Compiled by Manyeruke G.

FORM 3 NOTES 0460

COASTS

Objectives:

DEFINITION OF TERMS
a) Coast - A zone where the land meets the sea.
b) Coastline – is the line considered as boundary between land and sea.
c) Beach - Deposits of sand, pebbles or shingle.
d) Swash - It is the movement of water up the beach. It is a depositional process.
e) Backwash - It is the movement of water down the beach. It is an erosional process.
f) Wave - the movement of water rising and falling in the oceans or seas.

Types of waves

(i) Constructive waves:

Constructive waves are waves that occur in calm weather on gently sloping coasts. They have a strong
swash but a weak backwash. The gentle gradient allows waves to bring materials and deposited on the
coast than are removed. Over time, the coast is built by the deposited sediment.

(ii) Destructive waves:

Destructive waves occur on steeply sloping coasts. These waves break violently with high energy.
They have a weak swash but a strong backwash. Instead of depositing materials on the coast,
destructive waves erode the coast and transport coastal rocks and beach materials away from it.

1
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

Coastal Processes are:

i) Erosion
ii) Transport
iii) Deposition

COASTAL EROSION - Coastal erosional processes are the same as river erosional processes

(a) Hydraulic Action

 This is when waves trap and compress air in the cracks on the cliffs which causes
the cliff to collapse.
(b) Corrasion/ Abrasion
 Particles carried by the waves are thrown at the cliff causing it to wear away
quickly.
(c) Attrition
 Particles carried by the waves crash against each other and break into smaller pieces
(d) Solution/ Corrosion
 Acids in the sea water dissolve chalk and limestone cliffs.
LANDFORMS FORMED BY COASTAL EROSION
• Notch
• Cliffs
• Wave-cut platforms
• Bays
• Headland
• Caves
• Arches
• stacks
• stumps
Notch: is a deep indentation at the base of a cliff due to intense hydraulic and abrasion action of
waves.
Cave: is formed when a notch is further deepened inwards and increased in size due to wave
erosion.
Cliff: is formed due to continuous undercutting by waves and the roof of the cave collapses to
form steep vertical rocks.
Wave-cut platform: as the erosional process continues, the cliff may retreat further and gently-
sloping surface appears at the base of the cliff. This surface is called a wave-cut platform. A
wave-cut platform is the narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff caused by the
action of the waves.
Bay: some of the coastlines are made of resistant rocks and less resistant rocks. The less
resistant soft rocks are eroded faster than the more resistant hard rocks. When the softer rocks
are eroded away, bays are formed.
Headland: on a coastline when the softer rocks are eroded away and formed the bays, the
remaining hard rocks extending into the sea is known as headlands.
Arch: when the waves continue to erode the back of the cave and cut through the rocks, a new
feature is formed which is known as arch.
Stack: when the arch roof falls into the sea, a stack is formed.
Stump: a small remaining part of the stack due to wave erosion is known as stump.
2
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

COASTAL TRANSPORTATION
•Material is usually transported along coasts by a process called longshore drift.
There are four other processes of coastal transportation:
a) Traction – Large particles are rolled along the sea bed.
b) Saltation – Small pebbles are bounced along the sea bed.
c) Suspension – Fine materials are carried floating in water.
d) Solution – Dissolved materials are carried in the sea.

COASTAL DEPOSITION
Deposition is when material being carried by sea water is dropped on the coast.

DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES
i) Beach
ii) Spit
iii) Tombolo
iv) Sand bar
v) Sand dunes
vi) Saltmarsh
Beach: is a zone of deposition consisting of loose sediments such as sand and shingles along the
coast.
A spit is a long narrow ridge of sand or shingle running out from the coast with one end attached
to the land. They are formed by longshore drift when the coast abruptly changes direction due
to prevailing winds. It usually grows from a headland.
A tombolo is formed when a spit connects the mainland coast to an island. It is formed by wave
diffraction and refraction.
Sand Bar: Bars are ridges of sand and other materials that run roughly parallel to the coast.
Sand dunes: Sand dunes are a distinctive coast features but they are caused by the wind. Sand
blown up from the beach develops into small hills, which is known as sand dunes. Sand dunes
are colonized by vegetation.
Salt marshes are coastal wetlands that are flooded and drained by salt water brought in by tides.
The soil is composed of deep mud and peat.

