Adult Learning Theory

The concept of learning in adults and its difference from children's learning
patterns

Written by CFI Team

Published February 28, 2022
Updated May 28, 2023

What is Adult Learning Theory?

“Adult learning theory”, also known as andragogy, is the concept of learning in adults
and how it differs from that of children’s learning patterns. The theory is based on the
idea that adult learning is highly distinct from the learning that humans do as children. It
also emphasizes the determination of suitable learning techniques for adults.

Summary

 Adult learning theory is the concept of learning in adults and how it may differ from
children learning patterns.
 Malcolm Knowles developed the adult learning theory in 1968 and is based upon six
key assumptions.
 Adult learning theory is important to consider in our ever-changing society, especially
with rapid new technological advancements.

History of Adult Learning Theory

American adult educator “Malcolm Knowles” initially developed the adult learning theory
in 1968, with six key points or assumptions. The assumptions are as follows:

1. Readiness to Learn – Adults who are ready to learn are usually spurred by a
specific reason, such as self-development and growth related to their work or
career path.
2. Orientation of Learning – Adults are more prone to learning when it is
applicable to everyday lives instead of general learning about certain subjects
that are unrelated to our lives. In general, adults will want to learn practical
skills that will make their lives and work more efficient.
3. Motivation to Learn – Adults require their own motivations and reasons to learn
new things. As children, the reason for learning is simply because they are
directed to learn; however, adults need to develop their own motivation.
4. Reason to Learn – Adults require a strong reason to learn, such as a problem
that they need to solve and an immediate application of new knowledge.
5. Self–concept – Adults’ learning is much more self-directed and independent as
they mature. It allows adults to decide when they want to learn, what they want to
learn, and how they want to learn. Such an assumption shows
that educators need to develop a plethora of choices for adult learners, allowing
them to design their own learning environment.
6. Experience – Adult learning, in contrast to children, includes a significant
amount of previous life experiences to rely upon to assist with new learning
experiences. The previous experiences can bring a unique perspective that
fosters discussions and are valuable learning resources. However, they may also
result in some biases and misinformation.
Understanding Adult Learning Theory

Adult learning theory is also known as andragogy. As mentioned, Malcolm Knowles

developed the theory based upon the six assumptions of adult learners. It is based upon
the concept that adults will usually choose what they want to learn, where they want to
learn, and how to learn. Gaining more autonomy over their learning is a key distinction
between adult learning and children’s learning.

Adult learning theory also places importance on the ability to share life experiences as
adults with each other, which can enhance the overall learning experience. Therefore,
other adult experiences can be used as resources to learn. Furthermore, adults will
base their learning on situations that arise in their life, which they may require new
learning in order to deal with such situations.

Practical Applications

As an adult who progresses through life and is developing skills and their career, adult
learning theory is crucial to understand in order to develop training programs for adults.
The training programs are important for employees who are learning new skills and job
functions. They are also essential for customers who may be learning to use a new
product or new technologies.

To apply adult learning theory, there are a few steps that should be loosely followed,
including:

1. Analyzing learning with the theory in mind to create a learning process and
overall framework for training.
2. Foster collaboration within the learning process, which gives an opportunity for
adult learners to benefit from each other’s’ life experiences.
 3. Create a self-directed learning experience where the learners are able to control
when, where, and how their learning is conducted. New technologies have made
this self-directed learning much easier through e-learning.
4. Examples should be derived from real-world cases. It allows the trainee to see
the application of what they are learning.
5. Allow learners to problem solve and figure out solutions on their own. It fosters
creativity and critical thinking on a deeper level.
6. Trial and error are important for adult learning, allowing learners to experiment
and test different things is important to training.

Importance of Adult Learning Theory

Understanding adult learning theory is important in our ever-changing society. New

technological developments, including artificial intelligence and machine learning, will
reshape both the job market and the retail market.

Effective adult learning practices can help with the transition and ensure that the adults
of tomorrow are well equipped to handle the resulting changes.

Beginning of Pedagogy
During an ancient period in Greece, the role of the teacher was first introduced, and
teaching was considered an art form. Attending school and getting education was
something that only the wealthiest could afford for their kids.

The role of the teacher or an educator was considered the most important one in the
learning process as they gave invaluable knowledge and wisdom to the children.

