate through electronic holes.
It would appear as if electron holes are positively charged. This type of
semiconductors are called p-type semiconsuctors.
The semiconductor whose increased conductivity is a result of negatively-charged
electrons is called an n-type semiconductor.
When the crystal of a group 14 element such as Si or Ge is doped with a group 15
element such as P or As, an n-type semiconductor is generated.
A large variety of solids which have lattices similar to Ge or Si have been prepared
by the combination of groups 13&15 or 12&16. E.g. for 13and 15 group
compounds are In,Sb, Al,P & Ga,As. They are used as semiconductors.
E.g. for 12 and 16 group compounds are ZnS, CdS, CdSe & HgTe.
Diferences between n-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors:
Sl. No. n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
They are obtained by doping They are obtained by doping
1 pentavalent impurities trivalent impurity atoms.
(atoms).
2 Conduction is due to electrons. Conduction is due to holes.
P, As, Sb, Bi are used for B, Al, Ga, In are used for
3
doping. doping.
2) Magenetic properties
Every solid has some magnetic properties associated with it due to the presence of
electrons.
Each electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Electron being a charged
particle and due to spin and orbital motions,has a permanent spin and orbital
magnetic moment.
The magnitude of this magnetic moment is very small and is a measured in the
unit called Bohr Magneton (μB). (1 μB = 9.27×10-24 Am2 (amperemetre square)).
Based on the magnetic properties, solids can be classifed into five types.
1.Diamagenetic Substances: These are weakly repelled by an eiternal magnetic
feld. Diamagnetism arises due to the presence of only paired electrons.
Pairing of electrons cancels their magnetic moments and so they have no net
magnetic moment. E.g.: H2O, NaCl, Benzene (C6H6)
2.Paramagenetic Substances: They are weakly attracted by an eiternal magnetic
feld. Paramagnetism is due to the presence of one or more unpaired electrons.
They have a net magnetic moment.
They lose their magnetism in the absence of eiternal magnetic feld. So they are
temporary magnets. Eg: O2, Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+ etc.
3.Ferromagenetic Substances: They are very strongly attracted by a magnetic
feld and can be permanently magnetised.
In solid state, the metal ions of ferromagnetic substances are grouped together
into small regions called domains.
In the absence of an eiternal magnetic feld, these domains are randomly
oriented. When the substance is placed in a magnetic feld, all the domains get
oriented in the direction of the magnetic feld and a strong magnetic efect is
produced.
This ordering of domains do not change even when the eiternalmagnetic feld is
removed and so they become permanent magnets.
Eg: Fe, Co, Ni, Gd (Gadolinium), CrO2 etc.
4.Anti-ferromagenetic Substances: Here the domains are oppositively oriented
and cancel each other. So they have no net magnetic moment. Eg: MnO
5.Ferrimagenetic Substances: Here the domains are arranged in opposite
directions but in unequal numbers. So they have a net magnetic moment.
Eg: Fe3O4 (magnetite) and ferrites like MgFe2O4, ZnFe2O4 etc
  
ferromagnetism Anti  ferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, the
composition of which may vary within limits. “A solution is a special kind
of mixture in which substances are intermixed so intimately that they
can not be observed as separate components”. The dispersed phase or
the substance which is to be dissolved is called solute, while the
dispersion medium in which the solute is dispersed to get a
homogenous mixture is called the solvent. A solution is termed as
binary, ternary and quartenary if it consists of two, three and four
components respectively.
Types of solutions
Based on the physical state of the solvent, binary solutions are classifed
as
(1)Gaseous solutions (2)Liquid solutions (3) Solid solutions
Gaseous solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is gas and solute
is either solid, liquid or a gas are called gaseous solutions.
Liquid solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is liquid and the
solute is either a solid, liquid or a gas are called liquid so0lutions.
Solid solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is solid and the solute
is either a solid, liquid or a gas, are called solid solutions.
Different types of solutions and some examples
Types of solutions Solute Solvent Common example
Gaseous Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
Solutions Liquid Gas gases
Solid Gas Chloroform in nitrogen gas
Camphor in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved water
Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
Note: In aqueous solution water is the solvent.
Methods of expressing concentration of solutions
The concentration of a solution is the amount of a solute present in a
given quantity of solvent or solution.
(a) Molarity (M) (b) Molality (m) (c) Mole fraction (x)
Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is defned as the number of moles of
the solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Number of moles of the solute
Molarity = Volume of the solution∈litre
If WB gram of the solute of molar mass M B is dissolved in V dm3 of the
solution, then the molarity is given by,
W B ×1000
Molarity= M × V Units: mol/L or mol/dm3
B
 Molarity is most common way of representing the concentration of

solution.
1
Molarity ∝
 Molarity is depend on temperature as, Temperature
Advantages of molarity
 Stoichiometric calculations are simplifed since the quantity of the
solute is expressed in mole.
 Quantity of the solution is easily measured by volume rather than
by mass.
Disadvantages of molarity
Molarity of a solution decreases with the increase in temperature since
the volume of the solutions increases with the increase in temperature.
Thus molarity is temperature dependent and cannot be used in
experiments that involve temperature variations.
The exact amount of the solvent in a given volume of the solutions
cannot be determined if the density of the solution is not known.
Molality (m): Molality of solution is defned as the number of moles of
the solute dissolved in one kg of the solvent. Molality is denoted by ‘m’
and is calculated by the expression.
Molality = Mass of the solvent ∈kg
If WB gram of the solute of molar mass M B is dissolved in WA gram of the
solvent, then molality is given by
W B ×1000
Molality = W × M Unit: mol/kg
A B
Advantages of molality: Molality is temperature independent quantity.

Therefore this unit can be conveniently used in experiments involving
temperature variations
The exact mass of the solvent in given amount of the solution can be
calculated easily.
Mole fraction(x): Mole fraction of a component in a solution is the ratio
of number moles of that component to the total number of moles of all
the components.
Let us consider a binary solution that contains n A moles of solvent ‘A’
and nB moles of the solute ‘B’
A n
Mole fraction of the solvent A is x A= n +n
A B
nB
Mole fraction of the solute B is xB=
n A +n B
For a solution that contains a large number of components A,
B,C,D,E……….I, mole fraction of component D is given by
nD
xD =
n A +n B +… ..+n I
Sum of mole fraction of all the components in a solution is always equal
to one i.e., x A + x B =1
Mole fraction is defned to a component and not to the solution
Mole fraction has no unit
This unit is highly useful in the
 Calculation of partial pressure of a component gas in a solution of
gases.
 Calculation of relative partial pressures of the vapour which is in
equilibrium with the solution.
Mass percentage (w/w):Mass(w/w): percentage of a solution is defned as the
number of parts by mass of the solute dissolved in100 parts by mass of
the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass percentage = Masof the solution ×100
Note: Units of the two masses should be same
Volume percentage (v/v):Volume
(v/v): percentage of a solution is defned as
the number of parts by volume of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by
volume of the solution.
Volume of the solute
Volume percentage = Volume of the solution ×100
Note: Units of the two volume unit be same.
This unit is more useful when both the solute and solvents are liquids.
Mass by volume percentage (w/v):Mass
(w/v): by volume percentage of a
solution is defned as the number of parts by mass of the solute
dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass by volume percentage = Volume of the solution ×100
In this case, generally gram and cm 3 are used as the units.
Otherwise system of units should be same.
Parts per million (ppm):
(ppm) Parts per million of a solute is defned as the
member of parts of solute dissolved in one million parts of the
solution.
Number of parts of the solute 6
Parts per million = Number of parts of the solution ×10
Note: The units of the parts of the solute and the solution should be
same.
Parts per million are also expressed in w/w, v/v and w/v.
This unit is suitable when solutes are present in trace quantities.
Note:(I)Mass percentage, ppm, mole fraction, and molality are
independent of temperature because mass is independent of
temperature
(II) Molarity, volume percentage and mass by volume
percentage depends on temperature because volume depends on
temperature.
Solubility:
When a solute is mixed with a solvent, particles of the solute leave the
solute phase and get mixed with the particles of the solvent phase. This
process is known as dissolution. The solute is said to be dissolved in
solvent.
Compounds like sugar, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, etc.,
dissolve in water whereas they are insoluble in benzene or ether.
Compounds like naphthalene, anthracene, diphenyl, etc., dissolve in
solvents like benzene and ether but not in water. By these examples it
may be broadly generalized that ‘Like dissolved like’. It means to say
that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes
dissolve in non polar solvents. Thus dissolution of a solute in a given
solvent takes place when the nature of inter particle attractive forces in
the solute and the solvent are same.
Solubility of a solid in a liquid:
Dissolution of a solute in a solvent is a reversible change. If
dissolution is the forward change then crystallization is the backward
change that takes place simultaneously.
When a large amount of solid solute is added to given amount
of a solvent, initially dissolution of the solute takes place. But as the
concentration of the solute particles in the solution phase increases, the
back ward change, i.e., crystallization begins and its rate starts to
increase. At one stage the rates of dissolution and crystallization
become equal resulting in a dynamic equilibrium between the solid
solute and the solute particle in the solution phase
Solute dissolution solute particles in solution
(Solid) ¿
Once the equilibrium is reached, the concentration of the solute

particles in the solution remains constant. No more solute dissolves in
the solvent. The solution thus formed is said to be saturated solution. A
solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature and pressure is called saturated solution. The amount of
the solute present in a given quantity of the saturated solution at a
given temperature and pressure is called solubility of the solute in the
given solvent. A solution in which some more solute can be dissolved at
the given temperature and pressure is called unsaturated solution.
Generally solubility is measured in mass percentage (w/w). Therefore,
solubility of a solid solute in a given liquid solvent at a given
temperature is the mass of the solute in gram dissolved in 100 grams of
the saturated solution.
Effect of temperature on solubility of solid solute in a liquid solvent:
Since, solid solute and solvent particles in solution are in dynamic
equilibrium, it follows Le-chatelier’s principle. According to this principle
increase in temperature shifts the equilibrium towards endothermic
change and decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the
exothermic change.
Therefore, if the dissolution of a solute in a given solvent is
endothermic then its solubility increases with the increase in
temperature.
If the dissolution of a solute in a given solvent is exothermic, then
the solubility of the solute decreases with increase in temperature.
Note: For exothermic dissolution, enthalpy solution, ∆ sol H <0 and for
endothermic dissolution, enthalpy of solution∆ sol H >0
Effect of pressure:
There is no signifcant effect of pressure on the solubility of a solid
solute in a liquid solvent. This is because solids and liquids are highly
incompressible and practically remain unaffected by changes in
pressure.
Solubility of a gas in a liquid :
Gases dissolve in liquids to form liquid-gas solution. Example, carbon
dioxide dissolves in water to form soda water. Water in wells, rivers, and
sea contains dissolved air which is used by aquatic animals for their
breathing.
Factors that infuence solubility of gases in liquids:
The factors that infuence the solubility of gases in liquids are
 The nature of the gas and solvent
 Nature of the solvent
 Temperature
 External pressure
The nature of gases and nature of solvents:
Non-polar gases are less soluble in polar solvents like water. For
example, gases like, O2, N2, H2 etc., which are non-polar are very less
soluble in water which is a polar solvent at room temperature and
pressure. But CO2, HCl, NH3 etc., being polar gases, are highly soluble in
water under identical conditions.
Effect of temperature on the solubility of gases:
Generally solubility of all gases in liquids decreases with the
increases in temperature. This is because of two reason ;
Generally dissolution of any gas in a liquid is
1000
exothermic. According to Le-Chatelier’s principle,
P a rtia l p re s s u re o f
low temperature favours exothermic changes.
H C l / to rr
500
That is why gases dissolve more at low
temperatures and less at high temperatures in
liquids.
Increase in temperature increases the kinetic 0
0 .0 1 0 0 .0 2 0
energy of dissolved gas molecules. As a result, the gas molecules
escape more from the solution phase by overcoming the attractive
forces.
Note: Solubility of oxygen is more in cold water than in warm water.
That is why aquatic speices are more comfortable in cold waters than in
warm waters.
Effect of pressure:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with the increase in its partial
pressure above the liquid.
Henry’s law:
This law gives the quantitative relationship between the solubility of a
gas in a liquid and the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid at a
given temperature. Henry’s law states that “at constant temperature
the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas above the solution”.
If the solubility of a gas is in mole faction, the law can also be stated as
“ the partial pressure of the gas above the solution is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of a gas in the solution”.
i.e., p ∝x where p is partial pressure of the gas and x is solubility in mole
fraction
p = KH x Here, KH is called Henry’s law constant.
p
X= K ;
H
Characteristics of Henry’s law constant:

Higher is the value of KH lower is the solubility of gas.
Different gases have different KH values. Therefore KH value depends on
nature of the gas.
For example, KH value. of CO2 and O2 in water at 200 C are respectively
1.67k bar and 457k bar. That is why CO2 is about 28 times more soluble
in water than oxygen at given temperature.
KH value increases by increasing the temperature. This indicates that
solubility of gases in liquid decreases by increasing temperature. This is
because the dissolution of gas in liquid is an exothermic process.
Units of Henry’s law constant are same as pressure.
Applications of Henry’s law:
(a) Carbonated beverages:To increase the solubility of carbon dioxide in
soda water and soft drinks, bottles are sealed under high pressure of
CO2.
(b) Deep sea diving:Oxygen cylinders used by sea divers (Scuba divers)
are flled with air which is diluted with helium to minimize the solubility
of nitrogen in the blood by decreasing its partial pressure to avoid the
risk of ‘bends’.
(Otherwise more nitrogen will be dissolved due to high pressure deep
under sea water. When a sea diver comes back to the surface, the
solubility of nitrogen again decreases and the dissolved gas is released,
leading to the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the blood. This results in
the blockage of capillaries and leads to a medical condition known as
‘bends’ or decompression sickness which causes acute pain).
(c) High altitude sickness:At high altitudes, partial pressure of oxygen is
less than that at a ground level. This leads to low concentrations of
oxygen in the blood and tissues of mountain climbers. Low-blood
oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly.
These are symptoms of anoxia.
Equilibrium vapour pressure of a liquid:
Consider a liquid taken in a closed container. The liquid being volatile,
molecules of the liquid escape from the liquid phase and occupy the
space above the liquid forming vapour phase.
But after some time molecules of the vapour phase also starts
condensing into liquid.
Thus at one stage there will be a dynamic equilibrium between the
vapour phase and the liquid when the rate of vapourisation becomes
equal to that of condensation.
The pressure exerted by the molecules of the vapour phase on the liquid
phase at equilibrium is called equilibrium vapour pressure.
For simplicity it is also called vapour pressure. At constant temperature,
different liquids have different vapour pressures since they depend on
nature of the liquids.
Vapour pressure of a solution of liquid in liquid:
The vapour phase of a binary solution placed in a closed vessel consists
of vapours of both the components. The French chemist F.M Raoult
(1886) gave quantitative relationship between the partial pressures of
the components in the vapour phase and their mole fractions in the
solution phase. This relationship is known as Raoult’s law.
Raoult’s law for a solution of two liquid components:
Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial
pressure of each component in the vapour phase is directly proportional
to the mole fractions of the respective components in the solution phase
at a given temperature.
Let us consider a solution containing two volatile components A
and B (that have measurable vapour pressures) in a closed container.
The equilibrium is established between vapour phase and the liquid
phase at constant temperature.
Let Ptotal be the total vapour pressure of the vapour phase about the
solution and p A and pB be the partial vapour pressure of the two
components A and B.
These partial pressures are related to the mole fractions x A∧x B of
the two components A and B respectively. According to Raoult’s law for
component A, pA ∝ x A or p A = p0A x A
Where p0A is the vapour pressure of the pure component A at the same
temperature. Similarly, for component B pB ∝ x B or 0
pB =PB X B
Where p0B is the vapour pressure of the pure component B at the same
temperature.
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total
pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of all components at the
same temperature.
ptotal = p A + p B or ptotal= p0A x A + p 0B x B
ptotal= p0A ( 1−x B ) + p0B x B or ptotal= p0A − p0A x B + p0B x B
ptotal= p0A + ( p0B− p0A ) x B
Total vapour pressure over the solution is directly proportional to the
mole fraction of any one component ( x A∨x B ¿ .
Total vapour pressure of the vapour phase of the solutions varies
linearly with the mole fraction of component B(orA).
Depending on the vapour pressures of the pure components A and B,
total vapour pressure over the solution decreases or increases with the
increase of the mole fraction of component A (or B).
The composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is
determined by the partial pressures of the components. If y A ∧ y B are the
mole fraction of the component A and B respectively in the vapour
phase then, using Dalton’s law of partial pressures:
p A = y A ptotal or pB = y B × p total
In general
pi= y i ptotal
Raoult’s law as a special case of Henry’s law:
According Henry’s law “the partial pressure of the gas (p) in vapour
phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution
i.e., p=K H x
According to Raoult’s law “the partial pressure of each component of
the solution is directly proportional to its mole faction present in the
solution.
i.e., pi= p0i x i
By comparing equations for Henry’s law and Raoult’s law, we can
conclude that the partial pressure of volatile liquid or gas is directly
proportional to its mole fraction in solution.
Only the difference is in their proportionality constants K H ∧ p0i . Hence
Raoult’s law is a special case of Henry’s law in which K H = p0i .
Ideal and non- ideal solutions:
The binary solutions of the volatile liquids can be classifed into two
types. They are ideal and non-ideal solutions.
Ideal solutions:
A solution which obeys Raoult’s law at all concentration range of the
components and temperature is called an ideal solution.
In ideal solutions,solvent(A)–solute (B) interactions are equal to
solute (B)–solute(B)and solvent(A)–solvent(A)interactions.A perfectly
ideal solution is rare but some solutions are nearly ideal in behaviour. A
few examples are:
 Benzene and toluene
 Chlorobenzene and bromobenzene
 Carbon tetrachloride and silicon tetrachloride
 n-Hexane and n-heptane
 Ethylene bromide and ethylene chloride
Characteristics of Ideal solution
0 0
(i) It should obey Raoult’s law, i.e., P A=P A X A and PB=P B X B .
(ii) ΔH mixing =0
(iii) ΔV mixing =0
Non-ideal solutions:
A solution which does not obey Raoult’s law at all concentration range of
the components and temperature is called a non ideal solution.
The non ideal solutions are accompanied by change in enthalpy and
volume during their formation i.e., ∆ H mixing ≠ 0 ∆ V mixing ≠ 0 ¿
In general, most of the solutions are non ideal and deviate from ideal
behaviour.
It must be remembered that in non- ideal binary solution none of the
components follows the Raoult’s law. The non-ideal solutions are further
classifed into two categories. They are
1. Non-ideal solution showing positive deviation
2. Non ideal solution showing negative deviation
The causes for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the
molecular level.
Non-ideal solution showing positive deviation:
The solutions for which the total vapour pressure is higher than that
expected from Raoult’s law are called solutions with positive deviations.
For solutions with positive deviations from Raoult’s law, partial vapour
pressure of each component A and B is higher than that one that is
calculated from Raoult’s law for the same composition.
In these solutions, the intermolecular attractive forces between the
solute-solvent molecules are weaker than those between the solute-
solute, solvent-solvent interactions.
This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will fnd it easier
to escape than in pure state. This will increases the vapour pressure and
result in positive deviation.
Due to decrease in magnitude of intermolecular attractive forces, the
molecules are loosely held and thus increasing intermolecular distances.
Therefore formation of a non ideal solution is associated with increase in
volume and absorption of energy.
Characteristics: P=PA+PB
Vapour Pressure
p A > p 0A x A PB
0
pB > p x B
B PA
∆ H mixing =+ ve
∆ V mixing =+ ve i .e . , ( V solution >V A +V B ) . X A 1 Mole Fractoo XA 0
XB  0 X B 1
Examples:
Partal aod t ot al 翔apour pressure cur翔es 翔or solutoos t hat shou postt翔e de翔tatoos 翔ro
 Acetone + ethanol
 Water + ethanol
 Acetone + CS2
 CCl4 + toluene
 Water + methanol
Non-ideal solution showing negative deviation:
The solutions for which the total vapour pressure is lower than that of an
ideal solution of same composition and temperature are called Solutions
with negative deviations.
For solution with the negative deviation from Raoult’s law, partial
vapour pressure of each component A and B is lesser than the one that
is calculated from Raoult’s law for the same composition. So, the total
vapour pressure of the solution is less than that of ideal solution of same
composition
Boiling point of such a solution is relatively higher than the boiling
points of A and B respectively.
In this case the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-
solvent molecules are stronger than those between the solute-solute
and solvent-solvent molecules. This means that in such solutions,
molecules of A (or B) will not fnd it easier to escape than in pure state.
This will decrease the vapour pressure and result in negative deviation.
Characteristics:
0
pA < pA x A
pB < p 0B x B
∆ H mixing =−ve
∆ V mixing =−ve i .e . , ( V solution <V A +V B ) .
Examples:
 Acetone +aniline  Acetic acid + pyridine
 H2O + HNO3  Acetone + chloroform
 Chloroform + diethylether  CH3OH + CH3COOH
 Chloroform + benzene  Water + HCl
Azeotropic Mixtures (or) constant Boiling Mixtures:
There are certain binary liquid mixture, which boil at constant
temperature like a pure liquid such that both the components are
distilled out simultaneously. The components of such mixtures cannot
be separated during functional distillation. Such mixtures are named as
Azotropic mixtures.
The mixture of liquids which boils at constant temperature and possess
same composition for both liquid and vapour phases is named as
azeotropic mixture.
Types of azeotropes:
Based on the relative values of boiling points of the components and the
mixture, azeotrops are of 2 types:
1.Minimum boiling azeotropes: The azeotropic mixtures for which the
boiling point is lower than the boiling points of both the component
liquids are named as minimum boiling azeotropes.
Conditions for formation: Minimum boiling azeotropes are formed by
non-ideal solutions with positive deviation. The composition of mixtures
at which the vapour pressure is highest represents the azeotropic
composition. Since the vapour pressure is highest, boiling point is
minimum and hence is lower than both the components.
For example: a mixture of ethanol and water at a composition of
95.574% by mass of ethanol shows a constant boiling point of 351.1 K.
This is lesser than both ethanol (b.p : 351.3 K) and water (b.p : 373 K).
2.Maximum boiling azeotropes:
The azeotropic mixtures for which the boiling point is higher than the
boiling points of both the component liquids are named as maximum
boiling azotropes.
Conditions for formation: Maximum boiling azeotropes are formed by
non-ideal solutions with negative deviation. The composition of mixtures
at which the vapour pressure is lowest represents the azeotropic
composition. Since the vapour pressure is lowest, boiling point is
maximum and hence is higher than both the components.
For example: a mixture of HN O3 and water at a composition of 68% by
mass of HN O3 shows a constant boiling point of 393.5 K. This is greater
than both HN O3 (b.p : 359 K) and water (b.p : 373 K).
Table 2 : Differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions of two
liquids:
Ideal solutions Non-ideal solutions
Obey Raoult’s law at all range of Do not obey Raoult’s law at all range
concentration. of concentration.
∆ H mixing =0 (Neither heat is evolved nor ∆ H mixing ≠ 0. (Either heat is evolved or
absorbed during dissolution). absorbed during dissolution).
∆ V mixing =0 (Volume of the solution is ∆ V mixing ≠ 0 (Volume of the solution is not
equal to the sum of volumes of the equal to the sum of volumes of the
components). components).
ptotal= p0A x A + p 0B x B ptotal ≠ p0A x A + p0B x B
The intermolecular attractive forces The intermolecular attractive forces
between A-A, B-B and A-B are same. between A-A, B-B and A-B are not
same.
Differences between non ideal solution with positive and negative

deviations:
Positive deviation from raoult’s law Negative deviation from Raoult’s law
∆ H mixing >0 (Heat is absorbed during ∆ H mixing <0. Heat is evolved during
dissolution.) dissolution
∆ V mixing >0 (volume increases during ∆ H mixing <0. Volume decreases during
0 0 0 0
ptotal > p A x A + pB x B ptotal > p A x A + pB x B
Attractive force between A-B is Attractive force between A-B is
weaker than A-A and B-B attractive stronger than A-A and B-B attractive
forces. forces.
Forms minimum boiling point Forms maximum boiling point
azeotrope. azeotrope.
Raoult’s Law for solution of solid in Liquid:
The French chemist F.M Raoult (1886) carried out a series of
experiments to study the vapour pressure of a number of binary
solutions. On the basis of results of the experiments, he proposed a
generalisation called Raoult’s law which states that, the vapour pressure
of a solution containing non volatile solute is directly proportional to the
mole fraction of the solvent.
In case of a solution containing two components A (volatile solvent) and
B(non volatile solute) the vapour pressure of solution is given as
P A α x A Or P A =K x A
Where K is proportionality constant
Colligative properties and determination of molecular masses:
The properties of dilute solutions of non volatile solutes which depend
only on the number of particle of the solute relative to the total number
of particles in the solution and not on the nature of the solute are called
colligative properties. Thus, colligitive properties depend on the number
of solute particles present, regardless of whether they are atoms, ions,
or molecules.
The important colligative properties are:
1. Relative lowering of vapour-pressure of the solvent
2. Elevation of boiling-point of the solvent
3. Depression of freezing-point of the solvent
4. Osmotic pressure of the solution
1.Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
When a non volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour
pressure of solvent decreases. So, the vapour pressure of solution is
always lower than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent.
The difference in vapour pressures of pure solvent ( p0A ¿ and solution ( p A )
is called lowering of vapour pressure (∆ p ¿
0
∆ p=p A− p A
The ratio of lowering of vapour pressure to the pure solvent is called
relative lowering of vapour pressure.
p 0A− p A
Relative lowering of vapour pressure = 0
pA
According to Raoult’s law 0
pA = pA x A
p A = p0A (1−x B ) or p A = p0A −p 0A x B
0 0
p A x B =p A− p A
p 0A− p A
0
=x B
p A
So, “the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing

non volatile solute is equal to mole fraction of solute”. This is called
Raoult’s law of relative lowering of vapour pressure.
Thus relative lowering of vapour pressure depends only on the number
of the solute particles and it is independent of their identity. Hence
relative lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property.
Mathematically, Raoult’s law of relative of vapour pressure is
p 0A− p A
nB
=x B=
p 0
A
n A + nB
Calculation of molar mass of solute using relative lowering of vapour
pressure:
B n
The mole fraction of solute x B = n +n
A B
p 0A− p nB
From Roult’s Law, A
=
p 0
A
n A +nB
Here n A ∧n B are the number of moles of solvent and solute respectively
present in the solution. For dilute solutions n B ≪ n A , hence neglecting n B in
the denominator we have
p 0A− p n p 0A− p w ❑B / M B
A
= B or A
=
p 0
A
nA p0
A
W A/M A
0
p A− p wB× M A wB × M A × p 0A
A
=¿ or M B=
pA
0
wA × MB W A×¿¿
Here W A and w B are the masses and M A ∧M Bare the molar masses of the
solvent and solute respectively. Thus by determining the value of
relative lowering of vapour pressure of a dilute solution of known
concentration experimentally, the molar mass of the solute can be
calculated
2.Elevation of boiling point:

Boiling point (T b) of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour
pressure becomes equal to the external pressure. The vapour pressure
of a non volatile solute is less than that of pure solvent. Therefore higher
temperature is required to make the vapour pressure of the solution
equal to the external pressure as shown in the graph. Hence, the boiling
point of solution is more than that of pure solvent.
The difference in boiling points of the pure solvent and the
solution is called the elevation in boiling point of solvent.
Let T 0bbe the boiling point of pure solvent and T bbe the boiling point of
solution.
The increase in the boiling point ∆ T b=T b −T 0b where ∆ T bis known
as elevation in boiling point.
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions, the elevation of
boiling point (∆ T b ¿is directly proportional to the molal concentration of
the solution. Thus ∆ T b ∝m or ∆ T b=K b m
Where m is the molality of the solution and K b is the boiling point
elevation constant or molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant.
Here molality is used because it is not affected by change in
temperature.
When molality of solution, m=1, then ∆ T b=K b
Therefore, molal elevation constant of a solvent is defned as the
elevation of boiling point caused by dissolving one mole of non volatile
solute in one kg of solvent.
SI unit of the constant K b is K Kg mol-1 and is specifc for a given solvent.
Calculation of molar mass of the solute using elevation in boiling point:
Let W B be the mass of the solute of molecular mass M B dissolved in w A
gram of the solvent, then molality (m) of the solution is given by the
equation:
w B ×1000
m=
M B× wA
Bw ×1000
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get, ∆ T b=K b × M ×w
B A
The molar mass of the solute ( B is calculated using the equation,

M ¿
K b × w B × 1000
M B=
∆ T b ×w A
Thus, in order to determine M B , molar mass of the solute, known mass of
solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and ∆ T b is determined for
a known solvent whose K b value is known.
The value of K b depends upon the nature of the solvent and it can be
determined using the formula:
R × M A × T 2b
Kb= solvent
1000 × ∆ H vap
Where R = gas constant, M A= molar mass of the solvent, T b (solvent )= boiling
pint of pure solvent, ∆ H vap=¿the enthalpy of vapourisation.
3.Depression in freezing point:
Freezing point (T f ¿ of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to that of its solid. The vapour
pressure of the solution is less than that of pure solvent. Therefore, the
vapour pressure of the solution becomes equal to that of solid solvent at
lower temperature than that of pure solvent. Hence, the freezing point
of the solution is less than that of the solvent as shown in the graph.
Let T 0f be the freezing point of the pure solvent and T f be the
freezing point of the solution. The depression in freezing point,
0
∆ T f =T f −T f
So, depression of freezing point (∆ T f ¿ is the difference in the freezing
point of the pure solvent and freezing point of solution.
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions the depression of
freezing point (∆ T f ¿ is directly proportional to the molal concentration of
the solution. Thus
∆Tf ∝m or ∆ T f =K f m
Where m is the molality of the solution and K f is the molal depression
constant or freezing depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
When molality of solution, m = 1, then ∆ T f =K f
Therefore, molal depression constant of a solvent is defned as the
depression in freezing point caused by dissolving one mole of non
volatile solute in one kg of solvent.
SI unit of the constant K b is Kkg mol-1 or Kmolal-1 and is specifc for a
given solvent.
Calculation of molar mass of a solute using depression in freezing point:
Let w B be the mass of the solute of molecular mass M B dissolved in w A
gram of the solvent, then molality (m) of the solution is given by the
equation.
w B ×1000
m=
M B× wA
B w ×1000
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get, ∆ T b=K f × M × w
B A
Therefore, the molar mass of the solute ( M B ¿ can be determined

K f ×w B ×1000
according the equation, M B=
∆ T f × wA
Thus, in order to determine M B , molar mass of the solute, known mass
of the solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and ∆ T f is
determined experimentally for a solution whose K f value is known.
The value of K f depends upon the nature of the solvent and it can be
determined using the formula:
R × M A ×T 2f ( solvent )
Kf =
1000 × ∆ H fus
Where R= gas constant, M= molar mass of the solvent, T f ( solvent )= freezing
point of pure solvent, ∆ H fus=¿ the enthalpy of fusion.
Solid solvent
V a p o u r p ressu re
Tfs Tf0
Temperature
Osmosis:
A strong solution of sugar is taken in a thistle funnel, the mouth of which
is covered with a piece of animal bladder or cellophane (semipermeable
membrane). This is kept immersed in water taken in a beaker as shown
in fgure. It is observed that the level of the solution inside the stem of
the thistle funnel starts raising. It must be due to the fow of solvent
molecules (water) into the solution through the semi-permeable
membrane. This phenomenon is known as osmosis.
The spontaneous movement of solvent molecules from the solution
of lower concentration to the solution of higher concentration through
semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.
Osmosis in natural processes:
 A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses of water
via osmosis and shrivel into pickle.
 Wilted fowers revive when placed in fresh water due to osmosis.
 A carrot that has become limp because of water loss, when placed
in water, water will move into them through osmosis making it
frm once again.
 When blood cells are placed in a solution containing more than
0.9% (mass/volume) of sodium chloride, blood cells shrink due to
loss of water by osmosis.
 People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention
in tissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis. The
resulting pufness or swelling is called edema.
 Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into
upper portion of the plant is partly due to osmosis.
 The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar
against bacterial action through the process of osmosis, a
bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loss water, shrivels and
dies.
Note: 0.9% sodium chloride in water is called saline solution.
4.Osmotic pressure:
Osmotic pressure of a solution is defned as the pressure to be
applied on the solution of higher concentration just to stop osmosis.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property because it depends on the
number of moles of solute in the solution and not on the nature of
the solute.
For dilute solutions, it has been found experimentally that osmotic
pressure is proportional to the molarity of the solution at a given
temperature T.
or
π∝C π=kC
Where k is proportionally constant and is equal to RT where R is
universal gas constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin. Therefore,
nB
π=CRT If n B moles of solute is dissolved in V litres of the solution, C=
V
⇒ nB
❑π= RT
V
If w B grams of the solute of molar mass ( M B ¿ is present in the solution,
B w ⇒ wB RT
then n B= M ❑π=
B MB V
⇒ w B RT
❑ M B=
πV
Thus, by measuring the osmotic pressure O s m o t i c
Sem i
of a solution of known concentration, molar p r e s s u r e p e r m ia b le
m e m b ra n e
mass of the solute can be calculated using P i s t o n
the above equation.
Determination of molecular
P u r e liq u id
masses of solute by osmotic pressure S o lu tio n
S o lv e n t
measurements is highly useful in fnding
out the molecular masses of
macromolecules like polymers, proteins,
etc.
Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions:
When such solutions are separated by semi-permeable membrane, no
osmosis occurs. For example, the osmotic pressure of the fuid inside
the blood cell is equivalent to that 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride
solution, called normal saline solution.
That is why normal saline solution is safe to inject intravenously
because no osmosis takes place.
On the other hand, if we place the cells in a solution containing more
than 0.9%(mass/volume) sodium chloride, water will fow out of the cell
and they would shrink . Such a solution is named as hypertonic
A solution having higher osmotic pressure with respect other is called
hypertonic solution. If the sodium chloride concentration is less than
0.9%(mass/volume), then water will fow into the cells if placed in this
solution and they would swell.
The solution having lower osmotic pressure with respect other is called
hypotonic solution.
Reverse osmosis and water purifcation:
When a solvent and a solution are separated by a semiprmeable
membrane, osmosis occurs. However, if an external pressure, which is
just equivalent to osmotic pressure is applied on solution side, no
osmosis occurs. If the external pressure is greater than the osmotic
pressure, then water will be forced to pass from solution to solvent side.
The process of reversing the direction of osmosis by applying the
pressure higher than the osmotic pressure to the solution of higher
concentration is called reverse osmosis. During reverse osmosis, the
pure solvent fows out the solution through the semi-permeable
membrane. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water. When
pressure, more than osmotic pressure (30 atm at 25 ° ∁ ) is applied to the
sea water, pure water is squeezed out of the sea water through the
semi-permeable membrane as shown in fgure.
A variety of membranes are used for reverse osmosis. Examples,
Cellulose Tri-Acetate (CTA) membrane, Thin-Film-composite (TFC)
membranes, etc.
Abnormal molar masses:
Molecular masses of solutes can be calculated by measuring any of the
colligative properties of dilute solutions.
These methods are applicable only if
 The solution is dilute, so that Raoult’s law is obeyed.
 The solute is non dissociable or non associable in the solution.
In case of solutes which either dissociate or associate in solutions,
molecular masses of solutes determined by these methods will be
abnormal.
Association of solute molecules:
Certain solutions in solution are found to associate. This leads to
decreases in the number of molecular particles in the solutions. Thus, it
results in a decrease in the value of colligative properties.
1
Molecular mass of solute ∝ Colligative proper ty
Therefore, molecular masses determined, will
be higher than the normal values for solutes
which undergo association in solution.
Example: Acetic acid in benzene undergoes
dimerization as indicated below.
Therefore, the molecular mass of acetic acid in benzene determined by
collegative property method will be approximately double the actual
value.
2 C H 3 COOH ⇌ ( C H 3 COOH )2
Dissociation of solute molecules:
Certain solutes in solution are found to dissociate into ions. This leads to
the increase in the number of particles in the solutions. Thus, it results
in a increases in the value of collegative properties.
1
Molecular mass of solute ∝ Colligative property
Therefore, molecular mass determined, will be lower than the normal
values for solutes which undergoes dissociation in solution.
Example: The molecular mass of NaCl in water determined by colligative
property method will be approximately reduced to half the actual value
due to dissociation. NaCl →Na+ + cl-
Van’t Hoff’s factor (i):
In 1886, Van’t Hoff introduced a factor ‘i’ called van’t Hoff’s factor, to
express the extent of association or dissociation of solutes in solution.
The van’t Hoff’s factor is a ratio of the normal molecular mass to the
observed molecular mass of a solute.
Normal molecular mass Observed coligative property
i= Observed molecular mass or i = Calculated colligative property
Consequently, introduction of the van’t Hoff’s factor modifes the
equations for the colligative properties as:
0
p A− p A
=i x B
pA
Elevation of boiling point, ∆ T b=i K b m
Depression in freezing point, ∆ T f =i K f m
inRT
Osmotic pressure, π=
V
or π=iCRT
From the value of ‘i’, it is possible to calculate degree of

dissociation or association of substances.
No . of moles of the substance dissociated
Degree of dissociation= Total no . of moles of the substance taken
Suppose a molecule of an electrolyte give ‘n’ ions after
dissociation. If we start with 1 mole of the solute, and ' α ’ is the degree of
dissociation, then at equilibrium.
No. of moles of solute left undissociated =1- α
No. of moles of ions formed = n α
Total no. of moles of particles = 1- α +nα =1+( n−1) α
Total no . of moles of particles after dissociation 1+ ( n−1 ) α
Van’t Hoff’s factor, i= No . of moles of particles before dissociation ¿
1
i−1
Or Degree of dissolution, α = n−1
Degree of Association:
It is defned as the fraction of total number of molecules which combine
to form associated molecules.
No . of moles of the substance associated
Degree of association= Total no . of moles of the substance tasken
For example, suppose ‘n’ simple molecules of the solute associated to
form the associated molecule An .
nA ⇋ An
If we start with 1 mole of simple molecule and α is the degree of
association, then that at equilibrium
No. of moles of solute left unassociated ¿ 1−α
α
Total no. of moles after association¿ 1−α + n
α 1
Van’t Hoff factor, i=
1−α +
n
¿
1+ α
[ ]
n
−1
1 1
i−1
α=
(or) Degree of association, 1
−1
n
One mark questions
1. What is binary solution?
solution containing only two components is called binary solution.
Example: salt solution (salt + water)
2. What is solid solution?
A solution in which solid acts as a solvent is called solid solution.
3. What is liquid solution?
A solution in which liquid acts as a solvent is called liquid solution.
4. What is gaseous solution?
A solution in which gas acts as a solvent is called gaseous solution.
5. What is concentration?
The amount of solute present in the given quantity of the solution is called
concentration.
6. Name the units used to express concentrations.
(i) Molarity (M) (ii) Molality (m) (iii) Mole fraction (x)
7. Among molarity and molality which is independent on temperature.
Molality.
8. Defne solubility.
The maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a specifed
amount of solvent at a specifed temperature is called solubility.
9. What is the basic rule (principle) to decide the solubility of solute in solvent?
“Like dissolves like”
10. What is dissolution?
When a solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves and its
concentration increases in solution. This process is called dissolution.
11. What is saturated solution?
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature
and pressure is called a saturated solution.
12. What is unsaturated solution?
A solution in which some more solute can be dissolved under the same
temperature is called unsaturated solution.
13. What is the effect of pressure on solubility of solubility of solid in liquid?
Pressure does not have any signifcant effect on solubility of solids in liquids.
14. What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of gas in liquid?
Solubility of gas in liquid decreases when temperature is increased.
15. Solubility of gas in liquid decreases as temperature increases. Why?
Because dissolution of gas in liquid is exothermic process.
16. Aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm
waters. Give reason.
Solubility of O2 in cold water is more than warm water.
17. What is the signifcance of Henry’s law constant?
The higher the value of KH lower is the solubility.
18. At a given temperature and pressure nitrogen gas is more soluble in water
than Helium gas. Which one of them has higher KH value?
Helium.
19. What is vapour pressure?
The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface at constant
temperature when they are in equilibrium with the liquid is called vapour
pressure or saturated vapour pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure.
20. Write the mathematical form of Raoult’s law for volatile solutes.
o o
Ptotal = p A xA  p B xB
21. Name the types of azeotropes or azeotropic mixtures.
Azeotropic mixtures are of two types:
(i) Minimum boiling azeotropes (ii) Maximum boiling azeotropes.
22. What happens to the vapour pressure of the pure liquid when a non volatile
solute is dissolved in it?
Vapour pressure decreases.
23. Write the mathematical form Raoult’s law of relative lowering of vapour
pressure.
poA  PA nB
o

pA nA  nB
24. What is boiling point?
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to
the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.
25. What happens to the boiling point of a liquid when a non volatile solute is
dissolved in a pure solvent?
Boiling point increases.
26. Defne Ebullioscopic constant or molal elevation constant.
It is the increase in the boiling point produced when one mole of non volatile
solute is dissolved in 1 kg of a pure solvent.
27. What is the value of Kb for water?
0.52 K kg mol1.
28. What is the SI unit of Kb?
K kg mol1.
29. What is freezing point?
the vapour pressure of the solid is called freezing point.
30. What happens to the freezing point of a pure solvent when a non volatile solute
is dissolved in it?
Freezing point decreases.
31. Give the relation between depression in freezing point and molality.
Tf  m or Tf K f m
where Kf is called molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.