COASTAL OPPORTUNITIES

Tourism – there are some tourist resorts on the coast e.g. hotels and tourists enjoy activities
such as sunbathing on the beach, swimming.
Sports – many sporting activities use the coast e.g. sailing, surfing, diving
Fishing – many people make their living from catching and selling fish on the coast.
Oil and gas reserves are found under oceans near coasts.
Housing – many people live along coasts because of its beauty and relaxing life style.
Industry – many industries locate near coasts for easy transport and easy of trade.
Transport –many ports are found in coastal areas and help trading and travelling between
countries.

3
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

COASTAL HAZARDS

Erosion – many coastlines are being eroded by stronger storms and rising sea levels.
Tropical storms – there is frequency of storms with high magnitude which increase possibility of
floods.
Overfishing – many fish stocks around the world are being over fished to dangerous levels.
Pollution of the sea comes from sewage discharge, oil spills, and litter thrown into the sea can
harm aquatic life.
Rising of sea level is also a coastal hazard caused by global warming, so low lying areas become
vulnerable to flooding.

COASTAL MANAGEMENT OR PLANNING

There are two types of approaches to protect coasts

1. Hard Engineering
2) Soft engineering.

Soft Engineering methods

The soft engineering approach does not involve the building of any physical structures. It focuses
on planning and management so that both coastal areas and property will not be damaged by
erosion. It also aims at changing individual behavior or attitudes towards coastal protection by
encouraging minimal human interference and allowing nature to take its course.

1. Beach nourishment
 This is adding more sand to the beach creating a better natural defense.
2. Dune stabilization
 Refers to the planting of vegetation on sand dunes to increase their stability by
reducing moisture content and to hold the sand firmly.
3. Cliff regrading
 This is to make the cliff less steep thereby reducing the risk of cliff collapsing.
4. Beach drainage
 This refers to removing some of the excess water from the beach thereby making it
stable.

4
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

Hard Engineering

 Hard engineering strategies are man-made structures built to control the flow of the
sea and reduce flooding and erosion.

Method and Description Advantages Disadvantages

Rip-rap – this is when giant - It is effective. - It looks bad.

boulders are paced at the foot of - It reduces beach access.
the cliff to reduce wave energy. - It is expensive.

Gabions – it is when small stones - It can be installed - It looks bad.

are put in a metal cage and placed quickly. - It is expensive.
at the foot of the cliff to deflect - It is fairly effective. - It reduces beach access
wave energy.

Groynes – it is a wall built out into - It is effective. - It needs regular

the sea to protect the beach from replacement.
being eroded. - It looks bad.
- They reduce depositing
of sand on the beach.

Sea walls – it is a wall built out of - It is very effective. - It is very expensive.

concrete and aims to absorb wave - It looks bad.
energy against the cliffs and
beaches

Revetments – they are similar to - It is effective. - They need regular

sea wall, but are often made out of replacement.
wood. - They don’t protect
against storms.

5
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

MANGROVE SWAMPS
These are shrubs or trees that grow mainly in coastal saline water.

Conditions required for the growth of mangrove swamps

 Mangrove swamps require low wave action so that the deposited mud cannot be easily
eroded hence allowing the roots to be firm in the soil.
 Mangroves need adequate sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.
 They grow where there is shallow water so that the mud quickly fills up the lagoon for
the plants to grow.
 They require suitable levels of salinity.
 The area should be free from frost.
 There is need for moderate water temperatures.
 The mangroves require suitable soils.
Benefits of mangrove swamps
 They are important wildlife habitats.
 Their roots stabilise the coast against erosion.
 They grow up to 15m so they offer protection against hurricanes and strong winds.
 They protect the coast from flooding.
 They are a source of food e.g. fruits.
 They also provide nursery for fish.
 They are also important for recreational facilities like fishing.