However, the educators weren’t the first pedagogues. The rich individuals of the area
used slaves to take their children to school. They were considered as the experienced
and wise who imparted knowledge to the children they were taking to school.

This is how the word pedagogue was created. It is described as the 'leader of children'.
They guide the students academically as well as morally.

What Is Pedagogy?

Pedagogy is a method of teaching in which teachers teach, both in theory and in

practice. Pedagogy is shaped by educator's teaching beliefs and involves their
understanding of culture and different learning styles.

It is essential for students to have meaningful classroom relationships in order to build

on prior learning.

Pedagogy refers to the way of teaching students, whether it is the theory or practice of
educating. It is a relationship between the culture and techniques of learning.

The main aim of pedagogy is to build on previous learning of the students and work on
the development of skills and attitudes of the learners. Pedagogy enables the students
to get a thorough understanding of the subject and helps them in applying those
learning in their daily lives outside of the classroom.
 What Is Pedagogy in Teaching?

Pedagogy in teaching can be referred to as an educator’s understanding of how the

students learn. The teachers are focused on presenting the syllabus to the students in
such a way that it is relevant to their needs.

Pedagogy demands classroom interactions between the teacher and students which
create a significant impact on the learner’s mind.

Pedagogy enables teachers to understand the best suitable practices for a classroom
setting. It helps them to know how different students learn and grasp information so that
they can tailor their lessons to satisfy those needs. It is likely to improve the quality of
teaching and the way it is received by the students.

Pedagogy plays an important role to help teachers understand the best ways to conduct
a classroom. It gives them insights into how students learn differently in different topics
so that they can conduct lessons to suit these needs. It aims to improve the quality of
education for students.

What Is Teacher Pedagogy?

Teacher pedagogy refers to the pedagogy that is centered towards the teacher, who
gives the most meaningful course information. In this approach, the teacher has a large
responsibility of giving correct information to the students in the right way, irrespective of
their teaching styles. The teacher can give a clear understanding of how the students
are doing concerning their learning and also be an effective model for the target
language.

What Is the Pedagogy Approach?

The 5 major approaches of pedagogy learning are-

1. Constructivist

In this approach, the students are allowed to be present in the process of understanding
and gaining knowledge rather than just passively receiving information. This
encourages critical thinking among the students and gives a learning environment in
which they can connect with what they are hearing.
2. Collaborative

Here, the students form groups of learners that learn together and work to solve a
problem, build strategies, ideas, create products or complete a task. This is a joint
intellectual effort by the students among themselves or with the help of the teachers.

3. Integrative

For the integrative approach, the students are given a learning environment that helps
them in connecting with their learning across the syllabus. The four objectives of
integration include-

1. Understanding the process of learning

2. Differentiating issues by relevance
3. Making use of the lessons in practical scenarios
4. Associating the concepts in regular lives
4. Reflective

As per the reflective approach, the students are expected to evaluate themselves. It
means observing the activities of the teachers and other students in the classroom and
analyzing why they do it and how it works.

5. Inquiry-Based Learning

In the inquiry-based learning method, the educators are expected to not just answer the
queries of the students, but also build a culture where their ideas are explored,
challenged, improved, and refined. It aims to take the students from the position of
wondering about a question to understanding the answer and then questioning it further.

Importance of Pedagogy in Teaching

1. Improves Quality of Teaching

If a well-thought pedagogy is implemented in the classrooms, the quality of education

can show a drastic improvement. This will benefit the students by helping them
thoroughly understand the education material, thereby improving the learning
outcomes.

2. Encourage Cooperative Learning Environment

The implementation of pedagogy in education encourages the students to work together

towards completing a task and learn together. This increases their perceptions by
understanding and taking views from the other students, thereby adapting the
cooperative learning environments making them better leaders in the future.

3. Eliminates Monotonous Learning

 Pedagogy and child development work hand in hand. It helps the student to think in
different ways and move beyond the traditional methods of memorization and
comprehension for learning. It invokes complex processes of learning among the
students such as analyzing, creative thinking, and evaluation. Further, it makes students
more receptive to what the teacher is teaching.

4. Student Can Follow Their Ways of Learning

A well thought pedagogy can help the students to grasp education in various ways. It
caters to the learning abilities of different students. Students can follow their preferred
ways of learning and stick to them. In this way, the students develop a better
understanding of the subject, which eventually improves their skills and learning
outcomes.