32. Defne cryoscopic constant or molal depression constant.
It is the decrease in the freezing point produced when one mole of non volatile
solute is dissolved in one kg or 1000 g of a pure solvent.
33. What is the value of Kf for water?
Kf = 1.86 K kg mol1 for water.
34. What is the SI unit of Kf?
K Kg mol1
35. What is osmosis?
The fow of solvent molecules from lower concentrated solution to higher
concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.
36. What is semipermeable membrane?
A membrane which allows the movement of only solvent molecules through it
but not the solute particles is called semipermeable membrane.
37. Give an example for natural semipermeable membrane.
Pig’s bladder, animal membranes, vegetable membranes, skin, parchment
paper etc.,
38. Give an example for synthetic or artifcial semipermeable membrane.
Cellophane, cupric ferrocyanide coated on porous pot, Cu 2 [Fe(CN) 6 ] 
39. What is osmotic pressure?
The external pressure applied on the concentrated solution to stop osmosis is
called osmotic pressure. It is denoted by .
40. On what factor does the colligative property value depends.
It depends on the number of solute particles but not on their nature.
41. Give reason: Osmotic pressure or elevation in boiling point or depression in
freezing point or relative lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property.
Because it depends only on the number of solute particles present in the
solution but not on their nature.
42. Give Reason: To clear the snow covered roads and hilly areas salt is sprinkled.
When salt is sprinkled on the snow covered roads and hilly areas, snow starts
melting due to depression in freezing point as a result formation of water takes
place which helps to clear roads.
43. The osmotic pressure of NaCl solution is more than glucose solution.
NaCl solution contains more particles(2)than the glucose solution(1).
44. Which of the following has high osmotic pressure?
(i) Pure water (ii) 1 M glucose (iii) 1 M NaCl (iv) 1M CaCl2
1M CaCl2 due to 3 particles (1Ca and 2Cl ) in the solution.
2+ 

(i) 0.1 M NaCl (ii) 0.2 M CaCl2 (iii) 0.5 M Urea (iv) 1 M glucose
0.2M CaCl2
46. Among pure water and sea water which has high boiling point and lowest
freezing point.
Sea water.
47. Give reason:The freezing point of sea water is less than 0C (of 273 K).
Due to dissolved salts.
48. Among pure water and sea water which has highest vapour pressure.
Pure water
49. Which of the following has lowest vapour pressure?
(i) Pure water (ii) 1 M urea (iii) 1 M NaCl (iv) 1 M BaCl2
1M BaCl2
50. Name the semipermeable membrane used in reverse osmosis.
Cellulose acetate.
51. Name the disease caused to the people living at high altitudes.
Anoxia
52. Name the disease caused to the sea divers if they carry nitrogen oxygen
mixture or air.
Bends
Two mark questions
53. What is abnormal molar mass?
The molar mass determined by colligative properties is found to be lower or
higher than the expected or normal molecular mass. Such a molecular mass is
called abnormal molecular mass.
54. Defne molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre (1 dm3) of 1000 cm3 of a
solution is called molarity.Molarity is denoted by ‘M’
Molarity is calculated by the equation,
Number of moles of solute WB 1000 cm 3
Molarity  or Molarity 
Volume of the solution in litres M B V
The unit of molarity is mole / litre or mol L1.
Molarity changes with temperature because of expansion or contraction of
liquid with temperature.
55. Defne molality (m).
The number of moles of solute dissolved in one kg or 1000 g of a solvent is
called molality. Molality is denoted by ‘m’. Molality is calculated by the
equation.
Number of moles of solute w B 1000g
Molality  
Mass of the solvent in kg M B w A
Molality is independent of temperature because the mass of the solvent
doesnot change with temperature. The unit of molality is mol / kg or mol kg 1
56. Give two disadvantages of molarity.
(a) Molarity depends on temperature. So, this unit cannot be used in
(b) The exact amount of the solvent in a given volume of the solution cannot
be determined if the density of the solution is not known.
57. Defne mole fraction (x).
It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total
number of moles of all the components in the solution. If n2 moles of solute is
present in ‘n1’ moles of solvent, then
n2 n1
x2  x1 
mole fraction of solute, n1  n 2 mole fraction of solvent n1  n 2
Sum of mole fractions of all components present in solution is equal to one
i.e., x1  x2 1
58. Defne volume percentage. For which type of solutions this unit is useful?
Volume percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by volume
of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.
Volume percentage = 100
Volume of the solution
Note: Units of the two volumes unit be same.
59. Defne mass percentage (w/w)
Mass percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by mass of
the solute dissolved in 100 parts by mass of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass percentage = 100
Mass of the solution Note: Units of the two masses should be
same
60. Defne mass by volume percentage. Give the expression to calculate the
volume percentage for the given mass and volume of solute and solvent.
Mass by volume percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by
mass of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass by volume percentage = 100
Note: In this case, generally gram and cm3 are used as the units. Otherwise
system of units should be same.
61. Defne parts per million.
Parts per million of a solute is defned as the member of parts of solute
dissolved in one million parts of the solution.
Number of parts of the solute
Parts per million = 10 6
Number of parts of the solution
Note: The units of the parts of the solute and the solution should be same.
(1) Mass percent, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent on
temperature because mass is independent on temperature
(2) Molarity, volume percent and mass by volume percent depends on
temperature because volume depends on temperature.
62. What is the effect of temperature on solubility of solid in liquid?
(i) Solubility of solid in liquid increases as temperature increases if the
dissolution process is endothermic (H = +ve).
(ii) Solubility of solid in liquid decreases as temperature increases if the
dissolution process is exothermic (H =  ve)
63. State Henry’s law.
It states that, at constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution..
or
The partial presence of the gas in vapour phase (P) is directly proportional to
the mole fraction of the gas in the solution.
i.e., p = KH x
where KH = Henry’s law constant, x = mole fraction of the gas
p = Partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase.
64. What are isotonic solutions? Give an example.
Two solutions having the same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are
called isotonic solutions.
Example: RBC (Red blood cells) is isotonic with 0.9% NaCl solution which is
called normal saline. It is used in injections instead of distilled water.
65. What are hypertonic solutions?
The solutions whose osmotic pressure is higher than that of the given solution
is called hypertonic solution.
Example: When RBC is placed in a sea water, water passes out of the cell due
to osmosis and the cell shrinks.
66. What are hypotonic solutions?
The solutions whose osmotic pressure is lower than that of give solution are
called hypotonic solutions.
Example: When RBC is placed in hypotonic solution they swell and even burst
due to the infow of water.
67. What are ideal solutions? Give examples.
The solutions which obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations are called ideal
solutions.
68. Example: (i) Benzene and Toluene (ii) Ethyl bromide and ethyl iodide (iii) n-
hexane and n-heptane
69. Draw the graph of vapour pressure against mole fraction for ideal solution.
70. What are non-ideal solutions give examples.

The solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations are called
non-ideal solutions.
Example: (i) HCl and water (ii) Ethyl alcohol and water.
71. Give any four conditions to form non-ideal solutions.
(i) They should not obey Raoult’s law.
(ii) Vmix 0
(iii) H mix 0
(iv) The forces of attraction between A and B molecules will be greater or
lesser than that of A  A and B  B molecules.
72. Name the types of non-ideal solutions.
Non ideal solutions are of two types.
 Non ideal solution showing positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
 Non ideal solution showing negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
73. Which type of solutions show positive deviation?
If the vapour pressure of the solution is higher than that calculated from
Raoult’s law shows positive deviation. Example: (i) Ethyl alcohol and water, (ii)
Chloroform and water, (iii) Methyl alcohol and water.
74. Draw the graph to show non ideal solutions with positive deviation from ideal
behaviour.
75. Which type of solutions show negative deviation from Raoult’s law?
If the vapour pressure of the solution is lower than that calculated by Raoult’s
law shows negative deviation from Raoult’s law. Examples: HCl and water,
HNO3 and water, Chloroform and acetone
76. Draw the graph to show non ideal solutions with negative deviations.
77. What are azeotropes or azeotropic mixtures?

Binary liquid mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour
phase and boil at a constant temperature are called azeotropic mixtures.
Example: (i) 95.5% ethyl alcohol and 4.5% water (rectifedspirit) (ii) 20.2% HCl
and 79.8% water.
Note: In azeotropic mixtures the components cannot be separated by
fractional distillation.
78. What are minimum boiling azeotropes? Give an example.
The solutions which show large positive deviation from Raoult’s law are called
minimum boiling azeotropes. They boil at lower temperature than the boiling
point of the components.
Example: 95.5% Ethylalcohol and 4.5% water (rectifed spirit). This mixture
boils at 78.15C (boiling point of water is 100C and ethyl alcohol is 78.5C.
79. What are maximum boiling azeotropes? Give an examples.
Solutions which shows the large negative deviations from Raoult’s law are
called maximum boiling azeotropes.
Example: (i) 20.2% HCl and 79.8% water. This mixture boils at 381.6 K which
is higher than that of pure water (373 K) and HCl (188 K)
80. What are colligative properties?
The properties of dilute solutions depends only on the number of solute
particles present in the dilute solution but not on their nature are called
colligative properties.
81. Name the four colligative properties.
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure
 Elevation in boiling point or Ebuliscope or increase in boiling point.
 Depression in freezing point or Cryoscope or decrease in freezing point.
 Osmotic pressure.
82. Defne lowering of vapour pressure.
When a non volatile solute is added in to the pure solvent, the vapour
pressure of the solution decreases. It is the difference between the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent and that of the solution.
Let p be the vapour pressure of the pure solvent and p be the vapour
pressure of the solution, then,
Lowering of vapour pressure p  p
83. Defne relative lowering of vapour pressure.
It is the ratio of lowering of vapour pressure to the vapour pressure of solvent.
p0A  p A
Re lative lowering of vapour pressure 
p 0A
84. State Raoult’s law of relative lowering of vapour pressure.
It states that in a solution containing non volatile solute the relative lowering
of vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of the solute in dilute
solutions.
p 0A  p A nB
0

pA nA  nB
85. Defne elevation in boiling point.
It is the difference between the boiling point of the solution and that of the
pure solvent. i.e., Tb Tb  Tbo
o
where Tb  elevation in boiling point, Tb = boiling point of the solution, Tb 
boiling point of the pure solvent.
86. Give the relation between elevation in boiling point and molality.
Tb  m or Tb K b m
Where Tb  elevation in boiling point, m = molality, Kb = molal elevation

constant or ebullioscopic constant.
87. Give the relation to calculate molal elevation constant with respect to enthalpy
of vapourisation.
R M A Tb2 (solvent )
Kb 
1000  H vap
where R = gas constant, MB = molar mass of the
solvent,
Tb(solvent) = boiling point of pure solvent,  Hvap = the enthalpy of
vapourisation.
88. Draw the graph of vapour pressure with temperature to show elevation in
boiling point of solvent and solution.
89. Defne depression in freezing point.

It is the difference between the freezing point of the pure solvent and that of
the solution.
Tf Tfo  Tf where Tf depression in freezing point,
Tfo  freezing point of the pure solvent.
Tf  freezing point of the solution.
90. Draw the graph of vapour pressure with temperature to show depression in
freezing point of solvent and solution.
91. Derive the relation between depression in freezing point and the molecular
mass of a solute.
We know that T = K m
f f
where m is the molality of the solution and Kf is the molal depression constant
or freezing point depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
But for the given mass of solute and solvent, molality is given by
w B 1000  w 1000   w B 1000 
m  Tf K f  B   Tf K f  
M B w A  M B w A   M B w A  or
K f w B 1000
MB 
Tf w A .
92. Give the relation to calculate molar depression constant with respect to
enthalpy of fusion.
R M A Tf2(solvent )
R
1000 H fus where R = universal gas constant
MA= molecular mass of solvent
Tf = freezing point of solvent, Hfus = Enthalpy of fusion.
93. What is reverse osmosis?
When a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied on a
concentrated solution, solvent fows from concentrated solution to dilute
solution through a semi permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used in the
desalination of sea water to obtain fresh drinking water.
94. What is van’t Hoff’s factor?
It is the ratio of normal molar mass to the abnormal molar mass.
normal molar mass observed colligative property
i or i
abnormal molar mass calculated colligative property
95. Give the signifcance of van’t Hoff’s factor.
 If i = 1, the solute doesn’t undergo either dissociation or association.
 If i > 1, solute undergo dissociation.
 If i < 1 solute undergo association.
96. Write the colligative properties for solutes undergo dissociation or association.
 Elevation in boiling point, Tb i K b m
 Depression in freezing point, Tf i K f m
 Osmotic pressure  iCRT
po  p
o
i x2
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure, p
97. After removing the outer shell of two eggs in dilute HCl, one is placed in
distilled water and the other is placed in a saturated solution of NaCl. What will
you observe and why?
Egg in water swell and egg in NaCl solution shrinks because in water the
solvent molecules enters into the egg cell (hypotonic). In NaCl solution egg
shrinks because water fows out of the egg cell (hypertonic)
98. What do you expect to happen when RBC is placed in 1% NaCl solution and
0.5% NaCl solution.
In 1% NaCl solution RBC will shrink (hypertonic). In 0.5% NaCl solution RBC will
swell and may even burst (hypotonic). The above phenomena is because RBC
is isotonic 0.91% NaCl solution.
Three or four mark questions

99. Give any three applications of Henry’s law.
(i) It is used in the preparation of carbonated beverages (To increase the
solubility of CO2 in soda water, soft drinks and in beer, the bottle is sealed
under high pressure).
(ii) It is used by scuba or deep sea divers for respiration (To avoid bends and
toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen under deep sea).
(iii) It is used by mountain climbers for respiration. (At high altitudes the
partial pressure of oxygen is less. The low concentration of oxygen in the
blood and tissues causes climbers to become weak unable to think clearly
which causes anoxia)
100. State Raoult’s law of liquid solutions.
It states that in a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of
each component is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
o r
i.e., p A  x1 or p A x1p A Similarly pB pB xB
pB = partial vapour pressure of solute in solution.
p oB  vapour pressure of pure solute. xB = mole fraction of solute.
 Vapour pressure of solution p p A  p B p oA xA  pBo xB
o
where p A  vapour pressure of the pure solvent,
xA = mole fraction of the pure solvent, pA = partial pressure of the pure
solvent.
101. Give any four conditions to form ideal solutions.
(i) They should obey Raoult’s law.
(ii) Vmix = 0, i.e., threshold be no change in volume on mixing.
(iii) Hmix = 0, i.e., there should be no change in enthalpy (heat) on mixing.
(iv) The forces of attraction between A and B (solvent and solute) molecules
will be same as that of A  A (solvent – solvent) and B  B (Solute – solute)
molecules.
102. Give differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions.
Sl.No
Ideal solution Non-ideal solution
.
They do not obey Raoult’s
1 They obey Raoult’s law.
law.
2 Vmix 0 Vmix 0
3 H mix 0 H mix 0
The forces of attraction The forces of attraction
between A and B between A and B molecules
4 molecules will be same as will be greater or lesser than
that of A  A and B  B that of A  A and B  B
molecules. molecules.
103. Give differences between solutions showing positive deviation and negative
deviation from Raoult’s law.
Sl. Non ideal with positive
Non ideal with negative deviation
No. deviation
Vmix Ve (i.e., volume Vmix  ve (volume decreases on
1 increases on mixing two mixing two components)
components)
H mix  ve (heat is absorbed H mix  ve (heat is liberated on
2
on mixing) mixing)
The vapour pressure is higher The vapour pressure is lower
3 than that calculated from than that calculated from
Raoult’s law. Raoult’s law.
Forces of attraction between Forces of attraction between A
A and B molecules will be less and B molecules will be greater
4
than that of A  A and B  B than that of
molecules. A  A and B  B molecules.
104. Derive the relation to calculate is the molar mass or molecular mass or
molecular weight using relative lowering of vapour pressure.
p oA  pA nB
o

We know that from Raoult’s law pA nA  nB
Here nA and nB are the number of moles of solvent and solute respectively
present in the solution. For dilute solutions nB<< nA, hence neglecting nB in
p oA  p A n B p oA  p A WB M B
 w
p oA nA p oA A
MA
poA  pA w B M A w B M A p oA
 MB 
p oA w A M B w A (p oA  p A )
105. How is the molecular mass of a solute calculated by ebullioscopic method
(elevation in boiling point).
We know that Tb K b m …(1)
Let wB be the mass of the solute of molecular mass MB dissolved in wA gram
of the
solvent, then molality (m) of the solution is given by the equation:
w B 1000
m
M B w A
w B 1000
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get,  T = K × M B w A
b b
The molar mass of the solute (MB) is calculated using the equation,
K b w B 1000
MB 
Tb w A
Thus, in order to determine MB, molar mass of the solute, known mass of
solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and  Tb is determined
experimentally for a known solvent whose Kb value is known.
Derive the expression to calculate the molar mass of solute by osmotic
pressure experiment. C
1 w
C and n B  B
 CRT or  n B CRT but V MB
w 1 w B RT
  B  RT MB 
 MB V  V
where R = solution constant whose value is same as that of gas constant.
The above equation is used to calculate the molecular mass of a solute.
106. Explain the desalination of sea water (purifcation of water) by reverse
osmosis.
The process of reversing the direction of osmosis
by applying the pressure higher than the osmotic
pressure to the solution of higher concentration is
called reverse osmosis.
During reverse osmosis, the pure solvent
fows out of the solution through the semi
permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is used in
desalination of sea water.
When pressure, more than osmotic pressure (30 atm at 25oC) is applied
to the sea water, pure water is squeezed out of the sea water through the
semipermeable membrane as shown in fgure.
Worked out numerical problems

1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5g of NaOH in 450 mL solution.
Molar mass of NaOH = MB = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g mol–1
w B 1000 5 1000
 0 278 M
Molarity = M B V 40 450 .
2. Calculate the amount of benzoic acid [C6H5COOH] required for preparing 250
mL of 0.15 M solution in methanol
w B 1000

Molarity M B V M B 6 12  6 1  2 16 122 g mol  1
w B 1000 0 15 122 250
0 15  wB  4 575 g
122 250 1000.
3. Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene.
w B 1000

Molality M B w A w B 2 5 g, w A 75 g M B 2 12  4 1  2 16 60 g mol  1
2 5 1000

Molality 60 75 0 5556 m .
4. Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25
molal aqueous solution
1
wB = ?, M B 2 14  4 1  12  16 60 g mol , mass of solution = 25 kg = 2500 g
m 0 25 molal Mass of solute = moles of solute × molecular mass
0 25 60 15 g
Mass of solvent, wA = 2500 – 15 = 2485 g.
w 1000 w 1000 0 25 60 2485
Molality  B 0 25  B wB 
M B w A 60 2485 1000 = 37.275 g
5. If the density of some lake water is 1.25 g mL–1 and contains 92 g of Na+ ions
per kg of water. Calculate the molality of Na+ ion in the lake
w A 1 kg water 1000 g, M B Atomic mass of Na 23 g mol  1 , w B 92 g
w 1000 92 1000
 B 
M B w A 23 1000 = 4 m
Molality
6. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution
containing 20% of C2H6O2 by mass.
20% ethylene glycol means 20 g ethylene glycol present in 100g solution
 w B 20 g w A 100  20 80 g
M C2 H6O2 62 g mol  1 M H2 O 18 g mol 1
,
w B 20
n B   0 322 mol
Number of moles of C2 H 6 O2 M B 62
w A 80
H 2 O n A   4 444 mol
Number of moles of M A 18
nB 0 322
xB   0 0675
n A  n B 4 444  0 322
Mole fraction of ethylene glycol .
7. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass of
it in carbon tetrachloride.
1
Molar mass of C6 H 6 6 12  6 1 78 g mol
1
Molar mass of CCl4 112  4 35 5 154 g mol
30% benzene by mass means 30 g benzene in 100 g solution
 Mass of benzene = 30 g Mass of CCl4 = 100 – 30 = 70 g
30 70
n C6 H 6  0 385 mol n CCl4  0 454 mol
78 154
n C6 H 6
xC6 H6  0 385
n C6 H6  n CCl4  0 385  0 454 0 459
.
8. Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of
20% (mass / mass) aqueous KI is 1.202 g mL–1.
w/w
20%   aqueous KI solution means 20 g KI is present in 100 g of the
solution.
Mass of KI = wB = 20 g, Mass of water = wA = 100 g – 20 g = 80 g
mass of solution

Volume of solution density of solution
100 g
V  83 1947 mL
 Volume of solution 1 202
Molar mass of KI = MB = 16 g mol–1, Molar mass of H2O = MA = 18 g mol–1
20
n B  0 12048 mol
Number of moles of KI 166
80
n A  4 444 mol
Number of moles of water 18
w B 1000 20 1000
  1 506 m
(a)Calculation of molality of KI Molality M B w A 166 80
w 1000 20 1000
 B  1 448 M
(b)Calculation of molarity of KI Molarity M B V 166 83 1947
nB 0 12048
xKI   0 02639
nA  nB 4 444  0 12048
(c)Calculation of mole fraction of KI .
9. If nitrogen gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2
gas would dissolve in 1 litre of water? Assume that N2 exerts a partial
pressure of 0.987 bar. Given that Henry’s law constant for N2 at 293 K is
76.48 K bar.
According to Henry’s law
p 0 987 bar
xN 2   1 2910 5
p K H x K H 76 48 103 bar
n N2 Mass of 1L water 1000 g
xN 2  n H2O   55 55 moles
n H 2 O  n N2 Molecular mass 18
n N2
1 29 10 5 
55 55  n N2 n N2 n N2  55 55
in denominator is neglected as
n N2
 1 29 10 5  n N2 55 55 1 29 10  5 71 66 10  5
55 5 moles
 n N2 0 716 m mol
.
10. H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg smell, is used for the qualitative analysis. If
the solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0.195 m, calculate Henry’s law
constant.
Solubility of H2S = 0.195 m = 0.195 mole in 1000g water
 Mass of water = 1000 g
1000
n H2O  55 55
Number of moles of water 18 moles
n H 2S
H 2S xH2S  0 195
n H2 O  n H2S 55 55  0 195 0 003498
Mole fraction of
Pressure at STP = 0.987 bar
According to Henry’s law p K H x
p 0 987
KH   282 16 bar
xH2S 0 003498
11. Henry’s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is 4.27
× 105 mm Hg. Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K under
760 mm Hg.
p CH 4 760 mm Hg
xCH4   1 78 10  3
p CH4 K H xCH4 KH 4 27 105 mm Hg
Note: Mole fraction represents the solubility of methane in benzene.
12. Heptane and octane form an ideal solution. At 373 K, the vapour pressures of
the two liquid components are 105.2 kpa and 46.8 kpa respectively. What will
be the vapour pressure of a mixture of 26g heptane and 35g of octane?
According to Raout’s law
0 p 0heptane
poctane = xoctane poctane pheptane = xheptane
Molar mass of octane (C8H18) = 8 × 12 + 18 × 1 = 114 g mol–1
Molar mass of heptane (C7H16) = 7 × 12 + 1 × 16 = 100 g mol–1
w 35
 0.31 mol

Number moles of octane M 114
w 26
  0.26 mol
Number of moles of heptane M 100
n octane 0.31
xoctane 
n octane  n heptane  0.31  0.26 0.544
Mole fraction of octane
xheptane = 1 – xoctane = 1 – 0.544 = 0.456
poctane = 0.544 × 46.8 kpa = 25.46 kpa
pheptane = 0.456 × 105.2 kpa = 47.97 k pa
Total vapour pressure Ptotal = poctane + pheptane= 25.46 + 47.97 = 73.43 k
pa
13. The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg
respectively, at 350 K. Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total
vapour pressure is 600 mm Hg. Also fnd the composition of the vapour phase.
It is given that: poA 450 mm of Hg poB 700 mm of Hg Ptotal = 600
mm of Hg
From Raoult’s law, p A poA xA and p B poB xB Ptotal p A  p B
xB = 1 – xA
Ptotal poA xA  poB (1  xA ) Ptotal p oA xA  p oB  pBo xA Ptotal (poA  poB ) xA  poB
100 = (450 – 700)xA + 700
–100 = –250xA xA = 0.4
Therefore, xB = 1 – xA = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6
Now, p A p oA xA = 450 × 0.4 = 180 mm of Hg
p B poB xB = 700 × 0.6 = 420 mm of Hg
pA 180
Mole fraction of A   0.3
Now, in the vapour phase: p A  p B 180  420
Mole fraction of B = 1– 0.3 = 0.7
14. The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kpa at 300K. Calculate vapour pressure
of
1 molal solution of non volatile solute in it.
According to the Raoult’s law
p 0A  pA nB  A = H2 O 
0
  
pA nB  nA  B = solute 
1 molal means 1 mole of non volatile solute present in 1000g H2O
Molar mass of H2O = 18 g mol–1
1000
1000g H 2 O  55.56 moles.
Number of moles in 18
Number of moles of solute = 1 mol.
12.3  p A 1
 
12.3 1  55.56
12.3 – pA = 0.0177 × 12.3
pA = 12.3 – 0.2177 = 12.08 k pa
15. Vapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17.535 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour
pressure of water at 293 K when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g water
Molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) = 6 × 12 + 12 × 1 + 6 × 16 = 180 g mol–1
25 g
 0.139 mol
180 g mol 1
Number of moles of glucose
450g
 25 mol
18 g mol 1
Number of moles of water
p 0A  p A nB
0

According to Raoult’s law, pA nB  nA
p0A Vapour pressure of water and p = Vapour pressure of solution
A
17.535  p A 0.139 0.139 17.535
 17.535  p A 
17.535 0.139  25 25.139
17.535 – pA = 0.097 pA = 17.535 – 0.097 = 17.44 mm Hg
16. Calculate the mass of a non–volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol–1) which
should be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%.
Molecular mass of octane (C8H18) = MA = 8 × 12 + 18 × 1 = 114 g mol–1
80poA
 0.8p oA
Vapour pressure of octane after dissolving solute 100
p oA  pA nB wB 114
o
 nB  nA  1
pA nA  nB 40 mol, 114 mol
wB
poA  0 8p oA
 40
poA  wB  p0A  0 8p 0A wB
  1 0

  40  ; pA w B  40
wB
0 2 
w B  40
 w B 10g
17. The boiling point of a solution of 0.1050 g of a substance in 15.84 g of ether
was found to be 0.1oC higher than that of ether. What is the molecular weight
of the substance? (Kb = 2.02 K kg mol–1)
K b w B 1000 2 02 0 1050 1000
MB   133 9 g mol  1
Tb w A 0 1 15 84
18. The molecular weight of an organic compound is 58 g mol–1. Calculate the
boiling point of a solution containing 24 g of the solute and 600 g of water.
The boiling point of water = 100oC. Kb for water = 0.52 K kg mol–1.
K b w B 1000
Tb 
M B w A
0 52 24 1000
Tb  Tbo 
58 600 Tb 0 358  Tbo 0 358  100 100 358 C
19. Acetone boils at 56.38oC and a solution of 1.41 grams of an organic
compound in 20 g of acetone boils at 56.88oC. If Kb for acetone is 1.67 K kg
mol–1. Calculate the mass of one mole of the organic solid.
w B K b 1000
MB 
Tb w A Tb Tb  Tbo 56 88  56 38 0 5 C
1 41 1 67 1000
MB  235 47 g mol 1
0 5 20
20. In a cold climate, water gets frozen causing damage to the radiator of a car.
Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreezing agent. Calculate the amount of
ethylene glycol to be added to 4 kg of water to prevent it from freezing at –
6oCp
(Kf for water = 1.85 K kg mol–1 molar mass of ethylene glycol = 62 g mol–1).
K f w B 1000 1 85 w B 1000
Tf  6
M B w A 62 4 103 w B 804 32 g
21. Addition of 0.643 g of a compound to 50 mL of a liquid (density = 0.879 g/mL)
lowers the freezing point from 5.51oC to 5.03oC. Calculate the molar mass of
the compound. (Kf for benzene = 5.12 K kg mol–1).
K f w B 1000
MB 
Tf w A ( mass v d)
w A 50 0 879 43 95g
5 12 0 643 1000
o  MB  156 056 g mol  1
Tf Tf  Tf 5 51  5 03 0 48 C 0 48 43 95
22. 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water. Calculate (a)
the freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution.
(Kf = 1.86 K kg mol–1)
K f w B 1000
Tf 
Freezing point depression ( Tf ) is given by M B w A
Molecular mass of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) = 2 12  6 1  2 16 = 62 g mol–1.
1 86 45 1000
Tf 
62 600
Tf 2 25K Tf Tf0  Tf
Tf0  freezing point of water = 273.15 K Tf  freezing point of solution
Tf Tf0  Tf 273 15  2 25 270 9 K .
23. 1.4 g acetone dissolved in 100 g benzene gave a solution which freezes at
277.12 K. Pure benzene freezes at 278.4 K. 2.8 g of a solute dissolved in 100 g
benzene gave a solution which froze at 277.76 K. Calculate the molecular
weight of solute.
Tf w A M B
Kf 
w B 1000 Tf Tfo  Tf 278 4  277 12 1 28 K
1 28 100 58 K w B 1000 5 3 2 8 1000
 5 3 K kg mol  1 MB  f  231 87
1 4 1000 Tf w A 0 64 100 g mol–1
24. The osmotic pressure of blood is 7.65 atm at 37oC. How much glucose should
be used per litre for an intravenous injection that is to have the same osmotic
pressure as blood? (Molar mass of glucoses = 180 g mol–1)
w RT M V 180 g mol 1 7 65 atm 1L
MB  B wB  B 
V RT 0 0821 L atm mol  1K  1 310 K 54 14 g
25. What is the osmotic pressure of 0.05% urea solution in water at 20oC? R =
0.0821 lit atm mol–1 K–1 molar mass of urea = 60 g mol–1.
0.05% urea means 0.05 g urea present in 100 mL water.
w B RT 0 05 0 0821 293
 
MBV 60 0 1 L ( 100 nL 0 1 L) 0 2 atm
26. 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein.
The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to be 2.57 × 10–3
bar. Calculate the molar mass of the protein. (R = 0.083L bar mol–1 K–1)
w B RT
MB 
V V 200 cm3 0 2 L
1 26 0 083 300

2 57 10 3 0 2= 61039 g mol–1.
27. Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared by
dissolving 1.0 g of polymer of molar mass 185000 in 450 mL of water at 37oC
(R = 0.0821 L atm K–1 mol–1).
w B RT

MBV V 450 mL 0 45L
1 0 0821 310

185000 0 45 0 00030572 atm 0 00030572 101325 = 30.9768 Pa.
II PU CHEMISTRY 2017-18
Solutions
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, the composition

of which may vary within limits. “A solution is a special kind of mixture in which
substances are intermixed so intimately that they can not be observed as
separate components”. The dispersed phase or the substance which is to be
dissolved is called solute, while the dispersion medium in which the solute is
dispersed to get a homogenous mixture is called the solvent. A solution is
termed as binary, ternary and quartenary if it consists of two, three and four
components respectively.
Solubility.
Solubility of as substance in the solvent is the measure of the capacity of the
solute to dissolve in the solvent at a given temperature and pressure. “Solubility
of a substance may be defned as the amount of solute dissolved in 100gms of a
solvent to form a saturated solution at a given temperature”. A saturated
solution is a solution which contains at a given temperature as much solute as it
can hold in presence of dissolving solvent. Any solution may contain less solute
than would be necessary to saturate it. Such a solution is known as
unsaturated solution. When the solution contains more solute than would be
necessary to saturate it then it is termed as supersaturated solution. It is
metastable.
Weight of solute
Solubility= ×100
weigtht of solvent
Types of solutions
Based on the physical state of the solvent, binary solutions are classifed as
 Gaseous solutions
 Liquid solutions
 Solid solutions
 Gaseous solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is gas and solute is
either solid, liquid or a gas are called gaseous solutions.
 Liquid solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is liquid and the solute
is either a solid, liquid or a gas are called liquid so0lutions.
 Solid solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is solid and the solute is
either a solid, liquid or a gas, are called solid solutions.
Different types of solutions and some eaamples
Types of Solute Solven Common eaample
solutions t
Gaseous Solutions Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and
Liquid Gas nitrogen gases
Solutions SRS PU COLLAGE, CHITRADURGA Page 1

Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in
Liquid Solid palladium
Solid Solid Amalgam of mercury with
sodium
Copper dissolved in gold
Methods of eapressing concentration of solutions

The concentration of a solution is the amount of a solute present in a given
quantity of solvent or solution.
Units to eapress the concentration of solutions

Concentration of solutions is expressed in diferent units. Some of the common
units are
 Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is defned as the number of moles of

the solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Molarity =
Volume of the solution∈litre
If WB gram of the solute of molar mass MB is dissolved in V dm3 of the
solution, then the molarity is given by,
W B ×1000
Molarity=
M B× V
Units: mol/L or mol/dm3
For eaample, a molar (1M ) solution of sugar means a solution containing 1

23
mole of sugar (i.e., 342 g or 6 . 02×10 molecules of it) per litre of the solution.
Solutions in term of molarity generally expressed as,
M
1M = Molar solution, 2 M = Molarity is two, 2 or 0.5 M = Semimolar
solution,
M M
10 or 0.1 M = Decimolar solution, 100 or 0.01 M = Centimolar solution
M
1000 or 0.001 M = Millimolar solution
 Molarity is most common way of representing the concentration of solution.
1
Molarity ∝
Advantages of molarity
 Stoichiometric calculations are simplifed since the quantity of the solute is
expressed in mole.
 Quantity of the solution is easily measured by volume rather than by mass.
Disadvantages of molarity
 Molarity of a solution decreases with the increase in temperature since the
volume of the solutions increases with the increase in temperature. Thus
molarity is temperature dependent and cannot be used in experiments that
involve temperature variations.
 The exact amount of the solvent in a given volume of the solutions cannot be
determined if the density of the solution is not known.
 Molality (m): Molality of solution is defned as the number of moles of the

solute dissolved in one kg of the solvent. Molality is denoted by ‘m’ and is
calculated by the expression.

Molality =
Mass of the solvent ∈kg
If WB gram of the solute of molar mass MB is dissolved in WA gram of the
solvent, then
molality is given by
W B ×1000
Molality =
W A × MB
Unit: mol/kg
Advantages of molality
 Molality is temperature independent quantity. Therefore this unit can be
conveniently used in experiments involving temperature variations
 The exact mass of the solvent in given amount of the solution can be
calculated easily.
Mole fraction:
Mole fraction of a component in a solution is the ratio of number
moles of
that component to the total number of moles of all the components.
Let us consider a binary solution that contains nA moles of solvent ‘A’ and nB
moles of the
solute ‘B’
Mole fraction of the solvent A is given by,

nA
x A=
n A +n B
Mole fraction of the solute B is given by
n
xB= B
n A +n B
For a solution that contains a large number of components A, B,C,D,E……….I,
mole fraction of component D is given by

nD
xD=
n A +n B +… ..+n I
 Mass percentage (w/w)
Mass percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by mass

of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by mass of the solution.
Mass of the solute

Mass percentage = ×100
Mas of the solution
 Volume percentage (v/v)

Volume percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by volume of
the solute dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.

Volume percentage = ×100
Note: Units of the two volume unit be same
 Mass by volume percentage (w/v)

mass of the solute
dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.
Mass of the solute

Mass by volume percentage = ×100
Note:
In this case, generally gram and cm3 are used as the units. Otherwise system
of units should be same.
 Parts per million (ppm)

dissolved in one million
parts of the solution.

Parts per million = ×10

Note: (I) Mass percentage, ppm, mole fraction, and molality are independent of
temperature because mass is independent of temperature
(II) Molarity, volume percentage and mass by volume percentage depends
on temperature because
volume depends on temperature.
Solubility:
When a solute is mixed with a solvent, particles of the solute leave the solute
phase and get mixed with the particles of the solvent phase. This process is known
as dissolution. The solute is said to be dissolved in solvent.
Compounds like sugar, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, etc., dissolve in
water whereas they are insoluble in benzene or ether. Compounds like
naphthalene, anthracene, diphenyl, etc., dissolve in solvents like benzene and ether
but not in water. By these examples it may be broadly generalized that ‘Like
dissolved like’. It means to say that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non
polar solutes dissolve in non polar solvents. Thus dissolution of a solute in a given
solvent takes place when the nature of inter particle attractive forces in the solute
and the solvent are same.

Dissolution of a solute in a solvent is a reversible change. If dissolution is
the forward change then crystallization is the backward change that takes place
simultaneously.
When a large amount of solid solute is added to given amount of a solvent,
initially dissolution of the solute takes place. But as the concentration of the solute
particles in the solution phase increases, the back ward change, i.e., crystallization
begins and its rate starts to increase. At one stage the rates of dissolution and
crystallization become equal resulting in a dynamic equilibrium between the solid
solute and the solute particle in the solution phase
Solute dissolution
solute particles in solution
(Solid) ¿
Once the equilibrium is reached, the concentration of the solute particles in the
solution remains constant. No more solute dissolves in the solvent. The solution
thus formed is said to be saturated solution. A solution in which no more solute
can be dissolved at the same temperature and pressure is called saturated
solution. The amount of the solute present in a given quantity of the
saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure is called solubility
of the solute in the given solvent. A solution in which some more solute can
be dissolved at the given temperature and pressure is called unsaturated
solution.
Generally solubility is measured in mass percentage (w/w). Therefore, solubility of a

solid solute in a given liquid solvent at a given temperature is the mass of the
solute in gram dissolved in 100 grams of the saturated solution.

Effect of temperature on solubility of solid solute in a liquid solvent :
Since, solid solute and solvent particles in solution are in dynamic equilibrium,
it follows Le-chatelier’s principle. According to this principle increase in
temperature shifts the equilibrium towards endothermic change and decrease in
temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the exothermic change.
Therefore, if the dissolution of a solute in a given solvent is endothermic
then its solubility increases with the increase in temperature.
If the dissolution of a solute in a given solvent is exothermic, then the
solubility of the solute decreases with increase in temperature.
Note: For exothermic dissolution, enthalpy solution, ∆ sol H <0 and for endothermic
dissolution, enthalpy of solution∆ sol H >0
Effect of pressure:
There is no signifcant efect of pressure on the solubility of a solid solute in a liquid
solvent. This is because solids and liquids are highly incompressible and practically
remain unafected by changes in pressure.

Gases dissolve in liquids to form liquid-gas solution. Example, carbon dioxide
dissolves in water to form soda water. Water in wells, rivers, and sea contains
dissolved air which is used by aquatic animals for their breathing.

 The nature of the gas and solvent
 Temperature
 External pressure

Non-polar gases are less soluble in polar solvents like water. For example, gases
like, O2, N2, H2 etc., which are non-polar are very less soluble in water which is a
polar solvent at room temperature and pressure. But CO2, HCl, NH3 etc., being polar
gases, are highly soluble in water under identical conditions.

Generally solubility of all gases in liquids decreases with the increases in
temperature. This is because of two reason ;
 Generally dissolution of any gas in a liquid is exothermic. According to Le-
Chatelier’s principle, low temperature favours exothermic changes. That is why
gases dissolve more at low temperatures and less at high temperatures in
liquids.
 Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of dissolved gas
molecules. As a result, the gas molecules escape more from the solution phase
by overcoming the attractive forces.
Note: Solubility of oxygen is more in cold water than in warm water. That is why
aquatic speices are more comfortable in cold waters than in warm waters.
Effect of pressure:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with the increase in its partial
pressure above the liquid.
Henry’s law:
1000
This law gives the quantitative relationship between the
solubility of a gas in a liquid and the partial pressure of the
H C l / to rr
500
gas above the liquid at a given temperature. Henry’s law
states that “ at constant temperature the solubility of
0
a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 2 0
pressure of the gas above the solution”. If the solubility of a gas is in mole
faction, the law can also be stated as “ the partial pressure of the gas above
the solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of a gas in the
solution”.
i.e., p ∝a where p is partial pressure of the gas and a is solubility in mole

fraction

p
X= ;
KH

 Higher is the value of KH lower is the solubility of gas.
 Diferent gases have diferent KH values. Therefore KH value depends on
nature of the gas.
For example, KH value. of CO2 and O2 in water at 200 C are respectively 1.67k bar
and 457k bar. That is why CO2 is about 28 times more soluble in water than
oxygen at given temperature.
 KH value increases by increasing the temperature. This indicates that
solubility of gases in liquid decreases by increasing temperature. This is
because the dissolution of gas in liquid is an exothermic process.
 Units of Henry’s law constant are same as pressure.
Applications of Henry’s law :

(a) Carbonated beverages
» To increase the solubility of carbon dioxide in soda water and soft drinks,
bottles are sealed under high pressure of CO2.
(b) Deep sea diving
» Oxygen cylinders used by sea divers (Scuba divers) are flled with air which is
diluted with helium to minimize the solubility of nitrogen in the blood by
decreasing its partial pressure to avoid the risk of ‘bends’.