CORAL REEFS
 Corals are tiny marine animals called polyps.
 They form reefs when millions live together in colonies.
 Their skeletons are calcareous cups which are joined with others to form a hard, stony
mass.
 As one generation dies, the next one grows on top of it, so the reef grows upwards and
outwards as the corals compete for food.
 Coral reefs run parallel to the coast.
 They have breaks in them, usually at the mouths of rivers.
Conditions required for the development of coral reefs
 They grow best where the surface water temperature is 20-25oC. So they are normally
found within 30o of the Equator.
 They develop where the oxygen supplies are most abundant.
 They need plentiful supply of plankton.
 There should be low current/ low wave action.
 Polyps need clean, clear, sunlit water so cannot live where rivers deposit sediments
into the sea.
 Corals grow best in conditions of high salinity.
 They need shallow water to about 10 metres.
 There has to be a solid surface from which the reef growth starts

6
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

Types of coral reefs

 Fringing reef
 Barrier reef
 Coral atoll
Benefits of coral reefs
 They attract tourists.
 Important for mining of petroleum.
Threats to coral reefs by man
 Sailors may use them as anchorage thus destroying them.
 Tourists may trample upon coral reefs.
 Climate change may cause loss of colour by coral reefs (bleaching).
 Pollution also damages the coral reefs since they weaken them.

CASE STUDY: COASTAL HAZARDS AND MANAGEMENT

Name of area: Pacifica

• Pacifica is a settlement on the coast to the South of San Francisco in the United States
of America. It is situated on top of a sandstone cliff 27 metres above the Pacific Ocean.

HAZARDS
• In the winter of 2009, waves approached from the south west driven by south
westerly prevailing winds. This resulted to the undercutting of the cliff below Pacifica.
Continued undercutting of the cliff caused the cliff to retreat. In January 2010, two apartments
in a block on the edge of the cliff were evacuated due to cliff falls.
• By the end of April 2010, people living in the last four apartments had been forced to
abandon their homes because a 3-metre section of the cliff had been weakened by erosion
making the building unsafe.
• The storms further weakened the cliff below the Pacifica. By the end of December
2010, even more of the cliff had fallen during storms since the cliff had been eroded back by
almost 7 metres during the year. This resulted to a third of the apartment building hanging over
the ocean, making it very dangerous for human habitation.

MANAGEMENT
• Some attempts had been already made to slow down cliff erosion. This was in the
form of riprap method whereby large boulders had been placed at the base of the cliff to break
the energy of the waves from eroding the cliff.
• Engineers also tried to strengthen the cliffs by reinforcing and surfacing it so that it
withstands wave energy.
• The owner of the apartments further down the road built a very large sea wall to
deflect the incoming waves and preventing the cliff from continuing to erode backwards.
• They also proposed to put gabions at the base of the cliff. These are metal baskets
filled with stones and placed at the base of the cliff to reduce wave attack on the cliff.

7
 Compiled by Manyeruke G.

OPPORTUNITIES PRESENTED BY COASTS

Name of place: Grand Cayman

 The Grand Cayman has its largest area in the centre of an island. This is a very
lowlying island with mangroves.
 Tourists started to visit the Grand Cayman in the 1960s. They are attracted
byactivities such as golf courses, tennis courts, sun basking.
 Between 1997 and 2009 there were a lot of developments on the island such
asbuilding of new hotels where many tourists could be accommodated.
 By 2010, 66% of the mangroves that existed on the western peninsula had been
removed to make way for the development of the Dragon Bay which stretches
from Seven Miles Beach to the north. Some of the properties in the Dagon Bay
include the development of private beaches which also attract tourists allowing the
country to get more revenue.

Questions

1. Give reasons why coral reefs do not grow in deep oceans, polar areas and river mouths. [3]

2. Coral reefs are a hazard to shipping. Suggest why the owner of a boat, offering day trips to tourists, would
be in favour of preserving the coral reefs. [2]

3. Describe the main features of a mangrove swamp. [3]

4. Coral reefs are located along many coastlines. Describe four conditions which are needed for the
development of a coral reefs. [4]

5. Suggest reasons why coastal cliffs sometimes erode rapidly. [3]

6. Name any 3 methods that can be used to stop coastal erosion. [3].

7. Explain why people live along a named area of coastline you have studied. [7]