5. Convenient Learning Approach for All

Students with special needs require different ways of learning and teaching in the
institutes. Implementation of a suitable pedagogical approach will help them learn better
and encourage them to be a part of the mainstream learning community.

6. Improves Teacher-Student Communication

The teacher understands the student in a better way which helps them to focus on the
student’s weaknesses and guide them.

Difference Between A Pedagogical Approach and Pedagogical Techniques

 Pedagogical Approach

A pedagogical approach is a completely unified method of looking at teaching. It takes

several elements from all the approaches of pedagogy which include Constructivism,
Behaviorism, or Liberationism. It further applies that approach in all aspects of teaching.

 Pedagogical Technique

A pedagogical technique defines a set of actions performed by the teacher in the

classroom for teaching. It includes flipped learning, computational thinking, and deep
learning. It is more granular than the entire pedagogical approach

Types of Pedagogy

1. Social Pedagogy:

It is aimed towards the social development, awareness, and well-being of the students.
The teaching must consist of values and moral education.

2. Critical Pedagogy:
 It aims towards comprehending and deconstructing several daily life problems and
issues. It encourages the student to dig deeper into things and try to understand their
thoughts and beliefs on a certain topic.

3. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy:

It aims to address the cultural diversity among students. It helps to comprehend cultural
differences among the students and increases awareness about cultural differences in
school.

4. Socratic Pedagogy:

It aims to encourage the students to gain more knowledge from other sources along
with what is provided to them. This helps the students to find alternative solutions to the
problems.

Role of Pedagogy in Effective Learning

1. Improves Teaching Quality

It enhances student participation in learning and makes them more receptive to what is
being taught.

2. Encourages Different Learning Styles

The main focus is given on the outcomes of courses and the students are free to learn
in their styles.

3. Enables Learning for Students with Special Needs

It encourages the students with special needs to be a part of the mainstream teaching
ways and engage with other students.

4. Clarifies Learning Objectives

The student studies a particular subject with a clear objective of outcomes such as
gaining skills and knowledge of the subject.

How Does Pedagogy Impact the Learner?

1. Student-Centered Approach

Pedagogy is a student-centered approach in which the students take responsibility for

learning in their ways.

2. Continuous Assessment of Students

Teachers evaluate the students regularly to see if they are improving and moving
towards their target outcomes.

3. Encourages Teamwork
 The study methods encourage teamwork and group projects for the students to meet
like-minded individuals and work with them.

4. Develops Cognitive Skills

Helps students to develop cognitive skills using evaluation, detailed analysis,

comprehension, and application of the courses

Wouldn’t it be amazing to revert back into your childhood mind? That brain, so full of
imagination and wonder, would be a treasure trove of new perspectives for your adult
life. Alas, those years are long gone and what once delighted and motivated you might
actually be distracting to your adult brain.

Adults think, experience, and learn differently than children because they come to every
lesson armed with experiences, opinions, and their unique pasts; all which alter the way
adults experience learning.

Luckily, there are several proven adult learning theories that take all of this into account.
By understanding the basics of the most common adult learning theories, it makes it
easier to apply them in your own training strategy.

Each theory has specific pros and cons and can be used to tap into learners’ brains for
maximum impact. While there is never a one-size-fits-all to training, choosing the right
adult learning theory for your project can help connect with the way employees love to
learn.

When we’re talking about eLearning, the words “pedagogy” vs “andragogy” is often
thrown around.

These words are both of Greek origin; pedagogy literally translates to paidi (child)
and ago (guide). Andragogy, on the other hand, means andras (man) and ago (guide).
Both words refer to learning strategies – but they each have their own distinct
philosophies.

By understanding the difference between pedagogy vs andragogy, you’ll have a clearer

idea of how and why your subjects learn best.

Pedagogy is the method and practice of teaching children, based on the principles of
cognitive and social development. It emphasizes a teacher-centered approach and the
use of instructional methods that are appropriate for children’s learning needs.

Andragogy refers to the methods and approaches used in adult education and is
directed towards self-actualization, gaining experience, and problem-solving.

The problem? Someone applying pedagogical theory to a classroom full of

professionals might find their efforts read as child’s play.

For example, during the learning experience, the andragogy approach would allow
learners to take control, be more independent, and set their own goals. Pedagogy relies
on a more hands-on approach from instructors.
In general, andragogy is learner-centered, while pedagogy is teacher-centered.