(Otherwise more nitrogen will be dissolved due to high pressure deep under sea
water. When a sea diver comes back to the surface, the solubility of nitrogen
again decreases and the dissolved gas is released, leading to the formation of
nitrogen bubbles in the blood. This results in the blockage of capillaries and leads
to a medical condition known as ‘bends’ or decompression sickness which causes
acute pain).
(c) High altitude sickness

» At high altitudes, partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at a ground level.
This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of mountain
climbers. Low-blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think
clearly. These are symptoms of anoxia.
Equilibrium vapour pressure of a liquid :

Consider a liquid taken in a closed container. The liquid being volatile, molecules
of the liquid escape from the liquid phase and occupy the space above the liquid
forming vapour phase. But after some time molecules of the vapour phase also
starts condensing into liquid. Thus at one stage there will be a dynamic
equilibrium between the vapour phase and the liquid when the rate of
vapourisation becomes equal to that of condensation. The pressure eaerted by
the molecules of the vapour phase on the liquid phase at equilibrium is
called equilibrium vapour pressure. For simplicity it is also called vapour
pressure. At constant temperature, diferent liquids have diferent vapour
pressures since they depend on nature of the liquids.
Vapour pressure of a solution of liquid in liquid :

The vapour phase of a binary solution placed in a closed vessel consists of
vapours of both the components. The French chemist F.M Raoult (1886) gave
quantitative relationship between the partial pressures of the components in the
vapour phase and their mole fractions in the solution phase. This relationship is
known as Raoult’s law.

Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial
pressure of each component in the vapour phase is directly proportional
to the mole fractions of the respective components in the solution phase
at a given temperature.
Let us consider a solution containing two volatile components A and B (that
have measurable vapour pressures) in a closed container. The equilibrium is
established between vapour phase and the liquid phase at constant temperature.
Let Ptotal be the total vapour pressure of the vapour phase about the solution and
p A and pB be the partial vapour pressure of the two components A and B. These
partial pressures are related to the mole fractions x A∧x B of the two components A
and B respectively. According to Raoult’s law for component A,
pA ∝ x A

0
pA= p x A
A
0
Where p is the vapour pressure of the pure component A at the same
A
temperature.
Similarly, for component B
pB ∝ x B
0
pB =PB X B
Where p0B is the vapour pressure of the pure component B at the same
temperature.
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure is the
sum of the partial pressures of all components at the same temperature.
Vapour pressure of solution

ptotal = p A + p B
ptotal= p0A x A + p 0B x B
ptotal = p0A ( 1−x B ) + p0B x B
ptotal= p0A − p0A x B + p0B x B
Slope =
o
tanθ=P A
θ
X A mole fraction of
The plots of p A and pB verses the mole fractions x A∧x Bfor a solution at a constant
solvent
temperature are linear graphs as shown
Following conclusions can be drawn from the above equations and graphs;
 Total vapour pressure over the solution is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of any one component ( x A∨x B ¿ .
 Total vapour pressure of the vapour phase of the solutions varies linearly with the
mole fraction of component
B(or A).
 Depending on the vapour pressures of the pure components A and B, total vapour
pressure over the solution decreases or increases with the increase of the mole
fraction of component A (or B).
The composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is determined

by the partial pressures of the components. If y A ∧ y B are the mole fraction of the
component A and B respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton’s law of
partial pressures:
p A = y A ptotal
pB = y B × p total
In general

pi= y i ptotal

According Henry’s law “the partial pressure of the gas (p) in vapour phase is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution i.e., p=K H x
According to Raoult’s law “the partial pressure of each component of
the solution is directly proportional to its mole faction present in the solution.
i.e., pi= p0i x i
By comparing equations for Henry’s law and Raoult’s law, we can conclude
that the partial pressure of volatile liquid or gas is directly proportional to its mole
fraction in solution. Only the diference is in their proportionality constants K H ∧ p0i .
Hence Raoult’s law is a special case of Henry’s law in which K H = p0i .
The binary solutions of the volatile liquids can be classifed into two types. They are
ideal and non-ideal solutions.
Ideal solutions:
 A solution which obeys Raoult’s law at all concentration range of the
components and temperature is called an ideal solution.
 In ideal solutions, solvent (A) – solute (B) interactions are equal to solute (B) –
solute (B) and solvent (A) – solvent (A) interactions. A perfectly ideal solution is
rare but some solutions are nearly ideal in behaviour. A few examples are:
 Ethyl bromide and ethyl iodide.

(i) It should obey Raoult’s law, i.e., P A =P 0A X A and PB =P 0B X B .
(ii)
ΔH mixing =0
(iii)
ΔV
mixing =0
A solution which does not obey Raoult’s law at all concentration range of the
components and temperature is called a non ideal solution.
 The non ideal solutions are accompanied by change in enthalpy and volume
during their formation i.e., ∆ H mixing ≠ 0 ∆ V mixing ≠ 0 ¿
 In general, most of the solutions are non ideal and deviate from ideal
behaviour. It must be remembered that in non- ideal binary solution none of
the components follows the Raoult’s law. The non-ideal solutions are further
classifed into two categories. They are
I. Non-ideal solution showing positive deviation
II. Non ideal solution showing negative deviation

The causes for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the molecular
level.

 The solutions for which the total vapour pressure is higher than that expected
from Raoult’s law are called solutions with positive deviations.
 For solutions with positive deviations from Raoult’s law, partial vapour
pressure of each component A and B is higher than that one that is calculated
from Raoult’s law for the same composition.
 In these solutions, the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-
solvent molecules are weaker than those between the solute-solute, solvent-
solvent interactions.
 This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will fnd it easier to
escape than in pure state. This will increases the vapour pressure and result in
positive deviation.
 Due to decrease in magnitude of intermolecular attractive forces, the
molecules are loosely held and thus increasing intermolecular distances.
Therefore formation of a non ideal solution is associated with increase in
volume and absorption of energy.
Characteristics:
P=PA+PB
p A > p 0A x A
Vapour
0
pB > p B x B and Pressure
PB
∆ H mixing =+ ve PA
∆ V mixing =+ ve i .e . , ( V solution >V A +V B ) .

X A 1Mole Fraction XA 0
Eaamples: XB 0
X B 1
 Acetone + ethanol
Partial and total vapour pressure curves for solutions that show positive
 Water + ethanol
 Acetone + CS2
 CCl4 + toluene
 Water + methanol

 The solutions for which the total vapour pressure is lower than that of an
ideal solution of same composition and temperature are called Solutions
with negative deviations.
 For solution with the negative deviation from Raoult’s law, partial vapour
pressure of each component A and B is lesser than the one that is calculated
from Raoult’s law for the same composition. So, the total vapour pressure of
the solution is less than that of ideal solution of same composition
 Boiling point of such a solution is relatively higher than the boiling points of
A and B respectively.
 In this case the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent
molecules are stronger than those between the solute-solute and solvent-

solvent molecules. This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B)
will not fnd it easier to escape than in pure state. This will decrease the
vapour pressure and result in negative deviation.
Characteristics:
Vapour Pressure
P=PA+PB
0
pA< p x A
A PB
0
pB < p x B
B and PA
∆ H mixing =−ve X A 1
Mole Fraction
XA 0
∆ V mixing =−ve i .e . , ( V solution <V A +V B ) . XB  0 X B 1
Eaamples: A vapour pressure curve showing negative deviation (solid lines) from idea
 Acetone +aniline
 H2O + HNO3
 Acetic acid + pyridine
 Acetone + chloroform
 Chloroform + diethylether
 Chloroform + benzene
 CH3OH + CH3COOH
 Water + HCl
Azeotropic Miatures (or) constant Boiling Miatures:

There are certain binary liquid mixture, which boil at constant temperature like a
pure liquid such that both the components are distilled out simultaneously. The
components of such mixtures cannot be separated during functional distillation.
Such mixtures are named as Azotropic mixtures.
The miature of liquids which boils at constant temperature and possess
same composition for both liquid and vapour phases is named as azeotropic
miature.
Based on the relative values of boiling points of the components and the mixture,
azeotrops are of 2 types:
i Minimum boiling azeotropes: The azeotropic mixtures for which the boiling
point is lower than the boiling points of both the component liquids are named as
minimum boiling azeotropes.
ii Conditions for formation: Minimum boiling azeotropes are formed by non-ideal

solutions with positive deviation. The composition of mixtures at which the
vapour pressure is highest represents the azeotropic composition. Since the
vapour pressure is highest, boiling point is minimum and hence is lower than both
the components.
For eaample: a mixture of ethanol and water at a composition of 95.574% by
mass of ethanol shows a constant boiling point of 351.1 K. This is lesser than both
ethanol (b.p : 351.3 K) and water (b.p : 373 K).

Components Boiling points (K)
Mass %
A B of B A B Azeotr
ope
H2O C2 H 5 OH 95.57 373 351. 351.1
3
H2O C2 H 5 CH 2 OH 71.69 373 370 350.72
CHCl 3 C2 H 5 OH 67 334 351. 332.3
3
(CH 3 )2 CO CS 2 6.8 329.2 320 312.2
5
iii Maaimum boiling azeotropes:

The azeotropic mixtures for which the boiling point is higher than the boiling
points of both the component liquids are named as maximum boiling azotropes.
Conditions for formation: Maximum boiling azeotropes are formed by non-ideal

solutions with negative deviation. The composition of mixtures at which the vapour
pressure is lowest represents the azeotropic composition. Since the vapour pressure
is lowest, boiling point is maximum and hence is higher than both the components.
For eaample: a mixture of HN O3 and water at a composition of 68% by mass of
HN O3 shows a constant boiling point of 393.5 K. This is greater than both HN O3 (b.p :
359 K) and water (b.p : 373 K).
Components Boiling points (K)
Mass %
A B of B A B Azeotr
ope
H2O HCl 20.3 373 188 383
H2O HNO3 58.0 373 359 393.5
H2O HClO 4 71.6 373 383 476

liquids :
 Obey Raoult’s law at all range  Do not obey Raoult’s law at
of concentration. all range of concentration.
 ∆ H mixing =0 (Neither heat is  ∆ H mixing ≠ 0. (Either

( heat is
evolved nor absorbed during evolved or absorbed
dissolution). during dissolution).
 ∆ V mixing =0 (Volume of the  ∆ V mixing ≠ 0 (Volume of the

solution is equal to the sum of solution is not equal to the
volumes of the components). sum of volumes of the
components).
 ptotal= p0A x A + p 0B x B  ptotal ≠ p0A x A + p0B x B
 The intermolecular attractive  The intermolecular attractive

forces between A-A, forces between A-A,
B-B and A-B are same. B-B and A-B are not same.
Table 3 : Differences between non ideal solution with positive and negative
deviations:
Positive deviation from raoult’s Negative deviation from Raoult’s
law law
 ∆ H mixing >0 (Heat
( is absorbed during  ∆ H mixing <0. Heat is evolved during
 ∆ V mixing >0 (volume

( increases during  ∆ H mixing <0. Volume decreases
dissolution.) during dissolution
0 0 0 0
 ptotal > p A x A + pB x B  ptotal > p A x A + pB x B
 Attractive force between A-B is  Attractive force between A-B is

weaker than A-A and B-B stronger than A-A and B-B
attractive forces. attractive forces.
 Forms minimum boiling point  Forms maximum boiling point

Id e a l s o lu t io n P o s it iv e d e v ia t io n N e g a tiv e d e v ia tio n
Vap
p 0A p A0 p A0
pB 0
pB 0
p B0
V a p o u r p re s s u re
P re
A p B)
Id e a l
X A = 1 M o le fr a c tio n X A = 0 X A = 1 M o le fr a c tio n X B = 1 X A = 1 M o le fr a c tio n X A = 0

X B = 0 X B = 1 X B = 0 X A = 0 X B = 0 X B = 1
Table 4: Differences between Maaimum and minimum Boiling azeotropic

miatures:
Maaimum Boiling point Minimum Boiling Point
Boiling point of mixture is higher Boiling point of mixture is lower
than the boiling point of both than the boiling point of both
components components
This type of mixture is formed by This type of mixture is formed by
solution showing negative deviation. solution showing positive deviation.
Solute-solvent interactions are Solute-solvent interactions are
stronger than those between solute- weaker than those between solute-
solute and solvent-solvent
Solutions solute and solvent-solvent
SRS PU COLLAGE, CHITRADURGA Page 14
interactions. interactions.
Example: HCl andwater Example: Alcohol and water
The French chemist F.M Raoult (1886) carried out a series of experiments to study
the vapour pressure of a number of binary solutions. On the basis of results of the
experiments, he proposed a generalisation called Raoult’s law which states that,
the vapour pressure of a solution containing non volatile solute is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent.
In case of a solution containing two components A (volatile solvent) and B(non
volatile solute) the vapour pressure of solution is given as
PA α x A
Or P A =K x A

The properties of dilute solutions of non volatile solutes which depend only
on the number of particle of the solute relative to the total number of
particles in the solution and not on the nature of the solute are called
colligative properties. Thus, colligitive properties depend on the number of solute
particles present, regardless of whether they are atoms, ions, or molecules.

I. Relative lowering of vapour-pressure of the solvent
II. Elevation of boiling-point of the solvent
III. Depression of freezing-point of the solvent
IV. Osmotic pressure of the solution
Relative lowering of vapour pressure:

I. When a non volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour
pressure of solvent decreases. So, the vapour pressure of solution is always
lower than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent. The diference in vapour
pressures of pure solvent ( p0A ¿ and solution ( p A ) is called lowering of vapour
pressure (∆ p ¿
0
∆ p=p A− p A
The ratio of lowering of vapour pressure to the pure solvent is called
relative lowering of vapour pressure.
p 0A− p A
Relative lowering of vapour pressure =
p0A
The relative lowering of vapour pressure is preferd to lowering of vapour pressure
because it is
 Independent of temperature
 A dimensionless quantity
 Constant when equimolar amounts of diferent solutes are dissolved
separately in the same solvent of same mass
According to Raoult’s law

0
pA = pA x A

0
p A = p (1−x B )A
0 0
p A = p −p A x BA
p0A x B =p 0A− p A
p 0A− p
=x B 0
A
p A
So, “the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing non

volatile solute is equal to mole fraction of solute”. This is called Raoult’s law
of relative lowering of vapour pressure. Thus relative lowering of vapour
pressure depends only on the number of the solute particles and it is independent of
their identity. Hence relative lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property.
p 0A− p nB
Mathematically, Raoult’s law of relative of vapour pressure is A
=x B=
p 0
A
n A + nB
Calculation of molar mass of solute using relative lowering of vapour

pressure:
nB
The mole fraction of solute x B =
n A +n B
0
p A− p nB
From Roult’s Law, A
=
p
0
A
n A +nB
Here n A ∧n B are the number of moles of solvent and solute respectively present in
the solution. For dilute solutions n B ≪ n A , hence neglecting n B in the denominator we
have
p 0A− p nB
= A
p0A nA
p 0A− p w ❑B / M B
A
=
p
0
A
W A /M A
0
p A− p A wB× M A
=¿
pA
0
wA × MB
0
wB × M A × p A
M B=
W A×¿¿
Here W A and w B are the masses and M A ∧M Bare the molar masses of the solvent and
solute respectively. Thus by determining the value of relative lowering of vapour
pressure of a dilute solution of known concentration experimentally, the molar mass
of the solute can be calculated
Elevation of boiling point:

Boiling point (T b) of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure
becomes equal to the external pressure. The vapour pressure of a non volatile
solute is less than that of pure solvent. Therefore higher temperature is required to
make the vapour pressure of the solution equal to the external pressure as shown in
the graph. Hence, the boiling point of solution is more than that of pure solvent.
The difference in boiling points of the pure solvent and the solution
is called the elevation in boiling point of solvent.
Let T 0bbe the boiling point of pure solvent and T bbe the boiling point of solution.
The increase in the boiling point ∆ T b=T b −T 0b where ∆ T bis known as
elevation in boiling point.
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions, the elevation of boiling point (
∆ T b ¿is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution. Thus
∆ T b ∝m
∆ T b=K b m
Where m is the molality of the solution and K b is the boiling point elevation constant
or molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant. Here molality is used because
it is not afected by change in temperature.
Therefore, molal elevation constant of a solvent is defned as the elevation of

boiling point caused by dissolving one mole of non volatile solute in one kg
of solvent.

Let W B be the mass of the solute of molecular mass M B dissolved in w A gram of the
w ×1000
m= B
M B× wA
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get,
w ×1000
∆ T b=K b × B
M B ×w A
The molar mass of the solute ( M B ¿ is calculated using the equation,
K b × w B × 1000
M B=
∆ T b ×w A
Thus, in order to determine M B , molar mass of the solute, known mass of solute in a
known mass of the solvent is taken and ∆ T b is determined for a known solvent
whose K b value is known.

The value of K b depends upon the nature of the solvent and it can be determined
using the formula:
R × M A × T 2b
Kb= solvent
1000 × ∆ H vap
Where R = gas constant, M A = molar mass of the solvent, T b (solvent )= boiling pint of
pure solvent, ∆ H vap=¿ the enthalpy of vapourisation.
Depression in freezing point:
Freezing point (T f ¿ of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of
the liquid becomes equal to that of its solid. The vapour pressure of the solution is
less than that of pure solvent. Therefore, the vapour pressure of the solution
becomes equal to that of solid solvent at lower temperature than that of pure
solvent. Hence, the freezing point of the solution is less than that of the solvent as
shown in the graph.
Let T 0f be the freezing point of the pure solvent andT f be the freezing point
of the solution. The depression in freezing point, ∆ T f =T 0f −T f
So, depression of freezing point (∆ T f ¿ is the difference in the freezing point

of the pure solvent and freezing point of solution.
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions the depression of freezing point (
∆ T f ¿ is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution. Thus
∆Tf ∝m
∆ T f =K f m
Where m is the molality of the solution and K f is the molal depression constant or
freezing depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
Therefore, molal depression constant of a solvent is defned as the

depression in freezing point caused by dissolving one mole of non volatile
solute in one kg of solvent.
SI unit of the constant K b is K kg mol-1 or K molal-1 and is specifc for a given

solvent.

Let w B be the mass of the solute of molecular mass M B dissolved in w A gram of the
solvent, then molality (m) of the solution is given by the equation.
w ×1000
m= B
M B× wA
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get,

w ×1000
∆ T b=K f × B
MB × wA
Therefore, the molar mass of the solute ( M B ¿ can be determined according the
equation,
K ×w B ×1000
M B= f
∆ T f × wA
Thus, in order to determine M B , molar mass of the solute, known mass of the solute
in a known mass of the solvent is taken and ∆ T f is determined experimentally for a
solution whose K f value is known.
The value of K f depends upon the nature of the solvent and it can be determined
using the formula:
Kf =
1000 × ∆ H fus
Where R= gas constant, M= molar mass of the solvent, T f ( solvent ) = freezing point of
pure solvent, ∆ H fus=¿ the enthalpy of fusion.
Solid solvent
V a p o u r p re ssu re
Tfs Tf0
Temperature
Osmosis:
A strong solution of sugar is taken in a thistle funnel, the mouth of which is covered
with a piece of animal bladder or cellophane (semipermeable membrane). This is
kept immersed in water taken in a beaker as shown in fgure. It is observed that the
level of the solution inside the stem of the thistle funnel starts raising. It must be
due to the fow of solvent molecules (water) into the solution through the semi-
permeable membrane. This phenomenon is known as osmosis.
The spontaneous movement of solvent molecules from the solution of
lower concentration to the solution of higher concentration through
semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.

 A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses of water via osmosis
and shrivel into pickle.
 Wilted fowers revive when placed in fresh water due to osmosis.
 A carrot that has become limp because of water loss, when placed in water,
water will move into them through osmosis making it frm once again.
 When blood cells are placed in a solution containing more than 0.9%
(mass/volume) of sodium chloride, blood cells shrink due to loss of water by
osmosis.
 People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in tissue
cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis. The resulting pufiness or
swelling is called edema.
 Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into upper
portion of the plant is partly due to osmosis.
 The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar against
bacterial action through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat
or candid fruit loss water, shrivels and dies.
Osmotic pressure:
 Osmotic pressure of a solution is defned as the pressure to be applied
on the solution of higher concentration just to stop osmosis.
 Osmotic pressure is a colligative property because it depends on the number of
moles of solute in the solution and not on the nature of the solute.
 For dilute solutions, it has been found experimentally that osmotic pressure is
proportional to the molarity of the solution at a given temperature T.
π∝C
π=kC
Where k is proportionally constant and is equal to RT where R is universal
gas constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin. Therefore,
π=CRT
n
If n B moles of solute is dissolved in V litres of the solution, C= B
V
⇒ n
❑ π = B RT
V
wB
If w B grams of the solute of molar mass ( M B ¿ is present in the solution, then n B=
MB
⇒ wB RT
❑π=
MBV
⇒ w B RT
❑ M B= O s m o tic S em i
πV p ressu re p e r m ia b le
m e m b ra n e
Thus, by measuring the osmotic pressure of a P is to n
solution of known concentration, molar mass of the
solute can be calculated using the above equation. P u r e liq u id
S o lu tio n
Determination of molecular masses of S o lv e n t
solute by osmotic pressure measurements is highly

useful in fnding out the molecular masses of
macromolecules like polymers, proteins, etc.
Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions:
 When such solutions are separated by semi-permeable membrane, no osmosis

occurs. For example, the osmotic pressure of the fuid inside the blood cell is
equivalent to that 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal
saline solution. That is why normal saline solution is safe to inject intravenously
because no osmosis takes place.
For isotonic solutions, π 1=π 2 Primary Condition …..(i)
Also, C1 =C 2
n1 n2 Secondary Conditions
=
or V1 V2
w1 w2
=
or m1 V 1 m2 V 2 …..(ii)
Eq. (ii) holds good only for those solutes which neither possess the tendency to get
associate nor dissociate in solution, e.g.,
(a) Urea and glucose are isotonic then, π 1=π 2 and C1 =C 2
NaCl
(b) Urea and (dissociate) are isotonic then, π 1=π 2 but C1 ≠C 2
Benzoic acid
(c) Urea and ( associate ) are isotonic then, π 1=π 2 but C1 ≠C 2
On the other hand, if we place the cells in a solution containing more than 0.9%
(mass/volume) sodium chloride, water will fow out of the cell and they would
shrink (Fig). Such a solution is named as hypertonic
 A solution having higher osmotic pressure with respect other is called

hypertonic solution. If the sodium chloride concentration is less than 0.9%
(mass/volume), then water will fow into the cells if placed in this solution and
they would swell (fg).
 The solution having lower osmotic pressure with respect other is called
hypotonic solution.
Problems
1. What is the osmotic pressure of a solution containing 3.42 g of sucrose in 500 mL.
Solution at 27 ℃.
(R = 0.0821 lit atm mo l−1 K −1 molar mass of sucrose = 342 g mol−1 ¿ (ANS:
0.492 atm ¿
2. The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution of sucrose is 4.92 atm at 27 ℃. What
is the molarity of the solution? How many grams of sucrose were dissolved per
250 mL of the solution. (ANS: 17.1 g ¿

When a solvent and a solution are separated by a semiprmeable membrane, osmosis
occurs. However, if an external pressure, which is just equivalent to osmotic
pressure is applied on solution side, no osmosis occurs. If
the external pressure is greater than the osmotic
pressure, then water will be forced to pass from solution
to solvent side.
The process of reversing the direction of osmosis by
applying the pressure higher than the osmotic pressure to
the solution of higher concentration is called reverse osmosis. During reverse
osmosis, the pure solvent fows out the solution through the semi-permeable

membrane. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water. When pressure,
more than osmotic pressure (30 atm at 25° ∁) is applied to the sea water, pure water
is squeezed out of the sea water through the semi-permeable membrane as shown
in fgure.
A variety of membranes are used for reverse osmosis. Examples, Cellulose Tri-
Acetate (CTA) membrane, Thin-Film-composite (TFC) membranes, etc.

Molecular masses of solutes can be calculated by measuring any of the colligative
properties of dilute solutions.

In case of solutes which either dissociate or associate in solutions, molecular

masses of solutes determined by these methods will be abnormal.

Certain solutions in solution are found to associate. This leads to decreases in the
number of molecular particles in the solutions. Thus, it results in a decrease in the
value of colligative properties.
1
Molecular mass of solute ∝
Colligative property
Therefore, molecular masses determined, will be higher than the normal
values for solutes which undergo association in solution.
Eaample: Acetic acid in benzene
undergoes dimerization as indicated
below.
Therefore, the molecular mass of acetic
acid in benzene determined by collegative
property method will be approximately
double the actual value.

Certain solutes in solution are found to dissociate into ions. This leads to the
increase in the number of particles in the solutions. Thus, it results in a increases in
the value of collegative properties.
1

Therefore, molecular mass determined, will be lower than the normal values
for solutes which undergoes dissociation in solution.
Eaample: The molecular mass of NaCl in water determined by colligative property
method will be approximately reduced to half the actual value due to dissociation.
NaCl →Na+ + cl-
In 1886, Van’t Hof introduced a factor ‘i’ called van’t Hof’s factor, to express the
extent of association or dissociation of solutes in solution. The van’t Hof’s factor is
a ratio of the normal molecular mass to the observed molecular mass of a solute.
i= or i=
Observed molecular mass Calculated colligative property
Consequently, introduction of the van’t Hof’s factor modifes the equations for the
colligative properties as:
p 0A− p A
Relative lowering of vapour pressure = =i x B
p0A
inRT
Osmotic pressure, π= or π=iCRT
V
From the value of ‘i’, it is possible to calculate degree of dissociation or
association of substances.
Table 4 : Values of Van’t Hoff factor:
Nature of substance non associable/ Dissociable

Associable
Non dissociable substances (Electrolytes)
substance
Substances
Van’t Hof’s factor 1 >1
<1
Table 5 : The van’t Hoff’s factor of 0.05 M electrolyte solutions at 25 ℃ :
Electrolyt i i
e (Measured (Calculate
) d)
Sucrose 1.0 1.0
HCl 1.9 2.0
NaCl 1.9 2.0
Degree of MgSO4 1.3 2.0 Dissociation:
MgCl2 2.7 3.0
FeCl3 3.4 4.0

It is defned as the fraction of total substance that undergoes
dissociation into ions.

Degree of dissociation=
Total no . of moles of the substance taken
Suppose a molecule of an electrolyte give ‘n’ ions after dissociation. If we
start with 1 mole of the solute, and ' α ’ is the degree of dissociation, then at
equilibrium.
No. of moles of solute left undissociated =1-α

No. of moles of ions formed = nα
Total no. of moles of particles = 1-α +nα =1+(n−1) α
Total no . of moles of particles after dissociation

Van’t Hof’s factor, i=
No . of moles of particles before dissociation
1+ ( n−1 ) α
¿
1
i−1
Or Degree of dissolution, α =
n−1
It is defned as the fraction of total number of molecules which combine to
form associated molecules.

Degree of association=
Total no . of moles of the substance tasken
For example, suppose ‘n’ simple molecules of the solute associated to form the
associated molecule An .
nA ⇋ An
If we start with 1 mole of simple molecule and α is the degree of association,
then that at equilibrium
α
Total no. of moles after association¿ 1−α +
n
α
1−α +
Van’t Hof factor, n
i=
1
1
¿
1+ α −1
n [ ]
1
i−1
α=
−1
n
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. How many grams of a dibasic acid are (mol. wt. 200) present in 100 ml of
its aqueous solution to give decimolar strength?
1
mol / litre
Molarity of solution = 10
Massof soluteingram
GMMof solute Volumeof solutioninlitre
Molarity =
Mass of solute in grams = molarity  GMM of solute  V(L)
1 100
 200  2 grams
10 1000
2. Calculate the quantity of sodium carbonate required to prepare 200ml of
M
10 solution.
Mass of solute in gram= molarity  GMM  V(L)
1 200
 106  2.12g
10 1000
3. Vapour pressure of water at 300 K is 12.3 kPa. What will be the vapour
pressure of one molal solution of non volatile solute in water at 300K?
One molal solution means one mole of solute is present in 1 kg of water.
 moles of solute = 1
1000
55.55
Moles of water = 18
55.55
0.9823
Mole fraction of solvent i.e., water = 56.55
Vapour pressure of solution containing non volatile
Solute = vapour pressure of solvent  mole fraction of solvent =
0
Psolvent  Xsolvent
= 12.3  0.9823 = 12.08 kPa
4. Calculate the vapour pressure of a solution at 373K containing 3.42g of
cane sugar in 36g of water.
3.42
0.01
Moles of sugar = 342
36
2
Moles of water = 18
Vapour pressure of pure water at 373K is 760 mm of Hg
P0  Ps n
 
P0 n N
Where P0  vapour pressure of pure solvent
Ps  vapour pressure of solution containing non-volatile solute.
n  moles of solute and N  moles of solvent
P0  Ps 0.01 0.01
 
P0 0.01  2 2.01
P0 Ps 1 P 1
  or 1  s 
P0 P0 201 P0 201
or
Ps 1 200
1  
P0 201 201

200 200
Ps P0  760  756.22mm of Hg
201 201
5. 9 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water . Calculate the mole
fraction of glucose and water
n1
Mole fraction of water 
n1  n2
n1  number of moles of solvent
n2  number of moles of solute
number of moles of solvent
mole fraction water  solvent  
number of moles of solvent  No. of moles of solute
mass in g 90
No. of moles of solvent  n1    5.
molecular mass 18
mass in g 9
No. of moles of solute  n2    0.05
molecular mass 180
n 5
mole fraction of the solvent   0.999
n1  n2 5  0.05
n2 0.05
solute   0.0099
n1  n2 5  0.05
2 moles of urea is dissolved is 8 moles of water . Calculate the mole
fraction of urea and water in
the solution
n1
Mole fraction of solvent 
n1  n 2
n1  number of moles of solvent = 8 moles

n2  number of moles of solute =2
8
x1  0.8
8  20
n 2
 2  0.2
Mole fraction of solute n1  n2 8  2
6. Two moles of ethanol and 8 moles of H2O are miaed to get a binary
solution. The vapour pressure of ethanol and H 2O at given temperature
are 800 Pa and 500 Pa respectively. Calculate the partial vapour
pressure of ethanol and H2O and also vapour pressure of binary
solution
nethanol 2
X ethanol   0.2
nethanol  nH 2O 2  8
nwater 8
X water   0.8
nethanol  nH 2O 2  8
P0ethanol = 800 Pa P0H2O = 500 Pa
Pethanol = P0ethanol Xethanol = 800 × 0.2 = 160 Pa
Pwater = P0water Xwater = 500 ×0.8 = 400 Pa
Ptotal = Pethanol + Pwater = 160 + 400 = 560 Pa
7. Calculate the osmotic pressure of a solution containing 0.1 mole of
non volatile solute per dm3 at 273 K ( R = 8.314 J mol-1 k-1)
V = nRT
nRT

V
  osmotic pressure n  number of moles of solute = 0.1
V  volume of solution = 1 dm = 10-3 m3
3
T  absolute temperature = 273 K

R  solution constant = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1
0.18.314 273

10 3
 = 226.972 × 103Pa
= 226.972 k Pa
8. Calculate the osmotic pressure of solution containing 15 g of urea in
300 cm3 of its solution at 300 K ( R = 8.314 J mol -1 k-1)
V = nRT
nRT

V
  osmotic pressure n  number of moles of solute = 0.25
V  volume of solution = 300 cm = 300 × 10-6 m3
3
T  absolute temperature = 3 × 102 K

0.25 8.314 300

300 10 6 = 2078 k Pa
9. Calculate the osmotic pressure of 5% of glucose at 18 0 C ( 5% means 5
g dissolved in 100 cc of water)
V = nRT
nRT

V
  osmotic pressure
n  number of moles of solute = 5 /182.3 = 0.0274
V  volume of solution = 100 cm3 = 100 × ( 10-2)3 = 100 × 10-6 m3
T  absolute temperature = 18 + 273 = 291 K
0.274 8.314 291

100 10 6
= 0.6629 ×106 = 662.9 ×10-3 ×106
= 662.9 ×103 Pa
= 662.9 k Pa
10. Calculate the osmotic pressure of 8% solution of sucrose at 298 K
RTW

MV
8.314 298 8

342 100 10 6
19820.576

34200 10 6
= 0.5795 ×106 = 579.5 ×103 Pa = 579.5 kPa
11. Calculate the osmotic pressure of 5% solution of a compound at
300 K is 692.83 k Pa. Calculate the molecular mass of compound
V = nRT

V
n
RT
WRT
M
V
5 8.314 300
 180 g
692.8 103 10  4
12. A solution of 100 gm of solute in a litre of water has a vapour

pressure of 2.27 × 103 Nm-2 at 250 C. At the same temperature the
vapour pressure of water is 2.34 × 103 Nm-2 . Calculate the molar mass
of the solute
According to Raoult’s law
P0  Ps n2 W2 M 1
 
P0 n1 M 2W1
W M  P0 
M2  2 1  
W2  P0  Ps 
M2 = molar mass of solute M1 = molar mass of solvent =

18
W2 = mass of solute = 100 g W1 = mass of solvent = 1 lit =
1000 g
P0 = vapour pressure of pure solvent = 2.34 × 103 Pa
Ps = vapour pressure of solution = 2.27 ×103 Pa
P0 –Ps = 0.07 ×103 Nm-2
100 18  2.34 103 
M2   
1000  0.07 103 
60.17 g
13. 12 g of urea is dissolved in 90 g of water.
(i) calculate the relative lowering in vapour pressure
(ii)Calculate the vapour pressure of solution if vapour pressure of
pure water at that temperature is 3000 Pa
P0  Ps n2

(i) P 0 n1
n2
Relative lowering in vapour pressure = n1
mass of subs tan ce
No. of moles 
molar mass
12 90
0.5 5
(i) solute(n2) = 60 mole (ii) solvent(n1) = 18 mole
n2 0.5
0.1
n
Relative lowering in vapour pressure = 1 = 5
Relative lowering in vapour pressure = 0.2 / 5 = 0.2 /5 = 0.03846
(ii) we have
P0  Ps
0.1
P0
1  Ps
0.1
P0
Ps = ( 1-0.1) P0 = 0.9 ×3000= 2700 Pa
14. 1.065 g of substance dissolved in 30.14 g of ether raised its
boiling point by 0.2960 C. The molar elevation constant for ether 2.11.
Calculate the molecule mass of the substance.
1000 kb W2
M2 
W1 Tb
1000 2.111.065

30.14 0.296
251.8 g
15. Pure water boils at 1000 C. A solution prepared by dissolving 1.2
g of solute in 9 g of water boil at 100.7 0C. Calculate molecular mass of
solute (molal elevation constant of water = 0.52 0 /kg or 0.520 /1000 g)
1000 kb W2
M2 
W1 Tb
1000 0.52 1.2

9 0.7
99.04 g
16. A solution containing 0.34 g of solute in 20 g of pure water

freezes at 272.5 K. Calculate the molar mass of solute K f = 1.86 /kg
1000 K f W2
M2 
W1 T f
1000 1.86 0.34
 63.24 g
20 0.5
17. A solution containing 5 g of solute in 100 g of pure water. The
depression in freezing point is 1.55, k f = 1.86 K-1 . Calculate the
molecular mass of substance
1000 K f W2
M2 
W1 T f
1000 1.86 5
 60 g
100 1.55

2.SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, the composition of
which may vary within limits.
“A solution is a special kind of mixture in which substances are intermixed so
intimately that they can not be observed as separate components”.
The dispersed phase or the substance which is to be dissolved is called solute, while
the dispersion medium in which the solute is dispersed to get a homogenous
mixture is called the solvent. A solution is termed as binary, ternary and quartenary
if it consists of two, three and four components respectively.
Types of solutions
Based on the physical state of the solvent, binary solutions are classifed as
(1)Gaseous solutions (2)Liquid solutions (3) Solid solutions
Gaseous solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is gas and solute is either
solid, liquid or a gas are called gaseous solutions.
Liquid solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is liquid and the solute is
either a solid, liquid or a gas are called liquid so0lutions.
Solid solutions: The solutions in which the solvent is solid and the solute is either
a solid, liquid or a gas, are called solid solutions.
Different types of solutions and some examples
Types of solutions Solute Solven Common example
t
Gaseous Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
Solutions Liquid Gas gases
Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
Methods of expressing concentration of solutions
The concentration of a solution is the amount of a solute present in a given quantity
of solvent or solution.
Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is defned as the number of moles of the solute
dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Molarity =
Volume of the solution∈litre
If WB gram of the solute of molar mass M B is dissolved in V dm 3 of the solution, then
the molarity is given by,
W B ×1000
Molarity= Units: mol/L or mol/dm3
M B× V
 Molarity is most common way of representing the concentration of solution.
1
Molarity ∝
Molarity of a solution decreases with the increase in temperature since the
volume of the solutions increases with the increase in temperature.
Thus molarity is temperature dependent and cannot be used in experiments
that involve temperature variations.
The exact amount of the solvent in a given volume of the solutions cannot be
determined if the density of the solution is not known.
Molality (m): Molality of solution is defned as the number of moles of the solute
dissolved in one kg of the solvent. Molality is denoted by ‘m’ and is calculated by the
expression.
Molality =
Mass of the solvent ∈kg
If WB gram of the solute of molar mass M B is dissolved in WA gram of the solvent,
then molality is given by
W B ×1000
Molality = Unit: mol/kg
W A × MB
Advantages of molality: Molality is temperature independent quantity. Therefore
this unit can be conveniently used in experiments involving temperature variations
The exact mass of the solvent in given amount of the solution can be calculated
easily.
Mole fraction(x): Mole fraction of a component in a solution is the ratio of number
moles of that component to the total number of moles of all the components.
Let us consider a binary solution that contains n A moles of solvent ‘A’ and n B moles
of the solute ‘B’
nA
Mole fraction of the solvent A is x A=
n A +n B
nB
Mole fraction of the solute B is x B =
n A +n B
For a solution that contains a large number of components A, B,C,D,E……….I, mole
fraction of component D is given by
nD
xD=
n A +n B +… ..+n I
 Sum of mole fraction of all the components in a solution is always equal to one
i.e., x A + x B =1
 Mole fraction is defned to a component and not to the solution
 Mole fraction has no unit
This unit is highly useful in the
 Calculation of partial pressure of a component gas in a solution of gases.
 Calculation of relative partial pressures of the vapour which is in equilibrium
with the solution.
Mass percentage (w/w):Mass percentage of a solution is defned as the number
of parts by mass of the solute dissolved in100 parts by mass of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass percentage = ×100
Mas of the solution
Volume percentage (v/v):Volume percentage of a solution is defned as the
number of parts by volume of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the
solution.
Volume percentage = ×100
Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass by volume percentage of a solution is
defned as the number of parts by mass of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by
volume of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass by volume percentage = ×100
In this case, generally gram and cm 3 are used as the units. Otherwise system of
units should be same.
Parts per million (ppm):
(ppm) Parts per million of a solute is defned as the member of
parts of solute dissolved in one million parts of the solution.
Parts per million = ×10
 Mass percentage, ppm, mole fraction, and molality are independent of
temperature because mass is independent of temperature
 Molarity, volume percentage and mass by volume percentage depends on
Solubility:
When a solute is mixed with a solvent, particles of the solute leave the solute
phase and get mixed with the particles of the solvent phase. This process is known
as dissolution. The solute is said to be dissolved in solvent.
Compounds like sugar, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, etc., dissolve in
water whereas they are insoluble in benzene or ether. Compounds like
naphthalene, anthracene, diphenyl, etc., dissolve in solvents like benzene and ether
but not in water. By these examples it may be broadly generalized that ‘Like
dissolved like’. It means to say that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non
polar solutes dissolve in non polar solvents. Thus dissolution of a solute in a given
solvent takes place when the nature of inter particle attractive forces in the solute
and the solvent are same.
Dissolution of a solute in a solvent is a reversible change. If dissolution is
the forward change then crystallization is the backward change that takes place
simultaneously.
When a large amount of solid solute is added to given amount of a solvent,
initially dissolution of the solute takes place. But as the concentration of the solute
particles in the solution phase increases, the back ward change, i.e., crystallization
begins and its rate starts to increase.
At one stage the rates of dissolution and crystallization become equal resulting in a
dynamic equilibrium between the solid solute and the solute particle in the solution
Solute dissolution
phase. solute particles in solution
(Solid) ¿
Once the equilibrium is reached, the concentration of the solute particles in the
solution remains constant. No more solute dissolves in the solvent. The solution thus
formed is said to be saturated solution. A solution in which no more solute can be
dissolved at the same temperature and pressure is called saturated solution. The
amount of the solute present in a given quantity of the saturated solution at a given
temperature and pressure is called solubility of the solute in the given solvent. A
solution in which some more solute can be dissolved at the given temperature and
pressure is called unsaturated solution.
Generally solubility is measured in mass percentage (w/w). Therefore, solubility of a
solid solute in a given liquid solvent at a given temperature is the mass of the
solute in gram dissolved in 100 grams of the saturated solution.
Effect of temperature on solubility of solid solute in a liquid solvent:
Since, solid solute and solvent particles in solution are in dynamic equilibrium, it
follows Le-chatelier’s principle.
 According to this principle increase in temperature shifts the equilibrium towards
endothermic change and decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium towards
the exothermic change.
 Therefore, if the dissolution of a solute in a given solvent is endothermic then its
solubility increases with the increase in temperature.
 If the dissolution of a solute in a given solvent is exothermic, then the solubility
of the solute decreases with increase in temperature.
 For exothermic dissolution, enthalpy solution, ∆ sol H <0 and for endothermic
dissolution, enthalpy of solution∆ sol H >0
Effect of pressure:
There is no signifcant effect of pressure on the solubility of a solid solute in a liquid
solvent. This is because solids and liquids are highly incompressible and practically
remain unaffected by changes in pressure.
Gases dissolve in liquids to form liquid-gas solution. Example, carbon dioxide
dissolves in water to form soda water. Water in wells, rivers, and sea contains
dissolved air which is used by aquatic animals for their breathing.
 The nature of the gas and  Temperature
solvent  External pressure
Non-polar gases are less soluble in polar solvents like water. For example, gases
like, O2, N2, H2 etc., which are non-polar are very less soluble in water which is a
polar solvent at room temperature and pressure. But CO 2, HCl, NH3 etc., being polar
gases, are highly soluble in water under identical conditions.
Generally solubility of all gases in liquids decreases with the increases in
temperature. This is because of two reason ;
Generally dissolution of any gas in a liquid is exothermic.
According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, low temperature 1000
favours exothermic changes.
H C l / to rr
That is why gases dissolve more at low temperatures and 500
less at high temperatures in liquids.
Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of
dissolved gas molecules. As a result, the gas molecules
escape more from the solution phase by overcoming the 0
0 .0 1 0 0 .0 2 0
attractive forces.
Note: Solubility of oxygen is more in cold water than in warm water. That is why
aquatic speices are more comfortable in cold waters than in warm waters.
Effect of pressure:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with the increase in its partial pressure
above the liquid.
Henry’s law:
This law gives the quantitative relationship between the solubility of a gas in a liquid
and the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid at a given temperature.
Henry’s law states that “at constant temperature the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution”.
If the solubility of a gas is in mole faction, the law can also be stated as “ the
partial pressure of the gas above the solution is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of a gas in the solution”.
i.e., p ∝x where p is partial pressure of the gas and x is solubility in mole fraction
p
X= ;
KH
Higher is the value of KH lower is the solubility of gas.
Different gases have different KH values. Therefore KH value depends on nature of
the gas.
For example, KH value. of CO2 and O2 in water at 20 0 C are respectively 1.67k bar
and 457k bar. That is why CO2 is about 28 times more soluble in water than oxygen
at given temperature.
KH value increases by increasing the temperature. This indicates that solubility of
gases in liquid decreases by increasing temperature. This is because the dissolution
of gas in liquid is an exothermic process.
Units of Henry’s law constant are same as pressure.
Applications of Henry’s law:
(a) Carbonated beverages:To increase the solubility of carbon dioxide in soda water
and soft drinks, bottles are sealed under high pressure of CO2.
(b) Deep sea diving:Oxygen cylinders used by sea divers (Scuba divers) are flled
with air which is diluted with helium to minimize the solubility of nitrogen in the
blood by decreasing its partial pressure to avoid the risk of ‘bends’.
(Otherwise more nitrogen will be dissolved due to high pressure deep under sea
water. When a sea diver comes back to the surface, the solubility of nitrogen again
decreases and the dissolved gas is released, leading to the formation of nitrogen
bubbles in the blood. This results in the blockage of capillaries and leads to a
medical condition known as ‘bends’ or decompression sickness which causes acute
pain).
(c) High altitude sickness:At high altitudes, partial pressure of oxygen is less than
that at a ground level. This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and
tissues of mountain climbers. Low-blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak
and unable to think clearly. These are symptoms of anoxia.
Equilibrium vapour pressure of a liquid:
Consider a liquid taken in a closed container. The liquid being volatile, molecules of
the liquid escape from the liquid phase and occupy the space above the liquid
forming vapour phase.
But after some time molecules of the vapour phase also starts condensing into
liquid.
Thus at one stage there will be a dynamic equilibrium between the vapour phase
and the liquid when the rate of vapourisation becomes equal to that of
condensation.
The pressure exerted by the molecules of the vapour phase on the liquid phase at
equilibrium is called equilibrium vapour pressure.
For simplicity it is also called vapour pressure. At constant temperature, different
liquids have different vapour pressures since they depend on nature of the liquids.
Vapour pressure of a solution of liquid in liquid:
The vapour phase of a binary solution placed in a closed vessel consists of vapours
of both the components. The French chemist F.M Raoult (1886) gave quantitative
relationship between the partial pressures of the components in the vapour phase
and their mole fractions in the solution phase. This relationship is known as Raoult’s
law.
Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial pressure of each
component in the vapour phase is directly proportional to the mole fractions of the
respective components in the solution phase at a given temperature.
Let us consider a solution containing two volatile components A and B (that
have measurable vapour pressures) in a closed container. The equilibrium is
established between vapour phase and the liquid phase at constant temperature.
Let Ptotal be the total vapour pressure of the vapour phase about the solution and p A
and pB be the partial vapour pressure of the two components A and B.
These partial pressures are related to the mole fractions x A∧x B of the two
components A and B respectively. According to Raoult’s law for component A,
pA ∝ x A or 0
pA= pA x A
Where p0A is the vapour pressure of the pure component A at the same temperature.
Similarly, for component B pB ∝ x B or 0
pB =PB X B
Where p0B is the vapour pressure of the pure component B at the same temperature.
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure is the sum
of the partial pressures of all components at the same temperature.
0 0
ptotal= p A + p B or ptotal= p A x A + p B x B
ptotal= p0A ( 1−x B ) + p0B x B or ptotal = p0A − p0A x B + p0B x B
Total vapour pressure over the solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction
of any one component ( x A∨x B ¿ .
Total vapour pressure of the vapour phase of the solutions varies linearly with the
mole fraction of component B(orA).
Depending on the vapour pressures of the pure components A and B, total vapour
pressure over the solution decreases or increases with the increase of the mole
fraction of component A (or B).
The composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is determined by
the partial pressures of the components. If y A ∧ y B are the mole fraction of the
component A and B respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton’s law of
partial pressures:
p A = y A ptotal or pB = y B × p total
In general pi= y i ptotal
According Henry’s law “the partial pressure of the gas (p) in vapour phase is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution i.e., p=K H x
According to Raoult’s law “the partial pressure of each component of the solution
is directly proportional to its mole faction present in the solution.
i.e., pi= p0i x i
By comparing equations for Henry’s law and Raoult’s law, we can conclude that
the partial pressure of volatile liquid or gas is directly proportional to its mole
fraction in solution.
Only the difference is in their proportionality constants K H ∧ p0i . Hence Raoult’s law is
a special case of Henry’s law in which K H = p0i .
The binary solutions of the volatile liquids can be classifed into two types. They are
ideal and non-ideal solutions.
Ideal solutions:
A solution which obeys Raoult’s law at all concentration range of the components
and temperature is called an ideal solution.
 In ideal solutions,solvent(A)–solute (B) interactions are equal to solute
(B)–solute(B)and solvent(A)–solvent(A)interactions.A perfectly ideal solution is
rare but some solutions are nearly ideal in behaviour.
A few examples are:
0 0
(i) It should obey Raoult’s law, i.e., P A=P A X A and PB =P B X B .
(ii)
ΔH mixing =0
(iii)
ΔV mixing =0
A solution which does not obey Raoult’s law at all concentration range of the
components and temperature is called a non ideal solution.
The non ideal solutions are accompanied by change in enthalpy and volume during
their formation i.e., ∆ H mixing ≠ 0 ∆ V mixing ≠ 0 ¿
In general, most of the solutions are non ideal and deviate from ideal behaviour.
It must be remembered that in non- ideal binary solution none of the components
follows the Raoult’s law. The non-ideal solutions are further classifed into two
categories.
1. Non-ideal solution showing positive deviation
2. Non ideal solution showing negative deviation
The causes for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the molecular
level.
The solutions for which the total vapour pressure is higher than that expected from
Raoult’s law are called solutions with positive deviations.
For solutions with positive deviations from Raoult’s law, partial vapour pressure of
each component A and B is higher than that one that is calculated from Raoult’s law
for the same composition.
In these solutions, the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent
molecules are weaker than those between the solute-solute, solvent-solvent
interactions.
This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will fnd it easier to escape
than in pure state. This will increases the vapour pressure and result in positive
deviation.
Due to decrease in magnitude of intermolecular attractive forces, the molecules are
loosely held and thus increasing intermolecular distances. Therefore formation of a
non ideal solution is associated with increase in volume and absorption of energy.
Characteristics:
p A > p 0A x A
P=PA+PB
Vapour Pressure
0 PB
pB > p B x B
PA
∆ H mixing =+ ve
X A 1 XA 0
∆ V mixing =+ ve i .e . , ( V solution >V A +V B ) . Mole Fractoo
XB  0 X B 1
Examples: Partal aod total vaapour pressure curvaes for solutoos thaat shao positvae devaiatoos from Ra
 Acetone + ethanol  CCl4 + toluene
 Water + ethanol  Water + methanol
 Acetone + CS2
The solutions for which the total vapour pressure is lower than that of an ideal
solution of same composition and temperature are called Solutions with negative
deviations.
For solution with the negative deviation from Raoult’s law, partial vapour pressure of
each component A and B is lesser than the one that is calculated from Raoult’s law
for the same composition. So, the total vapour pressure of the solution is less than
that of ideal solution of same composition
Boiling point of such a solution is relatively higher than the boiling points of A and B
respectively.
In this case the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent
molecules are stronger than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent
molecules. This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will not fnd it
easier to escape than in pure state. This will decrease the vapour pressure and
result in negative deviation.
Characteristics:
p A < p 0A x A
0
pB < p B x B
∆ H mixing =−ve
∆ V mixing =−ve i .e . , ( V solution <V A +V B ) .
Examples:
 Acetone +aniline  Chloroform + diethylether
 H2O + HNO3  Chloroform + benzene
 Acetic acid + pyridine  CH3OH + CH3COOH
 Acetone + chloroform  Water + HCl
Azeotropic Mixtures (or) constant Boiling Mixtures:
There are certain binary liquid mixture, which boil at constant temperature like a
pure liquid such that both the components are distilled out simultaneously. The
components of such mixtures cannot be separated during functional distillation.
Such mixtures are named as Azotropic mixtures.
The mixture of liquids which boils at constant temperature and possess same
composition for both liquid and vapour phases is named as azeotropic mixture.
Based on the relative values of boiling points of the components and the mixture,
azeotrops are of 2 types:
1.Minimum boiling azeotropes: The azeotropic mixtures for which the boiling
point is lower than the boiling points of both the component liquids are named as
minimum boiling azeotropes.
Conditions for formation: Minimum boiling azeotropes are formed by non-ideal
solutions with positive deviation.
The composition of mixtures at which the vapour pressure is highest represents the
azeotropic composition.
Since the vapour pressure is highest, boiling point is minimum and hence is lower
than both the components.
For example: a mixture of ethanol and water at a composition of 95.574% by mass
of ethanol shows a constant boiling point of 351.1 K. This is lesser than both ethanol
(b.p : 351.3 K) and water (b.p : 373 K).
2.Maximum boiling azeotropes:
The azeotropic mixtures for which the boiling point is higher than the boiling points
of both the component liquids are named as maximum boiling azotropes.
Conditions for formation:Maximum boiling azeotropes are formed by non-ideal
solutions with negative deviation.
The composition of mixtures at which the vapour pressure is lowest represents the
azeotropic composition.
Since the vapour pressure is lowest, boiling point is maximum and hence is higher
than both the components.
For example: a mixture of HN O3 and water at a composition of 68% by mass of HN O3
shows a constant boiling point of 393.5 K.
This is greater than both HN O3 (b.p : 359 K) and water (b.p : 373 K).

liquids:
Obey Raoult’s law at all range of Do not obey Raoult’s law at all range
concentration. of concentration.
∆ H mixing =0 (Neither heat is evolved nor ∆ H mixing ≠ 0. (Either heat is evolved or
absorbed during dissolution). absorbed during dissolution).
∆ V mixing =0 (Volume of the solution is ∆ V mixing ≠ 0 (Volume of the solution is not
equal to the sum of volumes of the equal to the sum of volumes of the
components). components).
0 0 0 0
ptotal= p A x A + p B x B ptotal ≠ p A x A + p B x B
The intermolecular attractive forces The intermolecular attractive forces
between A-A, B-B and A-B are same. between A-A, B-B and A-B are not
same.
Differences between non ideal solution with positive and negative
deviations:
Positive deviation from raoult’s law Negative deviation from Raoult’s law
∆ H mixing >0 (Heat is absorbed during ∆ H mixing <0. Heat is evolved during
∆ V mixing >0 (volume increases during ∆ H mixing <0. Volume decreases during
0 0 0 0
ptotal > p A x A + pB x B ptotal > p A x A + pB x B
Attractive force between A-B is Attractive force between A-B is
weaker than A-A and B-B attractive stronger than A-A and B-B attractive
forces. forces.
Forms minimum boiling point Forms maximum boiling point
The vapour pressure of a solution containing non volatile solute is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent.
In case of a solution containing two components A (volatile solvent) and B(non
volatile solute) the vapour pressure of solution is given as P A α x A Or P A =K x A
The properties of dilute solutions of non volatile solutes which depend only on the
number of particle of the solute relative to the total number of particles in the
solution and not on the nature of the solute are called colligative properties.
Thus, colligitive properties depend on the number of solute particles present,
regardless of whether they are atoms, ions, or molecules.
1. Relative lowering of vapour-pressure of the solvent
2. Elevation of boiling-point of the solvent
3. Depression of freezing-point of the solvent
4. Osmotic pressure of the solution
1.Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
When a non volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour pressure of
solvent decreases. So, the vapour pressure of solution is always lower than the
vapour pressure of the pure solvent.
The difference in vapour pressures of pure solvent ( p0A ¿ and solution ( p A ) is called
0
lowering of vapour pressure (∆ p ¿ ∆ p=p A− p A
The ratio of lowering of vapour pressure to the pure solvent is called relative
lowering of vapour pressure.
0
p A− p A
pA
0
According to Raoult’s law pA = pA x A
p A = p0A (1−x B ) or p A = p0A −p 0A x B
p0A x B =p 0A− p A
p 0A− p A
=x B
p0A
So, “the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing non volatile
solute is equal to mole fraction of solute”. This is called Raoult’s law of relative
lowering of vapour pressure.
Thus relative lowering of vapour pressure depends only on the number of the solute
particles and it is independent of their identity. Hence relative lowering of vapour
pressure is a colligative property.
Mathematically, Raoult’s law of relative of vapour pressure is
0
p A− p nB
=x B= A
pA
0
n A + nB
Calculation of molar mass of solute using relative lowering of vapour pressure:
nB p 0A− p nB
The mole fraction of solute x B = From Roult’s Law, = A
n A +n B 0
pA n A +nB
Here n A ∧n B are the number of moles of solvent and solute respectively present in
the solution. For dilute solutions n B ≪ n A , hence neglecting n B in the denominator we
have
p 0A− p nB p 0A− p w ❑B / M B
= A
or = A
p0A nA p0A W A /M A
p 0A− p wB× M A wB × M A × p 0A
A
=¿ or M B=
p0A wA × MB W A×¿¿
Here W A and w B are the masses and M A ∧M Bare the molar masses of the solvent and
solute respectively. Thus by determining the value of relative lowering of vapour
pressure of a dilute solution of known concentration experimentally, the molar mass
of the solute can be calculated
2.Elevation of boiling point:
Boiling point (T b) of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes
equal to the external pressure. The vapour pressure of a non volatile solute is less
than that of pure solvent. Therefore higher temperature is required to make the
vapour pressure of the solution equal to the external pressure as shown in the
graph. Hence, the boiling point of solution is more than that of pure solvent.
The difference in boiling points of the pure solvent and the solution is
called the elevation in boiling point of solvent.
Let T 0bbe the boiling point of pure solvent and T bbe the boiling point of solution.
The increase in the boiling point ∆ T b=T b −T 0b where ∆ T bis known as
elevation in boiling point.
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions, the elevation of boiling point (
∆ T b ¿is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution. Thus
∆ T b ∝m or∆ T b=K b m
Where m is the molality of the solution and K b is the boiling point elevation constant
or molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant. Here molality is used because
it is not affected by change in temperature.
Therefore, molal elevation constant of a solvent is defned as the elevation of boiling
point caused by dissolving one mole of non volatile solute in one kg of solvent.

Let W B be the mass of the solute of molecular mass M B dissolved in w A gram of the
w B ×1000
m=
M B× wA
wB ×1000
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get, ∆ T b=K b ×
M B ×w A
The molar mass of the solute ( M B ¿ is calculated using the equation,
K × w B × 1000
M B= b
∆ T b ×w A
Thus, in order to determine M B , molar mass of the solute, known mass of solute in a
known mass of the solvent is taken and ∆ T b is determined for a known solvent
whose K b value is known.
The value of K b depends upon the nature of the solvent and it can be determined
using the formula:
R × M A × T 2b
Kb= solvent
1000 × ∆ H vap
Where R = gas constant, M A= molar mass of the solvent, T b (solvent )= boiling pint of
pure solvent, ∆ H vap=¿ the enthalpy of vapourisation.
3.Depression in freezing point:
Freezing point (T f ¿ of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the
liquid becomes equal to that of its solid. The vapour pressure of the solution is less
than that of pure solvent. Therefore, the vapour pressure of the solution becomes
equal to that of solid solvent at lower temperature than that of pure solvent. Hence,
the freezing point of the solution is less than that of the solvent as shown in the
graph.
Let T 0f be the freezing point of the pure solvent and T f be the freezing point
of the solution. The depression in freezing point, ∆ T f =T 0f −T f
So, depression of freezing point (∆ T f ¿ is the difference in the freezing point of the
pure solvent and freezing point of solution.
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions the depression of freezing point (
∆ T f ¿ is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution. Thus
∆Tf ∝m or ∆ T f =K f m
Where m is the molality of the solution and K f is the molal depression constant or
freezing depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
Therefore, molal depression constant of a solvent is defned as the depression in
freezing point caused by dissolving one mole of non volatile solute in one kg of
solvent.
SI unit of the constant K b is Kkg mol-1 or Kmolal-1 and is specifc for a given solvent.
Let w B be the mass of the solute of molecular mass M B dissolved in w A gram of the
solvent, then molality (m) of the solution is given by the equation.
w ×1000
m= B
M B× wA
w B ×1000
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get, ∆ T b=K f ×
MB × wA
Therefore, the molar mass of the solute ( M B ¿ can be determined according the
K f ×w B ×1000
equation, M B=
∆ T f × wA
Thus, in order to determine M B , molar mass of the solute, known mass of the solute
in a known mass of the solvent is taken and ∆ T f is determined experimentally for a
solution whose K f value is known.
The value of K f depends upon the nature of the solvent and it can be determined
using the formula: Kf =
1000 × ∆ H fus
Where R= gas constant, M= molar mass of the solvent, T f ( solvent ) = freezing point of
pure solvent, ∆ H fus=¿ the enthalpy of fusion.
Solid solvent
V a p o u r p ressu re
Tfs Tf0
Temperature
Osmosis:
A strong solution of sugar is taken in a thistle funnel, the mouth of which is covered
with a piece of animal bladder or cellophane (semipermeable membrane). This is
kept immersed in water taken in a beaker as shown in fgure. It is observed that the
level of the solution inside the stem of the thistle funnel starts raising. It must be
due to the fow of solvent molecules (water) into the solution through the semi-
permeable membrane. This phenomenon is known as osmosis.
The spontaneous movement of solvent molecules from the solution of lower
concentration to the solution of higher concentration through semipermeable
membrane is called osmosis.
 A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses of water via osmosis
and shrivel into pickle.
 Wilted fowers revive when placed in fresh water due to osmosis.
 A carrot that has become limp because of water loss, when placed in water,
water will move into them through osmosis making it frm once again.
 When blood cells are placed in a solution containing more than 0.9%
(mass/volume) of sodium chloride, blood cells shrink due to loss of water by
osmosis.
 People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in tissue
cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis. The resulting pufness or
swelling is called edema.
 Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into upper
portion of the plant is partly due to osmosis.
 The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar against
bacterial action through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat
or candid fruit loss water, shrivels and dies.
4.Osmotic pressure:
Osmotic pressure of a solution is defned as the pressure to be applied on the
solution of higher concentration just to stop osmosis.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property because it depends on the number of
moles of solute in the solution and not on the nature of the solute.
For dilute solutions, it has been found experimentally that osmotic pressure is
proportional to the molarity of the solution at a given temperature T.
π∝C or π=kC
Where k is proportionally constant and is equal to RT where R is universal gas
constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin. Therefore,
n
π=CRT If n B moles of solute is dissolved in V litres of the solution, C= B
V
⇒ nB
❑ π = RT
V
wB
If w B grams of the solute of molar mass ( M B ¿ is present in the solution, then n B=
MB
⇒ wB RT
❑π= O s m o tic Sem i
MBV p re ssu re p e r m ia b le
m e m b ra n e
P is to n
⇒ w B RT
❑ M B=
πV
P u r e liq u id
S o lu tio n
S o lv e n t
Thus, by measuring the osmotic pressure of a solution of known concentration,
molar mass of the solute can be calculated using the above equation.
Determination of molecular masses of solute by osmotic pressure
measurements is highly useful in fnding out the molecular masses of
macromolecules like polymers, proteins, etc.
Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions: When such solutions are
separated by semi-permeable membrane, no osmosis occurs. For example, the osmotic
pressure of the fuid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium
chloride solution, called normal saline solution.
That is why normal saline solution is safe to inject intravenously because no osmosis
takes place. On the other hand, if we place the cells in a solution containing more
than 0.9%(mass/volume) sodium chloride, water will fow out of the cell and they
would shrink . Such a solution is named as hypertonic
A solution having higher osmotic pressure with respect other is called hypertonic
solution. If the sodium chloride concentration is less than 0.9%(mass/volume), then
water will fow into the cells if placed in this solution and they would swell.
The solution having lower osmotic pressure with respect other is called hypotonic
solution.
When a solvent and a solution are separated by a
semiprmeable membrane, osmosis occurs. However, if an
external pressure, which is just equivalent to osmotic
pressure is applied on solution side, no osmosis occurs. If
the external pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure,
then water will be forced to pass from solution to solvent side.
The process of reversing the direction of osmosis by applying the pressure higher
than the osmotic pressure to the solution of higher concentration is called reverse
osmosis. During reverse osmosis, the pure solvent fows out the solution through
the semi-permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea
water. When pressure, more than osmotic pressure (30 atm at 25° ∁) is applied to
the sea water, pure water is squeezed out of the sea water through the semi-
permeable membrane as shown in fgure.
A variety of membranes are used for reverse osmosis. Examples, Cellulose Tri-
Acetate (CTA) membrane, Thin-Film-composite (TFC) membranes, etc.
Molecular masses of solutes can be calculated by measuring any of the colligative
properties of dilute solutions.
In case of solutes which either dissociate or associate in solutions, molecular
masses of solutes determined by these methods will be abnormal.
Certain solutions in solution are found to associate. This leads to decreases in the
number of molecular particles in the solutions. Thus, it results in a decrease in the
value of colligative properties.
1
Therefore, molecular masses determined, will be
higher than the normal values for solutes which
undergo association in solution.
Example: Acetic acid in benzene undergoes
dimerization as indicated below.
Therefore, the molecular mass of acetic acid in benzene determined by collegative
property method will be approximately double the actual value.
Certain solutes in solution are found to dissociate into ions. This leads to the
increase in the number of particles in the solutions. Thus, it results in a increases in
the value of collegative properties.
1
Therefore, molecular mass determined, will be lower than the normal values for
solutes which undergoes dissociation in solution.
Example: The molecular mass of NaCl in water determined by colligative property
method will be approximately reduced to half the actual value due to dissociation.
NaCl →Na+ + cl-
In 1886, Van’t Hoff introduced a factor ‘i’ called van’t Hoff’s factor, to express the
extent of association or dissociation of solutes in solution. The van’t Hoff’s factor is a
ratio of the normal molecular mass to the observed molecular mass of a solute.
i= or i=
Observed molecular mass Calculated colligative property
Consequently, introduction of the van’t Hoff’s factor modifes the equations for the
colligative properties as:
p 0A− p A
Relative lowering of vapour pressure = =i x B
p0A
inRT
Osmotic pressure, π= or π=iCRT
V
From the value of ‘i’, it is possible to calculate degree of dissociation or
association of substances.
Degree of dissociation=
Total no . of moles of the substance taken
Suppose a molecule of an electrolyte give ‘n’ ions after dissociation. If we
start with 1 mole of the solute, and ' α ’ is the degree of dissociation, then at
equilibrium.
No. of moles of solute left undissociated =1-α
No. of moles of ions formed = nα
Total no. of moles of particles = 1-α +nα=1+(n−1)α
Total no . of moles of particles after dissociation 1+ ( n−1 ) α
Van’t Hoff’s factor, i= ¿
No . of moles of particles before dissociation 1
i−1
Or Degree of dissolution, α =
n−1
It is defned as the fraction of total number of molecules which combine to form
associated molecules.
Degree of association=
Total no . of moles of the substance tasken
For example, suppose ‘n’ simple molecules of the solute associated to form the
associated molecule An .
nA ⇋ An
If we start with 1 mole of simple molecule and α is the degree of association, then
that at equilibrium
α
Total no. of moles after association¿ 1−α +
n
α 1
Van’t Hoff factor,
i=
1−α +
n
¿
[ ]
1+ α −1
n
1 1
i−1
α=
−1
n
One mark questions
1. What is binary solution?
solution containing only two components is called binary solution.
Example: salt solution (salt + water)
2. What is solid solution?
A solution in which solid acts as a solvent is called solid solution.
3. What is liquid solution?
A solution in which liquid acts as a solvent is called liquid solution.
4. What is gaseous solution?
A solution in which gas acts as a solvent is called gaseous solution.
5. What is concentration?
The amount of solute present in the given quantity of the solution is called
concentration.
6. Name the units used to express concentrations.
(i) Molarity (M) (ii) Molality (m) (iii) Mole fraction (x)
7. Among molarity and molality which is independent on temperature.
Molality.
8. Defne solubility.
The maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a specifed
amount of solvent at a specifed temperature is called solubility.
9. What is the basic rule (principle) to decide the solubility of solute in solvent?
“Like dissolves like”
10. What is dissolution?
When a solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves and its
concentration increases in solution. This process is called dissolution.
11. What is saturated solution?
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature
and pressure is called a saturated solution.
12. What is unsaturated solution?
A solution in which some more solute can be dissolved under the same
temperature is called unsaturated solution.
13. What is the effect of pressure on solubility of solubility of solid in liquid?
Pressure does not have any signifcant effect on solubility of solids in liquids.
14. What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of gas in liquid?
Solubility of gas in liquid decreases when temperature is increased.
15. Solubility of gas in liquid decreases as temperature increases. Why?
Because dissolution of gas in liquid is exothermic process.
16. Aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm
waters. Give reason.
Solubility of O2 in cold water is more than warm water.
17. What is the signifcance of Henry’s law constant?
The higher the value of KH lower is the solubility.
18. At a given temperature and pressure nitrogen gas is more soluble in water
than Helium gas. Which one of them has higher KH value?
Helium.
19. What is vapour pressure?
The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface at constant
temperature when they are in equilibrium with the liquid is called vapour
pressure or saturated vapour pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure.
20. Write the mathematical form of Raoult’s law for volatile solutes.
o o
Ptotal = p A xA  p B xB
21. Name the types of azeotropes or azeotropic mixtures.
Azeotropic mixtures are of two types:
(i) Minimum boiling azeotropes (ii) Maximum boiling azeotropes.
22. What happens to the vapour pressure of the pure liquid when a non volatile
solute is dissolved in it?
Vapour pressure decreases.
23. Write the mathematical form Raoult’s law of relative lowering of vapour
pressure.
poA  PA nB
o

pA nA  nB
24. What is boiling point?
the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.
25. What happens to the boiling point of a liquid when a non volatile solute is
dissolved in a pure solvent?
Boiling point increases.
26. Defne Ebullioscopic constant or molal elevation constant.
It is the increase in the boiling point produced when one mole of non volatile
solute is dissolved in 1 kg of a pure solvent.
27. What is the value of Kb for water?
0.52 K kg mol1.
28. What is the SI unit of Kb?
K kg mol1.
29. What is freezing point?
the vapour pressure of the solid is called freezing point.
30. What happens to the freezing point of a pure solvent when a non volatile solute
is dissolved in it?
Freezing point decreases.
31. Give the relation between depression in freezing point and molality.
Tf  m or Tf K f m
where Kf is called molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.

32. Defne cryoscopic constant or molal depression constant.
It is the decrease in the freezing point produced when one mole of non volatile
solute is dissolved in one kg or 1000 g of a pure solvent.
33. What is the value of Kf for water?
Kf = 1.86 K kg mol1 for water.
34. What is the SI unit of Kf?
K Kg mol1
35. What is osmosis?
The fow of solvent molecules from lower concentrated solution to higher
concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.
36. What is semipermeable membrane?
A membrane which allows the movement of only solvent molecules through it
but not the solute particles is called semipermeable membrane.
37. Give an example for natural semipermeable membrane.
Pig’s bladder, animal membranes, vegetable membranes, skin, parchment
paper etc.,
38. Give an example for synthetic or artifcial semipermeable membrane.
Cellophane, cupric ferrocyanide coated on porous pot, Cu 2 [Fe(CN)6 ]
39. What is osmotic pressure?
The external pressure applied on the concentrated solution to stop osmosis is
called osmotic pressure. It is denoted by .
40. On what factor does the colligative property value depends.
It depends on the number of solute particles but not on their nature.
41. Give reason: Osmotic pressure or elevation in boiling point or depression in
freezing point or relative lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property.
Because it depends only on the number of solute particles present in the
solution but not on their nature.
42. Give Reason: To clear the snow covered roads and hilly areas salt is sprinkled.
When salt is sprinkled on the snow covered roads and hilly areas, snow starts
melting due to depression in freezing point as a result formation of water takes
place which helps to clear roads.
43. The osmotic pressure of NaCl solution is more than glucose solution.
NaCl solution contains more particles(2)than the glucose solution(1).
(i) Pure water (ii) 1 M glucose (iii) 1 M NaCl (iv) 1M CaCl2
1M CaCl2 due to 3 particles (1Ca and 2Cl ) in the solution.
2+ 

(i) 0.1 M NaCl (ii) 0.2 M CaCl2 (iii) 0.5 M Urea (iv) 1 M glucose
0.2M CaCl2
46. Among pure water and sea water which has high boiling point and lowest
freezing point.
Sea water.
47. Give reason:The freezing point of sea water is less than 0C (of 273 K).
Due to dissolved salts.
48. Among pure water and sea water which has highest vapour pressure.
Pure water
49. Which of the following has lowest vapour pressure?
(i) Pure water (ii) 1 M urea (iii) 1 M NaCl (iv) 1 M BaCl2
1M BaCl2
50. Name the semipermeable membrane used in reverse osmosis.
Cellulose acetate.
51. Name the disease caused to the people living at high altitudes.
Anoxia
52. Name the disease caused to the sea divers if they carry nitrogen oxygen
mixture or air.
Bends
Two mark questions
53. What is abnormal molar mass?
The molar mass determined by colligative properties is found to be lower or
higher than the expected or normal molecular mass. Such a molecular mass is
called abnormal molecular mass.
54. Defne molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre (1 dm3) of 1000 cm3 of a
solution is called molarity.Molarity is denoted by ‘M’
Molarity is calculated by the equation,
Number of moles of solute WB 1000 cm3
Molarity  or Molarity 
Volume of the solution in litres M B V
The unit of molarity is mole / litre or mol L1.
Molarity changes with temperature because of expansion or contraction of
liquid with temperature.
55. Defne molality (m).
The number of moles of solute dissolved in one kg or 1000 g of a solvent is
called molality. Molality is denoted by ‘m’. Molality is calculated by the
equation.
Number of moles of solute w B 1000g
Molality  
Mass of the solvent in kg M B w A
Molality is independent of temperature because the mass of the solvent
doesnot change with temperature. The unit of molality is mol / kg or mol kg 1
56. Give two disadvantages of molarity.
(a) Molarity depends on temperature. So, this unit cannot be used in
(b) The exact amount of the solvent in a given volume of the solution cannot
be determined if the density of the solution is not known.
57. Defne mole fraction (x).
It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total
number of moles of all the components in the solution. If n2 moles of solute is
present in ‘n1’ moles of solvent, then
n2 n1
x2  x1 
n1  n 2 n1  n 2
mole fraction of solute, mole fraction of solvent
Sum of mole fractions of all components present in solution is equal to one
i.e., x1  x2 1
58. Defne volume percentage. For which type of solutions this unit is useful?
Volume percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by volume
of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.
Volume percentage = 100
Note: Units of the two volumes unit be same.
59. Defne mass percentage (w/w)
Mass percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by mass of
the solute dissolved in 100 parts by mass of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass percentage = 100
Mass of the solution Note: Units of the two masses should be
same
60. Defne mass by volume percentage. Give the expression to calculate the
volume percentage for the given mass and volume of solute and solvent.
mass of the solute dissolved in 100 parts by volume of the solution.
Mass of the solute
Mass by volume percentage = 100
Note: In this case, generally gram and cm3 are used as the units. Otherwise
system of units should be same.
61. Defne parts per million.
dissolved in one million parts of the solution.
Number of parts of the solute
Parts per million = 106
(1) Mass percent, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent on
temperature because mass is independent on temperature
(2) Molarity, volume percent and mass by volume percent depends on
62. What is the effect of temperature on solubility of solid in liquid?
(i) Solubility of solid in liquid increases as temperature increases if the
dissolution process is endothermic (H = +ve).
(ii) Solubility of solid in liquid decreases as temperature increases if the
dissolution process is exothermic (H =  ve)
63. State Henry’s law.
It states that, at constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution..
or
The partial presence of the gas in vapour phase (P) is directly proportional to
the mole fraction of the gas in the solution.
i.e., p = KH x
where KH = Henry’s law constant, x = mole fraction of the gas
p = Partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase.
64. What are isotonic solutions? Give an example.
Two solutions having the same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are
called isotonic solutions.
Example: RBC (Red blood cells) is isotonic with 0.9% NaCl solution which is
called normal saline. It is used in injections instead of distilled water.
65. What are hypertonic solutions?
The solutions whose osmotic pressure is higher than that of the given solution
is called hypertonic solution.
Example: When RBC is placed in a sea water, water passes out of the cell due
to osmosis and the cell shrinks.
66. What are hypotonic solutions?
The solutions whose osmotic pressure is lower than that of give solution are
called hypotonic solutions.
Example: When RBC is placed in hypotonic solution they swell and even burst
due to the infow of water.
67. What are ideal solutions? Give examples.
The solutions which obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations are called ideal
solutions.
68. Example: (i) Benzene and Toluene (ii) Ethyl bromide and ethyl iodide (iii) n-
hexane and n-heptane
69. Draw the graph of vapour pressure against mole fraction for ideal solution.
70. What are non-ideal solutions give examples.

The solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations are called
non-ideal solutions.
Example: (i) HCl and water (ii) Ethyl alcohol and water.
71. Give any four conditions to form non-ideal solutions.
(i) They should not obey Raoult’s law.
(ii) Vmix 0
(iii) H mix 0
(iv) The forces of attraction between A and B molecules will be greater or
lesser than that of A  A and B  B molecules.
72. Name the types of non-ideal solutions.
Non ideal solutions are of two types.
 Non ideal solution showing positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
 Non ideal solution showing negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
73. Which type of solutions show positive deviation?
If the vapour pressure of the solution is higher than that calculated from
Raoult’s law shows positive deviation. Example: (i) Ethyl alcohol and water, (ii)
Chloroform and water, (iii) Methyl alcohol and water.
74. Draw the graph to show non ideal solutions with positive deviation from ideal
behaviour.
75. Which type of solutions show negative deviation from Raoult’s law?
If the vapour pressure of the solution is lower than that calculated by Raoult’s
law shows negative deviation from Raoult’s law. Examples: HCl and water,
HNO3 and water, Chloroform and acetone
76. Draw the graph to show non ideal solutions with negative deviations.
77. What are azeotropes or azeotropic mixtures?

Binary liquid mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour
phase and boil at a constant temperature are called azeotropic mixtures.
Example: (i) 95.5% ethyl alcohol and 4.5% water (rectifedspirit) (ii) 20.2% HCl
and 79.8% water.
Note: In azeotropic mixtures the components cannot be separated by
fractional distillation.
78. What are minimum boiling azeotropes? Give an example.
The solutions which show large positive deviation from Raoult’s law are called
minimum boiling azeotropes. They boil at lower temperature than the boiling
point of the components.
Example: 95.5% Ethylalcohol and 4.5% water (rectifed spirit). This mixture
boils at 78.15C (boiling point of water is 100C and ethyl alcohol is 78.5C.
79. What are maximum boiling azeotropes? Give an examples.
Solutions which shows the large negative deviations from Raoult’s law are
called maximum boiling azeotropes.
Example: (i) 20.2% HCl and 79.8% water. This mixture boils at 381.6 K which
is higher than that of pure water (373 K) and HCl (188 K)
80. What are colligative properties?
The properties of dilute solutions depends only on the number of solute
particles present in the dilute solution but not on their nature are called
colligative properties.
81. Name the four colligative properties.
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure
 Elevation in boiling point or Ebuliscope or increase in boiling point.
 Depression in freezing point or Cryoscope or decrease in freezing point.
 Osmotic pressure.
82. Defne lowering of vapour pressure.
When a non volatile solute is added in to the pure solvent, the vapour
pressure of the solution decreases. It is the difference between the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent and that of the solution.
Let p be the vapour pressure of the pure solvent and p be the vapour
pressure of the solution, then,
Lowering of vapour pressure p  p
83. Defne relative lowering of vapour pressure.
It is the ratio of lowering of vapour pressure to the vapour pressure of solvent.
p 0A  p A
Re lative lowering of vapour pressure 
p 0A
84. State Raoult’s law of relative lowering of vapour pressure.
It states that in a solution containing non volatile solute the relative lowering
of vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of the solute in dilute
solutions.
p 0A  p A nB

p 0A nA  nB
85. Defne elevation in boiling point.
It is the difference between the boiling point of the solution and that of the
pure solvent. i.e., Tb Tb  Tbo
o
where Tb  elevation in boiling point, Tb = boiling point of the solution, Tb 
boiling point of the pure solvent.
86. Give the relation between elevation in boiling point and molality.
Tb  m or Tb K b m
Where Tb  elevation in boiling point, m = molality, Kb = molal elevation

constant or ebullioscopic constant.
87. Give the relation to calculate molal elevation constant with respect to enthalpy
of vapourisation.
R M A Tb2 (solvent )
Kb 
1000  H vap
where R = gas constant, MB = molar mass of the
solvent,
Tb(solvent) = boiling point of pure solvent,  Hvap = the enthalpy of
vapourisation.
88. Draw the graph of vapour pressure with temperature to show elevation in
boiling point of solvent and solution.
89. Defne depression in freezing point.