It’s not all doom and gloom for pedagogy, though! In fact, both theories have
advantages and disadvantages that eLearning professionals should be aware of.

What are the differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy?

Pedagogical Andragogical

The learner depends on the

teacher. Their teacher evaluates Learner depends on themselves. This
progress and assumes full responsibility method requires self-evaluation and
for the teaching materials and their direction, and the learner takes
efficiency. responsibility for the learning process.

The learner comes to the table with little The learner uses life experience as a
life experience. Child-like learning foundation. Instructors build on
comes with a blank slate, and the existing knowledge and require an
educator is one of the most influential understanding of diverse backgrounds.
figures, as peers likely have the same Adults learn from the instructor, but also
lack of experience. from one another.

Learning is triggered by any number of

Students advance once they have life experiences and not necessarily led
completed the necessary steps. Child by a designated instructor. Learners
learners are told what they need to do to don’t advance to another topic, but
master a topic in order to move onto the rather fill knowledge gaps as where
next one. needed.

Learning is prescribed by an Learning is prescribed by oneself.

instructor and sequenced in a way that Learners see a problem or knowledge
makes logical sense. Topics are broken gap and organize topics around
down into content units. life/work solutions.

Learners are motivated by intrinsic

Learners are motivated by external means: self-esteem, quality of life,
sources, such as parents and teachers. problem-solving, and the quest for
The topic is marked with a pass or fail recognition. Topics are completed by
grade. mastery.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of Pedagogy: Advantages of Andragogy:

More structure and guidance for Allows learners to take control and be
learners more independent

Easier to assess progress Focuses on learner’s experiences and

prior knowledge
Can be more efficient in terms of time
and resources Encourages problem-solving
 Disadvantages of Pedagogy: Disadvantages of Andragogy:

Less opportunity for learner autonomy May be too open-ended for some
learners
May not be as relevant to some
learners’ experiences Can be difficult to assess progress
In the end, it’s up to you to decide which learning approach is best for your students.
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of each before making a decision.

Knowles’ Theory

Before 1950, pretty much everything we knew about learning methods was centered
around the way kids operated. After all, traditional schooling was pretty much how and
where adult education took place.

Adult educator and researcher Malcolm Knowles adopted the term “andragogy” to refer
to the unique motivators adult learners used. While children required more extrinsic
motivation and relied on instructor-led methods, Knowles noticed that adults were self-
directed and relied heavily on their past life experiences when they approached learning
opportunities.

Knowles defined a theory about adult learners that helped educators receive better
insight into how and why adult learners learn, including:

 Adults are self-directed; they are less dependent on teacher instruction.

 Adults use their past experiences as learning resources.
 Adults are motivated to learn in relation to their social roles.
 Adults prefer to learn solutions that apply to realistic situations.
 Adults rely on intrinsic motivations.
Moreover, Knowles’ theory helped give birth to the andragogy model which is widely
used in adult education today. It provided a framework for how instructors could apply
andragogy-based methods in their classrooms.

Adult Learning

It may seem like semantics, but understanding the differences between pedagogy and
andragogy could make a big difference between lackluster learning and ready, engaged
adults. This doesn’t mean that children and adults always learn differently (both, for
example, have a positive response to animation and gamification).

The fact is, adults come to the table with different motivators. They know what has
worked in the past or have habits that affect the way they learn and receive new
information. Because of this, approaching new topics with a traditional pedagogical
strategy could leave them disengaged and uninterested.

Andragogy inspires instructors to do a better job connecting learning experiences to

what adult learners already know. Allowing for personal opinion, better pacing, and
knowledge checks and re-checks helps adults leverage what they already know against
the new topics they are presented with.

Think of it as one of the fringe benefits of teaching adults: Andragogy leaves room for a
lifetime of learning.

While andragogy has been widely accepted in adult learning circles, some researchers
are critical of the theory. The main issue with andragogy is that it relies on the
assumption that all adults are self-directed learners, which is not always the case. In
fact, many adults need more structure when learning new information.

A good example of this is when an employee is learning a new software program. While
it may be true that some employees are able to sit down and figure out the program on
their own, others may need more guidance in order to learn successfully.