It is the difference between the freezing point of the pure solvent and that of
the solution.
Tf Tfo  Tf where Tf depression in freezing point,
Tfo  freezing point of the pure solvent.
Tf  freezing point of the solution.
90. Draw the graph of vapour pressure with temperature to show depression in
freezing point of solvent and solution.
91. Derive the relation between depression in freezing point and the molecular
mass of a solute.
We know that T = K m
f f
where m is the molality of the solution and Kf is the molal depression constant
or freezing point depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
But for the given mass of solute and solvent, molality is given by
w B 1000  w 1000   w B 1000 
m  Tf K f  B   Tf K f  
M B w A  M B w A   M B w A  or
K f w B 1000
MB 
Tf w A .
92. Give the relation to calculate molar depression constant with respect to
enthalpy of fusion.
R M A Tf2(solvent )
R
1000 H fus where R = universal gas constant
MA= molecular mass of solvent
Tf = freezing point of solvent, Hfus = Enthalpy of fusion.
93. What is reverse osmosis?
When a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied on a
concentrated solution, solvent fows from concentrated solution to dilute
solution through a semi permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used in the
desalination of sea water to obtain fresh drinking water.
94. What is van’t Hoff’s factor?
It is the ratio of normal molar mass to the abnormal molar mass.
normal molar mass observed colligative property
i or i
abnormal molar mass calculated colligative property
95. Give the signifcance of van’t Hoff’s factor.
 If i = 1, the solute doesn’t undergo either dissociation or association.
 If i > 1, solute undergo dissociation.
 If i < 1 solute undergo association.
96. Write the colligative properties for solutes undergo dissociation or association.
 Elevation in boiling point, Tb i K b m
 Depression in freezing point, Tf i K f m
 Osmotic pressure  iCRT
po  p
o
i x2
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure, p
97. After removing the outer shell of two eggs in dilute HCl, one is placed in
distilled water and the other is placed in a saturated solution of NaCl. What will
you observe and why?
Egg in water swell and egg in NaCl solution shrinks because in water the
solvent molecules enters into the egg cell (hypotonic). In NaCl solution egg
shrinks because water fows out of the egg cell (hypertonic)
98. What do you expect to happen when RBC is placed in 1% NaCl solution and
0.5% NaCl solution.
In 1% NaCl solution RBC will shrink (hypertonic). In 0.5% NaCl solution RBC will
swell and may even burst (hypotonic). The above phenomena is because RBC
is isotonic 0.91% NaCl solution.
Three or four mark questions

99. Give any three applications of Henry’s law.
(i) It is used in the preparation of carbonated beverages (To increase the
solubility of CO2 in soda water, soft drinks and in beer, the bottle is sealed
under high pressure).
(ii) It is used by scuba or deep sea divers for respiration (To avoid bends and
toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen under deep sea).
(iii) It is used by mountain climbers for respiration. (At high altitudes the
partial pressure of oxygen is less. The low concentration of oxygen in the
blood and tissues causes climbers to become weak unable to think clearly
which causes anoxia)
100. State Raoult’s law of liquid solutions.
It states that in a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of
each component is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
o r
i.e., p A  x1 or p A x1p A Similarly pB pB xB
pB = partial vapour pressure of solute in solution.
p oB  vapour pressure of pure solute. xB = mole fraction of solute.
 Vapour pressure of solution p p A  pB p oA xA  pBo xB
o
where p A  vapour pressure of the pure solvent,
xA = mole fraction of the pure solvent, pA = partial pressure of the pure
solvent.
101. Give any four conditions to form ideal solutions.
(i) They should obey Raoult’s law.
(ii) Vmix = 0, i.e., threshold be no change in volume on mixing.
(iii) Hmix = 0, i.e., there should be no change in enthalpy (heat) on mixing.
(iv) The forces of attraction between A and B (solvent and solute) molecules
will be same as that of A  A (solvent – solvent) and B  B (Solute – solute)
molecules.
102. Give differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions.
Sl.No
Ideal solution Non-ideal solution
.
They do not obey Raoult’s
1 They obey Raoult’s law.
law.
2 Vmix 0 Vmix 0
3 H mix 0 H mix 0
The forces of attraction The forces of attraction
between A and B between A and B molecules
4 molecules will be same as will be greater or lesser than
that of A  A and B  B that of A  A and B  B
molecules. molecules.
103. Give differences between solutions showing positive deviation and negative
deviation from Raoult’s law.
Sl. Non ideal with positive
Non ideal with negative deviation
No. deviation
Vmix Ve (i.e., volume Vmix  ve (volume decreases on
1 increases on mixing two mixing two components)
components)
H mix  ve (heat is absorbed H mix  ve (heat is liberated on
2
on mixing) mixing)
The vapour pressure is higher The vapour pressure is lower
3 than that calculated from than that calculated from
Raoult’s law. Raoult’s law.
Forces of attraction between Forces of attraction between A
A and B molecules will be less and B molecules will be greater
4
than that of A  A and B  B than that of
molecules. A  A and B  B molecules.
104. Derive the relation to calculate is the molar mass or molecular mass or
molecular weight using relative lowering of vapour pressure.
p oA  pA nB
o

We know that from Raoult’s law pA nA  nB
Here nA and nB are the number of moles of solvent and solute respectively
present in the solution. For dilute solutions nB<< nA, hence neglecting nB in
p oA  p A n B p oA  p A WB M B
 w
p oA nA p oA A
MA
poA  p A w B M A w B M A p oA
 MB 
p oA w A M B w A (poA  p A )
105. How is the molecular mass of a solute calculated by ebullioscopic method
(elevation in boiling point).
We know that Tb K b m …(1)
Let wB be the mass of the solute of molecular mass MB dissolved in wA gram
of the
w B 1000
m
M B w A
w B 1000
Substituting the value of m in equation 1, we get,  T = K × M B w A
b b
The molar mass of the solute (MB) is calculated using the equation,
K b w B 1000
MB 
Tb w A
Thus, in order to determine MB, molar mass of the solute, known mass of
solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and  Tb is determined
experimentally for a known solvent whose Kb value is known.
Derive the expression to calculate the molar mass of solute by osmotic
pressure experiment. C
1 w
C and n B  B
 CRT or  n B CRT but V MB
w 1 w B RT
  B  RT MB 
 MB V  V
where R = solution constant whose value is same as that of gas constant.
The above equation is used to calculate the molecular mass of a solute.
106. Explain the desalination of sea water (purifcation of water) by reverse
osmosis.
The process of reversing the direction of osmosis
by applying the pressure higher than the osmotic
pressure to the solution of higher concentration is
called reverse osmosis.
During reverse osmosis, the pure solvent fows out of the solution
through the semi permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is used in
desalination of sea water.
When pressure, more than osmotic pressure (30 atm at 25oC) is applied
to the sea water, pure water is squeezed out of the sea water through the
semipermeable membrane as shown in fgure.
Worked out numerical problems

1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5g of NaOH in 450 mL solution.
Molar mass of NaOH = MB = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g mol–1
w B 1000 5 1000
 0 278 M
Molarity = M B V 40 450 .
2. Calculate the amount of benzoic acid [C6H5COOH] required for preparing 250
mL of 0.15 M solution in methanol
w B 1000

Molarity M B V M B 6 12  6 1  2 16 122 g mol  1
w B 1000 0 15 122 250
0 15  wB  4 575 g
122 250 1000.
3. Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene.
w B 1000

Molality M B w A w B 2 5 g, w A 75 g M B 2 12  4 1  2 16 60 g mol  1
2 5 1000

Molality 60 75 0 5556 m .
4. Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25
molal aqueous solution
1
wB = ?, M B 2 14  4 1  12  16 60 g mol , mass of solution = 25 kg = 2500 g
m 0 25 molal Mass of solute = moles of solute × molecular mass
0 25 60 15 g
Mass of solvent, wA = 2500 – 15 = 2485 g.
w B 1000 w B 1000 0 25 60 2485
Molality  0 25  wB 
M B w A 60 2485 1000 = 37.275 g
5. If the density of some lake water is 1.25 g mL–1 and contains 92 g of Na+ ions
per kg of water. Calculate the molality of Na+ ion in the lake
w A 1 kg water 1000 g, M B Atomic mass of Na 23 g mol  1 , w B 92 g
w B 1000 92 1000
 
M B w A 23 1000 = 4 m
Molality
6. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution
containing 20% of C2H6O2 by mass.
20% ethylene glycol means 20 g ethylene glycol present in 100g solution
 w B 20 g w A 100  20 80 g
M C2 H 6O2 62 g mol 1 M H2 O 18 g mol 1
,
w B 20
n B   0 322 mol
Number of moles of C2 H 6 O 2 M B 62
w A 80
H 2 O n A   4 444 mol
Number of moles of M A 18
nB 0 322
xB   0 0675
Mole fraction of ethylene glycol n A  n B 4 444  0 322 .
7. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass of
it in carbon tetrachloride.
1
Molar mass of C6 H 6 6 12  6 1 78 g mol
1
Molar mass of CCl4 112  4 35 5 154 g mol
30% benzene by mass means 30 g benzene in 100 g solution
 Mass of benzene = 30 g Mass of CCl4 = 100 – 30 = 70 g
30 70
n C6 H 6  0 385 mol n CCl4  0 454 mol
78 154
n C6 H 6
xC6 H6  0 385
n C6 H6  n CCl4  0 385  0 454 0 459
.
8. Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of
20% (mass / mass) aqueous KI is 1.202 g mL–1.
w/w
20%   aqueous KI solution means 20 g KI is present in 100 g of the
solution.
Mass of KI = wB = 20 g, Mass of water = wA = 100 g – 20 g = 80 g
mass of solution

density of solution
Volume of solution
100 g
V  83 1947 mL
 Volume of solution 1 202
Molar mass of KI = MB = 16 g mol–1, Molar mass of H2O = MA = 18 g mol–1

20
n B  0 12048 mol
Number of moles of KI 166
80
n A  4 444 mol
Number of moles of water 18
w B 1000 20 1000
  1 506 m
(a)Calculation of molality of KI Molality M B w A 166 80
w B 1000 20 1000
  1 448 M
(b)Calculation of molarity of KI Molarity M B V 166 83 1947
nB 0 12048
xKI   0 02639
nA  nB 4 444  0 12048
(c)Calculation of mole fraction of KI .
9. If nitrogen gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2
gas would dissolve in 1 litre of water? Assume that N2 exerts a partial
pressure of 0.987 bar. Given that Henry’s law constant for N2 at 293 K is
76.48 K bar.
p 0 987 bar
xN 2   3
1 29 10 5
p K H x K H 76 48 10 bar
n N2 Mass of 1L water 1000 g
xN 2  n H2 O   55 55 moles
n H2O  n N2 Molecular mass 18
n N2
1 29 10  5 
55 55  n N2 n N2 n N2  55 55
in denominator is neglected as
n N2
 1 29 10 5  n N2 55 55 1 29 10  5 71 66 10  5
55 5 moles
 n N2 0 716 m mol
.
10. H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg smell, is used for the qualitative analysis. If
the solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0.195 m, calculate Henry’s law
constant.
Solubility of H2S = 0.195 m = 0.195 mole in 1000g water
 Mass of water = 1000 g
1000
n H2O  55 55
Number of moles of water 18 moles
n H 2S
H 2S xH2S  0 195
n H2 O  n H2S 55 55  0 195 0 003498
Mole fraction of
Pressure at STP = 0.987 bar
According to Henry’s law p K H x
p 0 987
KH   282 16 bar
xH2S 0 003498
11. Henry’s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is 4.27
× 105 mm Hg. Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K under
760 mm Hg.
p CH4 760 mm Hg
xCH 4   1 78 10 3
p CH4 K H xCH4 KH 4 27 105 mm Hg
Note: Mole fraction represents the solubility of methane in benzene.
12. Heptane and octane form an ideal solution. At 373 K, the vapour pressures of
the two liquid components are 105.2 kpa and 46.8 kpa respectively. What will
be the vapour pressure of a mixture of 26g heptane and 35g of octane?
According to Raout’s law
0 p 0heptane
poctane = xoctane poctane pheptane = xheptane
Molar mass of octane (C8H18) = 8 × 12 + 18 × 1 = 114 g mol–1
Molar mass of heptane (C7H16) = 7 × 12 + 1 × 16 = 100 g mol–1

w 35
  0.31 mol
Number moles of octane M 114
w 26
  0.26 mol
Number of moles of heptane M 100
n octane 0.31
xoctane 
n octane  n heptane  0.31  0.26 0.544
Mole fraction of octane
xheptane = 1 – xoctane = 1 – 0.544 = 0.456
poctane = 0.544 × 46.8 kpa = 25.46 kpa
pheptane = 0.456 × 105.2 kpa = 47.97 k pa
Total vapour pressure Ptotal = poctane + pheptane= 25.46 + 47.97 = 73.43 k
pa
13. The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg
respectively, at 350 K. Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total
vapour pressure is 600 mm Hg. Also fnd the composition of the vapour phase.
It is given that: poA 450 mm of Hg poB 700 mm of Hg Ptotal = 600
mm of Hg
From Raoult’s law, p A poA xA and p B p oB xB Ptotal p A  p B
xB = 1 – xA
Ptotal p oA xA  poB (1  xA ) Ptotal p oA xA  p oB  poB xA Ptotal (poA  poB ) xA  poB
100 = (450 – 700)xA + 700
–100 = –250xA xA = 0.4
Therefore, xB = 1 – xA = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6
Now, p A poA xA = 450 × 0.4 = 180 mm of Hg

pB poB xB = 700 × 0.6 = 420 mm of Hg
pA 180
Mole fraction of A   0.3
Now, in the vapour phase: p A  p B 180  420
Mole fraction of B = 1– 0.3 = 0.7
14. The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kpa at 300K. Calculate vapour pressure
of
1 molal solution of non volatile solute in it.
According to the Raoult’s law
p 0A  pA nB  A = H 2O 
0
  
pA nB  nA  B = solute 
1 molal means 1 mole of non volatile solute present in 1000g H2O
Molar mass of H2O = 18 g mol–1

1000
1000g H 2 O  55.56 moles.
Number of moles in 18
Number of moles of solute = 1 mol.
12.3  p A 1
 
12.3 1  55.56
12.3 – pA = 0.0177 × 12.3
pA = 12.3 – 0.2177 = 12.08 k pa
15. Vapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17.535 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour
pressure of water at 293 K when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g water
Molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) = 6 × 12 + 12 × 1 + 6 × 16 = 180 g mol–1
25 g
 0.139 mol
180 g mol 1
Number of moles of glucose
450g
 25 mol
18 g mol  1
Number of moles of water
p 0A  p A nB
0

According to Raoult’s law, pA nB  nA
p 0A Vapour pressure of water and p = Vapour pressure of solution

A
17.535  p A 0.139 0.139 17.535
 17.535  p A 
17.535 0.139  25 25.139
17.535 – pA = 0.097 pA = 17.535 – 0.097 = 17.44 mm Hg
16. Calculate the mass of a non–volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol–1) which
should be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%.
Molecular mass of octane (C8H18) = MA = 8 × 12 + 18 × 1 = 114 g mol–1
80poA
 0.8p oA
Vapour pressure of octane after dissolving solute 100
p oA  pA nB wB 114
o
 nB  nA  1
pA nA  nB 40 mol, 114 mol
wB
poA  0 8p oA
 40
poA  wB  p0A  0 8p 0A wB
  1 0

  40  ; pA w B  40
wB
0 2 
w B  40  w B 10g
17. The boiling point of a solution of 0.1050 g of a substance in 15.84 g of ether
was found to be 0.1oC higher than that of ether. What is the molecular weight
of the substance? (Kb = 2.02 K kg mol–1)
K b w B 1000 2 02 0 1050 1000
MB   133 9 g mol  1
Tb w A 0 115 84
18. The molecular weight of an organic compound is 58 g mol–1. Calculate the
boiling point of a solution containing 24 g of the solute and 600 g of water.
The boiling point of water = 100oC. Kb for water = 0.52 K kg mol–1.
K b w B 1000
Tb 
M B w A
0 52 24 1000
Tb  Tbo 
58 600 Tb 0 358  Tbo 0 358  100 100 358 C
19. Acetone boils at 56.38oC and a solution of 1.41 grams of an organic

compound in 20 g of acetone boils at 56.88oC. If Kb for acetone is 1.67 K kg
mol–1. Calculate the mass of one mole of the organic solid.

w B K b 1000
MB 
Tb w A Tb Tb  Tbo 56 88  56 38 0 5 C
1 41 1 67 1000
MB  235 47 g mol 1
0 5 20
20. In a cold climate, water gets frozen causing damage to the radiator of a car.
Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreezing agent. Calculate the amount of
ethylene glycol to be added to 4 kg of water to prevent it from freezing at –
6oCp
(Kf for water = 1.85 K kg mol–1 molar mass of ethylene glycol = 62 g mol–1).
K f w B 1000 1 85 w B 1000
Tf  6
M B w A 62 4 103 w B 804 32 g
21. Addition of 0.643 g of a compound to 50 mL of a liquid (density = 0.879 g/mL)
lowers the freezing point from 5.51oC to 5.03oC. Calculate the molar mass of
the compound. (Kf for benzene = 5.12 K kg mol–1).
K f w B 1000
MB 
Tf w A w A 50 0 879 43 95g ( mass v d)
5 12 0 643 1000
 MB  156 056 g mol  1
Tf Tfo  Tf 5 51  5 03 0 48 C 0 48 43 95
22. 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water. Calculate (a)
the freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution.
(Kf = 1.86 K kg mol–1)
K f w B 1000
Tf 
Freezing point depression (Tf ) is given by M B w A
Molecular mass of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) = 2 12  6 1  2 16 = 62 g mol–1.

1 86 45 1000
Tf 
62 600
Tf 2 25K Tf Tf0  Tf
Tf0  freezing point of water = 273.15 K Tf  freezing point of solution
Tf Tf0  Tf 273 15  2 25 270 9 K .
23. 1.4 g acetone dissolved in 100 g benzene gave a solution which freezes at
277.12 K. Pure benzene freezes at 278.4 K. 2.8 g of a solute dissolved in 100 g
benzene gave a solution which froze at 277.76 K. Calculate the molecular
weight of solute.
Tf w A M B
Kf 
w B 1000 Tf Tfo  Tf 278 4  277 12 1 28 K
1 28 100 58 K f w B 1000 5 3 2 8 1000
 5 3 K kg mol  1 MB   231 87
1 4 1000 Tf w A 0 64 100 g mol–1
24. The osmotic pressure of blood is 7.65 atm at 37oC. How much glucose should
be used per litre for an intravenous injection that is to have the same osmotic
pressure as blood? (Molar mass of glucoses = 180 g mol–1)
w RT M V 180 g mol 1 7 65 atm 1L
MB  B wB  B 
V RT 0 0821 L atm mol  1K  1 310 K 54 14 g
25. What is the osmotic pressure of 0.05% urea solution in water at 20oC? R =
0.0821 lit atm mol–1 K–1 molar mass of urea = 60 g mol–1.
0.05% urea means 0.05 g urea present in 100 mL water.
w B RT 0 05 0 0821 293
 
MBV 60 0 1 L ( 100 nL 0 1 L) 0 2 atm
26. 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein.
The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to be 2.57 × 10–3
bar. Calculate the molar mass of the protein. (R = 0.083L bar mol–1 K–1)
w B RT
MB 
V V 200 cm3 0 2 L
1 26 0 083 300

2 57 10 3 0 2= 61039 g mol–1.
27. Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared by
dissolving 1.0 g of polymer of molar mass 185000 in 450 mL of water at 37oC
(R = 0.0821 L atm K–1 mol–1).
w B RT

MBV V 450 mL 0 45L
1 0 0821 310

185000 0 45 0 00030572 atm 0 00030572 101325 = 30.9768 Pa.
4. CHEMICAL KINETICS
The branch of Chemistry that deals with the rate of chemical reaction, factors
afecting the rate and the mechanism of a reaction is called Chemical Kinetics.
Rate of a chemical reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction is the change in concentration of any one of the
reactant or product in unit time. Or, it is the rate of decrease in concentration of any
one of the reactant or the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the product.
For a chemical reaction, if Δx is the change in concentration of a reactant or a
product in a time Δt, the rate of reaction (r) = Δx/Δt.
For a hypothetical reaction R  

 P, the rate of reac%on can be expressed by
decrease in concentra%on of reactants or by increase in concentration of products.

i.e., Rate of reaction = Rate of disappearance of R
Decrease in concentration of R –  R
r=
Time taken Or r = t
[Since, Δ[R] is a negative quantity (as concentration of reactants is
decreasing), it is multiplied with –1 to make the rate of the reaction a positive
quantity].
Or, Rate of reaction = Rate of appearance (formation) of P = Increase in
concentration of P Time taken Δt = t2 – t1
Δ[R] = [R]2– [R]1
–  P
Δ [P] = [P]2–[P]1 i.e., r = t
The above rate expressions are also called Average rate.
The rate of reaction is not constant throughout the reaction but decreases with time
due to decrease in the concentration of reacatant and hence average rate of reaction
is determined.
Change in concentration of reactants or products
Average rate =
Time in which change takes place
For example, in the synthesis of ammonia N2 + 3H2  

 2NH3
[ N 2 ] 1 [ H 2 ] 1 [ NH 3 ]
rates of reaction     
t 3 t 2 t
3
It can be concluded from these expressions that the rate of disappearance of H2 is 2
of the rate of appearance of NH3.
Units of Rate of reaction: concentration is in mol L–1 and time is in seconds then
the units will be mol L-1s–1. However, in gaseous reactions, when the concentration of
gases is expressed in terms of their partial pressures, then the units of the rate
equation will be atm s–1.
If concentration is expressed in moles/L and time is in second, the unit of rate of
reaction is mol/L/s. In general the dimension of rate of reaction is
Concentration/Time.
For gaseous reactions, the concentration is replaced by partial pressure and so the
unit of rate of reaction is atm/s.
Instantaneous Rate of a reaction
The rate of a reaction at a particular instant of time is called Instantaneous Rate of a
reaction. Or, it is the rate of a reaction when the time interval approaches zero.
i.e. instantaneous rate = average rate as t approaches zero.

 [x]  d[x]
 t 
t  0 = dt
=
 
1. For the reaction R P, the concentration of a reactant changes from 0.03 M
to 0.02 M in 25 minutes. Calculate the average rate of reaction using units of
time both in minutes and seconds.
[R]  [R]2  [R]1 0 02  0 03
  M min  1
Average rate of reaction t t 2  t 1 25
 0 01
 M min  1
25 4 10 4 M min  1
4 10 4
 M s 1
60 = 6.667 × 10–6 Ms–1


2. In a reaction 2A products,the concentration of A decreases from 0.5 mol
–1 –1
L to 0.4 mol L in 10 minutes.Calculate the rate during this interval?
1 [A]  1  [A]2  [A]1   1  0 4  0 5 

  
Average rate 2 t 2  t 2  t1  2  10 

1  0 1
  1 1 3 1
2 10 0 005 mol L min 5 10 M min
3. The decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318K has been studied by monitoring
the concentration of N2O5 in the solution. Initially the concentration of N 2O5
is 2.33 mol L–1 and after 184 minutes, it is reduced to 2.08 mol L –1. The
reaction takes place according to the equation


2N2O5(g) 4NO2 (g) + O2(g)
4. Calculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours, minutes and
seconds. What is the rate of production of NO2 during this period?
1  [N 2 O5 ]  1  (2 08  2 33)mol L 1 
     
2 t  2 184 min 
Average Rate
6 79 10 4 mol L 1 / min (6 79 10 4 mol L 1 min  1 ) (60 min/ 1h)
4 07 10 2 mol L 1 / h 6 79 10 4 mol L 1 1 min/ 60s
1 13 10 5 mol L 1s  1
1  [NO 2 ]  [NO 2 ]
Rate    6 79 10  4 4 mol L 1 min  1 2 72 10  3 mol L 1 min  1
4  t   t .
5. Hydrogen gas has a nonpolluting combustion product (water vapour). It is
used as a fuel abord the space shuttle and in earthbound cars with prototype
engines:


2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
(a) Express the rate in terms of changes in [H2], [O2], and [H2O] with time.
(b) When [O2] is decreasing at 0.23 mol L–1 s–1, at what rate is [H2O]
increasing?
1 [H 2 ] [O 2 ] 1 [H 2 O]
Rate   
(a) 2  t t 2 t
1 [H 2 O] [O 2 ]

(b) 2 t t
[H 2 O]  [O 2 ] 
2    1 1 1 1
t  t  2[  (  0 23 mol L s )] 0 46 mol L s
Determination of Instantaneous Rate of a reaction
Instantaneous Rate of a reaction can be determined graphically. First conduct the
chemical reaction and fnd out the concentration of reactants or product at a regular
interval of time.
Then plot a graph between concentration along y-axis and time along x-axis.
 R 0
  R
C o n c e n tr a tio n o f r e a c t a n ts
R 1  ra v 
t 2  t1 
R 
d R 
R 2 
t
 d R
rin st    slo p e
dt
dt
t1 t2 t tim e
In order to determine the Instantaneous Rate at a particular time, mark the point on
the graph at that time and draw a tangent at the point. The slope of this tangent
gives the instantaneous rate at that time.
Average rate depends upon the change in concentration of reactants or products
and the time taken for that change to occur.
d P
rin st   s lo p e
dt P 
d P 
dt
C o n c e n t r a tio n o f p r o d u c t s
P2 
 P 
P1  t  P P  P1
rav   2
t t 2  t 1 
t1 t2 t tim e
Factors afecting rate of a reaction

The important factors which afect the rate of a chemical reaction are:
1. Nature of the reactants
2. Concentration of the reactants
3. Temperature
4. Pressure (for gaseous reaction only)
5. Efect of catalyst
6. Infuence of radiation
Dependence of Rate of reaction on concentration
The representation of rate of reaction in terms of concentration of the reactants is
known as rate law. It is also called as rate equation or rate expression.
It is found experimentally that Rate of reaction is directly proportional to the
concentration of reactants.
Thus for a general reaction, aA + bB  

 cC + dD,
Rate  [A]x[B]y Or, r = k [A]x[B]y (where x and y may or may not be equal to a and
b)
This expression is known as rate law or rate equation. Thus rate law is a
“mathematical equation relating the rate of a chemical reaction and concentration of
reactants, in which each concentration term is raised to a power which may or may
not be equal to the stoichiometric coefcients in the balanced chemical equation.”
In the above equation ‘k’ is a constant called rate constant or velocity constant or
specifc reaction rate of the reaction.
It is defned as the rate of the reaction when the concentration of each of the
reactants is unity.
Units of rate constant
For a general reaction aA + bB  

 cC + dD
Rate = k [A]x [B]y Where x + y = n = order of the reaction

Order of reaction
Order is the sum of the powers of the concentration terms of the reactants in the rate
law.
 It is an experimental quantity.
 It can have the values 0,1,2,3,…… or a fraction.
 It is applicable to both elementary and complex reactions.
 The stoichiometric coefcients present in the balanced chemical equation have
nothing to do with the order of the reaction.
For a general reaction, aA + bB  

 cC + dD
r = k[A]x[B]y, Order of the reaction = x + y

If the order of a reaction is zero, it is called zero order reaction, if it is one, it is called
frst order reaction, if it is two, it is called second order reaction and so on.
rate=k[NH 4 NO 2 ] first order reaction
 NH4NO2   N2 + 2H2O
PCl5  
 PCl3 +Cl2 rate=k[PCl5 ] first order reaction

2HI  
 H 2 +I 2 rate=k[H 2 ][I 2 ] second order reaction

NO+O3  
 NO 2 +O 2 rate=k[NO][O3 ] second order reaction

CH 3COOC2 H 5 +NaOH  
 CH 3COONa+C2 H 5OH
rate=k[CH 3COOC2 H5 ][NaOH] second order reaction

Molecularity of a reaction
It is the total number of reacting species collides simultaneously in a
chemical reaction.
It is a theoretical quantity. It cannot be zero or fractional. It can have values 1,2,3
etc. it is applicable only to elementary reactions.
If the molecularity of a reaction is 1, it is called unimolecular reaction.
e.g. Decomposition of ammonium nitrite NH4NO2  

 N2 + 2H2O
If the molecularity of a reaction is 2, it is called bimolecular reaction.

2HI  
 H 2 +I 2
e.g. Decomposition of Hydrogen Iodide
Diferences between Order and Molecularity of a reaction
Molecularity Order
1. It is the total number of molecules as It is the total number of molecule

present in balanced chemical reaction whose concentration changes.
leading to formation of products.
2. Molecularity of reaction can never be Order of reaction can be in fractions.

in fractions.
3. Molecularity of reaction cannot be Order of reaction can be zero.

zero.
Elementary and complex reactions

A reaction that takes place in a single step is called elementary reaction. While a
reaction that occurs in more than one step is called a complex reaction.
In a complex reaction one of the steps is slower than the other steps and this step is
called the Rate determining step.
The overall rate of the reaction is controlled by this slowest step.
The sequence of steps by which a chemical reaction occurs is called the mechanism
of the reaction.
Consider the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide which is catalysed by iodide ion in
alkaline medium.
First order reactions: some more details of the frst order reactions are as follows;
Rate equation for a frst order reaction:a frst order reaction is an exponential
process and the concentration of the reactant decreases exponentially with time. Let
us consider the following reaction which is of frst order.
R
P
Consider a frst order reaction of the type
A frst order reaction is one in which the rate is directly proportional to frst power of
the reactant concentration.
Therefore, according to rate law,
Rate = k[R]1
Where k is rate constant or velocity constant
d[R]
d[R]
Rate  k[R] 
But rate is defned by,  dtdt
d[R]
 kdt
Rearranging the equation, we get [R]
1
[R]d[R]  k dt
Integrate both sides of the equation
 1 
ln[R]  kt  I  x dx ln x 
 ...(1)
Where I is called integration constant
When t 0, [R] [R]0
ln[R]0  k 0  I
I ln[R]0 ...(2)
Where [R]0 is the initial concentration of reactant R.
Substituting the value of I in equation (1) we get,
ln[R]  kt  ln[R]0 ...(3)
kt ln [R]0  ln[R]
[R]0 1 [R]0
kt ln t  ln
[R] or k [R] ...(4)
2 303 [R]0
k log 10
t [R] ...(5)
Graphical representation of a frst order reaction:
Note: To create another form of rate law, rearrange equation (3) to get,
ln[R]  ln[R]0  kt
[R]
ln  kt
[R]0  [R] [R]0 e  kt
Equation (3) ln[R]  kt  ln[R]0 is in the form of y mx  c

This suggests that a plot of ln [R] versus ‘t’ gives straight line with negative slope (–
k) and y intercept = ln[R]0.
[Note that the slope is negative but that the rate constant is always positive]
The frst order equation (5) can also be written as
[R]0 k
log10  t
[R] 2 303
[R]0
log10
The plot of [R] versus time gives the following graph
k

with a slope of 2 303
1. For a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion is twice the time required
for the completion of 90% of reaction.
For a first order reaction, the time required for 99% completion is
2 303 100 2 303 2 303
t 99%  log  log100 2 
k 100  99 k k
For a first order reaction, the time required for 90% completion is
2 303 100 2 303 2 303
t 99%  log  log10 
k 100  90 k k
2 303
2
t 99% k
 t 99%
t 90% 2 303 2
k t 90%
Therefore, t99% = 2t90%

Hence, the time required for 99% completion of a first order reaction is twice the time required for the
completion of 90% of the reaction.
Half life of a frst order reaction:

frst order reaction, half life period is independent of initial concentration of the
reactants. We know that
2 303 [R]0
k log10
t [R] …(1)
Where k = rate constant, t = time [R]0 = initial concentration,
[R]
t t1/2 , then [R]  0
[R] = concentration at any time. When 2
2 303 [R]0
k log10
t1/2 [R]0
Substitute these values in equation (1), we get 2
2 303 2 303
k log10 2 k 0 3010
t1/ 2 t1/ 2
0 693 0 693
k  t1/ 2 
t1/2 k
The above relation shows, the half life period of a frst order reaction is independent
of initial concentration
Characteristics of a frst order reaction:
 the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the reactant
i.e.
rate α [A]
 The rate constant has the units of time-1
 A frst order reaction obeys equations. (i), (ii) and (iii) given above.
 A plot of log [A] against t is a straight line with slope equal to –k/2.303.
 The half life of frst order reaction is independent of the initial concentration.
 The time taken for the completion of any fraction of a frst order reaction is
independent of initial Concentration.
Integrated rate equation for zero order reaction or expression for rate constant or
velocity constant of a zero order reaction.
R
P
Consider a zero order reaction
Zero order reaction is one in which rate is proportional to zeroth power of reactant
concentration. According to rate law for zero order reaction,
Rate = k[R]0 or Rate = k × 1
where k is rate constant or velocity constant.
d[R] d[R]
Rate   k
But rate is defned by, dt  dt
Rearranging the equation, we get d[R]  k dt
On integration d[R]  k dt

[R]  k t  I ...(1)
where I is called integration constant.
To get, I, when t = 0, [R] = [R]0, the initial concentration of the reactant.
[R]0  k 0  I
I [R]0 ...(2)
Substitute I value in equation (1), we get
[R]  kt  [R]0
[R]0  [R] kt
[R]  [R]
k 0
t
On rearranging, [R]  kt  [R]0
This equation is in y mx  c form and suggests that,
A plot of [R] versus ‘t’ gives a straight line with a slope = – k and y - intercept =
[R]0.
Determination of order of a reaction: following methods are used to determine
the order of a reaction.
i) Graphical method: this method is used when the reaction involves only one
reactant. The method is based on the fact that for a reaction of order n, Rate α [A] n
For a frst order reaction, n =1, Hence, rate α [A].Thus a plot of rate of reactions Vs
conc. Will be a Straight line.
For a second order reaction, n=2. Hence rate α [A]2.Thus a plot of rate of reaction Vs
conc. will be a Straight line.
ii) Initial rate method: in this method, the rate law of the reaction is determined
by determining the orders of reaction with respect to all the reactants one by one.
This is done by changing the initial concentration of only one reactant keeping the
concentrations of all other reactants constant and measuring the rate of the reaction.
The procedure is repeated with respect to each reactant and the order determined.
The overall order of the reaction can be obtained by summing up the individual
orders of reaction with respect to the reactants involved.
iii) Integrated rate law method: in this method, the data obtained from an
experiment is fed into the rate equation of a particular order and the values of k are
calculated for diferent sets of observations.
If the values of k are found to be constant for all the sets, the reactions is supposed
to obey that particular rate law and follows the order suggested by that integrated
rate law. In case, the values of k are not constant, the data is used in the rate
equation of other order. The rate equation for frst and second order reactions are
as follows.
2.303 a
log10
For frst order reactions: k = t a x
1 x
X
For second order reactions: k = t ( a  x)
iv) Half life method: the half life (t1/2) of a reaction is related to the initial
1
t1/2
concentration of the reactant as [ A]n  10
Where [A]0 is the initial concentration of the reactant and n is the order of reaction.
Suppose t1/2 is the half life of a reaction when the initial conc. Is [A] 0 and t1/2 is the
half life of the same reaction when the initial conc. Is [A]0 .
t1/2 [ A]0 n  1
( )
Then we have t1/2 [ A]0
Thus, the order n of the reaction can be determined.

Efect of temperature on reaction rate: the rate of a chemical reaction is
signifcantly afected by a change in temperature. For most of the chemical
reactions, the rate increases with increase in temperature. The rate usually becomes
doubled for each 10º rise in temperature.
a) Temperature coefcient: it is defned as the ratio of the rate constant of a
reaction at two diferent temperatures separated by 10 C. the two temperatures
k35C
generally taken are 35 C and 25 C. thus, Temperature coefcient = k25C
For most of the homogeneous reactions, the value of temperature coefcient lies
between 2 and 3.
Molecularity of a reaction: the number of reacting species which must collide
simultaneously in Order to bring about a chemical reaction is called the molecularity
of that reaction.
The molecularity of a reaction is a whole number and may have values 1, 2, 3 etc.
The reactions with molecularity 1 are called unimolecular reactions.
Similarly, we have bimolecular and trimolecular reactions when the values of
molecularity are 2 and 3 respectively.
Molecularity of elementary reactions: The simple chemical reactions which occur
only in one step are called elementary reactions. The molecularity of an elementary
reaction is equal to the number of reacting species as represented by the balanced
chemical equation of the reaction, for example.
1
H 2O2  H 2O  O2 (molecularity 1, unimolecularreaction )
2
2 HI  H 2  I 2 ( molecularity 2, bimolecularreaction)
2 NO  O2  2 NO2 (molecularity 3, trimolecularreaction )
Molecularity of complex reactions: the reactions which occur in two or more
steps are called complex reactions.
Complex reactions proceed through a series of steps, each involving one, two, or at
the most three molecules. Each step is an elementary reaction and has its own rate.
The overall rate of a complex reaction is governed by the rate of the slowest
elementary step called the rate determining step.
The number of reacting species taking part in the slowest elementary step of a
complex reaction is called the molecularity of the complex reaction.
For example, the reaction 2NO +2H2   N2+H2O is a complex reaction and takes
place in the following two steps.
2 NO  H 2  N 2  H 2O2 (slow)
Step1.
H 2O2  H 2  2 H 2O ( fast )
Step2.
Obviously, step 1 is the rate determining step and therefore the molecularity of the
overall complex reaction is 3.
Most of the chemical reactions involve the simultaneous collisions of one, two or at
the most three molecules.
Therefore, the molecularity of most of the reactions is either 1 or 2. Even the
reactions with molecularity 3 are only a few in number.
The reactions with higher molecularity are rare.
KClO3  6 FeSO4  3H 2 SO4  
 KCl  3Fe2  SO4  3  3H 2O
This reaction which apparently seems to be of tenth order but it is actually a second
order reaction. This shows that the reaction takes place in several steps. Which step
controls the rate of the overall reaction. or slow reaction that is called as rate
determining step.
Consider the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide which is catalysed by iodide

 I medium
2 H 2O2  Alkaline   2 H 2O  O2
ion in an alkaline medium.
 d  H 2O2 
k  H 2O2   I  
The rate equation for this reaction is found to be Rate = dt
H 2O2
and I .

This reaction is frst order with respect to both
Evidences suggest that this reaction takes place in two steps.
Pseudo-unimolecular reactions: for elementary reactions, the molecularity and
order are usually the same.
However, there are several frst order reactions in which molecularity difers from the
order.
The frst order reactions having molecularity greater than one are called pseudo-
unimolecular reactions.
A pseudo-unimolecular reaction is obtained when one of the reactants is present in
large excess.
The reactant present in large excess does not contributes to the rate of reactions.
Its concentration remains almost constant during the course of reaction and
therefore the rate of the reaction does not depend upon its concentration. Some
examples of pseudo-unimolecular reactions are as follows.
CH 3COOC 2 H 5 +H 2O  
 CH 3COOH+C 2 H 5OH rate=k[CH 3COOC 2 H 5 ]
C12 H 22 O11 +H 2 O  
 C6 H12 O 6 +C6 H12 O6 rate=k[C12 H 22O11 ]
II-PUC-CHEMISTRY SURFACE CHEMISTRY
5.SURFACE CHEMISTRY
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of nature of surfaces and the
different processes taiin place at the surface
The important surface phenomena are adsorption, corrosion, electrode process,
hetero eneous catalysis, dissolution etc
ADSORPTION It is the process of concentration or accumulation of a substance on the
surface of another substance
The substance which is adsorbed is called adsorbate and the substance whose surface
on which adsorption taies place is called adsorbent
The commonly used adsorbents are charcoal, silica el, alumina el, clay, colloids,
metals in fnely divided state etc
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon Some examples of adsorption are:
1 Powdered charcoal adsorbs ases liie H2, O2, CO, Cl2, NH3, SO2 etc
2 Silica el adsorbs moisture
3 Animal charcoal adsorbs colourin material from su ar solutions
Desorption: The process of removal of an adsorbed substance from the surface of
adsorbent is called desorption i e it is the reverse of adsorption
Distinction between adsorption and absorption
In adsorption, the substance is concentrated only at the surface while in absorption, the
substance is uniformly distributed throu hout the buli of the solid So adsorption is a
surface phenomenon while absorption is a buli phenomenon
Sorption: If adsorption and absorption occur simultaneously, the process is called
sorption
Absorption Adsorption
1 It is the phenomenon in which 1 it is the phenomenon of hi her
the particles of as or liquid et concentration of particles of as or
uniformly distributed throu hout liquid on the surface than in the buli
the body of the solid of the solid
2 The concentration is the same 2 The concentration on the surface of
throu hout the material the adsorbent is different from that
Therefore, it is a buli in the buli
phenomenon 3 Adsorption is rapid in the be innin
3 Absorption occurs at uniform and its rate slowly decreases
rate
Mechanism of Adsorption The surface particles of the adsorbent are not in the same
environment as the particles inside the buli (inner part)
Inside the adsorbent, all the forces are mutually balanced But at the surface, there is
always some unbalanced or residual forces
These forces of the adsorbent are responsible for adsorption
Heat of adsorption (Enthalpy of Adsorption) Adsorption is an exothermic process
i e some heat is always evolved durin adsorption
The amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of an adsorbate is adsorbed on the surface of
an adsorbent is called heat of adsorption
Thermodynamic aspects of adsorption Adsorption is an exothermic process When
a as is adsorbed, the de ree of freedom (randomness) of its molecules decreases and
hence the entropy decreases i e ,ΔS becomes ne ative
Adsorption is thus accompanied by decrease in enthalpy as well as decrease in
entropy of the system For a process to be spontaneous, ΔG must be ne ative
On the basis of equation, ΔG = ΔH – TΔS, ΔG can be ne ative if ΔH >TΔS
As the adsorption proceeds, ΔH becomes less and less ne ative ultimately ΔH becomes
equal to TΔS and ΔG becomes zero At this state equilibrium is attained
Types of adsorption Dependin on the force of attraction between adsorbent and
adsorbate, adsorption is of two types–physical adsorption or physisorption and
chemical adsorption or chemisorption
1 physical adsorption or physisorption: If the force of attraction between adsorbent and
adsorbate is weai van der Waals force, it is called physical adsorption or physisorption
For physisorption, the heat of adsorption is low and it is not specifc since the van der
Waals forces are universal That is any substance can form van der Waals force with
any surface
2 chemical adsorption or chemisorptions: If the force of attraction between adsorbent
and adsorbate is chemical bond It is also called activated adsorption since it involves
some activation ener y
For chemisorption, the enthalpy of adsorption is hi h and it taies place at hi h
temperature
It is hi hly specifc in nature and it will occur only if there is some possibility of
chemical bondin between adsorbent and adsorbate
A physisorption at low temperature may pass into chemisorption at hi h
temperature For e Hydro en as is frst adsorbed on niciel by van der Waals force
But at hi h temperature, the molecules of H 2 dissociate to form H atoms and they are
adsorbed on the surface of Ni by chemical bond
Both physisorption and chemisorption increases with increase in surface area of the
adsorbent Surface area can be increased by powderin the adsorbent
Distinction between physisorption and chemisorptions
physisorption Chemisorption
In this type of adsorption, the
In this type of adsorption, stron
adsorbate is attached to the
chemical bonds are formed
1 surface of the adsorbent with
between the adsorbate and the
weai van der Waal’s forces of
surface of the adsorbent
attraction
No new compound is formed in New compounds are formed at the
2
the process surface of the adsorbent
It is enerally found to be
3 It is usually irreversible in nature
reversible in nature
Enthalpy of adsorption is low as Enthalpy of adsorption is hi h as
weai van der Waal’s forces of chemical bonds are formed The
4
attraction are involved The values values lie in the ran e of 40-400 iJ
lie in the ran e of 20-40 iJ mol−1 mol−1
It is favoured by low temperature It is favoured by hi h temperature
5
conditions conditions
It is an example of multi-layer It is an example of mono-layer
6
adsorption adsorption
Adsorption Isotherms The variation in the amount of as adsorbed by the adsorbent
with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed by means of a raph called
adsorption isotherm
Freundlich adsorption isotherm:
Freundlich ave an empirical relationship between the quantity of as adsorbed by unit
mass of solid adsorbent and pressure, at a particular temperature
The relationship can be expressed by the following equation:

x/m = i P1/n (where n > 1)
where x is the mass of the as adsorbed, m is the mass of the adsorbent, i and n are
constants which depend on the nature of the adsorbent and the as at a particular
temperature
The above relationship can be represented in the form of a raph as follows:
From the raph it is clear that x/m (extend of adsorption) increases with
pressure upto a certain pressure called saturation pressure (Ps) and after that it
becomes constant If we taie lo arithm of the above equation, we et lo x/m = lo i +
1/n lo P
This equation is of the form y = mx+c, equation for a strai ht line
So if we plot lo x/m a ainst lo P, we et a strai ht line, which verifes Freundlich
isotherm
The value of 1/n in Freundlich isotherm ran es from 0 to 1
When 1/n = 0, x/m = a constant
When 1/n = 1, x/m = i p, the adsorption varies linearly with pressure
Freundlich adsorption isotherm failed to explain adsorption at very hi h pressures
Adsorption from solution
Certain solid adsorbents can adsorb solute particles from solution This is inown as
adsorption from solution E :
1 When a solution of acetic acid in water is shaien with charcoal, a part of the acid is
adsorbed by the charcoal and the concentration of the acid decreases in the solution
2 Animal charcoal adsorbs colourin materials from su ar solution So it is used for the
purifcation of su ar
The important characteristics of adsorption from solution are:
(i) The extent of adsorption decreases with an increase in temperature
(ii) The extent of adsorption increases with an increase of surface area of the
adsorbent
(iii) The extent of adsorption depends on the concentration of the solute and the nature
of the adsorbent and the adsorbate
Freundlich adsorption isotherm is applicable to adsorption from solution also Here
instead of pressure, concentration of the solution is used
i e , x/m = iC1/n (where C is the equilibrium concentration)
On taiin lo arithm of the above equation, we have lo x/m = lo i + 1/n lo C On
plottin lo x/m a ainst lo C, a strai ht line is obtained which verifes Freundlich
isotherm
Applications of adsorption
The important applications of adsorption are:
1 Production of high vacuum: For the complete evacuation of a vessel,
activated charcoal is used
2 Gas masks: The poisonous ases in coal mines can be removed by usin as masis
containin activated charcoal
3 Control of humidity: Silica and aluminium els are used as adsorbents for
removin moisture and controllin humidity
4 Animal charcoal is used for the purifcation of cane su ar solution
5 Adsorption fnds application in hetero eneous catalysis
6 A mixture of noble ases can be separated by adsorption on coconut charcoal at
different temperatures
7 In curin diseases: A number of dru s are used to iill erms by ettin adsorbed on
them
8 In froth foatation process for the purifcation of sulphide ores in metallur y
9 Adsorption indicators liie eosin, fuorescein etc are used in volumetric analysis
10 Chromato raphic analysis for the separation of a mixture is based on adsorption
CATALYSIS
A catalyst is a substance that chan es the rate of a chemical reaction without
under oin any permanent chemical chan e by itself
The process of chan in the rate of a chemical reaction by a catalyst is inown as
Catalysis E : MnO2 (Man anese dioxide) acts as a catalyst in the decomposition of
KClO3
MnO2
2KClO3    2KCl + 3 O2
Promoters and poisons:Promoters are substances that enhance the activity of a
catalyst while poisons decrease the activity of a catalyst
For example, in Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia, molybdenum (Mo)
Fe / Mo
acts as a promoter for the catalyst iron N2 +3H2    2NH3
Types of Catalysis
Positive and Negative Catalyst
A catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction is called Positive catalyst and
that decreases the rate of a chemical reaction is called ne ative catalyst (inhibitors)
E In the Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia, Fe acts as a positive
catalyst
Fe / Mo
N2 +3H2    2NH3
For decreasin the rate of dissociation of H 2O2, Phosphoric acid is used as a ne ative
catalyst
Shape-Selective Catalysis by Zeolites
The catalytic reaction that depends upon the pore structure of the catalyst and the size
of the reactant and product molecules is called shape-selective catalysis
Zeolites are ood shape-selective catalysts because of their honey comb-liie
structures They are microporous aluminosilicates with three dimensional networis of
silicates in which some silicon atoms are replaced by aluminium atoms They contain
Al–O–Si framewori
The reactions taiin place in zeolites depend upon the size and shape of reactant
and product molecules as well as upon the pores and cavities of the zeolites They are
found in nature as well as prepared artifcially
Zeolites are used as catalysts in petrochemical industries for craciin of
hydrocarbons and isomerisation
An important zeolite catalyst used in the petroleum industry is ZSM-5
It converts alcohols directly into asoline (petrol) by dehydratin them to ive a
mixture of hydrocarbons
THE COLLOIDAL STATE
Colloid is an intermediate state between true solution and suspension In a true
solution, the size of the particles is < 1nm
The particles do not settle down under the infuence of ravity or by any method and
they cannot be fltered by a flter paper A true solution is homo eneous and
transparent
In a suspension the size of the particles is > 1000nm The particles settle down under
the infuence of ravity
They can be fltered by an ordinary flter paper It is hetero eneous and opaque
In colloids, the particle size is in between 1 nm and 1000nm The particles do not
settle down under the infuence of ravity They cannot be fltered by ordinary flter
paper, but can be fltered by ultra flters
They are hetero eneous and translucent
Colloids are hetero eneous systems containin two phases–dispersed phase and
dispersion medium
The substance which is dispersed (distributed) is called dispersed phase and the
medium in which the particles are dispersed is called dispersion medium
e : In starch solution, starch is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion
medium
Classification colloids
1. Based on the physical state of dispersed phase and the dispersion medium
Dependin upon physical state of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium,
there are ei ht types of colloidal systems A as mixed with another as forms a
homo eneous mixture and hence is not a colloidal system The different types colloidal
dispersion are:
Dispersed Dispersion
Sr no Type of colloid Example
phase medium
1 Solid Solid Solid Sol Gemstone
2 Solid Liquid Sol Paint
3 Solid Gas Aerosol Smoie
4 Liquid Solid Gel Cheese
5 Liquid Liquid Emulsion Mili
6 Liquid Gas Aerosol Fo
7 Gas Solid Solid foam Pumice stone
8 Gas Liquid Foam Froth
2 Based on the dispersion medium, colloids are classifed as follows:
Dispersion medium Name of sol
3 Based on the Aquasol or attraction between the
Water
dispersed phase and hydrosol the dispersion medium,
colloids are of two Alcohol Alcosol types:
lyophilic (solvent Benzene Benzosol lovin ) and lyophobic
(solvent hatin ) If the Gases Aerosol force of attraction
between dispersed phase and dispersion medium is stron , it is called lyophilic sol
e um, elatin, starch, rubber etc in suitable dispersion medium
If the force of attraction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium is weai, it is
called lyophobic sol
e Arsenic sulphide (As2S3) sol, sulpher sol and metal sols liie old sol, silver sol etc
Based on the nature of particles: Based on this, colloids are of three types –
Multimolecular colloids,Macro molecular colloids and Associated colloids
1.Multimolecular colloids: They contain an a re ate of atoms or molecules havin
dimension < 1nm
These particles are bind to ether by weai van der Waal’s force of attraction and form
particles of colloidal dimension
e Arsenic sulphide (As2S3) sol, sulpher sol and metal sols liie old sol, silver sol etc
2.Macromolecular colloids: Macromolecules (Polymers) in suitable solvents form
solutions in which the size of the particle is in the colloidal ran e Such systems are
called macromolecular colloids These colloids are quite stable and resemble true
solutions in many properties
Example: solutions of starch, cellulose, proteins, enzymes, polythene, nylon,
polystyrene, synthetic rubber, etc in suitable dispersion medium
3.Associated colloids: These are substances which behave as normal stron
electrolytes at low concentrations, but as colloids at hi her concentrations The
colloidal behavior is because of the formation of a re ates They are also called
micelles
The formation of micelles taies place only above a particular temperature called Kraft
temperature (Tk) and above a particular concentration called critical micelle
concentration (CMC)
Surface active a ents such as soaps and synthetic deter ents are examples for
micelles These colloids have both lyophobic and lyophilic parts
Mechanism of micelle formation An example for micelle is soap solution Soap is
sodium or potassium salt of a hi her fatty acid and may be represented as RCOO–Na+
When dissolved in water, it dissociates into RCOO– and Na+ ions
The RCOO– ions consist of two parts — a lon hydrocarbon chain R (also called non-
polar ‘tail’) which is hydrophobic (water repellin ), and a polar roup COO– (also called
polar-ionic ‘head’), which is hydrophilic (water lovin )
O
CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 C
O
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2
H y d r o p h o b ic ta il H y d r o p h ilic
S t e a r a t e io n head
H y d r o p h ilic h e a d
H y d r o p h o b ic ta il
The RCOO– ions are present on the surface with their COO– roups in water and the
hydrocarbon chains (R) at the surface But at critical micelle concentration, the anions
are pulled into the buli of the solution and a re ate to form a spherical shape Thus a
micelle is formed
Cleansing action of soapsThe cleansin action of soap is due to micelle formation

The soap molecules form micelle around the oil droplet in such a way that hydrophobic
part is in the oil droplet and hydrophilic part projects out
Since the polar roups (hydrophilic end) can interact with water, the oil droplets are
pulled in water and removed from the dirty surface
Thus soap helps in emulsifcation and washin away of oils and fats
(a) (b) (c)

(a) Grease on cloth (b) Stearate ions arranging around the
grease droplet and (c) Grease droplet surrounded by stearate micelle
Preparation of colloids
Some of the methods used for the preparation of colloids are:
a) Chemical methods:
Colloidal solutions can be prepared by chemical reactions liie oxidation, reduction,
double decomposition, hydrolysis etc
1 Oxidation: Sulphur sol can be prepared by passin H2S as throu h an aqueous
solution of sulphur dioxide
Oxidation
SO2 + 2H2S      3S(sol) + 2H2O
2 Reduction: Sols of metals liie silver, old and platinum are obtained by the
reduction of their salts with reducin
a ents liie formaldehyde, stannous chloride etc
Reduction
2AuCl3 + 3HCHO + 3H2O      2Au(sol) + 3HCOOH + 6HCl
3 Hydrolysis: Ferric hydroxide sol is obtained when concentrated solution of ferric
chloride is added drop-wise to hot water
Hydrolysis
FeCl3 + 3H2O     Fe(OH)3 (sol) + 3HCl
4 Double decomposition: A colloidal solution of arsenic sulphide is formed by
passin H2S throu h a dilute solution of arsenious oxide in water
Double decomposition
As2O3 + 3H2S        As2S3(sol) + 3H2O
b) Electrical disintegration (Bredig’s arc method): This method is used for the
preparation of metal sols liie A , Au, Pt etc The metal whose sol is to be prepared is
taien in the form of two rods and it is iept in suitable dispersion medium containin
small amount of electrolyte
The whole arran ement is iept in an ice bath When hi h volta e is passed throu h
the metal, the intense heat produced vapourises the metal, which then condensed to
form particles of colloidal dimension
c) Peptization: The process of conversion of a freshly prepared precipitate into a

colloidal sol by shaiin it with suitable dispersion medium in the presence of small
amount of electrolyte is called peptization The electrolyte added is called peptizin
a ent
 FeCl
 3

Small colloid particles of Fe(OH) 3 stabilized

Freshly precipitated ferric hydroxide
by preferential adsorption of Fe +3
Durin peptization, the precipitate adsorbs one of the ions of the electrolyte on its
surface and forms a positive or ne ative char e on it Thus the particles of the
precipitate breai up into smaller particles of the colloidal size
Purification of colloids The colloidal solution prepared contains excess amount of
electrolyte and some other soluble impurities
Even thou h small amount of electrolyte is required for the stability of colloid, lar e
amount may cause precipitation
The process of reducin the concentration of electrolyte and other impurities is inown
as purifcation of colloids
Some methods used for purification are:
1. Dialysis: It is the process of removin dissolved substances from a colloidal solution
by means of diffusion throu h a semi-permeable membrane Here the sol particles are
taien in a parchment or cellophane ba and it is suspended in a runnin stream of
water
The impurities are diffused throu h the membrane and the sol particles are left behind
These particles are then suspended in suitable dispersion medium so as to et a
colloidal dispersion
The speed of dialysis can be increased by usin hot water instead of cold water Then
the process is inown as hot water dialysis
The speed of dialysis can also be increased by dippin two electrodes and passin
electricity Then the process is inown as electrodialysis.
2. Ultrafiltration:
It is the process of separatin the colloidal particles from the impurities by usin a
special type of flter paper called ultraflters or ultra flter paper
It is prepared by dippin ordinary flter paper in collodion solution (a 4%
solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether)
When colloidal particles are fltered usin ultraflters, the sol particles are retained on
the flter paper while the impurities and the electrolyte are passed throu h it
When these sol particles are suspended in suitable dispersion medium, we et a
colloidal solution
Properties of colloids
1. Colligative properties:In colloids, the number of particles are very small
compared to that of true solution
So the values of colli ative properties such as relative lowerin of vapour
pressure, elevation of boilin point, depression of freezin point and osmotic pressure
are small compared to that of true solution
2. Tyndall efect:When a li ht beam is passed throu h a colloidal solution, we can see
the path of the li ht beam This phenomenon is inown as Tyndall effect
It is due to the scatterin of li ht beam by the colloidal particles The visible path is
called tyndall cone
Tyndall effect is observed only when the followin conditions are satisfed:
(i) The diameter of the dispersed particles is much lar er than the wavelen th of the
li ht used
(ii) The refractive indices of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium differ
reatly in ma nitude
Eye
Microscope
Light Tyndall cone Scattlered light

source
Transmited light
*
Collodial solution
True solutions do not show tyndall effect since the size of particles are very small so
that they cannot scatter the li ht beam Thus tyndall effect is used to distin uish a
colloidal solution from a true solution
Ultramicroscope used to see the colloidal particles woris on the principle of tyndall
effect
3. Brownian movement In colloids, the particles of dispersion medium are in a state
of continuous zi -za motion This motion was frst observed by Robert Brown and it is
inown as Brownian movement It is independent of the nature of the colloidal
particles but depends on the size of the particles and viscosity of the solution Smaller
the size and lesser the viscosity of the medium, faster is the motion
Brownian movement is due to the unbalanced bombardment of particles of the
dispersed phase by the particles of dispersion medium It is responsible for the stability
of colloids
4 Charge on colloidal particles:
Colloidal particles always carry an electric char e For a iven colloidal solution, the
nature of the char e is the same on all the particles
The char e on the sol particles is mainly due to preferential adsorption of ions from
solution
When 2 or more ions are present in the dispersion medium, preferential adsorption of
the ion common to the colloidal particle taies place
e when A NO3 is added to KI, A I is precipitated, which adsorbs iodide ions from the
dispersion medium and thus et a ne ative char e
A NO3 + KI   A I + KNO3
But when KI is added to A NO 3, the precipitated A I adsorbs A + ions from the solution
and thus et a positive char e
AgI / I  AgI / Ag 
Negatively charged Positively charged
If is added to excess of hot water, a positively char ed sol of ferric
Fe  OH  3 / Fe3
3
hydroxide is formed due to adsorption of Fe ions Positively charged
How ever, when ferric chlorde is added to NaOH a ne atively char ed sol is obtained
with adsorption of ions
Due to the positive or ne ative char e in the sol particles, they attract the
counter ions (opposite ions) from the medium Thus a double layer of opposite char es
is formed This is inown as Helmholtz electrical double layer
The layer in which the ions are directly adsorbed to the sol particles is termed as fxed
layer The second layer is mobile and is termed as diffused layer
Due to the opposite char es on the fxed and diffused layers, there arises a potential
difference between these layers
This potential difference between the fxed layer and the diffused layer of
opposite char es is called the electrokinetic potential or zeta potential
The presence of similar char es on colloidal particles leads to repulsion between the
particles and prevent them from coa ulation when they come closer
So the char e on the sol particles is mainly responsible for the stability ofcolloidal
solution
5.Electrophoresis:Since colloidal particles carry char e, they move under the
infuence of an electric feld This movement of colloidal particles is called
electrophoresis
The positively char ed sol particles move towards cathode (cataphoresis) and the
ne atively char ed particles move towards the anode (anaphoresis)
Reservior
Cathode Anode
Water
(dispersion
medium)
Initial level Colloidal

solution
Stop cock
If the movement of the sol particles is prevented by some suitable method, the
particles of dispersion medium itself move under the presence of electric feld This
mi ration is termed as electro-osmosis
6. Coagulation (precipitation or focculation)
The process of settlin of colloidal particles is called coa ulation or precipitation of the
sol This can be done by different ways:
i) By electrophoresis
ii) By mixin two oppositely char ed sols
iii) By continuous dialysis
iv) By boilin
v) By the addition of electrolyte
When an electrolyte is added to the sol, the ions carryin opposite char e to that of the
sol neutralize the char e and causes precipitation
The ion of the electrolyte which causes the precipitation is called the coa ulatin ion or
the focculatin ion
Hardy-Schulze rule A ne atively char ed ion causes the precipitation of positively
char ed sol and vice versa enerally, the greater the valency of the coagulating
ion, the greater will be the coagulating power. This is known as Hardy –
Schulze rule
Thus for the coa ulation of a ne ative sol liie As 2S3, the focculatin power of the +ve
ions is of the order: Al3+ > Ba2+ > Na+
Similarly for a +ve sol liie ferric hydroxide, the focculatin power of the counter ion is
of the order: [Fe(CN)6]4- > PO43- > SO42- > Cl-
Coagulating value: The minimum concentration of an electrolyte in millimoles per
litre required for the coa ulation of a sol within 2 hours is called coa ulatin value
The smaller the coa ulatin value, the hi her will be the coa ulation power
Protection of colloids
Lyophilic sols are self stabilized, while lyophobic sols require some stabilizin a ents
For this purpose, some lyophilic sols are added to lyophobic sols
These lyophilic sols are called protective colloids
When a lyophilic sol is added to a lyophobic sol, the lyophilic particles form a layer
around lyophobic particles and thus protect them from electrolytes
EMULSIONS
These are colloidal solutions in which a liquid is dispersed in another liquid Generally
one of the two liquids is water
There are two types of emulsions:
1 Oil in water (O/W) type and 2 Water in oil (W/O) type
In oil in water type emulsion, oil is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion
medium
E mili In mili, the liquid fat is dispensed in water In water in oil type emulsion,
water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion medium
E butter and cream an emulsion obtained by mixin oil with water or water with oil is
not stable
In order to prepare a stable emulsion, a third substance called emulsifyin a ent is
added
The emulsifyin a ent forms an inter facial flm between dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium
The common emulsifyin a ents for O/W emulsions are proteins, ums, natural and
synthetic soaps, etc , and for W/O, heavy metal salts of fatty acids, lon chain alcohols,
lampblaci, etc
The two types of emulsions can be distin uished by dilution with dispersion medium
The droplets in emulsions carry ne ative char e and they can be precipitated by
electrolytes They also show Brownian movement and Tyndall effect
Uses of emulsions:
(i) Cleansin action of soaps is based on the formation of emulsions
(ii) Di estion of fats in intestines taies place by the process of emulsifcation
(iii) Antiseptics and disinfectants when added to water form emulsions
(iv) The process of emulsifcation is used to maie medicines
Applications of Colloids
1. Formation of Delta: Deltas are formed at the river mouth This is because river
water is a ne atively char ed colloid of sand particles
When this water enters into sea, the positive ions present in sea water coa ulate the
colloidal solution of sand and so the particles settle down This will result in the
formation of delta
2. Electrical precipitation of smoke (Cottrell precipitation): Smoie is a colloidal
solution of carbon, arsenic compounds, dust particles etc in air
The smoie before comin out of the chimney is passed throu h a chamber (Cottrell
precipitator)containin plates havin a char e opposite to that of smoie particles
Thus neutralization of char es occurs and the particles settle down and pure air fows
out of the chimney
3. Purification of drinking water: The water obtained from natural sources often
contains suspended impurities In order to coa ulate these impurities, alum is added to
water
The positive ions present in alum neutralize the suspended impurities and hence et
purifed
4. Medicines: Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature This is because they have
lar e surface area and are therefore easily assimilated
For example, ar yrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion Colloidal antimony is used in
curin ialaazar Colloidal old is used for intramuscular injection
5. Tanning: Animal hides are colloidal in nature When a hide, which has positively
char ed particles, is soaied in tannin (which contains ne atively char ed colloidal
particles) mutual coa ulation taies place This results in the hardenin of leather This
process is termed as tannin
6. Photographic plates and films: Photo raphic plates or flms are prepared by
coatin an emulsion of the li ht sensitive silver bromide in elatin over lass plates or
celluloid flms
7. Rubber industry: Rubber latex is a colloidal solution of rubber particles which are
ne atively char ed Rubber is obtained by coa ulation of the latex
8. Food articles: Mili, butter, halwa, ice creams, fruit juices, etc , are all colloids in
nature
9. Blood: Blood is a colloidal solution of an albuminoid substance When alum and
ferric chloride (FeCl3) solution are added to blood, then coa ulation of particles taie
place which results in clottin of blood
10. Industrial products: Paints, inis, synthetic plastics, rubber, raphite lubricants,
cement, etc , are all colloidal in nature
II-PUC-CHEMISTRY GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS
6.General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
Minerals: Which are naturally occurring chemical substances in the
earth’s crust which includes Metal and impurities.
Ores: The Minerals in which metal is extracted proftably called ores.
Ex: Copper glance ( Cu2S), Haematite ( Fe2O3)
Gangue: Undesired materials which present along with the metal in the
earth crust known as gangue.
Metallurgy: The entire scientifc and technological process used for
isolation of the metal from its ores is known as metallurgy
The extraction and isolation of metals from ores involve the following
major steps:
A) Concentration of the ore (or) Purifcation of the Ore
B) Isolation of the metal from its concentrated ore
C) Purifcation of the metal (Or) Refning of the Metal.
A) Concentration of the ore (or) Purifcation of the Ore:
i) Hand picking: In this process the earthy impurities (heavy impurities)
which are present in the ore like rocky materials, pellets are picked with
hand.
ii) Hydraulic washing:
In this process the lighter impurities are removed.
The ore is fed in to the tank from the top, and the water is allowed with
high pressure from the bottom of the tank.
During this process the lighter impurities which are adhere to the ore
float over the water which can be removed .
The ore particles will settle down at the bottom of the tank.
iii) Electromagnetic Separation:
This process is used for the Iron ore only.
The ore is passed through a belt which is connected by two rotating
wheels, one among is made up of magnetic material.
Once the ore is passed through the belt, the ore particles are attracted
by the magnetic wheel, and fall near to it.
The impurities which are nonmagnetic are not attracted by the magnetic
wheel, and fall away from the magnetic wheel as shown in the fgure.
iv) Froth Floatation Process:

Principle: The mineral particles become wet by oils while the gangue
particles by water.
Method: In this process, a suspension of the powdered ore is made with

water. To it, collectors and froth stabilisers are added.
A rotating paddle agitates the mixture and draws air in it. As a result,
froth is formed which carries the mineral particles.
The froth is light and is skimmed of. It is then dried for recovery of the
ore particles
Collectors : The chemical substances which enhance non-wettability of
the mineral particles. Ex : pine oils, fatty acids, xanthates
Froth stabilizers: The chemical substances stabilise the froth. Ex: cresols,
aniline.
Depressants: It is possible to separate two sulphide ores by adjusting
proportion of oil to water.
For example, in case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the depressant
used is NaCN. It electively prevents ZnS from coming to the froth but
allows PbS to come with the froth.
V) Leaching: It is often used if the ore is soluble in some suitable
solvent. It is chemical method used for purifcation of ore.
The following examples illustrate the procedure:
(a) Leaching of Alumina from Bauxite:
→ The ore consists of two chemical impurities a) Iron oxide (Fe 2O3) b)
Silica (SiO2). These impurities are removed in the following process.
The ore is treated with Sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH), in which Iron
oxide (Fe2O3) impurity does not react with it and can be removed by
fltration.
Al2O3 +2NaOH+3H2O   Na[Al(OH)4]
The aluminate in solution is neutralised by passing CO 2 gas and hydrated
Al2O3 is precipitated.
2Na[Al(OH)4]+CO2   Al2O3.xH2O+ NaHCO3
Al(OH)3 is ignited to get pure Bauxite called Alumina.
heat
Al2O3.xH2O    Al2O3 (s) + 3 H2O
(b) Leaching of Silver Ore :
→ In the metallurgy of silver and that of gold, the respective metal is
leached with a dilute solution of NaCN or KCN in the presence of air (for
O2) from which the metal is obtained later by replacement.
4Au + 8NaCN + 2H2O + O2  4Na[Au(CN)2 + 4NaOH
2Na[Ag(CN)2] + Zn  Na2[Zn(CN4] + 2Ag
B) Isolation of the metal from its concentrated ore:
i) Conversion of Ore in to Metal oxide:
Roasting: The process in which the ores are heated in presence of
excess of oxygen. This process is mainly used for Sulphide ores.
ZnS + O2   ZnO + SO2
Calcination: It involves heating when the volatile matter escapes leaving
behind the metal oxide.This process is mainly used for Carbonate and
hydroxide ores.
Fe2O3.xH2O   Fe2O3 + xH2O
ZnCO3   ZnO + CO2
CaCO3.MgCO3   CaO + MgO + 2CO2
ii) Conversion of Metal oxide in to Metal through Thermodynamical

principles:
Reduction of the metal oxide usually involves heating it with some other
substance acting as a reducing agent (C or CO or even another metal).
The reducing agent (e.g., carbon) combines with the oxygen of the metal
oxide.
MxOy + yC   xM + yCO
Some metal oxides get reduced easily while others are very difcult to
be reduced. In any case, heating is required. To understand the variation
in the temperature requirement for thermal reductions (pyrometallurgy)
and to predict which element will suit as the reducing agent for a given
metal oxide (MxOy), Gibbs energy interpretations are made.
The change in Gibbs energy, ∆G for any process at any specifed
temperature, is described by the equation:
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
where,∆H is the enthalpy change and ∆S is the entropy change for the
process.
1. If the value of ∆G is negative then only then the reaction will proceed.
If ∆S is positive, on increasing the temperature (T), the value of T∆S
would increase (∆H < T∆S) and then ∆G will become –ve.
2. If reactants and products of two reactions are put together in a system
and the net ∆G of the two possible reactions is –ve, the overall reaction
will occur.So the process of interpretation involves coupling of the two
reactions, getting the sum of their ∆G and looking for its magnitude and
sign. Such coupling is easily understood through Gibbs energy (∆G) vs T
plots for formation of the oxides in Ellingham Diagram.
Ellingham Diagram provides a suitable reducing agent in the
reduction of oxides. Such diagrams help us in predicting the
feasibility of thermal reduction of an ore.
Ellingham Diagram
The following examples explains better understanding of Ellingham
Diagram in reduction of metal oxide to metal using suitable reducing
agent at diferent temperatures.
Extraction of some metals from their metal oxides:
1) Iron from Iron oxide:
a) Removal of chemical impurity:
Silica (SiO2) is a chemical impurity which is acidic in nature present along
with the ore.
A basic flux like calcium oxide (CaO) is added to remove Silica.
CaO is obtained from the Lime stone (CaCO 3) which decomposes to CaO
and CO2 in the furnace due to intense heat.
CaCO3   CaO + CO2.
The impurity SiO2, combines with CaO to form calcium silicate (CaSiO 3)
called Slag.
CaO + SiO2   CaSiO3.
b) Extraction of Iron:
The pure Haematite ore, Ferric oxide (Fe 2O3) is reduced to iron in
presence of a reducing agent Coke (carbon).
Coke (C) combines with CO2 to form carbon monoxide which is a very
good reducing agent which reduces Fe2O3 in to Iron (Fe).
C (Coke) + CO2   2CO
Fe2O3 + 3 CO   2Fe (molten) + 3 CO2
The slag calcium silicate ( CaSiO 3), is lighter than molten Iron which
floats over the molten iron and also which also prevents the molten Iron
to oxidize in presence of oxygen in the furnace.
The slag and the molten Iron are collected separately as shown in the
fgure.
2) Aluminium from Alumina (Aluminium oxide):

Electrolytic Reduction : Hall’s Process :
The Pure Alumina having high melting point i.e 2348K., it is highly
expensive to carry the electrolytic reduction process at this temperature.
To reduce the melting point and by increase the electrical conductivity of
Alumina a substance called Cryolite (Na 3AlF6) is added.
The electrolytic reduction process carried as shown as
Cathode reaction : Al+3 + 3e-   Al
Anode Reaction : 2O-2 - 4e-   O2
The oxygen gas liberated at anode reacts with graphite anode and form
CO2 gas, so anode is to be replaced from time to time.
C(graphite) + O2   CO2 .
The pure aluminium (Al) is collected from the cathode from time to time.
3) Copper from Copper Oxide :
a) Removal of chemical impurity:
The ore contains FeO is a basic impurity which is removed by adding an
acidic flux silica. Iron oxide ‘slags of’ as iron silicate and copper is
produced in the form of copper matte. This contains Cu2S and FeS.
FeO  SiO2  
 FeSiO3
 Slag 
Copper matte is then charged into silica lined convertor. hot air blast is
blown to convert the remaining FeS2, FeO and Cu2S/Cu2O to the metallic
copper. Following reactions take place:
2FeS + 3O2   2FeO + 2SO2
FeO + SiO2   FeSiO3
b) Extraction of Copper:Auto reduction/ Self Reduction:
Method 1: Process takes place in a reverbatory furnace:
Hot air is blown to convert the Cu 2S to Cu2O. The Cu2O formed converted
in to metallic copper in the presence of remaining Cu 2S which acts as a
reducing agent.
2Cu2S + 3O2   2Cu2O + 2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S   6Cu + SO2
The solidifed copper obtained has blistered appearance due to the
evolution of SO2 and so it is called blister copper.
Method 2: Process takes place with the help of a reducing agent C/CO :
In the Ellingams diagram the Cu2O line is almost at the top.
So it is quite easy to reduce oxide ores of copper directly to the metal
by heating with coke (both the lines of C, CO and C, CO 2 are at much
lower positions in the graph particularly after 500 – 600K).
The sulphide ores are roasted/smelted to give oxides
2Cu2S + 3O2   2Cu2O + 2SO2
The oxide can then be easily reduced to metallic copper using coke:
Cu2O + C 2 Cu + CO
4) Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide:
The reduction of zinc oxide is done using coke. The temperature in this
case is higher than that in case of copper. For the purpose of heating,
the oxide is made into brickettes with coke and clay.
ZnO + C (coke)   Zn + CO at 673K
The metal is distilled of and collected by rapid chilling.
C) Purifcation of the metal (Or) Refning of the Metal:
A metal extracted by any method is usually contaminated with some
impurity. For obtaining metals of high purity, several techniques are
used depending upon the diferences in properties of the metal and the
impurity. Some of them are listed below.
(a) Distillation:
This is very useful for low boiling metals like zinc and mercury. The
impure metal is evaporated to obtain the pure metal as distillate.
(b) Liquation:
In this method a low melting metal like tin can be made to flow on a
sloping surface. In this way it is separated from higher melting
impurities.
(c) Electrolytic refning:
In this method,
 The impure metal is made to act as anode.
 A strip of the same metal in pure form is used as cathode.
 They are put in a suitable electrolytic bath containing soluble salt of
the same metaL
 The more basic metal remains in the solution and the less basic
ones go to the anode mud.
 The reactions are:
Anode: M   Mn+ + ne–
Cathode: Mn+ + ne–   M
Example: Copper is refned using an electrolytic method. Anodes are of
impure copper and pure copper strips are taken as cathode. The
electrolyte is acidifed solution of copper sulphate and the net result of
electrolysis is the transfer of copper in pure form from the anode to the
cathode:
Anode: Cu   Cu2+ + 2e–
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e–   Cu
Impurities from the blister copper deposit as anode mud which contains
antimony, selenium, tellurium, silver, gold and platinum.
(d) Zone refning :
Principle: The impurities are more soluble in the melt than in the solid
state of the metal.
Method: Circular mobile heater is fxed at one end of a rod of the impure
metal. The molten zone moves along with the heater which is moved
forward. As the heater moves forward, the pure metal crystallises out of
the melt and the impurities pass on into the adjacent molten zone.
The process is repeated several times and the heater is moved in the
same direction. At one end, impurities get concentrated.
This end is cut of.
This method is very useful for producing semiconductor and other metals
of very high purity, e.g., germanium, silicon, boron, gallium and indium.
(e) Vapour phase refning :
In this method, the metal is converted into its volatile compound. It is
then decomposed to give pure metal. So, the two requirements are:
(i) The metal should form a volatile compound with an available reagent,
(ii) The volatile compound should be easily decomposable, so that the
recovery is easy.
Examples :.
1) Mond Process for Refning Nickel:
In this process, nickel is heated in a stream of carbon monoxide forming
a volatile complex, nickel tetracarbonyl.
330 – 350 K
Ni + 4CO    
 Ni(CO)4
The carbonyl is subjected to higher temperature so that it is decomposed
giving the pure metal
450 – 470 K
Ni(CO)4    
 Ni + 4CO
2) Van Arkel Method for Refning Zirconium or Titanium:
This method is very useful for removing all the oxygen and nitrogen
present in the form of impurity in certain metals like Zr and Ti.
The crude metal is heated in an evacuated vessel with iodine. The metal
iodide being more covalent, volatilizes.
Zr + 2I2   ZrI4
The metal iodide is decomposed on a tungsten flament, electrically
heated to about 1800K. The pure metal is thus deposited on the
flament.
ZrI4   Zr + 2I2
(f) Chromatographic methods:
Principle: This method is based on the principle that diferent
components of a mixture are diferently adsorbed on an adsorbent.
Method: The mixture is put in a liquid medium which is moved through
the adsorbent.
Diferent components are adsorbed at diferent levels on the column.
Later the adsorbed components are removed by using suitable solvents.
Column chromatography: In one such method the column of Al 2O3 is
prepared in a glass tube and the moving medium containing a solution of
the components is in liquid form.
This is very useful for purifcation of the elements which are available in
minute quantities and the impurities are not very diferent in chemical
properties from the element to be purifed.
II-PUC-CHEMISTRY THE P-BLOCK ELEMENTS
7. THE P-BLOCK ELEMENTS
The elements in which the last electron enters in the valence p-sub shell are called
the
p-block elements.
They include elements of the groups 13 to 18. Their general outer electronic
configuration is ns2np1-6 (except He which has 1s2 configuration).They includes
metals, non-metals and metalloids.
Group 15 Elements
Group15 includes nitrogen(N),phosphorus (P),arsenic(As),antimony(Sb)and bismuth
(Bi).
Element Electronic confiurrtion (
2 3
s ns np )
2 3
7N [ He ] 2s 2 p
2 3
15 P [ Ne] 3s 3 p
10 2 3
33 As [ Ar] 3d 4 s 4 p
10 2 3
51 Sb [ Kr ] 4 d 5s 5 p
14 10 2 3
83 Bi [ Xe ] 4 f 5 d 6s 6 p
Occurrence
 As we go down the group, the metallic character increases. Nitrogen and

phosphorus are non-metals, arsenic and antimony metalloids and bismuth is a
typical metal.
 The valence shell electronic configuration of these elements is ns2np3.
 The s orbital in these elements is completely filled and p orbitals are half-filled,
making their electronic configuration extra stable.
 Covalent and ionic radii increase down the group.
 There is a considerable increase in covalent radius from N to P. However, from As
to Bi only a small increase in covalent radius is observed.
 This is due to the presence of completely filled d or f orbitals in heavier members.
Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group due to gradual increase in atomic
size.
 Because of the extra stable half-filled p orbitals and smaller size, the ionisation
enthalpy of the group 15 elements is much greater than that of group 14 elements.
Oxidrtion strtes rnd trends in chemicrl rerctivity
 The common oxidation states of these elements are –3, +3 and +5. The tendencies
to exhibit –3 oxidation state decreases down the group due to increase in size and
metallic character.
 The last member of the group, bismuth does not form any compound in –3
oxidation state. The stability of +5 oxidation state decreases and that of +3 state
increases (due to inert pair efect) down the group.
 Nitrogen exhibits +1,+2, and +4 oxidation states also when it reacts with oxygen.
Phosphorus also shows +1 and +4oxidation states in some oxoacids.
 Nitrogen is restricted to a maximum covalency of 4 since only fourorbitals (one s
and three p) are available for bonding.
Anomrlous properties of nitroien
Nitrogen difers from the rest of the members of this group due to its smaller size,
high electro negativity, high ionisation enthalpy and non-availability of d orbitals.
Some of the anomalous properties shown by nitrogen are:
1. Nitrogen has the ability to form pp-pp multiple bonds with itself and with other
elements like C and O. Other elements of this group do not form pp-pp bonds.
2. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecule with an N≡ N triple bond. So its bond
enthalpy is very high. While other elements of this group are poly atomic with single
bonds.
3. The N–N single bond is weak. So the catenation tendency is weaker in nitrogen.
4. Due to the absence of d orbitals in its valence shell, the maximum covalency
of nitrogen is four.
5. N cannot form dp–pp bond or dp–dp bond. While Phosphorus and arsenic can
form dp–dp bond with transition metals and with C and O.
Hydrides of Group 15 Elements
 All the elements of Group 15 form hydrides of the type EH 3 (where E= N, P, As, Sb
or Bi).
 E.g. NH3 – ammonia, PH3-Phosphine, AsH3-Arsine, SbH3-Stebine and
 BiH3-Bismuthine.The hydrides show regular gradation in their properties.
 In hydrides, as the size of the central atom (E) increases, the bond length (E-H)
increases and hence the bond dissociation enthalpy of E – H decreases from NH 3 to
BiH3. So the thermal stability decreases from NH3 to BiH3 and the reducing
character increases.
 All the hydrides contain a lone pair of electrons on the central atom. So they act as
Lewis bases (i.e. lone pair electron donors).
 The basicity decreases in the order NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3.
 This is because as the atomic size increases, the electron density on the central
atom decreases.
 The melting point of these hydrides increases from top to bottom. This is due to
increase in the atomic size of the central atom which increases the van der Waal’s
force of attraction. NH3 has the highest melting and boiling points due to inter
molecular hydrogen bonding.
Q1.Though nitrogen exhibits +5 oxidation state, it does not form pentahalides. Give
reason.
Nitrogen with n = 2, has s and p orbitals only. It does not have d orbitals to expand
its covalence beyond four. So it cannot form pentahalides.
Q2. PH3 has lower boiling point than NH3. Why?
Unlike NH3, PH3 molecules are not associated through inter molecular hydrogen
bonding in liquid state.
That is why the boiling point of PH3 is lower than NH3.
Dinitroien (N2)
Preprrrtion: Dinitrogen is produced commercially by the liquefaction and fractional
distillation of air.
In the laboratory, dinitrogen is prepared by treating an aqueous solution of
ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite.
NH4Cl(aq) + NaNO2(aq)    N2(g) + 2H2O(l) + NaCl (aq)
It can also be obtained by the thermal decomposition of ammonium dichromate.
heat
(NH4)2Cr2O7    N2 + 4H2O + Cr2O3
Very pure nitrogen can be obtained by the thermal decomposition of sodium or
heat
barium azide. Ba(N3)2    Ba + 3N2
Properties
Dinitrogen is inert at room temperature because of the high bond enthalpy of N≡N
bond. At higher temperatures, it directly combines with some metals to form ionic
nitrides and with non-metals to form covalent nitrides.
heat
6Li + N2    2Li3N
heat
3Mg + N2    Mg3N2
It combines with hydrogen at about 773 K in the presence of a catalyst (spongy iron)
to form ammonia (Haber’s Process).
Fe , 773 K
N2 +3H2      2NH3
Dinitrogen combines with dioxygen at very high temperature (at about 2000 K) to
form nitric oxide. N2 + O2    2 NO
Uses: 1. The main use of dinitrogen is in the manufacture of ammonia and other
industrial chemicals containing nitrogen (e.g., calcium cyanamide).
2. It also used to create an inert atmosphere in metallurgy.
3. Liquid dinitrogen is used as a refrigerant to preserve biological materials, food
items and in cryosurgery.
Ammonir
Preprrrtion: In laboratory, ammonia is obtained by treating ammonium salts with
caustic soda (NaOH) or slaked lime.
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH    2NH3 + 2H2O + Na2SO4
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2    2NH3 + 2H2O + CaCl2
On a large scale, ammonia is manufactured by Haber’s process.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
In accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle, high pressure of about 200 atm, a
temperature of about 700K and the catalyst such as iron oxide with small amount of
K2O and Al2O3 are employed to increase the rate of this reaction.
Properties
Ammonia is a colourless gas with pungent smell. It is highly soluble in water because
of its ability to form inter molecular hydrogen bond with water.
H H
..
H – N : .... ...... H – O : .......... H – N :
H H H
h y d r o g e n b o n d in g b e tw e e n N H 3 a n d H 2 O m o le c u le s
Liquid ammonia has high melting and boiling points because of inter molecular
hydrogen bonding.
H H H
H – N : .......... H – N : .......... H – N :
H H H
in te r m o le c u la r h y d r o g e n b o n d in g in a m m o n ia
The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal geometry. It has three bond pairs
and one lone pair of electrons.
Its aqueous solution is weakly basic due to the formation of OH– ions.
NH3(g) + H2O(l)  
 NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
As a weak base, it precipitates the hydroxides of many metals from their salt
solutions. For example,
2FeCl3(aq)+ 3NH4OH (aq)   Fe2O3.xH2O(s) + 3NH4Cl (aq)
ZnSO4(aq) + 2NH4OH (aq)    Zn(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4 (aq)
The presence of a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom of the ammonia
molecule makes it a Lewis base. It donates the electron pair and forms complex
compounds with Cu2+, Ag+ etc. So it is used for the detection of these metal ions.
Cu2+ (aq) + 4NH3(aq)    [Cu(NH3)4]2+ (aq)
(blue) (deep blue)
Ag+ (aq) + Cl (aq)  
−  AgCl (S)
(colourless) (white ppt)
AgCl + 2NH3 (aq )    [Ag (NH3)2]Cl (aq)
(white ppt) (colourless)
Uses: Ammonia is used i) to produce various nitrogenous fertilizers (ammonium
nitrate, urea, ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulphate) ii) in the manufacture
of nitric acid iii) liquid ammonia is used as a refrigerant.
Oxides of Nitroien
Nitrogen forms a number of oxides in diferent oxidation states. They are:
Nitric Acid (HNO3)