This is where pedagogy comes in. Pedagogy, or the pedagogic approach, focuses on
providing learners with more structure and guidance. In the case of our example, the
employee would benefit from sitting down with a trainer and being shown how to use the
software step-by-step.

While andragogy is a more learner-centered approach, pedagogy is more teacher-

centered. This doesn’t mean that pedagogy is bad; it just means that it may not be the
best fit for every learner or every learning situation.

Wrap Up

So, what’s the bottom line when it comes to pedagogy vs andragogy? It depends on the
learner, the learning situation, and the goals of the instruction.

In some cases, a pedagogical approach may be more appropriate; in others, an

andragogy-driven approach may be better suited. The key is to understand the unique
needs of your learners and then select the instructional methods that will best help them
achieve their learning goals.

Who was Dr. Malcolm Knowles?

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913–1997) was a prolific American educator well known
for popularizing the term andragogy for adult education. In 1935, Knowles began
working under Eduard C. Linderman, another educator who was part of the revitalization
of andragogy as a concept, and continued his pursuit of mastering the art of teaching
adults in both formal and informal settings.

Knowles spent his career theorizing about how older people approach learning in a way
that’s unique compared to children, and from this, he developed five assumptions about
adult learners.

The Adult Learning Theory - Andragogy

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913 – 1997) was an American educator well known for
the use of the term Andragogy as synonymous to adult education. According to
Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is the art and science of adult learning, thus andragogy
refers to any form of adult learning. (Kearsley, 2010).

The term andragogy can be supposedly equivalent to the term

pedagogy. Andragogy in Greek means man-leading in comparison to pedagogy, which
in Greek means child-leading. However, it should be noted that the term pedagogy has
been used since the Ancient Greek times, while Alexander Kapp, a German educator,
first used the term andragogy in 1833.

Knowles’ 5 Assumptions Of Adult Learners

In 1980, Knowles made 4 assumptions about the characteristics of adult
learners (andragogy) that are different from the assumptions about child learners
(pedagogy). In 1984, Knowles added the 5th assumption.

1. Self-Concept
As a person matures his/her self-concept moves from one of being a
dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.
2. Adult Learner Experience
As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience
that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
3. Readiness to Learn
As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented
increasingly to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles.
4. Orientation to Learning
As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed
application of knowledge to immediacy of application. As a result, his/her
orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of
problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to Learn
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12).

Knowles’ 4 Principles of Andragogy

In 1984, Knowles suggested 4 principles that are applied to adult learning:

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for the learning activities.
3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance
and impact to their job or personal life.
4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented. (Kearsley,
2010)

Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997) was an American educator who theorized adult

education. He brought the term andragogy into use as a term associated with adult
education. The first use of the term andragogy was by Alexander Kapp in 1833. He
used it to describe Plato’s elements of education. Andragogy refers to “man led” rather
than pedagogy which has the root ped meaning “child”. (Smith, M., 1996, 1999)
According Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is the art and science of adult learning, thus
andragogy refers to any form of adult learning. (Kearsley, 2010)
Photo Source: http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/malcolmknowles.cfm

Image

Source:http://leanlearning.wikispaces.com/instructional_design

Dr. Knowles gave adult learners 5 characteristics:

1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a
dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being

2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of

experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
 3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes
oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.

4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes

from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and
accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-
centeredness to one of problem centredness.

5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is

internal (Knowles 1984:12 in Smith, M., 2002)

Photo source: www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu

Also according to Knowles (1984) there are four principles that are applied to adult
learning:

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.

3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance
to their job or personal life.

4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented. (Kearsley,

2010)

Educators teaching adult learners need to know the concepts of the adult
learning theory and be able to incorporate them into their teaching style. Educators
need to become facilitators of adult education, helping the adult learner to set and
achieve goals and guide them in choosing the subjects and courses needed to fulfill
these goals. They need to keep in mind that the adult learner needs to know why the
course is important to their learning and life situation. The adult learner brings into the
continuing educational arena a rich array of experiences that will affect the learning
styles and assimilation of knowledge. Adult learners need to be able to apply the
knowledge into their life situations.

Dr. Knowles opened the doors of inquiry and the study of adult education. There
is a need to continue his study and to continue to support, design and implement
curriculums tailored to the educational needs of the adult learner in today’s society. With
advancing technology, there is a continuing need to re-educate and provide continuing
education in the academic as well as the business and industrial environment.