Preprrrtion: In the laboratory, nitric acid is prepared by heating KNO 3 or NaNO3 and
concentrated H2SO4 in a glass retort.
NaNO3 + H2SO4    NaHSO4 + HNO3
On a large scale it is prepared by Ostwrld’s process. It involves three steps:
1. The catalytic oxidation of NH3 by atmospheric oxygen in presence of platinum/
rhodium gauge (wire) catalyst.
Pt / Rh gauge catalyst , 500 K & 9 bar
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)           4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
2. The nitric oxide is converted to NO2
2NO(g) + O2(g)    2NO2 (g)
3. Absorption of nitrogen dioxide in water to get nitric acid.
3NO2(g) + H2O(l)    2NO3(aq) + NO(g)
The aqueous HNO3 can be concentrated by distillation up to 68% by mass. Further
concentration to 98% can be achieved by dehydration with concentrated H2SO4.
98% HNO3 is known as fuming nitric acid.
Properties: It is a colourless liquid. In the gaseous state,HNO 3 exists as a planar
molecule with the structure as shown below:
O O

O N O N

H O H 1150 O
In aqueous solution, nitric acid behaves as a strong acid giving hydronium and
nitrate ions. HNO3(aq) + H2O(l)    H3O+(aq) + NO3– (aq)
Concentrated nitric acid is a strong oxidising agent and attacks most metals except
noble metals such as gold and platinum. The products of oxidation depend upon the
concentration of the acid, temperature and the nature of the material undergoing
oxidation.
3Cu + 8HNO3(dilute)   3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Cu + 4HNO3(conc.)    Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
Zinc reacts with dilute nitric acid to give N2O and with concentrated acid
to give NO2.
4Zn + 10HNO3(dilute)    4 Zn (NO3)2 + 5H2O + N2O
Zn + 4HNO3(conc.)    Zn (NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
Some metals (e.g., Cr, Al) do not dissolve in concentrated nitric acid because of the
formation of a passive film of oxide on the surface.
Concentrated nitric acid also oxidises non–metals and their compounds.
Iodine is oxidised to iodic acid,carbon to carbon dioxide,sulphur to H 2SO4, and
phosphorus to phosphoric acid.
I2 + 10HNO3    2HIO3 + 10NO2 + 4H2O
C + 4HNO3    CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO2
S8 + 48HNO3(conc.)    8H2SO4 + 48NO2 + 16H2O
P4 + 20HNO3(conc.)    4H3PO4 + 20NO2 + 4H2O
Brown Rini Test: It is a test used for the detection of nitrates. The test is carried
out by adding dilute ferrous sulphate solution to an aqueous solution containing
nitrate ion, and then carefully adding concentrated sulphuric acid along the sides of
the test tube. A brown ring at the interface between the solution and sulphuric acid
layers indicate the presence of nitrate ion in solution.
NO3- + 3Fe2+ + 4H+    NO + 3Fe3+ + 2H2O
[Fe (H2O)6 ]2+ + NO   [Fe (H2O)5(NO)]2+ + H2O
(brown ring)
Uses: It is used
i) in the manufacture of ammonium nitrate for fertilizers and other nitrates for use in
explosives and pyrotechnics.
ii) for the preparation of nitro-glycerine, trinitrotoluene and other organic nitro
compounds.
iii) in the pickling of stainless steel, etching of metals and as an oxidiser in rocket
fuels.
Oxorcids of Phosphorus: Phosphorus forms a number of oxoacids.
Group 16 Elements
The members of this group are oxygen (O), sulphur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te)
and polonium (Po).
Element Electronic configuration (
2 4
s ns np )
2 4
8O [ He ] 2s 2 p
2 4
16 S [ Ne ] 3s 3 p
10 2 4
34 Se [ Ar] 3d 4 s 4 p
10 2 4
52 Te [ Kr ] 4 d 5s 5 p
14 10 2 4
84 Po [ Xe ] 4 f 5 d 6s 6 p
They are also called chalcogens (means ore producing).
Oxygen and sulphur are non-metals, selenium and tellurium are metalloids, while
polonium is a radioactive metal.
Ionisation enthalpy of these elements decreases down the group. It is due to increase
in size. However, the elements of this group have lower ionisation enthalpy values
compared to those of Group15 elements.
This is due to the fact that Group 15 elements have extra stable half- filled p orbitals
electronicconfigurations.
Oxygen atom has less negative electron gain enthalpy than sulphur because of the
compact nature of its shells due to which the electronic repulsion is greater.
Oxidrtion strtes:
 The elements of Group 16 exhibit a number of oxidation states(-2,+2,+4 & +6).
 The stability of -2 oxidation state decreases down the group.
 Since electronegativity of oxygen is very high, it shows only –2 oxidation state
 (except in the case of OF2 where its oxidation state is + 2).
 Other elements of the group exhibit + 2, + 4 & + 6 oxidation states.
 But + 4 and + 6 are more common.
 Sulphur, selenium and tellurium usually show + 4 oxidation state in their
 compounds with oxygen and + 6 with fuorine.
 Down the group, the stability of + 6 oxidation state decreases and
 that of + 4 oxidation state increases (due to inert pair efect).
Hydrides of 16th iroup elements
All the elements of Group 16 form hydrides of the type H2E (E = S, Se, Te, Po).
Their acidic character increases from H2O to H2Te.
This is due to the decrease in bond (H–E) dissociation enthalpy down the group.
So the thermal stability also decreases down the group.
All the hydrides except water possess reducing property and this character increases
from H2S to H2Te.
Dioxyien (O2)
Preprrrtion: (i) By heating chlorates, nitrates and permanganates.
MnO2 / 
2KClO3     2KCl + 3O2
(ii) By the thermal decomposition of the oxides of metals low in the electrochemical
series and higher oxides of some metals.
2Ag2O(s)   4Ag(s) + O2(g); 2Pb3O4(s) → 6PbO(s) + O2(g)
2HgO(s)    2Hg(l) + O2(g) ; 2PbO2(s) → 2PbO(s) + O2(g)
(iii) By the decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in presence of manganese
dioxide. 2H2O2(aq)    2H2O(1) + O2(g)
(iv) On large scale it can be prepared from water or air. Electrolysis of water leads to
the release of hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen n at the anode. It is also obtained
by the fractional distillation of air.
Properties:
Dioxygen directly reacts with metals and non-metals (except with some metals like
Au, Pt etc and with some noble gases).
e.g. 2Ca + O2    2CaO P4 + O2  
 P4O10
4Al + 3O2   2Al2O3 C + O2   CO2
Uses: 1) oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding, in the manufacture of many
metals, particularly steel.
2) Oxygen cylinders are widely used in hospitals, high altitude fying and in
mountaineering.
3) Liquid O2 is used in rocket fuels.
Oxides
Oxides are binary compounds of oxygen with other elements. There are two types of
oxides – simple oxides (e.g., MgO, Al2O3 ) and mixed oxides (Pb3O4, Fe3O4)
Simple oxides can be further classified on the basis of their acidic, basic or
amphoteric character.
An oxide that combines with water to give an acid is called acidic oxide.
(e.g., SO2, Cl2O7, CO2, N2O5).
Generally, non-metal oxides are acidic but oxides of some metals in higher oxidation
states also have acidic character (e.g., Mn2O7, CrO3, V2O5 etc.).
The oxide which gives an alkali on dissolved in water is known as basic oxide.
(e.g. Na2O, CaO, BaO).
Generally, metallic oxides are basic in nature.
Some metallic oxides exhibit a dual behaviour. They show the characteristics of both
acidic and basic oxides. Such oxides are known as amphoteric oxides.
They react with acids as well as alkalies. E.g.: Al2O3, Ga2O3 etc.
There are some oxides which are neither acidic nor basic. Such oxides are known as
neutral oxides. Examples of neutral oxides are CO, NO and N2O.
Ozone (O3)
Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen.
Preprrrtion: When a slow dry stream of oxygen is passed through a silent electric
discharge, oxygen is converted to ozone. The product is known as ozonised oxygen.
3 O2(g)  
 2 O3(g); ΔH= +142 kJ/mol.
Since the formation of ozone from oxygen is an endothermic process, a silent electric
discharge should be used, unless the ozone formed undergoes decomposition.
Properties: Pure ozone is a pale blue gas, dark blue liquid and violet-black solid.
Ozone has a characteristic smell.
Ozone is thermodynamically unstable with respect to oxygen since its decomposition
into oxygen results in the liberation of heat (ΔH is negative) and an increase in
entropy (ΔS is positive).
So the Gibbs energy change (ΔG) for this process is always negative (ΔG = ΔH –
TΔS).
Due to the ease with which it liberates nascent oxygen (O 3    O2 + O), it acts as a
powerful oxidising agent. For e.g., it oxidises lead sulphide to lead sulphate
PbS(s) + 4O3(g)   PbSO4(s) + 4O2(g)
Oxides of nitrogen (particularly nitric oxide) combine very rapidly with ozone and
deplete it.
Thus nitrogen oxides emitted from the exhaust systems of supersonic jet aeroplanes,
slowly depleting the concentration of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
NO(g) + O3(g)   NO2(g) + O2(g)
Structure: O3 has an angular structure. It is a resonance hybrid of the following two
forms:
Uses: It is used as a germicide, disinfectant and for sterilising water. It is also used
for bleaching oils, ivory, four, starch, etc. It acts as an oxidising agent in the
manufacture of potassium permanganate.
Allotropes of Sulphur
Sulphur forms a large number of allotropes. Among these yellow rhombic
(α-sulphur) and monoclinic (β -sulphur) forms are the most important. The stable
form at room temperature is rhombic sulphur, which transforms to monoclinic
sulphur when heated above 369 K.
1. Rhombic sulphur (α-sulphur)
It is prepared by evaporating the solution of roll sulphur in CS 2. It is insoluble in water
but readily soluble in CS2.
2. Monoclinic sulphur (β-sulphur)
It is prepared by melting rhombic sulphur in a dish and cooling, till a crust is formed.
Two holes are made in the crust and the remaining liquid is poured out.
On removing the crust, colourless needle shaped crystals of β-sulphur are formed. It
is stable above 369 K and transforms into α-sulphur below it. At 369K both the forms
are stable. This temperature is called trrnsition temperrture.
 368.5K
  Sulphur     Sulphur
  
Both rhombic and monoclinic sulphur have S8 molecules.
The S8 ring in both the forms is puckered and has a crown shape.
S S S S
S
S S S
S S
S
1020
S 1050 S S
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

Preprrrtion: 1. Sulphur dioxide is formed when sulphur is burnt in air or oxygen:
S(s) + O2(g)    SO2 (g)
2. In the laboratory it is obtained by treating a sulphite with dilute sulphuric acid.
SO32-(aq) + 2H+ (aq)    H2O(l) + SO2 (g)
3. Industrially, it is produced by roasting of sulphide ores.
4 FeS2(s) + 11O2(g)    2 Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Properties: Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with pungent smell and is highly
soluble in water.
With water, it forms a solution of sulphurous acid which is a dibasic acid and form
two types of salts with alkalies – normal salt (sulphite) and acid salt (bisulphate or
hydrogen sulphite).
SO2(g) + H2O(l)    H2SO3(aq)
With sodium hydroxide solution, it forms sodium sulphite, which then reacts with
more sulphur dioxide to form sodium hydrogen sulphite.
2NaOH + SO2    Na2SO3 + H2O
Na2SO3 + H2O + SO2    2NaHSO3
SO2 is oxidised to sulphur trioxide by oxygen in the presence of vanadium pentoxide
(V2O5) catalyst.
V2O5
2SO2 + O2     2SO3
Moist sulphur dioxide behaves as a reducing agent. It converts iron(III) ions
to iron(II) ions and decolourises acidified potassium permanganate(VII) solution (This
used as a test for SO2).
2Fe3+ + SO2 + 2H2O    2Fe2+ + SO42- + 4H+
5 SO2 + 2MnO4- + 2H2O  
 5 SO42- + 4H+ + 2Mn2+
Structure: SO2 has an angular shape. It is a resonance hybrid of the following two
canonical forms:
Uses: Sulphur dioxide is used (i) in refining petroleum and sugar (ii) in bleaching
wool and silk and (iii) as an anti-chlor, disinfectant and preservative (iv) for the
production of Sulphuric acid, sodium hydrogen sulphite and calcium hydrogen
sulphite (v) Liquid SO2 is used as a solvent to dissolve a number of organic and
inorganic chemicals.
Oxorcids of Sulphur
Sulphur forms a number of oxoacids such as Sulphurous acid (H 2SO3),Thiosulphuric
acid (H2S2O3),Dithionous acid (H2S2O4),Peroxomonosulphuric acid (Caros acid, H2SO5),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4),Pyrosulphuric acid (oleum, H2S2O7),Peroxodisulphuric acid
(H2S2O8). Structures of some important oxoacids are:
Among these H2SO4 is the most important.

Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
Properties
Sulphuric acid is a colourless, dense, oily liquid. It dissolves in water with the
evolution of a large quantity of heat. Hence, for diluting the acid, the concentrated
acid must be added slowly into water with constant stirring.
Chemicrl properties: The chemical reactions of sulphuric acid are due to the
following reasons:
(a) its low volatility
(b) strong acidic character
(c) strong afnity for water and
(d) its ability to act as an oxidising agent.
In aqueous solution, sulphuric acid ionises in two steps.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)    H3O+(aq) + HSO4-
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l)   H3O+(aq) + SO42-
So it is dibasic and forms two series of salts: normal sulphates and acid sulphates.
Because of its low volatility sulphuric acid can be used for the manufacture of more
volatile acids from their corresponding salts.
2 MX + H2SO4    2HX + M2SO4 (where X = F, Cl, NO3 etc. and M is a
metal)
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent and drying agent. Many
wet gases can be dried by passing them through sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid
removes water from organic compounds.
e.g.: C12H22O11 + H2SO4   12C + 11H2O
Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is a moderately strong oxidising agent. It oxidises
both metals and non-metals and the acid itself reduces to SO2.
Cu + 2 H2SO4(conc.)    CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H 2O
3S + 2H 2SO4(conc.)    3SO2 + 2H2O
C + 2H2SO4(conc.)    CO2 + 2 SO2 + 2H2O
Uses: The important uses of Sulphuric acid are:
1) In the manufacture of fertilizers
2) in petroleum refining
3) in the manufacture of pigments, paints and dyestuf intermediates
4) in detergent industry
5) in metallurgical applications
6) as electrolyte in storage batteries
7) in the manufacture of nitrocellulose products and
8) as a laboratory reagent.
Group 17 Elements
Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) are the members
of Group 17.
Electronic confiurrtion (
Elements 2 5
ns np )
2 5
9F [ He ] 2s 2 p
2 5
17 Cl [ Ne ] 3s 3 p
10 2 5
35 Br [ Ar] 3d 4 s 4 p
10 2 5
53 I [ Kr ] 4 d 5s 5 p
14 10 2 5
85 At [ Xe ] 4 f 5 d 6s 6 p
Occurrence
They are collectively known as the halogens (means salt producers). They are highly
reactive non-metallic elements. All these elements have seven electrons in their
outermost shell (ns2np5) and so they do not readily lose their electron.
So they have very high ionisation enthalpy.
Halogens have maximum negative electron gain enthalpy in the corresponding
periods. This is due to the fact that the atoms of these elements have only one
electron less than stable noble gas configurations. Electron gain enthalpy of these
elements decreases down the group. However, the negative electron gain enthalpy
of fuorine is less than that of chlorine. It is because, in fuorine the incoming electron
goes to the 2p subshell, but in Cl it enters in to the 3p subshell.
Due to the compactness of 2p subshell compared to 3p subshell, the electron
– electron repulsion is greater in fuorine than in chlorine. So F does not easily gains
electron.
Halogens have very high electronegativity.
The electronegativity decreases down the group.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.
All halogens have characteristic colour.
For example, F2 has yellow, Cl2-greenish yellow, Br2-red and I2, violet colour.
This is due to absorption of radiations in visible region which results in the excitation
of outer electrons to higher energy level.
The bond dissociation enthalpy of F 2 is low. This is due to the relatively large
electron-electron repulsion among the lone pairs in F2 molecule.
All the halogens are highly reactive. They react with metals and non-metals to form
halides.
The reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group.
Halogens are strong oxidising agents since they readily accept electron.
F2 is the strongest oxidising halogen and it oxidises other halide ions in solution or in
the solid phase.
Oxidrtion strtes
All the halogens exhibit –1 oxidation state. Chlorine, bromine and
iodine also show +1, +3, +5 and +7 oxidation states in their oxides, oxy acids and
in inter halogen compounds.
Due to the absence of vacant d orbitals and the maximum electronegativity, fuorine
exhibits only –1 oxidation state.
Anomrlous behrvior of fuorine
Due to the small size, highest electronegativity, low F-F bond dissociation enthalpy,
and non availability of d orbitals in valence shell, fuorine shows properties diferent
from other halogens.
Some of the anomalous properties of fuorine are:
1. Ionisation enthalpy, electronegativity, enthalpy of bond dissociation and electrode
potentials are higher for fuorine than expected.
2. Ionic and covalent radii, m.p. and b.p. and electron gain enthalpy are quite lower
than expected.
3. Most of the reactions of fuorine are exothermic (due to the small and strong bond
formed by it with other elements).
4. F forms only one oxoacid while other halogens form a number of oxoacids.
5. Hydrogen fuoride is a liquid due to strong hydrogen bonding. While the hydrogen
halides of other elements are gases.
Hydrides of hrloiens
Halogens react with hydrogen to give hydrogen halides which dissolve in water to
form hydrohalic acids. The acidic strength of these acids varies in the order:
HF < HCl < HBr < HI. The stability of these halides decreases down the group due to
decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy from HF to HI.
Chlorine (Cl2)
Preprrrtion: It can be prepared by any one of the following methods:
(i) By heating manganese dioxide with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
MnO2 + 4HCl    MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Conc. HCl can be replaced by a mixture of common salt and concentrated H2SO4
4NaCl + MnO2 + 4H2SO4    MnCl2+ 4NaHSO4 + 2H2O + Cl2
(ii) By the action of HCl on potassium permanganate.
2KMnO4 + 16HCl    2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
Mrnufrcture of chlorine
(i) Dercon’s process: By oxidation of hydrogen chloride gas by atmospheric oxygen
in the presence of CuCl2 (catalyst) at 723 K.
CuCl2
4HCl+O2    2Cl2 +2H2O
(ii) Electrolytic process: Chlorine is obtained by the electrolysis of brine solution
(concentrated NaCl
solution). During electrolysis chlorine is liberated at the anode.
Properties: It is a greenish yellow gas with pungent and sufocating odour.
It is soluble in water.
It reacts with a number of metals and non-metals to form chlorides.
2Al + 3Cl2    2AlCl3 P4 + 6Cl2  
 4PCl3
2Na + Cl2    2NaCl S8 + 4Cl2   4S2Cl2
2Fe + 3Cl2    2FeCl3 ;
With excess ammonia, chlorine gives nitrogen and ammonium chloride whereas with
excess chlorine, nitrogen trichloride (explosive) is formed.
8NH3 + 3Cl2    6NH4Cl + N2 NH3 + 3Cl2   NCl3 + 3HCl
(excess) (excess)
With cold and dilute alkalies chlorine produces a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite
but with hot and concentrated alkalies it gives chloride and chlorate.
2NaOH + Cl2  
 NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
(cold and dilute)
6 NaOH + 3Cl2   5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
(hot and conc.)
With dry slaked lime it gives bleaching powder.
2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2    Ca(OCl)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
Chlorine reacts with hydrocarbons and gives substitution products with saturated
hydrocarbons and addition products with unsaturated hydrocarbons.
UV
CH4 + Cl2   CH3Cl + HCl
Methane Methyl chloride
C2H4 + Cl2 ⎯⎯⎯→ C2H4Cl2
Ethene 1,2-Dichloroethane
Chlorine water on standing loses its yellow colour due to the formation of HCl and
HOCl.
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) so formed is unstable and dissociates to give nascent
oxygen which is responsible for oxidising and bleaching properties of chlorine.
(i) It oxidises ferrous to ferric, sulphite to sulphate, sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid
and iodine to iodic acid.
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + Cl2    Fe2(SO4)3 + 2HCl
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O  
 Na2SO4 + 2HCl
SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2  
 H2SO4 + 2HCl
I2 + 6H2O + 5Cl2  
 2HIO3 + 10HCl
(ii) It is a powerful bleaching agent; bleaching action is due to oxidation.
Cl2 + H2O  
 2HCl + [O]
Coloured substance + [O]    Colourless substance
It bleaches vegetable or organic matter in the presence of moisture. Its bleaching
action is permanent.
Uses: It is used
 for bleaching wood pulp, bleaching cotton and textiles,
 in the extraction of gold and platinum
 in the manufacture of dyes, drugs and organic compounds such as CCl 4,CHCl3,
DDT, refrigerants, etc.
 in sterilising drinking water
 preparation of poisonous gases such as phosgene (COCl 2),tear gas (CCl3NO2),
mustard gas (ClCH2CH2SCH2CH2Cl).
Hydroien Chloride (HCl)
Preprrrtion: It is prepared in the laboratory, by heating sodium chloride with
concentrated sulphuric acid.
420 K
NaCl + H2SO4    NaHSO4 + HCl
823K
NaHSO4 + NaCl     Na2SO4 + HCl
Properties: It is a colourless and pungent smelling gas. It is extremely soluble in
water and ionises as: HCl + H2O    H3O+ + Cl-
Its aqueous solution is called hydrochloric acid, which is a strong acid in water. It
reacts with NH3 and gives white fumes of NH4Cl.
NH3 + HCl   NH4Cl
When three parts of concentrated HCl and one part of concentrated HNO 3 are mixed,
aqua regia is formed which is used for dissolving noble metals, e.g., gold, platinum.
Au + 4 H+ + NO3- + 4Cl-    AuCl4- + NO + 2H2O
3Pt + 16H++ 4NO3- + 18Cl-  
 3PtCl62- + 4NO + 8H2O
Hydrochloric acid decomposes salts of weaker acids like carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates, sulphites, etc.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl   2NaCl + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl    NaCl + H2O + CO2
Na2SO3 + 2HCl   2NaCl + H2O + SO2
Uses: It is used
(i) in the manufacture of chlorine, NH4Cl and glucose (from corn starch),
(ii) for extracting glue from bones and purifying bone black,
(iii) in medicine and as a laboratory reagent.
Oxorcids of Hrloiens
Due to high electronegativity and small size, fuorine forms only one oxoacid, HOF
known as fuoric (I) acid or hypofuorous acid. The other halogens form several
oxoacids like Hypohalous acid (HOX), halous acid (HOXO) , halic acid(HOXO 2) and
perhalic acid (HOXO3). They are stable only in aqueous solutions or in
the form of their salts.
Chlorine forms 4 types of oxoacids – hypochlorous acid (HOCl), Chlorous acid (HOClO
or HClO2), Choric acid (HOClO2 or HClO3) and perchloric acid (HOClO3 or HClO4).
The structures of them are:

Interhrloien Compounds
When two diferent halogens react with each other, interhalogen compounds are
formed. They can be assigned general compositions as AX, AX 3, AX5 and AX7, where
both A and X are halogens. A is larger and more electropositive than X. As the size of
the central atom (A) increases, the stability of the compound also increases.
Preprrrtion
The interhalogen compounds can be prepared by the direct combination or by the
action of halogen on lower interhalogen compounds.
437 K
Cl2 + F2    2ClF I2 + 3Cl2  
 2ICl3
(equal volume) (excess)
573K
Cl2 + 3F2     2ClF3 Br2 + 3F2   2BrF3
(excess) (diluted with water)
I2 + Cl2  
 2ICl Br2 + 5F2   2BrF5
(equimolar) (excess)
Properties:
These are all covalent molecules and are diamagnetic in nature. They are volatile
solids or liquids except CIF which is a gas at 298 K. Their physical properties are
intermediate between those of constituent halogens.
The interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens (except fuorine).
This is because A–X bond in interhalogens is weaker than X–X bond in halogens
except F–F bond. The types of inter halogen compounds and their structures are as
follows:
AX AX3 AX5 AX7
ClF ClF 3 , BrF 3 BrF 5 IF 5 IF 7
BrF , BrCl , ICl IF 3 , ICl 3
IBr, IF
Uses: These compounds can be used as non aqueous solvents. Interhalogen

compounds are very useful fuorinating agents.
Group 18 Elements
Group 18 consists of six elements- helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn). All these are gases and chemically unreactive. So they
are called inert gases or noble gases.
Element 2 6 All
Discovery Electronic confiurrtion ( ns np )
s
2 He Lockyer and Janssen (1868) 1 s2
10 Ne Ramsay 1s 2 ,2 s2 2 p 6
2 2 6 2 6
18 Ar Rayleigh and Ramsay 1s ,2 s 2 p ,3s 3 p
(1894)
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
36 Kr Ramsay and Travers (1898) 1s ,2 s 2 p ,3s 3 p 3d , 4 s 4 p
Xe 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
54 Ramsay and Travers (1898) 1s ,2 s 2 p ,3s 3 p 3d , 4 s 4 p 4d 4 f ,
2 6
5s 5 p
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
86 Rn Dorn (1900) 1s ,2 s 2 p ,3s 3 p 3d , 4 s 4 p 4d 4 f ,
2 6 10 2 6
5s 5 p 5d ,6 s 6 p
noble gases have general electronic configuration ns2np6
(except helium which has 1s2).
Due to stable electronic configuration these gases have very high ionisation enthalpy
and electron gain enthalpy.
Even though these elements are chemically inert,Kr and Xe form some compounds
with oxygen and fuorine under special conditions.
(r) Xenon-fuorine compounds
Xenon forms three binary fuorides, XeF 2, XeF4 and XeF6 by the direct reaction of
elements under suitable conditions.
673 K , 1bar
Xe (g) + F2 (g)     XeF2(s)
(xenon in excess)
873 K , 7 bar
Xe (g) + 2F2 (g)      XeF4(s)
(1:5 ratio)
573 K , 60  70 bar
Xe (g) + 3F2 (g)       XeF6(s)
(1:20 ratio)
XeF6 can also be prepared by the interaction of XeF4 and O2F2 at 143K.
XeF4 +O2F2    XeF6 +O2
XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 are colourless crystalline solids. They are powerful fuorinating
agents. They are readily hydrolysed even by traces of water.
For example, XeF2 is hydrolysed to give Xe, HF and O2.
2XeF2 (s) + 2H2O(l)    2Xe (g) + 4 HF(aq) + O2(g)
Structures
XeF2 and XeF4 have linear and square planar structures respectively. XeF 6 has seven
electron pairs (6 bonding pairs and one lone pair) and thus, have a distorted
octahedral structure
(b) Xenon-oxyien compounds
1. XeO3: It is obtained by the hydrolysis of XeF4 and XeF6 with water.
6XeF4 + 12 H2O    4Xe + 2XeO3 + 24 HF + 3 O2
XeF6 + 3 H2O    XeO3 + 6 HF
2. XeOF4 & XeO2F2:
Partial hydrolysis of XeF6 gives oxyfuorides, XeOF4 and XeO2F2.
XeF6 + H2O    XeOF4 + 2HF
XeF6 + 2 H2O    XeO2F2 + 4HF
XeO3 is a colourless explosive solid and has a pyramidal molecular structure. XeOF 4 is
a colourless volatile liquid and has a square pyramidal molecular structure.
Uses of noble irses:

Helium is used in filling balloons for meteorological observations. It is also used in
gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Liquid helium is used as cryogenic agent for carrying out
various experiments at low temperatures.
It is used as a diluent for oxygen in modern diving apparatus because of its very low
solubility in blood.
Neon is used in discharge tubes and fuorescent bulbs for advertisement display
purposes.
Neon bulbs are used in botanical gardens and in green houses.
Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere in high temperature metallurgical
processes and for filling electric bulbs. It is also used in the laboratory for handling
substances that are air-sensitive.
Xenon and Krypton are used in light bulbs designed for special purposes.
II-PUC-CHEMISTRY THE D AND F BLOCK ELEMENTS
8. The d and f Block Elements

Elements from 3rd group to 12th group in the Modern Periodic table are called
d-block elements.
In these elements their last electron enters in the penultimate d- sub shell. They
are placed in between s-block and p-block elements.
They show a regular transition from the highly electropositive metals of sblock
elements to the less electropositive p-block elements. So they are called
transition elements.
Transition elements can be defned as elements which contain partially flled d
orbitals in their atomic state or in any of their oxidation state. This defnition
does not include Zn, Cd and Hg. So they are not regarded as transition elements.
Or, they are called pseudo transition elements. There are four series of transition
elements.
1) 3d series [from Sc (z = 21) to Zn (z = 30)]
2) 4d series [from Y (z = 39) to Cd (z = 48)]
3) 5d series [from La (z =57), Hf (z = 72) to Hg (z=80)]
4) 6d series [from Ac (z=89), Rf (z=104) to Cp (z=112)]
Electronic Configration
General outer electronic confguration of d-block elements is (n-1) d 1-10 ns1-2.
There is only a small diference in energy between (n-1)d orbital and ns orbital.
So in some cases ns electrons are also transferred to (n-1)d level.
The electronic confgurations of Cr and Cu in the 3d series show some

exceptions.
24Cr – [Ar] 3d5 4s1
29Cu – [Ar] 3d10 4s1
This is due to the extra stability of half-flled and completely-flled electronic

confgurations. (d5 or d10).
The electronic confgurations of Zn, Cd and Hg are represented by the general
formula (n-1)d10 ns2. The orbitals in these elements are completely flled in the
ground state as well as in their common oxidation states. So they are not
regarded as transition elements.
General characteristics of transition elements
1. Atomic and ionic radii
In a given transition series, the atomic and ionic radii frst decreases, then
become constant and increases towards the end of the series. This is because in
transition elements the new electron enters in a d orbital.
Initially since there is a few numbers of d electrons, the shielding efect is very
poor. As the atomic number increases, the nuclear charge also increases, so the
atomic radius decreases.
Towards the middle of the series, the increase in nuclear charge is balanced by
the shielding efect and so the atomic radius becomes constant.
Towards the end of the series, as the e - - e- repulsion increases the atomic radius
also increases.
The atomic and ionic radii of 2nd and 3rd row transition metals are quite similar.
This is due to the Lanthanide contraction.
In between the 2nd and 3rd row transition elements, 4f electrons are present.
The 4f electrons have very poor shielding efect and as a result the atomic and
ionic radii of Lanthanides decrease from left to right (Lanthanide contraction).
2. Meltini and boilini points
In a given transition series the melting and boiling points 1st increases up to the
middle and then decreases.
This can be explained in terms of metallic bond strength which depends on the
number of unpaired electrons. As the number of unpaired electron increases, the
metallic bond strength increases. Hence the melting point also increases.
In a given transition series, the number of unpaired electrons increases up to the
middle and then decreases.
Another factor which afects the m.p is heat of atomization. Mn and Tc
have low melting point even though they have d5 confguration. This is because
of their low heat of atomization.
The m.ps of second and third row transition series is higher than that of the frst
row due to their higher enthalpies of atomization.
3. Ionisation enthalpy
The ionisation enthalpy of transition elements generally increases from left to
right. This is due to increase in nuclear charge. But the increase is not regular.
This can be explained as follows.
After the removal of one electron, the relative energies of 4s and 3d orbitals get
changed. Hence the remaining electron in the 4S level is transferred to 3d level.
So the unipositive ions have dn confguration with no 4s electrons.
During this re-organisation of electrons, some energy is released and it is known
as exchange energy. So the net energy required to remove the 1st electrons is
equal to the sum of ionisation enthalpy and exchange energy.
The frst ionisation enthalpies of Cr and Cu are low. This is because the removal
of one electron does not change their d confguration. Similarly frst ionisation
enthalpy of Zn is high becauseafter the removal of one electron there is no
change in the d confguration
Zn → Zn+ + e-
3d 4s
10 2
3d104s1
The 2nd I.E of Cr and Cu are very high. This is because the removal of one more
e- from these metals disrupted their stable confguration (d5 or d10)
The 2nd I.Es of Mn and Zn are low, this is because after the removal of one more
electron, they attain the stable half flled or completely flled electronic
confguration.
4. Oxidation State
Transition metals show variable oxidation states. This is because in these
elements d and s electrons have comparable energies.
So in chemical reaction along with s-electrons, d-electrons also participate. In a
given transition series, the maximum oxidation state increases up to the middle
and then decreases.
This is due to the half-flled or noble gas confguration. The common oxidation
state of 1st row transition elements is +2.
The maximum oxidation state increases from top to bottom in a group. In lower
oxidation state, the transition element mainly forms ionic compounds.
Sc generally shows +3 oxidation state because after the removal of 3 electrons,
it gets a stable noble gas confguration. The oxidation state of Zn is +2 because
of the completely flled confguration of Zn2+.
5. Electrode Potential
The electrode potential values of frst row transition series generally increases
from left to right with some exceptions. The E 0(Cu2+/Cu) is positive (+0.34V),
while the E0 values of all the other frst row transition elements are –ve.
This is because the high energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) is not balanced by
its hydration enthalpy. So Cu does not easily reacts with acid and liberate
H2.Only oxidizing acids [HNO3 and hot Conc. H2SO4] react with Cu and the acid
get reduced.
Along the series the E 0 values become less –ve due to the increase in the sum of
1st and 2nd ionisation enthalpies.
The E0 values of Mn2+ and Zn2+ are more –ve, this is because of the half flled
confguration of Mn2+ (d5) and completely flled confguration of Zn 2+ (d10).
E0(M3+/M2+ ) value of Sc is very low and that for Zn is very high. This is because
of their stable electronic confguration.
E0 (Mn3+/Mn2+) is high because of the stable half flled confguration of Mn 2+.
Similarly E0 (Fe2+/Fe3+) is low, this is because after the removal of one electron
from Fe2+, it gets a stable electronic confguration.
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
Q. Explain why Cg+ is not stable in aqgeogs solgtion?

This is due to the much more –ve hydration enthalpy of Cu 2+ (aq) than Cu+. In
the case of Cu2+, the hydration enthalpy is more compensated by ionisation
enthalpy than in Cu+.
6. Mainetic Properties
Transition metals show mainly two types of magnetic properties- paramagnetism
and diamagnetism.
Some transition metals also show ferromagnetism which is an extreme case of
paramagnetism.
Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons. Each
unpaired e- is associated with a spin magnetic moment and an orbital magnetic
moment.
For the compounds of 1st row transition elements, the contribution of orbital
magnetic moment is efectively cancelled and so only spin magnetic moment is
considered.
It is determined by the no. of unpaired e-s and is calculated by the spin only
formula:
where n is the no. of unpaired electrons and μs is the spin only

magnetic moment in the unit of Bohr Magneton (B.M).
The magnetic moment increases with increase in no. of unpaired e -s. Thus the
observed magnetic moment gives an idea about the no. of unpaired e-s present
in the atom or ion.
7. Formation of cologred ions or compognds

Most of the Transition metals ions or compounds are coloured. This is because of
the presence of partially flled d orbitals. When an electron from a lower energy
d orbital is exited to higher d level, it absorbs energy and this is equal to the
energy of certain colours in visible region.
So the colour observed is the complementary colour of the light absorbed.
In aqueous solution most of the Transition metal ions are coloured since water
molecules act as the ligands.
Among Ti2+ and Ti4+, Ti2+ is coloured while Ti4+ is colourless. This is because Ti 4+
has no partially flled d orbitals. Ti2+ - [Ar] 3d2 Ti4+ - [Ar] 3d0 Similarly among
Cu+ and Cu2+, Cu2+ is coloured while Cu+ is colourless. This is due to the lack
(absence) of partially flled d orbitals in Cu+.
8. Formation of Complexes
Transition metals form a large no. of complexes. This is due to:
1. Comparatively smaller size
2. High ionic charge
3. Presence of partially flled d orbitals
4. Ability to show variable oxidation state
Eg: K4[Fe(CN)6], K3[Fe(CN)6], [Ni(CO)4] etc.
9. Catalytic Property
Transition metals act as catalysts in a large no. of chemical reactions. This is due
to their large surface area and their ability to show variable oxidation state.
10. Interstitial Compognd Formation
These are formed when smaller atoms like H, N, C, B etc. are trapped inside the
crystal lattice of the metal. They are usually non-stoichiometric and neither
typically ionic nor covalent. E.g.: Fe3H, Mn4N, TiC, VH0.56, TiH1.7 etc.
Some the properties of these compounds are:
1) They have high melting point.
2) They are very hard.
3) They retain metallic conductivity.
4) They are chemically inert.
11. Alloy Formation
Alloys are homogeneous solid solutions of elements in which at least one
element is a metal. They are formed by atoms with metallic radii within about
15% of each other.
Because of similar radii and other characteristics of Transition metals, they
readily form alloys.
The alloys formed are hard and have high m.p. e.g.: Bronze (Cu, Zn), Stainless
steel (Fe, C, Ni, Mn and Cr).
THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)

The elements in which the last electron enters in the anti-penultimate f-subshell
are called f-block elements. They include lanthanides of the 6th period and
actinides of the 7th period.
They are also called inner transition elements. Since lanthanum (57La) closely
resembles lanthanides, it is also included along with them. Similarly, actinium
(89Ac) is included along with actinoids because of its close resemblance with
them.
The Lanthanoids or lanthanides
The 14 elements after lanthanum of the 6th period are called lanthanides or
lanthanoids or lanthanones or rare earths.
They include elements from 58Ce to 71Lu. They are generally represented as Ln.
Atomic and ionic radii - Lanthanide Contraction
In lanthanides, the atomic and ionic radii decrease regularly from lanthanum to
lutetium. This regular decrease in the atomic and ionic radii along lanthanide
series (though very slightly) is called lanthanide contraction.
Reason: In lanthanides, as the atomic number increases, the nuclear charge
increases one by one and the electrons are added to the anti-penultimate f
subshell. Due to its difused shape, f orbitals have poor shielding efect. So the
nucleus can attract the outer most electrons strongly and as a result the radii
decreases.
Conseqgences:
1) Due to Lanthanide Contraction the 2nd and 3rd row transition series elements
have similar radii. E.g. Zr –160pm and Hf -159pm
2) Lanthanides have similar physical properties and they occur together in
nature. So their isolation is difcult.
3) The basic character of their hydroxides decreases from lanthanum to
lutetium. i.e, La(OH)3 is more basic than Lu(OH)3.
Uses of Lanthanides
The main use of the lanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels. An
important alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal (~ 95%) and
iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al. A great deal of mischmetall is used in
Magnesium based alloy to produce bullets, shell and lighter fint.
Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in petroleum cracking.
Some Ln oxides are used as phosphors in television screens and similar
fuorescing surfaces.
The Actinoids or Actinones
The 14 elements after actinium in the 7th period of modern periodic table are
called actinides or actinoids or actinones. They include elements from 90Th to
103Lr. Most of them are artifcially prepared and are short lived. They are
radioactive. The elements after Uranium are artifcially prepared and so they
are called trans-granigm elements or trans-granic elements.
II-PUC-CHEMISTRY co-ordinaton compounds
9.CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Double salt and Complex salt
A salt that keeps its identity only in solid state is called a double salt. In solution
they dissociate into component ions.
E.g.: Mohr’s salt [FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O], Carnalite [KCl.MgCl2.6H2O], Potash alum
[K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O].
The salt that keeps its identity both in solid and solution states is called a complex
salt.
E.g.: K4[Fe(CN)6], [Cu(NH3)4]SO4, K2[PtCl4], [Ni(CO)4] etc.
Some defnntnons
1.Co-ordnnatnon entnty: The central metal atom or ion and ligands form a co-
ordination entity. For example,
[CoCl3(NH3)3] is a co-ordination entity in which the cobalt ion is surrounded by
three ammonia molecules and three chloride ions. Other examples are [Ni(CO) 4],
[PtCl2(NH3)2], [Fe(CN)6]4–, [Co(NH3)6]3+.
2.Central atom/non: In a co-ordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fxed
number of ions/neutral molecules are attached is called the central atom or ion.
For example, the central atom/ion in the co-ordination entities: [NiCl 2(H2O)4],
[CoCl(NH3)5]2+ and [Fe(CN)6]3– are Ni2+, Co3+ and Fe3+ respectively.
These central atoms/ions are also referred to as Lewis acids, since they accept
electron pairs from ligands.
3.Lngands: The ions or neutral molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the
coordination entity are called ligands.
For a species to act as ligand, it can donate atleast one pair of electron to the
central atom. The atom of the ligand which is directly bonded to the central atom
or ion is called co-ordinating atom or donor atom.
Examples for ligands are Cl-, Br-, F-, I-, OH-, CN-, NC-, CNO-, NCO-, SO42-, NO3-, CNS-,
H2O, NH3, CO etc.
Types of lngands Based on the number of donor atoms of the ligand that binds to
a metal ion or atom, the ligands are classifed as follows:
a) Monodentate or unndentate lngand: A ligand that binds to the central atom/
ion through a single donor atom, is said to be unidentate ligand. E.g.: Cl -, Br-, I-,
OH-, H2O, NH3, CN-, NC-, SCN- etc.
b) Bndentate (Dndentate) lngands: A ligand that binds to the central atom
through two donor atoms is called a bidentate ligand. E.g.: Ethane-1,2-diamine or
ethylenediamine (H2NCH2CH2NH2) notated as ‘en’ and oxalate ion (C2O42–).
c) Polydentate lngand: A ligand that binds to the central atom through more than
two donor atoms is called polydentate ligand.
E.g.: Triethylamine ammonia [N(CH2-CH2-NH2)3],
Ethylenediamine tetraacetate ion (EDTA4–) etc.
Ethylenediamine tetraacetate ion (EDTA4–) is an important hexadentate ligand. It
can bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion.
Lngands are also classnfed as:

n) Ambndentate lngands: They are unidentate ligands which contain more than
one donor atoms. They can coordinate through two diferent atoms. Examples of
such ligands are the NO2-, CN-, SCN–, CNO- etc. NO2- ion can coordinate either
through nitrogen or through oxygen atom to the central metal atom/ion.
If the donor atom is N, it is written as NO 2- and is called nitrito (N) and if it is O, it is
written as ONO- and is called nitrito(O).
Similarly, SCN– ion can coordinate either through sulphur atom (←SCN–
thiocyanato) or through nitrogen atom (←NCS – isothiocyanato).
nn) Chelatnng Lngands: Di- or polydentate ligands can bind to the central atom
through two or more donor atoms and form ring complexes. Such complexes are
called chelates and such types of ligands are said to be chelating ligands.
Complexes containing chelating ligands are more stable than those containing
unidentate ligands. For e.g. the complex [Co(en) 3]3+ is a chelate and ethane-1,2-
diamine (en) is a chelating ligand.
4.Dentncnty: The number of donor atoms of a particular ligand that are directly
bonded to the central atom is called denticity.
For unidentate ligands, the denticity is 1, for didentate ligands it is 2 and so on
5.Co-ordnnatnon number: The co-ordination number (C.N) of a metal ion in a
complex can be defned as the total number of ligand donor atoms to which the
metal is directly bonded.
For example, in the complex ion [PtCl6]2– the coordination number of Pt is 6 and in
[Ni(NH3)4]2+, the co-ordination number of Ni is 4. Similarly, in the complex ions,
[Fe(C2O4)3]3– and [Co(en)3]3+, the co-ordination number of both Fe and Co, is 6
because C2O42– and en (ethane-1,2-diamine) are bidentate ligands.
The co-ordination number of the central atom/ion is determined only by the
number of sigma bonds formed by the ligand with the central atom/ion. Generally,
the co-ordination number of most of the
complexes is 2, 4 or 6.
6.Co-ordnnatnon sphere: The central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are
enclosed in square bracket and is collectively termed as the co-ordination sphere.
The ionisable groups are written outside the bracket and are called simple ions or
counter ions. For example, in the complex K 4[Fe(CN)6], the coordination sphere is
[Fe(CN)6]4– and the
counter ion is K+.
7.Co-ordnnatnon polyhedron: The spatial arrangement of the ligands around the
central atom/ion defnes a coordination polyhedron about the central atom. The
most common co-ordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and
tetrahedral. For example, [Co(NH3)6]3+ is octahedral, [Ni(CO)4] is tetrahedral and
[PtCl4]2– is square planar.
8.Oxndatnon number of central atom: The oxidation number of the central atom
in a complex is defned as the residual charge on it, if all the ligands are removed
along with their electron pairs that are shared with the central atom. The oxidation
number is represented by a Roman numeral in simple brackets. For example,
oxidation number of copper in [Cu(CN)4]3– is +1 and it is written as Cu(I).
9.Homoleptnc and Heteroleptnc complexes: Complexes which contain only one
type of ligand are called homoleptic complexes.
E.g.: [Co(NH3)6]3+, [Fe(CN)6]4- etc.
Complexes which contain more than one type of ligands are called heteroleptic
complexes.
e.g., [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+, [Cu(NH3)2Cl2] etc.
IUPAC Nomenclature of Co-ordnnatnon Compounds
The following rules are used while naming co-ordination compounds:
(i) The cation is named frst in both positively and negatively charged co-ordination
entities.
(ii) The ligands are named in alphabetical order before the name of the central
atom/ion.
(iii) Names of the anionic ligands end in –o, those of neutral and cationic ligands
are the same except ‘aqua’ for H2O,‘ammine’ for NH3, ‘carbonyl’ for CO and
‘nitrosyl’ for NO.
(iv) Prefxes mono, di, tri, etc., are used to indicate the number of individual
ligands in the co-ordination entity. When the names of the ligands include a
numerical prefx, then the terms bis (for 2 such ligands), tris (for 3), tetrakis (for 4)
are used. Here the name of the ligand is placed in simple bracket.
(v) Oxidation state of the metal is indicated by Roman numeral in simple bracket.
(vi) If the complex ion is a cation, the central atom is named same as the element.
If the complex ion is an anion, the name of the metal ends with the sufx –ate. For
example ferrate for iron, cobaltate for cobalt, zincate for Zn etc.
(vii) The neutral complex molecule is named similar to that of the cationic
complex.
Theornes of Co-ordnnatnon Compounds

1. Werner’s Co-ordnnatnon Theory
It was Alfred Werner who frst proposed a theory for co-ordination compounds. He
studied the amino complexes of Co, Pt etc. and proposed the following postulates:
1) Every metal has two types of valencies – primary (1 0) valency and secondary
(20) valency. Primary valency is ionisable, while secondary valency is non-ionisable.
2) Primary valency is denoted by doted lines, while secondary valency is denoted
by thick lines.
3) Primary valency gives the oxidation state of the metal, while secondary valency
gives the co-ordination number of the metal.
4) Primary valency is always satisfed by –ve ions, while secondary valency may be
satisfed by –ve ions or neutral molecules.
5) Every metal has a fxed number of secondary valencies. In order to satisfy this
requirement, some –ve ions may perform dual character – i.e., they act as primary
and secondary valencies simultaneously.
6) The primary valencies are non-directional, while the secondary valencies are
directional. i.e. they are directed to some fxed positions in space.
7) Since secondary valencies are directional, co-ordination compounds have a

defnite geometry and they show isomerism.
NH3 NH3 NH3 Cl
H3N Cl H3N Cl H 3N H3N
NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3
Cl Co Cl Co Cl Co Cl Cl Co
NH3 NH3 H3 N H3 N
H3N Cl H2O Cl NH3 Cl
NH3 NH3 Cl NH3
CoCl 3 .6NH 3 or CoCl 3 .5NH 3 H 2O or CoCl 3 .5NH 3 or CoCl 3 .4NH 3 H 2O or
III 2 –
[(Co III (NH 3 ) 6 ]3 (Cl – ) 3 [(Co III (NH 3 )5 (H 2O)]3  (Cl – ) 3 [(Co ( NH 3 ) 5 Cl] (Cl ) 2 [(Co III ( NH 3 ) 4 Cl 2 ] Cl –
Demernts: Werner could not explain why only certain elements form co-ordination
compounds. Also he could not explain the directional nature of bonds in co-
ordination compounds and their magnetic and optical properties.
In order to explain the above properties, many theories such as Valence Bond
Theory (VBT), Crystal Field Theory (CFT), Ligand Field Theory (LFT) and Molecular
Orbital Theory (MOT) are proposed.
2. The Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
This theory was put forward by Linus Pauling. The important postulates of this
theory are:
1) In co-ordination compounds, the central metal atom/ion provides some vacant
orbitals in order to accommodate the electrons donated by the ligands. The
number of vacant orbitals formed is equal to the co-ordination number of the metal
atom.
2) The vacant orbitals of the metal undergo hybridisation to form a set of new
orbitals called hybrid orbitals. The type of hybridisation gives the shape of the
compound.
3) Tetrahedral, square planar and octahedral complexes are formed as a result of
sp3, dsp2 and d2sp3 (sp3d2) hybridisation respectively.
4) Each ligand should contain at least one pair of electron.
5) The vacant hybrid orbitals of the metal overlap with the flled orbitals of the
ligands to form ligand – metal coordinate bond.
6) If a complex contains unpaired electron, it is paramagnetic and if it contains
only paired electron, it is diamagnetic.
Applncatnons of VBT
It is usually possible to predict the geometry of a complex from the knowledge of
its magnetic behaviour on the basis of the valence bond theory.
E.g.: 1) [Co(NH3)6]3- Here the central atom Co is in +3 oxidation state.
In this complex, the co-ordination number of Fe is 6 and hence the no. of vacant
orbitals required = 6. In presence of the ligand NH 3, the electrons in 3d level get
paired.
Now the two 3d orbitals, one 4s orbital and three 4p orbitals undergo d 2sp3
hybridization to form 6 new orbitals.
Six pairs of electrons, one from each NH3 , occupy these six hybrid orbitals. Thus,
the complex has octahedral geometry and is paramagnetic because of the
presence of one unpaired electron.
In the formation of this complex, since the inner d orbitals (3d) are used for
hybridization, the complex is called an nnner orbntal or low spnn or spnn panred
complex
E.g.: 2) [CoF6]3- Here the central atom Co is in +3 oxidation state.
In this complex the co-ordination number of Co is 6 and hence the no. of vacant
orbitals required = 6. In presence of the ligand F-, the electrons in 3d level do not
get paired.
Now the one 4s orbital, three 4p orbitals and two 4d orbitals undergo sp 3d2
hybridization to form 6 new orbitals. These hybrid orbitals overlap with the flled
orbitals of the ligand to form ligand– metal co-ordinate bond.
Since the hybridization is sp3d2, the shape of the molecule is octahedral and due to
the presence of 5 unpaired electrons, it is highly paramagnetic. In the formation of
this complex, since the outer orbitals (4d ) are used for hybridisation (sp3d2), it is
called outer orbntal or hngh spnn or spnn free complex.
E.g.: 3) [NnCl4]2- Here the central atom Nn is in +2 oxidation state.
In this complex the co-ordination number of Ni is 4 and hence the no. of vacant
orbitals required = 4. In presence of the ligand Cl-, the electrons in 3d level do not
get paired.
Now the one 4s orbitals and three 4p orbitals undergo sp3 hybridization to form 4
new orbitals. These four hybrid orbitals are occupied by the four electron pairs
from each Cl- ligands. Thus, the complex has tetrahedral geometry and is
paramagnetic because of the presence of unpaired electron.
E.g.: 4) [Nn(CN)4]2- Here the central atom Nn is in +2 oxidation state.
In this complex the co-ordination number of Ni is 4 and hence the no. of vacant
orbitals required = 4. Even though it contains 4 orbitals, in presence of the ligand
CN-, the electrons in 3d level get paired.
Now the one 3d orbital, one 4s orbital and two 4p orbitals undergo dsp 2
hybridization to form 4 new orbitals. Four pairs of electrons, one from each CN-
ions, occupy these four hybrid orbitals. Thus, the complex has square planar
geometry and is diamagnetic, because of the absence of unpaired electron.
Magnetnc Propertnes of Co-ordnnatnon Compounds
By knowing the magnetic moment, we can predict the geometry of complexes. For
e.g. [Mn(CN)6]3– has magnetic moment of two unpaired electrons while [MnCl6] 3–
has a paramagnetic moment of four unpaired electrons. [Fe(CN) 6] 3– has magnetic
moment of a single unpaired electron while [FeF 6]3– has a paramagnetic moment of
fve unpaired electrons.
[CoF6]3– is paramagnetic with four unpaired electrons while [Co(C 2O4)3] 3– is
diamagnetic.
This can be explained by valence bond theory in terms of formation of inner orbital
and outer orbital co-ordination entities. [Mn(CN) 6] 3–, [Fe(CN) 6] 3– and [Co(C2O4)3]3–
are inner orbital complexes involving d2sp3 hybridisation, the former two
complexes are paramagnetic and the latter diamagnetic. On the other hand,
[MnCl6]3–, [FeF6]3– and [CoF6]3– are outer orbital complexes involving sp3d2
hybridisation and are paramagnetic corresponding to four, fve and four unpaired
electrons.
Lnmntatnons of Valence Bond Theory
Even though the VB theory explains the formation, structures and magnetic
behaviour of co-ordination compounds, it has the following limitations:
(i) It involves a number of assumptions.
(ii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic data.
(iii) It does not explain the colour exhibited by co-ordination compounds.
(iv) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic or kinetic
stabilities of co-ordination compounds.
(v) It does not make exact predictions regarding the tetrahedral and square planar
structures of 4-co-ordinated complexes.
(vi) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands.
3.Crystal Fneld Theory
The crystal feld theory (CFT) is an electrostatic model which considers the metal-
ligand bond as purely ionic.
Here the ligands are treated as point charges in case of anions or as dipoles in
case of neutral molecules. The fve d orbitals in an isolated gaseous metal
atom/ion have same energy, i.e., they are degenerate. This degeneracy is
maintained if a spherically symmetrical feld of negative charges surrounds the
metal atom/ion. But when this negative feld is due to ligands in a complex, the
degeneracy of the d orbitals is lost. It results in splitting of the d orbitals. This
splitting of d-orbitals is termed as Crystal feld splitting and it depends on the

nature of the feld.
(a) Crystal feld splnttnng nn octahedral co-ordnnatnon entntnes (octahedral
feld)
In an octahedral co-ordination entity there are six ligands surrounding the metal
atom/ion and they are along the axis of the octahedron.
So the repulsion between the electrons in metal d orbitals and the electrons (or
negative charges) of the ligands is greater for the d x2-y2 and dz2 orbitals, which are
pointing towards the axes, than the dxy, dyz and dxz
orbitals, which are directed between the axes. So the energy of the d x2-y2 and dz2
orbitals (called eg orbitals) will be raised and that of the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals
(called t2g orbitals) will be lowered. Thus, the degeneracy of the d orbitals has
been removed.
This splitting of the degenerate levels due to the presence of ligands in a defnite
geometry is termed as crystal feld splnttnng and the energy separation is
denoted by Δo (the subscript o is for octahedral). Thus, the energy of the two eg
orbitals will increase by (3/5) Δo and that of the three t2g orbitals will decrease by
(2/5) Δo.
Strong feld ligands produce large splitting whereas weak feld ligands produce
small splitting of d orbitals.
Fnllnng of electrons
For d1, d2 and d3 coordination entities, the d electrons occupy the t2g orbitals singly
in accordance with the Hund’s rule. For d 4 ions, two possible patterns of electron
distribution arise:
(i) the fourth electron could either enter the t2g level and pair with an existing
electron, or (ii) it could enter into the eg level.
Here the electron distribution depends on the relative magnitude of the crystal
feld splitting (Δo) and the pairing energy (P).
If Δo< P, the fourth electron enters one of the eg orbitals giving the confguration
t2g3eg1. Ligands for which Δo< P are known as weak feld ligands and form high
spin complexes.
If Δo>P, the fourth electron occupy a t2g orbital with confguration t2g4eg0. Ligands
for which Δo<P are known as strong feld ligands and form low spin complexes.
b) Crystal feld splnttnng nn Tetrahedral coordnnatnon entntnes (tetrahedral
feld)
A tetrahedron can be considered as a cube in which only alternate corners are
occupied by ligands and the metal ion is at the centre of the cube.
The dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals (called e orbitals) point towards the centre of each faces
of the cube and the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals (called t2 orbitals) point towards the
edge centre of the cube.
Since the ligands are approaching through the corners, there is no direct
interaction between the ligands and the d-orbitals. However, the ‘t2’ orbitals lie
closer to the ligands than the ‘e’ orbitals.
As a result the energy of the ‘t2’ orbitals increases and that of ‘e’ orbitals
decreases. So the d orbitals split into two – triply degenerate ‘t2’ orbntals with
higher energy and doubly degenerate ‘e’ orbntals with lower energy.
The splitting in tetrahedral feld is less than that in octahedral feld.

It is found that Δt = 4/9 Δo.
This is because in tetrahedral feld, there are only four ligands (but in octahedral
feld, the number of ligands is six) and there is no direct interaction between the
ligands and the d-orbitals.
Spectrochemncal sernes
It is a series in which the ligands are arranged in the increasing order of their feld
strength. The series is: I-< Br- < SCN-< Cl- < S2- < F- < OH- < C2O42- < H2O < NCS– <
edta4- < NH3 < en < CN– < CO.
It is an experimentally determined series based on the absorption of light by
complexes with diferent ligands.
Colour nn Coordnnatnon Compounds
Most of the complexes of transition metals are coloured. This can be explained in
terms of the crystal feld theory.
In presence of the ligands, the crystal feld splitting occurs. So the electrons from
lower d level (t2g level) can excite to higher d level (eg level). For this some energy
is required, which is absorbed from the white light.
The colour of the complex is complementary to that which is absorbed. Thus
accordnng to crystal feld theory the colour of the coordnnatnon
compounds ns due to
d-d transntnon of the electron.
For example, the complex [Ti(H 2O)6]3+ is violet in colour. This is an octahedral
complex where the single electron (Ti3+ is a 3d1 system) in the metal d orbital is in
the t2g level in the ground state of the complex. The next higher state available for
the electron is the empty eg level. If light corresponding to the energy of yellow-
green region is absorbed by the complex, it would excite the electron from t2g
level to the eg level. Consequently, the complex appears violet in colour.
In the absence of ligand, crystal feld splitting does not occur and hence the
substance is colourless. For example, when [Ti(H 2O)6]3+ is heated it becomes
colourless. Similarly, anhydrous CuSO4 is white, but CuSO4.5H2O is blue in colour.
The colour of a complex depends on the strength of ligand and the nature of the
feld.
Lnmntatnons of Crystal Fneld Theory
1. From the assumptions, that the ligands are point charges, it follows that anionic
ligands should exert the greatest splitting efect. But the anionic ligands actually
are found at the low end of the spectrochemical series.
2. It does not take into account the covalent character of bonding between the
ligand and the central atom.
Stabnlnty of Coordnnatnon Compounds

The stability of a complex in solution refers to the degree of association between
the metal ion and ligands in the state of equilibrium. The magnitude of the
(stability or formation) equilibrium constant for the association, quantitatively
expresses the stability.
For a reaction of the type:
β = [ML4]/[M][L]4
As the value of the stability constant increases, the stability of the complex also
increases. The above reaction can be considered to take place in 4 steps:
Where K1, K2,K3 and K4 are referred to as stepwnse stabnlnty constants.

The overall stabnlnty constant, β = K1 × K2 × K3 × K4
The stability of a complex depends on the following factors:
1. The nature of the metal non: Greater the charge to radius of the metal ion,
greater will be the stability of the complex.
2. Nature of the lngand: The greater the basic strength of the ligand, the greater
will be the stability of the complex.
3. Presence of chelatnng lngands: increases the stability of the complex.
Bondnng nn Metal Carbonyls
Transition metals form a large number of homoleptic carbonyls. Eg. [Ni(CO) 4],
[Fe(CO)5], [Cr(CO)6], [Co2(CO)8], [Mn2(CO)10] etc. These carbonyls have simple, well
defned structures
The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls possess both s and p character. The M–
C s bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons on the carbonyl carbon
into a vacant orbital of the metal. The M–C p bond is formed by the donation of a
pair of electrons from a flled d orbital of metal into the vacant anti-bonding p*
orbital of carbon monoxide. Thus the metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic
efect which strengthens the bond between CO and the metal.
Applncatnon of Co-ordnnatnon Complexes

1. In Qualntatnve & Quantntatnve Analysns: Co-ordination compounds fnd use in
many qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses. For e.g. Ni 2+ is detected and
estimated by the formation of a complex with Dimethyl Glyoxime (DMG). The
brown ring test for the detection of nitrate ion is due to the formation of the brown
complex [Fe(H2O)5NO]2+. The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are estimated by the formation of
stable complexes with EDTA.
2. In water treatment: The Hardness of water is estimated by simple titration
with Na2EDTA (sodium salt of EDTA). The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions form stable
complexes with EDTA. The hardness of water can be removed by the formation of
a complex with calgon (Sodium polymetaphosphate)
3. In Metallurgy: Metals like silver and gold are extracted by the formation of
complexes with CN- ligands. Gold forms the complex [Au(CN) 2]- and silver forms
[Ag(CN)2]- which are separated with Zn.
Similarly, coordination compounds also fnd application in the refning of some
metals. For example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO) 4], which is decomposed
to yield pure nickel
4. Bnologncal Applncatnons: Coordination compounds are of great importance in
biological systems. Chlorophyll is a coordination compound of magnesnum,
Haemoglobin, is a co-ordination compound of nron and Vitamin B12
(cyanocobalamine) is a co-ordination compound of cobalt.
5.In Catalysns: Co-ordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial
processes. For e.g. Tris(triphenylphosphine)rhodiumchloride, [(Ph 3P)3RhCl]
(Wilkinson catalyst), is used for the hydrogenation of alkenes.
6.In electroplatnng: Articles can be electroplated with silver and gold by using
the solutions of the complexes, [Ag(CN)2]- and [Au(CN)2] - respectively as
electrolytes.
7. In Photography: In black and white photography, the developed flm is fxed
by washing with hypo solution which dissolves the undecomposed AgBr to form a
complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]3–.
8. In medncnne: Cis-platin is used for the treatment of cancer. Excess of copper
and iron in animal or plant body are removed by the chelating ligands D–
penicillamine and desferrioxime B through the formation of co-ordination
compounds. EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning.
II-PUC-CHEMISTRY HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES
10.HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

These are compounds containing halogen atoms attached to an alkyl
or aryl group. The general representation of haloalkanes is R-X and that of
haloarenes is Ar-X [where X = F, Cl, Br, I].
Classification
I) On the basis of number of halogen atoms:
Based on this, haloalkanes and haloarenes are classifed as mono, di or polyhalogen
compounds.
Monohalogen compounds contain only one halogen atom, dihalocompounds contain
2 halogen atoms and polyhalogen compounds contain more than 2 halogen atoms.
II) Compounds containing sp3 C-X bond: They include

a) Alkyl halides or haloalkanes (R-X): Here the halogen atom is directly bonded to
an sp3 hybridized C atom of an alkyl group. They are further classifed as primary,
secondary or tertiary according to the nature of carbon to which halogen atom is
attached.
b)Allylic halides: Here the halogen atom is bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon atom
next to a C = C bond. E.g.: CH2=CH-CH2X
c)Benzylic halides: These are compounds in which the halogen atom is

bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon atom next to an aromatic ring.
E.g.: C6H5-CH2-X
III) Compounds having sp2 C-X bond: They include
a)Vinylic halides: Here the halogen atom is directly bonded to an sp2 hybridized
carbon atom of a C=C bond. E.g.:
b) Aryl halides: Here the halogen atom is directly bonded

to an sp2 hybridized carbon atom of an aromatic ring.
E.g. : C6H5-X
Nomenclature
Common name of alkyl halides is obtained by adding –yl halide to the word root (i.e.
word root + yl halide) and the IUPAC name is obtained by adding the prefx ‘halo’ to the
name of the parent alkane (i.e. halo + alkane). Some examples are:
Methods of preparation
I) From alcohols:
a) By the action of concentrated halogen acids on alcohols in presence of anhydrous
ZnCl2 as catalyst.
an. ZnCl2
R-OH + HX      R-X + H2O
Reactions of primary and secondary alcohols with HI require the presence of an. ZnCl2,
while tertiary alcohols do not require the catalyst.
b) Alkyl chlorides are obtained by the action of PCl3,PCl5 or SOCl2 with alcohols.
3R-OH + PCl3    3 R-Cl + H3PO3.
R-OH + PCl5  
 R-Cl + POCl3 + HCl
R-OH + SOCl2   R-Cl + SO2 + HCl
Among these methods, the reaction with thionyl chloride (SOCl 2) is preferred, since the
byproducts are gases and are easily escaped from the reaction medium.
For the preparation of alkyl bromides and iodides, alcohols are treated with bromine or
iodine in presence of red phosphorus, since PBr3 and PI3 are unstable.
X 2 / Red P
R-OH     R-X (where X2 = Br2 or I2)
II)From Hydrocarbons
a)Free radical halogenation:
Alkanes react with chlorine or bromine in presence of sunlight; we get a mixture of
mono, di and polyhaloalkanes.
b)Electrophilic substitution:
Benzene or its derivatives when heated with Cl2 or Br2 in presence of iron or Lewis acids
like anhydrous FeCl3 (ferric chloride) or AlCl3, we get aryl chlorides or bromides.
The ortho and meta isomers can be easily separated due to their large diference in
melting point.
For the preparation of aryl iodides, arenes are treated with I 2 in presence of an
oxidising agent like HNO3 or HIO4 (periodic acid) to oxidise the HI formed during the
reaction.
c)Sandmeyer’s reaction:
Aromatic primary amines when treated with mineral acids like HCl and sodium nitrite
(NaNO2) at cold condition (0 – 50C), an aromatic diazonium salt is formed. This reaction
is called Diazotisation.
When a diazonium salt is treated with HX in presence of cuprous halide (Cu 2X2), we get
a halobenzene. This reaction is called Sandmeyer’s reaction.
Note: If the cuprous halide is replaced by copper powder, the reaction is called
Gattermann’s reaction.
For the preparation of iodobenzene, the diazonium salt is treated with potassium
iodide.
d) From alkene:
i) Addition of hydrogen halide (HX): Alkenes add HX (HCl, HBr or HI) to form alkyl
halides. In the case of unsymmetrical alkenes, the addition takes place according to
Markownikof’s rule. [The rule states that “when an unsymmetrical reagent is added to
an unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets
attached to the carbon containing lesser number of hydrogen atoms”].
ii)Addition of halogen: Alkenes add halogen to form vicinal dihalides (2 halogen

atoms on adjacent C atoms).
For e.g. addition of bromine in CCl4 to an alkene results in the formation of vicinal
dibromides and also in the discharge of the reddish brown colour of Br2 in CCl4.
So this is used as a test for unsaturation.
III)Halogen Exchange Reactions

a) Finkelstein reaction: Alkyl chlorides or bromides when treated with NaI in dry
acetone, alkyl iodides are formed. This reaction is known as Finkelstein reaction.
b) Swarts reaction: This method is used for the preparation of alkyl fuorides. Here
alkyl chloride or bromide is treated with a metallic fuoride like AgF, Hg 2F2, CoF2 or SbF3,
to get alkyl fuoride.
Physical Properties
Melting and boiling points:
In haloalkanes, the C-X bond is polar due to the greater electronegativity of halogen
atom. Due to greater polarity and higher molar mass, the inter molecular forces of
attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals forces) are strong and so they have higher
melting and boiling points than hydrocarbons of comparable molar mass.
For the same alkyl group, the boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order:
RI> RBr> RCl> RF. This is because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom,
the magnitude of van der Waal forces increases.
The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase in branching. This is
because as branching increases, the surface area of the molecule decreases. So the
van der forces decreases and hence the b.p.
Among isomeric dihalobenzenes, the para-isomers are high melting as compared to

their ortho and metaisomers.
It is due to symmetry of para-isomers that fts in crystal lattice better as compared to
ortho- and metaisomers.
Solubility
The haloalkanes are only very slightly soluble in water. This is because they cannot
form hydrogen bonds with water (except alkyl fuorides).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF HALOALKANES
i) Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions:
These are reactions in which a weak nucleophile is replaced by a strong nucleophile

[Nucleophiles are electron rich species attacks at electron defcient centre]. In general
these reactions can be represented by:
CN- is an ambident nucleophile. i.e. here both C and N contain lone pair of electrons
and can bind to the carbon atom of the alkyl group either through C or through N.
Another e.g. is NO2- Reaction with KCN gives alkyl cyanides.
This is because KCN is mainly ionic and gives CN- ions in solution. So both C and N are
free to donate electron pairs. But C – C bond is stronger than C – N bond. So cyanides
are formed as the major product.
But AgCN is mainly covalent and only N is free to donate an electron pair. So
isocyanides are the main product.
Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
There are two types of mechanisms: Substitution Nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2) and
Substitution Nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1)
1. Substitution Nucleophilic Bimolecular (SN2) Mechanism
Here the incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide causing the carbon-halogen
bond to break while forming a new carbon-OH bond. These two processes take place
simultaneously in a single step and no intermediate is formed. As the reaction
proceeds, the bond between the nucleophile and the carbon atom starts forming and
the
bond between carbon atom and leaving group (the halogen atom) weakens. In the case
of optically active alkyl halides, during this process, the confguration of carbon atom
inverts and hence this process is called as inversion of configuration. In the
transition state, the carbon atom is simultaneously bonded to fve atoms and therefore
is unstable.
An example is the reaction between CH 3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and
chloride ion. This reaction follows a second order kinetics, i.e., the rate depends upon
the concentration of both the reactants.
Mechanism of this reaction is:
Since this mechanism requires the approach of the nucleophile to the carbon bearing
the leaving group, the presence of bulky substituents on or near the carbon atom
decreases the rate of this reaction.
Thus the order of reactivity of alkyl halides towards SN2 reaction is:
Primary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide.
2. Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1):
SN1 reactions are generally carried out in polar protic solvents (like water, alcohol,
acetic acid, etc.). Here the reaction occurs in two steps. In the frst step, the C—X bond
undergoes slow cleavage to produce a carbocation and a halide ion. In the second step,
the carbocation is attacked by the nucleophile to form the product. Here frst step is
the slowest and reversible. So it is the rate determining step. Since this step contains
only one reactant, it follows frst order kinetics.
E.g.: The reaction between tert-butyl bromide and hydroxide ion to give tert-butyl
alcohol.
This reaction occurs in two steps. In step I, the polarised C—Br bond undergoes slow
cleavage to produce a carbocation and a bromide ion.
The carbocation thus formed is then attacked by nucleophile in step II to form the
product.
Thus in SN1 reaction, there is an intermediate called carbocation. The greater the
stability of the carbocation, the greater will be the rate of the reaction.
In case of alkyl halides, 3 0 alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction very fast because of the
high stability of 30 carbocations. So the order of reactivity of alkyl halides towards SN 1
reaction is: 30 > 20 > 10.
Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards
the SN reaction. This is because of the higher stability of the carbocation formed. The
1
allyl and benzyl halides are stabilized through resonance as follows:

Allyl carbocation
For both the mechanisms, the reactivity of halides follows the order: R–I> R–Br>R–
Cl>>R–F.
Stereochemical Aspects of nucleophilic substitution Reactions Plane
Polarised light
It is a light beam in which the particles vibrate in only one direction. It is produced by
passing ordinary light beam through a Nicol prism. When such a light beam is passed
through solutions of certain compounds, they rotate the plane of polarisation.
Such compounds are called optically active compounds.
The angle by which the plane polarised light is rotated is called optical rotation, which
is measured by an instrument called polarimeter. If a compound rotates the plane
polarised light towards right (i.e. clock-wise direction), it is called dextro rotatory or d-
form or + form and if it rotates the plane polarised light towards left (i.e. anticlock-wise
direction), it is called laevo rotatory or l-form or – form. The d and l form of a compound
are called optical isomers and the phenomenon is called optical isomerism.
Molecular asymmetry and Optical isomerism
Optical isomerism is due to molecular asymmetry. If all the 4 valencies of a carbon
atom are satisfed by 4 diferent groups, it is called asymmetric carbon or chiral
carbon or stereo centre. The resulting molecule is called asymmetric molecule. Such
molecules are non-super imposable to their mirror images and are called chiral
molecules and this property is known as chirality. The molecules which are super
imposable to their mirror images are called achiral molecules.
Enantiomers:The stereo isomers related to each other as non-super imposable mirror
images are called enantiomers. They have identical physical properties. They difer
only in the direction of rotation of the plane polarised light. If one of the enantiomers is
dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory.
Racemic mixture
A mixture containing d and l form of a compound in equal proportion has zero optical
rotation and such a mixture is called racemic mixture or racemic modification. It is
denoted by dl or (+). Here the rotation due to one isomer is cancelled by the rotation
due to the other isomer. The process of conversion of an enantiomer in to a racemic
mixture is called racemisation.
Retention and Inversion of configuration
If during a chemical reaction, there is no change in the spatial arrangement of bonds to
an asymmetric centre, we can say that the reaction proceeds through retention of
confguration. (Or, preservation of the integrity of confguration of a compound is
termed as retention).
In general, if during a chemical reaction, no bond to the stereo centre is broken, the
product will have the same confguration as that of the reactant. Such reactions always
proceed through retention of confguration.
E.g. Reaction of 2-Methyl-1-butanol with HCl.
If during a chemical reaction, the incoming group is attached to a position opposite to

that of the leaving group, the confguration of the resulting product is inverted and we
can say that the reaction proceeds through inversion of confguration.
If (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention of confguration.
If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion of confguration.
Nucleophilic Substitution and Optical Activity
In the case of optically active alkyl halides, the product formed as a result of SN 2
mechanism has the inverted confguration. This is because here the nucleophile attacks
on the side opposite to that of the halogen atom.
In the case of optically active alkyl halides SN 1 reactions follow through racemisation.
Here the intermediate carbocation formed is SP 2 hybridised and hence it is planar. So
the attack of nucleophile can take place from either side resulting in a mixture of
products with opposite confguration. e.g. Hydrolysis of optically active 2- bromobutane
results in the formation of , a racemic mixture.
ii) Elimination Reactions

Alkyl halides having β-hydrogen atom when treated with alcoholic solution of KOH, they
undergo elimination of one hydrogen halide molecule (dehydrohalogenation) to form
alkenes. Since β-hydrogen atom is eliminated, the reaction is also called β-elimination.
If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene during dehydrohalogenation

reaction, the major product is selected by Zaitsev (Saytzef) rule. The rule states that
“in dehydrohalogenation reactions, if there is possibility of formation of more than one
alkene the preferred product is that alkene which contains greater number of alkyl
groups attached to the doubly bonded carbon atoms.”
So if 2-bromobutane is treated with alcoholic KOH, 2-butene is formed as the major
product.
iii) Reaction with metals

a) Alkyl halides react with Mg metal in ether medium to form alkyl magnesium halide
(an organometallic compound) commonly called Grignard reagent.
Grignard reagent is an example for organometallic compound. These are compounds in

which carbon atom of an organic compound is directly bonded to metal atom. Other
examples are tetraethyl lead, trimethyl aluminium etc.
In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent but highly polar and
the magnesium halogen bond is ionic.
Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of proton (water,
alcohols, amines etc) to give hydrocarbons (alkanes). It is therefore necessary to avoid
even traces of moisture from a Grignard reagent.
b)Wurtz reaction: Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give alkanes with
double the number of carbon atoms. This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction.
Reactions of Haloarenes
1.Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction:
Aryl halides are less reactive towards Nucleophilic substitution reactions due to the
following reasons:
i)Resonance efect: In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen atom are in
conjugation with π-electrons of the ring and the following resonating structures are
possible.
So the C—X bond acquires a partial double bond character. Since it is difcult to break
a C=C bond, the replacement of halogen atom by other atoms is not easy. So
haloarenes are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions.
ii) Diference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C—X bond: In haloalkane, the
halogen atom is attached to an sp 3 hybridised carbon while in haloarene, it is attached
to an sp2 hybridised carbon. Due to the greater scharacter of sp2 hybridised carbon, it is
more electronegative and can hold the electron pair of C—X bond more tightly than
sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane. So the C – X bond in haloarene is shorter than that
in haloalkane. Since it is difcult to break a shorter bond than a longer bond,
haloarenes are less reactive than haloalkanes towards Nucleophilic substitution
reaction.
iii)Instability of phenyl cation: In haloarenes, the phenyl cation formed as a result of
self-ionisation will not be stabilized by resonance and therefore, SN 1 mechanism does
not occur.
iv)Repulsion between nucleophile and electron rich benzene ring: Because of
the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron rich nucleophile to approach
electron rich arenes.
Replacement by hydroxyl group (Conversion to phenol)
Chlorobenzene when heated with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature
of 623K and a pressure of 300 atmospheres followed by acidifcation, we get phenol.
The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho- and para-positions

increases the reactivity of haloarenes.
The efect is more when -NO2 group is present at ortho and para- positions. However,
no efect on reactivity is observed by the presence of electron withdrawing group at
meta-position.
2.Electrophilic substitution reactions: Haloalkanes are resonance stabilized as
follows:
In the resonating structures, the electron density is greater on ortho-para positions. So

the electrophile enters at these positions and hence halo group is an ortho-para
directing group. Also because of its –I efect, the halogen atom has a tendency to
withdraw electrons from the benzene ring. So it is a deactivating group. Hence the
electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly and require more

vigorous conditions.
i)Halogenation: Haloalkanes react with halogen (Chlorine or bromine) in presence of
anhydrous ferric chloride to form o-dichlorobenzene and p-dichlorobenzene.
ii)Nitration: On nitration using Conc. HNO3 and Conc. H2SO4, chlorobenzene gives
p-nitrochlorobenzene as the major product.
iii) Sulphonation: On sulphonation using Conc. H2SO4,chlorobenzene gives

p-chlorobenzenesulphonic acid as the major product
iv)Friedel – Crafts Alkylation: Chlorobenzene when treated with methyl chloride

(CH3-Cl) in presence of anhydrous AlCl3, we get p-chlorotoluene as the major product.
v)Friedel – Crafts Acylation: Chlorobenzene when treated with acetyl chloride (CH3-
CO-Cl) in presence of anhydrous AlCl3, we get p-chloroacetophenone as the major
product.
3.Reaction with metals:

a) Wurtz-Fittig reaction: When a mixture of alkyl halide and aryl halide is treated
with sodium in dry ether, an alkyl arene is formed and this reaction is called Wurtz-
Fittig reaction.
For e.g. when Chlorobenzene is treated with methyl chloride in presence of metallic
sodium in ether medium, we get toluene.
b)Fittig reaction: Aryl halides when treated with sodium in dry ether, we get diaryls
(diphenyls). This reaction is called Fittig reaction.

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II-PUC-CHEMISTRY SOLID STATE

1.THE SOLID STATE

Calculation of Number of atoms in a unit cell (z)

Number of particles in the unit cell of body centered cubic lattice

Seven types of crystal systems ans their possible variations

1.Close packinge in One Dimensions

2.Close packinge in Teo Dimensions

Octahesral voiss: A void surrounded by sii spheres in octahedral position is

If there are N close packed spheres,

Where Z = Number of particles per unit cell,

Calculate the radius of lead atom. (Atomic mass of Pb = 207 g mol–1)

i = Antilog (0.694) i = 4.943

d a 3 N A (7 87 g cm  3 ) (287 10 10 cm)3 6 023 10 23 atoms mol  1

5. An element havinge atomic mass 63.1geram/mole,has FCC unit cell.

8. Gols(atomic rasius=0.144nm)crystallizesin a face centeres unit cell.

2 2 0.144nm 2 1.414 0.144 0.40723nm

15. Silver crystallizes in a face centeres cubic structure. If the esgee

Calculation of Packinge Efficiency

FD2 = EF2 +ED2

Now in  AFD AF2 = AD2 + FD2

Volume of two atoms (two spheres) in unit cell

In ABC, AC2 = BC2 + AB2

The volume of the cubic unit cell = a3 = ( 2 2 r )3

Volume of four atoms(four spheres) in unit cell

Fig. (a): Schottky Defect Fig. (b): Frenkel Defect

Diference between Schottkey defect and Frenkel defect :

Metal excess defects caused by interstitial cations.

Metal deficiency due to cation vacancy

c)Impurity Defects: It is the defect arising due to the presence of foreign

Consuction of Electricity in semi-consuctors

 Molarity is most common way of representing the concentration of

Advantages of molality: Molality is temperature independent quantity.

Once the equilibrium is reached, the concentration of the solute

Characteristics of Henry’s law constant:

Differences between non ideal solution with positive and negative

So, “the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing

2.Elevation of boiling point:

The molar mass of the solute ( B is calculated using the equation,

Therefore, the molar mass of the solute ( M B ¿ can be determined

From the value of ‘i’, it is possible to calculate degree of

where Kf is called molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.

45. Which of the following has high osmotic pressure?

70. What are non-ideal solutions give examples.

77. What are azeotropes or azeotropic mixtures?

Where Tb  elevation in boiling point, m = molality, Kb = molal elevation

89. Defne depression in freezing point.

Three or four mark questions

Worked out numerical problems

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, the composition

Solutions SRS PU COLLAGE, CHITRADURGA Page 1

Note: In aqueous solution water is the solvent.

Methods of eapressing concentration of solutions

Units to eapress the concentration of solutions

 Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is defned as the number of moles of

For eaample, a molar (1M ) solution of sugar means a solution containing 1

 Molality (m): Molality of solution is defned as the number of moles of the

Number of moles of the solute

Mole fraction of the solvent A is given by,

Solutions SRS PU COLLAGE, CHITRADURGA Page 3

Mass percentage of a solution is defned as the number of parts by mass